Act as a peer review and write a detailed review of this research paper. Be strict and critical: Beyond Language Barriers: Rethinking English Proficiency Requirements for Nigerian Graduates

Abideen David Amodu
Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti State 
<PRESIDIO_ANONYMIZED_EMAIL_ADDRESS> 
OCRID: 0000-0003-1360-384X

Kingsley Okwuruoha Ikeokwu 
Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti State 
<PRESIDIO_ANONYMIZED_EMAIL_ADDRESS> 


Adaku Chinenye Amaechi
Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti State 
<PRESIDIO_ANONYMIZED_EMAIL_ADDRESS> 
 
Abstract 
The debate surrounding whether Nigerians should be exempted from international English proficiency tests to study in the English-speaking countries in the West has gained significant media attention. It is argued that English is already the official language, widely used in Nigeria for government, media, and education, making it the everyday language for many Nigerians. Consequently, they find it offensive and demeaning to mandate English proficiency tests, particularly for graduate students seeking to study abroad. To shed light on this issue, this paper investigates the perceptions of Nigerian graduates regarding international English proficiency tests. The study includes 147 respondents who completed a six-question questionnaire evaluating their opinions on the tests. The findings indicate that a majority of Nigerian graduates believe Nigerians should be exempted from these proficiency tests due to the prevalence and familiarity of the English language in Nigeria compared to indigenous languages.
 
Keywords: English Proficiency Tests, IELTS, Nigeria, TOEFL
 
 
Introduction
Nigeria is a country in West Africa where English is the national and only official language. English is the language of education in Nigeria. It is also the lingua franca, the language of government, media, business, religion, and almost anything done in Nigeria (Udofot, 2010). With a population of over 200 million people in 2021, Nigeria boasts of being one of the countries with the largest English-speaking populations in the world. Being colonised by Great Britain, Nigeria has more English speakers than its colonisers. The status of the English language in Nigeria is overwhelming, as it is the language used in almost every walk of life within the country (Banjo, 1970)
As the language of education instructions, the 6-3-3-4 educational system in Nigeria puts it that a person must have had a minimum of sixteen years of education before they can earn a bachelor’s degree, which qualifies the person to be called a “graduate” (Ukpong et al., 2023). The primary language of instruction through these years is English, and as the language of social, political, and economic interactions in the country, Nigerian graduates of universities and polytechnics are expected to demonstrate excellent communication skills in English, which cut across the four areas of language acquisition, which are listening, speaking, reading, and writing (Yusuf, 2012)
However, as much as English is widely used by Nigerians and many varieties have been developed and theorised by scholars to represent various echelons of speakers in the country, Nigerian graduates still lag in written expression, as seen in virtual communities on Facebook. They make various kinds of errors, which show their level of proficiency in using the language (Danladi, 2013).
The Status of the English Language in Nigeria
The status of the English language is very much incontestable, and there are no significant signals that any other language might take over it for the next century (Arik & Arik, 2014; Shyamlee & Phil, 2012; Wang, 2007). The status the English language has achieved today cannot be discussed without reference to the historical precursors to the advent of English in Nigeria (Banjo, 1970; Nelson, 2012; Yusuf, 2012). From a historical perspective, the English language did not come to Nigeria just on its own. Its incursion into Nigeria was caused by several factors like trading, slavery, colonization, and missionary activities in Nigeria by the Europeans, and this happened in phases. 
To begin with, trade, which also included the slave trade, the Portuguese were the first to dock on Nigeria’s soil, and they traded timber, gold, ore, and other resources with the Nigerians before their monopoly in West Africa was challenged after the allotment of the region to Britain at the Berlin Conference (1885–1886). Afterwards, missionaries settled in Nigeria and began to teach Nigerians the three R's—reading, (w)riting, and (a)rtithemtic. To communicate with the missionaries, many people living in the area which later became Nigeria had to learn English, and the establishment of colonial government-operated schools and the spread of education across Nigeria made English become popular in Nigeria (Danladi, 2013; Fatiloro, 2015; Tunde-Awe, 2014; Udofia, 2021).
