How they shape your life and
will shape the future of humanity
, &
Prenes
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 Manufacture: March 31, 2019 Best by: December 1, 2019
After the best by date, it is likely that I have decided that this draft is awful
and have written a much better one with deeper understanding and superior
exposition. To get the latest, go to adleman.usc.edu. It is my hope that in
the hands of future researchers this material will contribute to the
development of a general theory of evolution
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Preface
This is not the book I wanted to write. I have been thinking about a general
theory of evolution, what I have come to call “prene-theory”, for over 40 years. I had
hoped to reach a level of understanding sufficient to present a grand theory; I did not
succeed; perhaps future generations will.
As it is, this book will let you see the world from my prene-theoretic point of
view. The next time you run for president, fight a war, or just deal with the ordinary
problems that humans are heir to, perhaps the prene-theoretic perspective will be of
use. If you want to understand why you will die, or if you need guidance on achieving
greatness, prenes may help here as well. If you are confused about where the
“computer revolution” is headed, then prenes will provide some answers.
I will apply prene-theory to bacteria, bees, computers, history, humans,
literature, music, politics, religion, science, viruses (both biological and computer), and
other things. Unfortunately, in many of the areas I consider, I am not an expert. No
doubt this and other factors have led to mistakes, over-simplifications, and
speculations that the future will determine to be unwarranted.
Finally, some of your treasured beliefs may not be given the respect they
deserve. I apologize.
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Table of Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................... 2
Introduction......................................................................................................... 5
Prenes ................................................................................................................ 7
What is a prene? ............................................................................................. 8
The resurrection of smallpox ......................................................................... 11
Why do bees kill themselves? ....................................................................... 16
How to be an unsuccessful prene ................................................................. 19
The selfish prene........................................................................................... 22
The war within ............................................................................................... 24
Hamlet’s soliloquy’s struggle ......................................................................... 27
A short history of prenes................................................................................ 34
Humans ............................................................................................................ 37
What a piece of work is a man? .................................................................... 38
Your prene-set............................................................................................... 45
Welcome to the bacterial hotel................................................................... 46
Welcome to the meme hotel....................................................................... 49
The amazing you........................................................................................ 51
There is no escape!....................................................................................... 54
Is anything in this book true?......................................................................... 59
The silver stars you wear............................................................................... 65
How the brain captures memes..................................................................... 69
How the brain processes memes .................................................................. 76
The power of belief........................................................................................ 79
Prene warrior................................................................................................. 82
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Human discourse .......................................................................................... 90
Happiness ..................................................................................................... 95
Do humans deserve more credit? ................................................................. 97
Why do we die? .......................................................................................... 100
Women........................................................................................................ 107
The primacy of prenes................................................................................. 110
Computers ...................................................................................................... 111
What a piece of work is a computer? .......................................................... 112
The rise of the cenes................................................................................... 117
The future of computia ................................................................................ 122
Inquiries .......................................................................................................... 125
Mutation....................................................................................................... 126
Mutation part 1 ......................................................................................... 127
Mutation part 2 ......................................................................................... 137
Death to mutants!..................................................................................... 139
Lag-conditions ............................................................................................. 141
Pseudo-genes ............................................................................................. 148
Socrates’ bed [IN PROGRESS]................................................................... 152
Is the iPhone Alive?..................................................................................... 157
A prene-theoretic view of History [IN PROGRESS].................................... 161
From Earth to Proxima Centauri b............................................................... 181
Acknowledgements......................................................................................... 183
Works cited..................................................................................................... 184
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Introduction
Figure 1: The fathers of Prene-theory [fathers]
I was a young mathematics professor at MIT when I began reading Richard
Dawkins’ 1976 book “The Selfish Gene” about the primacy of genes in Darwinian
evolution [Dawkins]. In the last chapter, Dawkins introduced what he called “memes” –
analogues of genes that resided in peoples’ brains rather than in molecules of DNA. I
recall saying to myself: Oh, that’s how it all works.
How what works? Pretty much everything. For example, you.
As a mathematician, I had long been aware of the work of logicians Alan Turing
(the father of computer science) and Steven Kleene (the discoverer of the so called
“recursion theorem”), and it had been apparent to me, and to others who cared about
such things, that their results implied that the things stored in computers (which I later
called cenes) were also analogues of genes.