Adegbite & Akindele (1993) add to the points that establish the widespread of English in Nigeria that it was fostered by the multilingual situation of Nigeria, where there are over three hundred and fifty languages. Thence, English language as the language became a tool of communication between Thence, in the country. The wide acceptance of the language has resulted in a situation where it has not only become the mother tongue of many Nigerian children (Adeyanju, 2009, Ogunsanya, 2009 in Jolayemi, 2013) but as widespread as the language is, many Nigerian graduates and corps members do not demonstrate a good command of the language in their written expressions. The irony is that these corps members, who are on a mandatory one-year service to the country, are often posted to secondary schools, where personnel inefficiencies or their acclaimed areas of expertise may warrant them to teach subjects like English or English Studies as the case may be. The fact that these people do not possess good qualities of written expression is a pointer to the reason why many Nigerian students do not write good English. This continues in an unending cycle: teachers whose expressions are poor teach the same poor expressions to their students (Asikhia, 2010).
The English language is the language of educational instruction in Nigeria (Aduwa-Ogiegbaen & Iyamu, 2006; Fakeye, 2010; Muhammad et al., 2018). All forms and categories of formal education and meetings are usually held in English. The English Language is taught in schools as a subject from the kindergarten level to the senior secondary level (Ajufo, 2007; Fakeye & Ogunsiji, 2009). Even in higher institutions of learning such as universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education, students, especially in their first year, are mandated to take a course in English and pass it (Muhammad et al., 2018). The Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME), which is the qualifying examination to enrol into tertiary institutions in Nigeria, requires a compulsory inclusion of the Use of English as a subject to be taken by candidates regardless of their prospective courses of study in higher institutions (Bassey et al., 2022). 
In business, governance, and media, English is also the language of communication, and Nigeria being a largely heterogeneous nation, has English as not only the official language but the lingua franca too. People from various parts of Nigeria communicate with one another using English (Pinon & Haydon, 2010). The business of government is also conducted in English. The constitution and all other bodies of law in Nigeria are written in English. Section 55 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria provides that the business of the National Assembly, which is the national legislative arm of the Nigerian federal government shall be conducted in English and Hausa, Igbo, or Yoruba after all necessary arrangements have been made (See Adegbite, 2003 and Ofo, 2011). The only feasibly possible language in which the business of the National Assembly can be conducted is English. Hence, English establishes its grounds as the language of government. All these factors integrate to make English very strong and influential in Nigeria (Njoku, 2017).
International English Testing Systems: IELTS and TOEFL in Perspective 
As much as the English language is the national language, lingua franca, and the language of educational instruction in Nigeria, some countries where English is the first language still require Nigerians to provide English proficiency tests scores in the International English Language Testing System (hereinafter, IELTS) and Test of English as Foreign Language (hereinafter, TOEFL). Since its establishment in 1989, the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) has been collaboratively managed by the British Council, International Development Programme (IDP) Australia, and the University of Cambridge English Language Assessment. Primarily designed for non-native English speakers, IELTS has gained global recognition and is acknowledged by over 10,000 organizations and governments across more than 140 countries (Adebajo, 2020). 
IELTS is required by most universities and colleges in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and other English-speaking European countries for international students coming from countries or regions where English is not the major language. The TOEFL is essentially an American standardised English test for non-English speakers or prospective students who are from regions where English is not the official language or the language of instruction in education like China or even French-speaking regions in Canada such as Québec. Some universities in the United States and the United Kingdom require test scores from Nigerian students coming into their school for graduate and postgraduate studies respectively (Hughes, 2008; Jenkins, 2013; Saarinen & Nikula, 2013). Nigerians have been uncomfortable with this idea; for instance, Nova Scotia University in the Broward County of Florida, United States, require Nigerians to provide standardised English proficiency test scores to be qualified for graduate studies. In the United Kingdom, the University of Exeter does not accept a C6 grade in the West African Examinations Council SSCE in English at a first sitting to suffice for programmes requiring a 7.0 IELTS score. Some of the listed programmes are Research degrees (MRes/ MPhil/PhD) in History, Classics and Ancient History, Modern Languages, Liberal Arts, Theology and Religion, MA Creative Writing; MA English Literary Studies, The Exeter MBA, MSc Sociology, MSc Marketing, etc. 
These entry requirements are impediments to the realisation of the educational goals of many Nigerians who intend to study for their postgraduate degrees abroad (Adebajo, 2020). This is also a huge reflection of the perception of these universities regarding the status of English in Nigeria and the competence of Nigerians in the English language. For instance, the University of Oklahoma waives English proficiency tests for 33 countries and regions around the world but only lists two African countries which are Mauritius and South Africa. In Mauritius, English and French are used side by side, and other Asian languages are used too such as Tamil, Marathi, Hindi, etc. The constitution of Mauritius does not even state English or French as the “official languages” of the country, the languages are just often regarded as de-facto languages in the country and in the Assembly. 
Methodology 
We adopted a methodical quantitative approach for this study. We published a six-question questionnaire to seek the opinions about the perspectives of graduates, corps members, and postgraduate students (Masters, Postgraduate Diploma, and PhD) regarding English proficiency tests. We used the questionnaire to inquire if they think it should be required or not. We also gave them a free scale of 1-10 (with 1 being the highest on the scale) to rate their English while they consider all four aspects of language acquisition or learning – listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The responses were collected between April 11 and July 17, 2022, and 147 respondents attempted the questionnaire. The developed and pre-tested before a targeted audience-distribution among Nigerian graduates in Nigeria. These are people who hold at least a first degree (bachelor’s degree) or its equivalent in Nigeria, the Higher National Diploma (HND), which must have been achieved by having completed a four-year course in the university or polytechnic as applicable. 
For the analysis of data, we considered individual results as a single entity and as whole. The data interpretation and presentation were computer-assisted using MS Excel and PowerBI to include charts and tables for data visualisation. We obtained a dispersion analysis of the self-identified proficiency levels and the results constituted a significant part of our findings and recommendations. Although the questionnaire is very short, we considered ethical judgements and succinctness in drafting and distributing the questionnaire to ensure that people identities, personal and online, were protected, and as such, data relating to those thing were not collected. The questionnaire was also made compact to make sure that the findings are straightforward. 
Results and Discussion of Findings
This research employs an integrative approach to the presentation of results and discussion of findings, seamlessly weaving them together into a unified narrative. This integrated approach guarantees that the findings are not just provided independently but are simultaneously analysed and placed in a relevant for the improvement of clarity. This also aids the connection of data and meaning to the findings of the research, thus enhancing the research's effect and providing more profound insights.
Educational Levels and Attainments 
Starting with the educational level of respondents, our target respondents were graduates, that is, holders of a first degree (bachelor’s degree) or its equivalent in Nigeria, the Higher National Diploma. 120 (82.2%) respondents said they hold a bachelor’s degree, which means they have had a minimum of four years of university education (which is statutorily combined with a graded research component in Nigeria). 15 (10.3%) claimed to have a master's degree. 5 (3.4%) of them said they hold a Higher National Diploma, which is equivalent to a bachelor’s degree but includes an extra year of industrial training. 

 
Chart 1: Chart showing the distribution of the educational qualifications of respondents 
The Higher National Diploma is awarded by a polytechnic and not a university. 6 (4.1%) respondents said they have a Postgraduate Diploma, which is an extra 12-18 months of further studies usually completed before a master’s degree but not necessarily a prerequisite for entering into a master’s program. 15 (10.3%) respondents said that they have a master’s degree. The postgraduate diploma training is often for people who desire to switch to study a course they did not study in the undergraduate level for their master’s program, or those who did not achieve a minimum direct entry requirement into the master’s program upon completion of their undergraduate studies. Only 1 (0.7%) respondent claimed to hold a PhD. The doctoral degree is the highest educational qualification in Nigeria and around the world. 
These degrees in Nigeria are taught in English, and admissions usually require at least a credit pass in English language. This means that students who are admitted into Nigerian higher institution must have developed a considerable level of proficiency in English (Una, 2012). This also implies that English is taught as a subject from elementary school to the university level. Even as first-year students undergraduate, it is required that all undergraduate students must pass a course on the use of English (Una, 2012). 135 (92.5%) respondents claimed to have had their first degree education in Nigeria, while 11 (7.5%) respondents said they had done it elsewhere other than Nigeria. 64 (43.8%) respondents said they are currently serving as corps members, while 82 (56.2%) respondents said they are not. 