I was really struck by all of this and ever since I have worked to put the pieces
together.
It was clear from the start that genes, memes, and cenes must obey Darwin’s
laws: survival of the fittest, mutation and natural selection. But with time it became
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clear that Darwin’s laws are often misunderstood, and that there are other laws, not
previously described, that also apply. It also became clear that these laws did not just
apply to genes, memes, and cenes, but to a larger class of things I came to call
“prenes”1
Genes have become central to the study of biological evolution. I believe that
memes, cenes and other prenes have the potential to occupy a similar position with
respect to the study of societal and computer evolution.
As you will see, prenes were here long before you were and will remain long
after you are gone. While you are here, they will have an extraordinary influence on
every aspect of your life.

1
“genes”, “cenes” and “prenes” rhyme. Cenes is a portmanteau from computers and genes,
Prenes comes from primary and genes.
Prenes
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Prenes
This chapter will introduce prenes and provide some reasons why you should
care.
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What is a prene?2
To be, or not to be, that is the question – William Shakespeare
Hamlet’s soliloquy. It is stored in books as a sequence of letters. It is stored in
computers as a sequence of zeros and ones. It is stored in people’s brains in a manner
yet to be elucidated by science.
Figure 2: The Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene stored in the Brandeis First Folio (left),
on a computer as a cene (middle), and in Lawrence Olivier’s brain as a meme
(right) [Shakespeare]

2
I will give one of many possible definitions. The reader may prefer (at least initially) to think of
a prene as a “unit of information”. Giving a definition of prenes raises the millennia old philosophical
“problem of universals”, for more on this see Socrates’ Bed.
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While books, computers and brains are physical things, we will treat Hamlet’s
soliloquy as non-physical. We will call these non-physical things that are stored in
physical things “prenes”.
Like Hamlet’s soliloquy, the smallpox genome is a prene. The smallpox genome
is not a molecule of DNA, nor is it a sequence of A’s, T’s, C’s, and G’s in a computer;
rather, each molecule of DNA in a smallpox virus is storing the smallpox-genomeprene, and each computer with the appropriate sequence of A’s, T’s, C’s, and G’s is
also storing it.
A prene stored in a brain will be called a meme, one stored in a computer will be
called a cene, and one stored (as a sequence) in a nucleic-acid molecule (e.g. DNA or
RNA) will be called a gene3
.
So, the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene is both a meme and a cene, and the smallpoxgenome-prene is both a gene and a cene. What makes memes, genes, and cenes
especially worthy of study is that, roughly speaking, they alone have mastered the art
of self-replication – one might say that they alone are “alive”.
A prene may be stored in many physical things at the same time. For example,
it is likely that the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene is currently stored in millions of books, in
millions of computers, and thousands of brains.
The most important thing to know about a prene is its current copy number – the
number of distinct physical things in which it is stored at this moment. If that number
drops to zero, the prene has gone extinct.
For example, it is well-known that some of Shakespeare’s plays have been lost;
so, baring a miraculous find, the prenes these plays contained have gone extinct. The
same can be said for the genome prenes of many ancient creatures.

3
In biology, genes are associated with proteins, no such association is required here.
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Principle 1
All prenes struggle to avoid extinction
In light of Darwin, it is easy to see how the smallpox virus, and hence the smallpoxgenome-prene it stores, has struggled, but how has the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene
struggled? To understand that, we will need a more refined view of prenes.
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The resurrection of smallpox
The gene-world, the meme-world, and the cene-world are all parts of the preneworld. Each is a theater of operation in the grand struggle of prenes to survive. While
it is sometimes useful to focus on one of these worlds at a time, we should not lose
sight of the fact that prenes can migrate between worlds. When prenes exploit this
opportunity to travel, it can have deadly consequences for humanity.
Figure 3: The smallpox virus. Dead or just playing possum?
The following editorial appeared in the Oct 16, 2014 edition of the New York
Times. For obvious reasons, I did not use the language of prenes, but, at its core, that
is what it is about. It addresses the question: has smallpox been eradicated? The
world has always looked at this as a question of biology, that is, as a question about
the gene-world, but when looked at in terms of the prene-world as a whole, the view is
strikingly different.