Country of Study 
Studying abroad is desirable in Nigeria, but due to limited financial capabilities, opportunities, and other logistics, majority of Nigerian students study for their first degree in Nigeria. Nonetheless, some Nigerian students who have the privilege study abroad in both English and non-English (majority) speaking countries. Nigerians and other Africans have a long-standing history of migrating abroad for higher education. African liberal movements like negritude and some other major pro-independence socio-political movements that were common in Africa from the late fifties through the seventies had contributions from African students who had gone abroad to study and returned with educational skills and international exposure (Adi, 1998; Hodgkinson & Melchiorre, 2019). In postcolonial times, studies have shown that Nigerians (and some other African students) often favour studying for higher education in Canada (Adeyanju & Olatunji, 2021; Simmons, 2010). 
Adeyanju and Olatunji (2021) highlight Simmons’ (2010) prediction which suggested that Nigerian and South African students will emerge as prominent contributors to future immigration in Canada. The three reasons highlighted are Firstly, Nigeria grapples with a sluggish economy, resulting in a considerable pool of highly educated individuals facing unemployment. Secondly, as the most populous country in Africa, Nigeria boasts an urban population that exhibits a willingness to seek relocation for improved prospects. Lastly, Nigeria's widespread use of English as its lingua franca, coupled with its membership in the Commonwealth, aligns harmoniously with Canada's linguistic and cultural framework, fostering an environment conducive to immigration. With this kind of stability and infrastructure, Adeyanju & Olatunji (2021) say that “they [Nigerian students] are “pulled” by Canada’s post-industrial neoliberal immigration policy that targets “self-made” immigrants with resources” (p. 106). 
Nevertheless, Europe, the United Kingdom, and the United States are not left out. Most Nigerian students in the UK are fee-paying students, therefore making them and other fee-paying international students “important contributors to the educational and economic landscapes of Europe” (Ploner & Nada, 2019, p. 374). Citing Sachrajda and Pennington (2013), Ploner & Nada (2019) highlight the latter’s estimates that by 2020, international students will make a significant economic contribution of up to £12 billion to the national economy of the United Kingdom, which stands as Europe's foremost destination for higher education with the highest tuition fees.
International Intelligibility 
International intelligibility of English refers to the ability of speakers from different language backgrounds to understand each other when using English as a common medium of communication. It is a crucial aspect of English as a global language (EIL), as it enables people from diverse cultures and linguistic backgrounds to interact effectively and exchange ideas. The concept of international intelligibility of English encompasses both spoken and written English. In spoken English, intelligibility is influenced by factors such as pronunciation, intonation, and speech rate. In written English, intelligibility is primarily determined by vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. While native English speakers may not always be mutually intelligible, particularly when representing different regional dialects or accents, international intelligibility is generally achieved when non-native speakers of English adapt their speech and writing to accommodate the expectations of a global audience.
X	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	 
F	55	55	16	6	9	3	1	2	0	0	147
FX	55	110	48	24	45	18	7	16	0	0	323
SD	1.14
Table 1: Table showing the reported proficiency levels of respondents 
On average, Nigerian graduates perceive their English skills to be quite high, as indicated by the mean rating of 2.20 obtained from the data. This suggests a general confidence in English proficiency within the surveyed group. In addition, we found a standard deviation of 1.14, which measures the spread of the ratings. The relatively small standard deviation implies that there is limited variation in how individuals rate their English skills. The clustering of most respondents' ratings around the mean indicates a consistent level of confidence across the surveyed population. The high mean rating suggests that the majority of Nigerian graduates in this study view their English skills positively. This may reflect the success of English language education programmes within the Nigerian educational system as well as a general sense of proficiency among the surveyed graduates. The small standard deviation indicates that there is homogeneity in the responses, with most graduates holding similar views about their English language abilities. 
Although, Nigerian English is modelled after British English and the spoken model is said to be Received Pronunciation (RP), and not truly British English because of the variations in pronunciation. However, scholars like Babatunde (2002) and Josiah, Bodunde & Robert (2012) have argued that Standard Nigerian English is also “standard” in its own sense as it shows the peculiarities of the environment in which it is spoken.
 
Chart 2: Chart showing how respondents rated their English language skills 
132 (89.80%) respondents believe that their English is good enough for international communication. 10 (6.8%) respondents said their English may be good enough for international communication, which means they are not sure, while 5 (3.4%) respondents said their English is not good enough for international communication. On a scale of 1–10, 1 being excellent (highest) and 10 being poor (lowest), the respondents were asked to rate their communication skills in English while considering all four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing). 54 (37%) respondents, chose 1, which is the highest on the scale. 55 (37.7%) respondents chose 2; 16 (11%) respondents chose 3; 6 (4.1%) respondents selected 4; 9 (6.2%) respondents selected 5; 3 (2.1%) respondents chose 6; 1 (0.7%) respondent chose 7; and 2 (1.4%) respondents chose 8. None of the respondents chose 9 and 10.
Confidence Levels 
Perceptions of international intelligibility can influence confidence levels in language usage, especially the English language (Gürler, 2015). Confidence levels, in the context of language proficiency or other abilities, pertain to an individual's self-evaluation or conviction on their capability to successfully execute a task or communicate with effectiveness. This establishes important connection points with the concept of self-efficacy , which encompasses an individual's personal assessment of their own abilities and has the potential to impact their actions, choices, and achievements (Genc, Kulusakli, & Aydin, 2016; Getie, 2020; Graham, 2022). Regarding language proficiency, confidence levels cover an individual's certainty in their aptitude to understand, speak, read, and write in a specific language. It also includes their belief in their ability to effectively communicate in many settings, including international contexts. Confidence levels are often measured subjectively through self-reporting, surveys, or rating scales, where individuals express their perceived proficiency and comfort in using a language or executing a specific skill (Gürler, 2015).
Splitting the scale at average (average 50% = 5), would mean that students who choose between 6 and 10 report to have little or low levels of confidence regarding using their English for international communication. However, more than half of the respondents (73.5%) are confident that their English could be used for international communication. The responses further reveal that most graduates sampled for this study are confident that their English is good enough for international communication, which means that they feel confidently proficient in the use of the English language. This also reflects that on the scale, a combined 78.7% of the respondents chose between 1 and 2, which are the top-tier parts of the provided scale. There are various factors that influence speakers’ perceived levels of confidence in a second language, especially English. This may be the willingness to communicate in English (Lin, 2019), perceived confidence in the second language (which is English in this context) (Dewaele & Dewaele, 2017), real-life opportunities for communication in the second language and, (MacIntyre et al., 1998), interlocutor factors and motivation (Danesh & Shahnazari, 2020; Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003; Feng & Papi, 2002).
The final question was asked to get the opinion of the respondents regarding standardised English test such as IELTS and TOEFL. 146 instead of 147 responses was were gotten as participant 89 (P89) reported blank. 114 respondents (78.1%) said anyone who had studied for a degree in Nigeria should not be required to take such tests. 20 (13.7%) respondents said they may be required to take the tests, while 12 (8.1%) respondents asserted that anyone who studied in Nigeria should be required to take the test. A majority of the respondents suggest that Nigerian graduates should not be required to take any of these tests, which is more than the combined percentage (22.11%) of those who said they may or should be required to take the tests. However, some Nigerians still believe that Nigerians should be required to take the tests.