By Leonard Adleman
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Los Angeles
On Oct. 16, 1975, 3-year-old Rahima Banu of Bangladesh became the last
human infected with naturally occurring smallpox (variola major). When her
immune system killed the last smallpox virus in her body, it also killed the last
such smallpox virus in humans. In what is arguably mankind’s greatest
achievement, smallpox was eradicated.
Our war with this smallpox virus was brutal. It appears likely that the virus
killed about one billion of us. Initially, our only defense was our immune system,
but eventually we developed new tools, including vaccination. In the late 1950s,
the World Health Organization began responding to outbreaks by vaccinating
everyone in the surrounding area to prevent the virus from spreading. By 1975,
we had won.
The smallpox virus had only a single host species: us. Other viruses have
multiple hosts. For example, some strains of flu live in both humans and pigs,
hence “swine flu.” If smallpox had had a second host, eradicating it in humans
would have been of little value, since it would have thrived in its second host and
later re-emerged in humans.
A few samples of the virus are still kept in special labs: one in the United States
and one in Russia. We don’t bother vaccinating against smallpox anymore; if the
virus escapes from one of these labs, the war will begin again. Currently, there
is debate about whether these samples should be destroyed or kept for scientific
purposes.
But the debate should be broadened. Even if we destroy those samples, the war
is not over; the smallpox virus has now found a second host. It is not the pig. In
fact, it is not even what we think of as a living thing. It is the computer.
This is not some conceptual game. This is real and life-threatening.
If you search online, you can find the sequence for the smallpox genome. It is a
word written with the letters A, T, C and G. The word is about 185,000 letters
long. It is the word that tells cells to make smallpox viruses. The sequence was
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stored on a computer in the early 1990s, when a research team led by J. Craig
Venter obtained it using a biotechnical process applied to a sample of the virus.
Of course, a word in a computer file cannot kill you. Well, yes and no. In the
1990s, I ran a biotechnology laboratory. In my lab there was a machine much
like a soda dispenser, only in this case the reservoirs were filled with chemicals.
If I typed in a short word of my choice using the letters A, T, C and G, the
machine would squirt one chemical after another into a test tube. When it was
done, the test tube would contain trillions of molecules of DNA. Each would look
like a necklace, with molecules of adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine (the
building blocks of DNA) strung according to the word I had typed.
At that time, the 10,000-letter sequence of the H.I.V. genome was available
online. I contemplated using my machine, together with well-known biotechnical
methods, to create, de novo, the H.I.V. genome — an actual molecule identical
to that found in H.I.V. viruses living in the wild. I had reason to believe that
inserting such a synthetic molecule into a living human cell would cause the cell
to manufacture full-blown H.I.V. viruses that could then be transmitted from
person to person and cause AIDS.
I decided not to do the experiment, but I began to worry. If I could do it, so could
others with high-tech labs.
Which brings us back to smallpox. Might someone resurrect it? You may think
this is mere speculation, but in 2002, scientists used the approach just described
to produce an infectious polio virus. It is possible that the great labs, with great
scientists, the best equipment and substantial funds, could overcome the
considerable challenges that exist and resurrect smallpox right now. Before too
long, more modest labs may be able to accomplish the same thing.
I am worried, but also amazed. Smallpox has miraculously and unconsciously
saved itself through an extraordinary act of evolution. After thousands of years,
it was on the verge of extinction; it existed in one small girl, and just before that
girl’s immune system killed its last living member, a sample was taken and
stored in a lab. Years later, that sample was used by another lab to sequence the
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viral genome. The sequence was placed on a computer, infecting a new
“species” that had just come into existence.
Do we sit and wait for the day when someone releases resurrected smallpox on
an unvaccinated world? I’m a scientist, not a policy expert. But would it be wise
for us to consider limiting the distribution of the tools of this emerging
technology?
So, at virtually the last possible moment, the smallpox-genome-prene made the
leap from gene to cene and was saved from extinction. I cannot think of an
evolutionary miracle more remarkable.
Figure 4: From gene to cene and perhaps back to gene [Smallpox-2]
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Recently, a group at the European Bioinformatics Institute has provided another
interesting example of prene migration. They have stored all of Shakespeare’s
Sonnets in DNA molecules [Goldman]. Hence, the Shakespeare’s-Sonnet-154-prene
began as a meme stored in Shakespeare’s brain, became a cene stored on a
computer, and then a gene stored in DNA.