Opinion	Number of Respondents	Percentage
Should not be required to take tests	113	77.9%
May be required to take tests	20	13.8%
Should be required to take tests	12	8.3%
Table 2: Table showing the opinions of respondents regarding taking standardised English test
Past research into the relationship between English proficiency test (EPT) scores and score profiles, such as the IELTS and the TOEFL, has shown that there is not always a clear relationship between those scores and students’ subsequent academic achievement (Neumann, Padden, & McDoonough, 2018). However, the fact that students considerably pass English language proficiency courses such as the International English Language Testing System (IELTS), the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), or Pearson's English Test does not necessarily mean that their English has been perfected. Murray (2010) reports that many students who have passed these proficiency tests still struggle because they do not meet "the linguistic demands of their courses due to inadequate levels of English proficiency" (Nasirudeen & Xiao, 2020). Cunningham (2012) draws attention to the Swedish system. She asserts that many Nigerian students studying English in Sweden face challenges in adjusting to Swedish teachers, who often view them as non-native speakers. Therefore, Cunningham (2012) asserts that "they may fail language proficiency courses and find that their English does not work as well as they expect it to in communication with their teachers and with other international students, in particular those who are non-native speakers of English" (p. 143).
However, the high mean rating and low standard deviation of Nigerian graduates' self-perception of their English language skills prompt thought-provoking inquiries regarding the need for standardised language proficiency assessments like IELTS and TOEFL. Given on the uniform self-assurance exhibited by most participants on their proficiency in English, it seems that a significant number of Nigerian graduates feel adequately equipped without relying on standardised English tests for external confirmation. The minimal diversity in answers implies a uniform level of skill, either stemming from a standardised syllabus or common educational backgrounds. However, the subset of respondents advocating for mandatory testing (20 individuals) and those expressing neutrality (1 person) introduces a nuanced perspective. This divergence in opinions may stem from individual recognition of the variability in language proficiency or a desire for a more objective measure of one's capabilities. 
The rejection of mandatory language proficiency testing by a substantial number of respondents (114) suggests a general belief in the school system's capacity to sufficiently prepare graduates with English language competency. This sentiment may stem from a confidence in the effectiveness of local educational programmes or a conviction in the practical usefulness of their gained language abilities in real-life situations. 
Within a wider framework, the different perspectives on compulsory testing highlight the intricate relationship between self-evaluation, standardised assessment, and the perceived usefulness of these evaluations.   The findings indicate that although most Nigerian graduates are self-assured in their English language skills, a significant proportion acknowledges the advantages of obtaining external validation through proficiency exams. This illustrates a complex situation where personal views on language proficiency meet with wider concepts of standardised assessment in the quest for educational and career prospects.
Conclusions and Recommendations  
International English proficiency tests are one of the requirements that hinder Nigerians from pursing a degree abroad. The findings of this research show that some Nigerians strongly believe that Nigerians should be required to take the foreign English proficiency tests because they think they are not proficient enough in the English language for international communication. Universities in United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia are places where people from all over the world come to study and English is not only the native language, but also the official language of instruction, communication, media, and the lingua franca. Hence, being proficient in the English language should not be negotiated especially for someone who is going to study for a master or doctoral degree. 
In addition, Nigerians who are entering the UK, US, Australia or Canada without a first degree from Nigeria or a credit pass in any national English examination such as the ones organised by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC), or the National Examinations Council (NECO) may be required to take the test. Most importantly, the Nigerian system ensures that research is done before obtaining any degree (or diploma such as the National Diploma, Higher National Diploma, National Certificate of Education, and Postgraduate Diploma), therefore, it is quite problematic to require someone who had learnt and researched in English to take a test which they would sign up for in English to prove that understand English. 
Nevertheless, things are changing. People like Dr Olmuyiwa Igbajobi are utilising email and social media to talk to universities and colleges in North America, the United Kingdom, and Australia about revising their policies to exempt Nigerians from taking the foreign English language proficiency tests, and this has so far yielded good results. It is our recommendation that more Nigerian researchers and professors in the country and in diaspora also dialogue with their respective universities and colleges to base the requirement for subsisting English proficiency tests on individual performances and not collective country taxonomy. 
 
References 
Adegbite, W. (2003). Enlightenment and attitudes of the Nigerian elite on the roles of languages in Nigeria. Language Culture and Curriculum, 16(2), 185-196.
Adegbite, W. and Akindele, F. (1993). The Sociology and Politics of English Language in Nigeria: An Introduction, Ile-Ife OAU Press.
Adeniyi, F.O., (2017). An Analysis of English Pronunciation Errors among Senior Secondary School Students in Kwara State Nigeria. Asia Pacific Journal of Academic Research in Social Sciences, 2, 22-29.