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Why do bees kill themselves?
In this section, we will use prenes to investigate the shocking number of
suicides among honeybees.
If a honeybee stings you, you’ll probably be angry because it really hurts. You
may find a bit of solace knowing that the bee that did this to you has just signed her
own death warrant. Her entrails will be ripped from her body. You probably hope that
really hurts too. It probably doesn’t, but that’s another story.
So, why do bees sacrifice themselves in order to attack you? Suicide is not
usually considered a good evolutionary strategy.
Figure 5: Brave prene-warriors [Sacrifice]
Here is one possible answer championed by Dawkins [Dawkins] and others. As
our understanding of molecular biology has grown, many scientists have come to view
the struggle of living things to survive as a struggle between genes. In this genecentric view, living things are built by their genes, their behavior is programmed by
their genes, and their purpose for living is to preserve and reproduce their genes.
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The gene-centric explanation of the honeybee’s sacrifice may seem
paradoxical: she (only worker honeybees sting, and all workers are female) has
sacrificed her life to reproduce her genes, or in our language, to make new copies of
the prenes stored in her DNA molecules. While dying terminates her chance to
reproduce, it also protects the hive, and increases the reproductive chances of the
queen, and because of the bizarre nature of honeybee reproduction, the queen’s
offspring share more genes in common with the worker than the worker’s own offspring
would. As a consequence, when the situation is just right, sacrifice can actually
increase the overall chances that new copies of the worker’s genes will be created. To
take advantage of this, the worker’s genes have programmed the worker’s sacrifice in
situations where that sacrifice is likely to increase the future copy-numbers of those
genes.
Does this gene-centric view explain all sacrifice in living things? Let’s look at
some more examples.
Consider humans. Parents sacrifice for their children. Sometimes the sacrifice
is life itself, but most often it is more mundane, like getting up in the middle of the night
to feed a newborn. Because the children’s genes are also genes of the parents, the
gene-centric explanation of such sacrifice works in much the same way as it did for
honeybees.
But what about a soldier who sacrifice his life for a cause? Here the genecentric view fails to provide an explanation, since most members of the community that
the soldier is protecting are not closely related to him genetically, and those that are,
such as his children, are less likely to survive and reproduce once their parent is gone.
But, if the soldier is not programmed by his genes to sacrifice himself, why does
he do it?
It is because they are programmed by a different set of prenes, those memes
that we call beliefs. For example, the soldier may have acquired American, or Islamic
beliefs; he may believe in democracy or sharia. Believers may transfer their beliefs to
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someone else, for example, by teaching. When this occurs, the beliefs are stored in
new brains and hence the copy-number rises.
So, let’s look at the soldier’s sacrifice again; this time substituting his beliefs for
his genes. While dying terminates the soldier’s chances of transferring his beliefs
directly to others, it also protects his community, and increases the chance that
community members will transfer their own beliefs. But, because the members of the
soldier’s community are likely to share many of his beliefs, when the situation is just
right, the soldier’s sacrifice can actually increase the overall chance that new copies of
the soldier’s beliefs will be created. To take advantage of this, the soldier’s beliefs
have programmed the soldier’s sacrifice in situations where that sacrifice is likely to
increase the future copy-numbers of those beliefs.
You may object and say that the soldier doesn’t know anything about prenetheory and isn’t thinking about his beliefs when he sacrifices himself. You are probably
right, but the bee doesn’t know prene-theory either and isn’t thinking about her genes
when she sacrifices herself; nonetheless, it is apparent that her genes have
programmed her to do it. You may wonder how a set of beliefs can accomplish such
programming. Go watch the training of a squad of elite soldiers; that’s how.
But if the soldier’s beliefs have programmed his ultimate sacrifice, what have
your beliefs programmed you to do? Also, where do beliefs come from anyway?
These are some of the things we will address in subsequent sections.
We can sum up the nature of sacrifice with a single prene-theoretic principle:
Principle 2
Prenes may sacrifice copies in situations where that
sacrifice is likely to increase future copy-numbers
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How to be an unsuccessful prene
A successful prene, one that has many copies over a long period, is a
magnificent thing exquisitely suited to its environment.
In this brief section, I will describe a prene that has been unsuccessful and has
no one to blame but itself.
The Shakers were a Christian sect that arose from the Quakers in mid-18th
century England. To the usual Quaker-prene-set4
, they added a new “celibate-prene”:
sex is forbidden. I’ll skip the details, but guess how many Shakers there are today?
Figure 6: Shakers dance and worship. “I saw in vision the Lord Jesus in his
kingdom and glory… I was able to bear an open testimony against the sin that is
the root of all evil; … the doleful works of the flesh” - Shakers’ Mother Ann Lee
(ca 1770). [Shakers 1]

4 A set of prenes will be called a “prene-set”. Gene-set, meme-set, and cene-set will be used
similarly. The prene-sets associated with religions, political parties, nations, and other societal entities
will be called “societal prene-sets”. A believer in a societal prene-set will be called a “follower”.
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No, you are wrong. Much to my surprise, the correct answer appears to be two
[Shaker 2]. However, I suspect your answer will be correct soon enough.
The celibate-prene was ill-suited for its own survival and dragged the Shakers
and the Shaker-prene-set down with it. There are several reasons for this, among the
most important of which are:
1. The Shakers had to compete with the Quakers and other religious sects for
survival. That is, the Shaker-prene-set, the Quaker-prene-set, and other religious
prene-sets were struggling to get stored in the same set of brains.
2. The celibate prene foreclosed one of the most basic means by which prenes
get into new brains: have children. Human babies are born with an open channel for
the transfer of memes from their parents. It got that way because the genes arranged
it to be so for their own survival. The reason is obvious: getting the don’t-put-yourhand-in-the-fire-meme from your parents helps you and your genes survive (see Your
prene-set).
Notice that successful religions don’t make the mistake of having the celibateprene in their prene-set. For example, the Jewish and Christian prene-sets virtually
begin with an anti-celibate prene:
Be fruitful and multiply (Gen 1:28)
For the same reason that the celibate-prene contributed to its own and the
Shaker-prene-set’s failure, the be-fruitful-and-multiply-prene has contributed to its own
and the Jewish and Christian prene-sets’ success.
The Muslim-prene-set specifically exploits the parent-child channel. When a
Muslim baby is born, his father whispers into his right ear the first words he will ever
hear, the Shahada:
God is great
There is no god but Allah, Muhammad is the messenger of Allah
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When the Shaker-prene-set first arose, it would not have been difficult to see
that it contained the seeds of its own destruction. Can an analysis of the Christian,
Islamic, American, Russian, Democratic, Republican, and other societal prene-sets
reveal some of their strengths and weaknesses and provide a glimpse into their
futures? I believe it can (see A prene-centric view of History). Developing tools to do
such analyses is a goal of prene-theory.
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The selfish prene
Figure 7: If prenes were people [Pirates]
In The resurrection of smallpox, we considered what can happen when a single
prene is stored in many different physical things. Here we begin to consider what can
happen when a single physical thing stores many different prenes.
The most important thing to know is:
Proposition5 1
Prenes are not nice

5 Principles are laws that govern prenes (as best I can articulate them). Propositions are things
worth keeping in mind.
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Even the be-nice-prene is not nice. Prenes only care about their own survival.
A prene may form alliances with other prenes to form a prene-set, but if an
alliance becomes a burden, the prene will abrogate it without the slightest remorse.
Consider the bread mold (Neurospora crassa). When placed in minimal-medium
(basically, saltwater with sugar and a source of nitrogen), the genes in the mold’s
gene-set live happily with one another, merrily exploiting the medium for their common
survival and reproduction.
But, if you begin adding a regular supply of uracil (a nucleobase used in making
RNA) to the medium, then you will find that changes occur. After many generations, if
you look at the mold DNA, you will find that some of the original genes are missing.
Here is what happened: among the genes stored in the DNA prior to the
addition of uracil, there was a subset that caused uracil to be synthesized from the
chemicals found in the minimal-medium. All the other genes really liked the uracil
subset, because without uracil, the mold and hence they would perish. However, once
there was “free” uracil available, the rest of the genes asked: “what do we need those
guys for?”; they turned on the uracil subset and cast them out [Wikipedia-AT].
The point is that prene-sets are seldom happy places. When prenes share an
instrument, such as a cell or a human, they will fight each other to control it and use it
for their own survival. If a subset of prenes gains control and induces behavior that is
harmful to its fellow prenes, or the instrument itself, well, that’s their problem.