Adeyanju, D. (2009). The English Language in the Outer Circle. In Dele Adeyanju (Ed.), The Sociolinguistics of English and Nigerian Languages (pp. 1-13). Muenchen: LINCOM.
Adi, H. (1998) West Africans in Britain 1900–1960: nationalism, Pan-Africanism and communism. London: Lawrence and Wishart.
Aduwa-Ogiegbaen, S. E., & Iyamu, E. O. S. (2006). Factors Affecting Quality of English Language Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools in Nigeria. College Student Journal, 40(3), 495-504.
Amaechi, A. C. (2013). Indigenous language implementation and nation building: The Nigerian experience. Creative Artist: A Journal of Theatre and Media Studies, 7(2), 43-68.
Arik, B. T., & Arik, E. (2014). The role and status of English in Turkish higher education: English is the language of instruction in around 20% of the programs in Turkish universities. English Today, 30(4), 5-10.
Asikhia, O. A. (2010). Students and teachers’ perception of the causes of poor academic performance in Ogun State secondary schools [Nigeria]: Implications for counseling for national development. European Journal of Social Sciences, 13(2), 229-242.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs. N.J.: Prentiee-Hall
Banjo, A. (1970). A historical view of the English language in Nigeria. Ibadan, 28, 63-8.
Bassey, B. A., Ubi, I., Anagbogu, E. G., & Owan, V. J. (2022). Permutation of the UTME Multiple-Choice Test Items on Performance in Use of English and Mathematics among Prospective Higher Education Students. The Journal of Social Sciences Research, 6(4), 483-493.
Ciesielkiewicz, M., & Márquez, E. (2015). Error Analysis and Its Relevance to Teaching ESL Composition. International Journal of Linguistics 7(5), 119-138. doi: 10.5296/ijl.v7i5.8076
Corder, S. (1967). The Significance of Learner’s Error. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 5, 161-170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/iral.1967.5.1-4.161
Cunningham, U. (2012). Using Nigerian English in an international academic setting. Research in Language, 10(2), 143-158.
Danesh, J., & Shahnazari, M. (2020). A structural relationship model for resilience, L2 learning motivation, and L2 proficiency at different proficiency levels. Learning and Motivation, 72, 101636.
Danladi, S.S., (2014) Language Policy: Nigeria and the Role of English Language in the 21st Century. European Scientific Journal, 9(17), 1-21. 
Dewaele, J. M., & Dewaele, L. (2017). The dynamic interactions in foreign language classroom anxiety and foreign language enjoyment of pupils aged 12 to 18. A pseudo-longitudinal investigation. Journal of the European Second Language Association, 1(1), 12-22.
Dörnyei, Z., & Skehan, P. (2003). Individual differences in second language learning. The handbook of second language acquisition, 589-630.
Fakeye, D. O. (2010). Students’ personal variables as correlates of academic achievement in English as a second language in Nigeria. Journal of social sciences, 22(3), 205-211.
Fatiloro, O.S., (2015). Tackling the Challenges of Teaching English Language as Second Language (ESL) In Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education 5(2), 26-30.
Genc, G., Kulusakli, E., & Aydin, S. (2016). Exploring EFL learners' perceived self-efficacy and beliefs on English language learning. Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 41(2), 53-68.
Getie, A. S. (2020). Factors affecting the attitudes of students towards learning English as a foreign language. Cogent Education, 7(1), 1738184.
Gürler, I. (2015). Correlation between self-confidence and speaking skill of English language teaching and English language and literature preparatory students. Current Research in Social Sciences, 1(2), 14-19.
Harmer, J. (2003). The Practice of English Language Teaching, (Third Ed.). New York: Logman.
Hodgkinson, D., & Melchiorre, L. (2019). Introduction: student activism in an era of decolonization. Africa, 89(S1), S1-S14.
Hughes, R. (2008). Internationalisation of higher education and language policy: Questions of quality and equity. Higher Education Management and Policy, 20(1), 1-18.
Jenkins, J. (2013). English as a lingua franca in the international university: The politics of academic English language policy. Routledge.
Jolayemi, D. (2013). Shifting Grounds to Widen Horizon: Implication for 21st Century Researchers and Teachers of English. A Paper presented at the International Conference of National Association of Researchers and Teachers of English as a Second Language (NATRESL), Elizade University, Ilara-Mokin, Ondo State, Nigeria 1-14th September 2013.
Lin, Y. T. (2019). Taiwanese EFL learners’ willingness to communicate in English in the classroom: Impacts of personality, affect, motivation, and communication confidence. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 28(2), 101-113.
MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 545-562.
Muhammad, H. A., Ya'u, S., Aliyu, U. I., & Hassan, M. (2018). Teaching and learning English language in Nigerian schools: Importance and challenges. Teacher Education and Curriculum Studies, 3(1), 10-13.
Nasirudeen, A. M. A., & Xiao, S. (2020). English language skills and academic performance: A comparison between Asian international and domestic nursing students in Singapore. International Journal of Nursing, 7(1), 30-38.
Nelson, C. L. (2012). Intelligibility in world Englishes: Theory and application. Routledge.
Neumann, H., Padden, N., & McDonough, K. (2019). Beyond English language proficiency scores: Understanding the academic performance of international undergraduate students during the first year of study. Higher Education Research & Development, 38(2), 324-338.
Njoku, J.C., (2017). English Language, the Nigerian Education System and Human Development. UJAH: UNizik Journal of Arts and Humanities, 18(2). 211-226. 
Ofo, N. (2011). Amending the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999. African Journal of Legal Studies, 4(2), 123-148.
Ogunsanya, A. (2009). The emergence of English as first language.   In Dele Adeyanju (Ed.), The Sociolinguistics of English and Nigerian Languages, (pp. 129-156). Muenchen: LINCOM.
Pinon, R., & Haydon, J. (2010). English Language Quantitative Indicators: Cameroon, Nigeria, Rwanda, Bangladesh and Pakistan. A custom report compiled by Euromonitor International for the British Council.
Ploner, J., Nada, C. International student migration and the postcolonial heritage of European higher education: perspectives from Portugal and the UK. High Education 80, 373–389 (2020). 
Saarinen, T., & Nikula, T. (2013). Implicit policy, invisible language: Policies and practices of international degree programmes in Finnish higher education. English-medium instruction at universities: Global challenges, 149, 131-150.
Sachrajda, A., & Pennington, J. (2013). Britain wants you! Why the UK should commit to increasing international student numbers. London: Institute for Public Policy Research.
Sambajee, P. (2016). The dynamics of language and ethnicity in Mauritius. International journal of cross cultural management, 16(2), 215-229.
Shyamlee, S. D., & Phil, M. (2012, March). Use of technology in English language teaching and learning: An analysis. In International Conference on Language, Medias and Culture (Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 150-156).
Simmons, A. (2010). Immigration and Canada: Global and transnational perspectives. Canadian Scholars’ Press Inc.
Tunde-Awe, B.D., (2014). Nativization of English Language in a Multilingual Setting: The Example of Nigeria. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 3(6), 485-492. 
Udofia, N., (2021). The New Educational Curriculum in Nigeria. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education, 1-21. 
Udofot, I. (2010). The English language and politics in Nigeria. Journal of the Nigeria English Studies Association, 13(1), 5-12.
Ukpong, J. S., Alabekee, C., Ugwumba, E., & Ed, M. (2023). The Challenges and Prospects in the Implementation of the National Education System: The Case of 9-3-4. The Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 24(1), 88-96.
Vásquez, L., (2008). Error Analysis in a Written Composition. Profile, 10, 135-146
Wang, Q. (2007). The national curriculum changes and their effects on English language teaching in the People’s Republic of China. International Handbook of English Language Teaching, 87-105.
Wong, Y. K. (2020). Effects of language proficiency on L2 motivational selves: A study of young Chinese language learners. System, 88, 102181.
World Bank. Nigeria Literacy Rate 1991-2022. Macrotrends, https://rb.gy/iqycny. 
Yusuf, H. O. (2012). Language as a tool for national integration: the case of English language in Nigeria. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 1(5), 194-201.
 
Appendix