Why should you care if prenes are unhappy? Because their unhappiness
sometimes becomes your unhappiness as we shall see in the next section.
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The war within
If you want to find a physical object that stores hundreds of thousands of prenes
all at once, you will not have to look far – it’s you. You are a storehouse for genes,
memes, and other prenes (we will explore this in depth in the chapter Humans).
Each of your prenes is an aspiring dictator that wants exclusive use of you to
help it survive. Unfortunately, your prenes are often at cross purposes, and when this
happens, you may suffer.
Consider what happened to Joan of Arc when her genes and memes came into
conflict.
Figure 8: Joan of Arc experiencing cognitive dissonance? [Strike]
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Joan was taken to a scaffold set up in the cemetery next to Saint-Ouen Church
and told that she would be burned immediately unless she signed a document
renouncing her visions…. [Wikipedia-JA]
What was best for Joan’s genes? Joan, like all of us, was designed by her
genes to stay alive and reproduce. She was the “Maid of Orleans”, so we can be
pretty sure that she was not succeeding with the latter. By renouncing, Joan would not
be burned, would retain the possibility of having children, and increasing the number of
copies of her genes. Joan’s genes favored renouncing.
What was best for Joan’s religious beliefs? Joan was a devout Christian who
had attracted a large following in France; much of it based on beliefs she had acquired
through divine visions (or more mundanely: the subconscious processing of acquired
memes, see How the brain captures memes, How the brain processes memes). The
English wanted her to renounce, knowing it would undermine her French followers. By
refusing, Joan would become a martyr, embolden her followers, attract new converts,
and increase the number of copies of her beliefs. Joan’s religious beliefs favored not
renouncing.
By the way, Joan did renounce, but was later burned at the stake anyway. She
became a famous martyr, and over the last six hundred years has contributed mightily
to the spread of Catholic prenes.
As you might imagine, and as the historical record seems to suggest, this
situation was stressful for Joan.
While Joan’s case is extreme, we all experience situations in which our prenes
compete for our behavior. I like to think of our prenes as members of a “prenes
legislature”. When a situation arises, a debate ensues with members expressing an
opinion about the behavior we, their instrument, should exhibit. Ultimately, the
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legislature hammers out a compromise behavior that we implement (how this works
will be further described in Humans).
When a strong majority of members see eye to eye, we choose our behavior
subconsciously. When the members are significantly divided on the appropriate
behavior, our conscious mind is invoked, and we may feel discomfort – so called
cognitive dissonance.
For example, I was invited to go skydiving, and immediately said “no”. The
members of my prenes-legislatures were almost unanimous on the “no” behavior, my
conscious mind was not invoked, and I did not feel cognitive dissonance.
However, sometimes at a restaurant, some members argue for a cheeseburger,
while others advocate a healthier choice. I am conscious of the conflict. The
legislature reaches a compromise: I order a salad with bleu cheese dressing.
Sometimes the disagreement between members is intense. Perhaps you are
offered a new job with higher pay, but with a less stable company in another state.
Your family will have to move, but the schools are better; your parents will be closer,
but you’ll miss your friends, etc. For weeks, it may be difficult to focus your conscious
mind on anything else. You may be unable to get a good night’s sleep.
There are many ways that prenes impact feelings. Perhaps, an exploration of
the implications of prene-theory in psychology would be worthwhile. I suspect that the
theory can augment existing results and provide guidance on therapeutic approaches.
I am not qualified to carry out such an investigation but will touch on this topic a bit
more in Humans.
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Hamlet’s soliloquy’s struggle
Since Darwin, we have accepted that all living things struggle to survive. We
are now ready to see how non-living things, like the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene, also
struggle.
When humans consider struggle, they expect to see features like strategy and
fear. When we view the struggles of lions or zebras, what we see conforms to our
expectations. However, as we move down the evolutionary ladder these expectations
are typically not met. Trees, grasses, angiosperms, sponges, bacteria, and viruses all
struggle to survive, but since they lack brains, they don’t create strategies (in the
above sense) or experience fear.
Once we strip the word “struggle” of our expectations, we will be able to see that
all prenes struggle for survival in essentially the same way. Let’s begin with the
Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene.
Figure 9: Can you see the struggle? [struggle]
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Where did the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene come from? Well, it came from
Shakespeare’s brain (you’re welcome). Prior to writing the soliloquy, Shakespeare’s
brain did not contain the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene, but it did contain lots of theatrical
memes. We can be pretty sure of this because Shakespeare was an actor, playwright,
part owner of an acting group (The King’s Men), and part owner of a London theater
(the Globe), so it is likely he had read, heard and perhaps memorized thousands of
lines by others. He had also learned the techniques of acting, staging and
performance.
Shakespeare’s job and other factors led him to expend time and brain-cycles
writing new plays. Shakespeare processed his existing memes and created new ones
such as the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene.
Now that the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene existed, it began its struggle to survive.
At this point, its only instrument was Shakespeare. Fortunately for the Hamlet’ssoliloquy-prene, he was an excellent advocate.
Shakespeare was in the right place at the right time, since plays were a major
form of entertainment in Elizabethan London and he owned part of a theater. Hence,
he could ensure that Hamlet would be performed (presumably with dramatic lighting,
costumes, and sets) in front of a large audience. History suggests that Shakespeare’s
works were “well-received”; that is, theatergoers, including royalty and fellow actors,
exposed to Shakespeare’s plays often acquired and valued some of Shakespeare’s
prenes. The copy numbers of Shakespeare’s prenes, including the Hamlet’s-soliloquyprene, began to rise.
Shakespeare’s prenes were in good hands so long as Shakespeare was alive to
facilitate their spread, but upon his death, the prenes were endangered. Fortunately, a
good number of Shakespearean prenes had been stored in durable form as quartos
and production notes. But these documents would not survive forever. Shakespeare’s
prenes were in need of effective new instruments or they would almost certainly go
extinct (many plays of Shakespeare’s time, including some by Shakespeare himself,
are known to have been lost).
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Fortunately, the needed new instruments appeared in the form of John
Heminges and Henry Condell. They were actors who knew Shakespeare, and
following his death, they gathered the materials available and produced the first folio
containing 36 plays. Heminges and Condell were Shakespeare’s apostles; the first
folio, his gospels (see A prene-theoretic view of History).
The folio was apparently a business success and several editions ensued.
Eventually, the world would be inundated with editions of “The Complete Works of
Shakespeare” modeled on the first folio. The Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene had gone viral.
You may say: “that’s it?”. Yep, that is it. It is a theme with many variations, but
that is it.
Let’s look at a few more examples.
Where did the smallpox-genome-prene come from? We can only guess, but
here is a plausible answer.
Several thousand years ago, a human cell became infected with a poxvirus
similar to, but different from, smallpox. Inside that cell, the poxvirus mutated and
became the smallpox virus. In prene language, we might say that the poxvirusgenome-prene was processed by the cell to produce a new prene: the smallpoxgenome-prene.
That cell was the smallpox-genome-prene’s Shakespeare, and it was at least as
effective an instrument for the smallpox-genome-prene as Shakespeare was for the
Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene.
That cell presented the smallpox virus, and hence the smallpox-genome-prene,
to neighbors where it was well-received; that is, those cells acquired (i.e. became
infected with) and nurtured (i.e. reproduce) the smallpox-genome-prene.
The smallpox-genome-prene made its way from cell to cell, individual to
individual, and eventually to humans by the millions. The smallpox-genome-prene had
gone viral.
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So, is there any important difference between the struggle of the smallpoxgenome-prene and that of the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene? I don’t think there is. Even
the perception that the former is “alive” while the latter is not, does not seem to matter.
The smallpox-genome-prene’s creation and subsequent reproduction relied on
cells created by human gene-sets. The Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene’s creation and
subsequent reproduction relied on brains created by those same gene-sets.
You may say that Hamlet’s soliloquy is beautiful, moving, and profound, while
smallpox is none of those things. Of course, I agree. But billions of years before
humans evolved, prenes had been struggling to survive, and it is the fundamental
nature of that struggle that we are trying to understand. We could use words like
avidity, affinity, and hydrophobicity to describe why smallpox was well-received. But
the words humans use to describe why a prene is well-received are of little importance.
The bottom line is that, both the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene and the smallpox-genomeprene had whatever qualities were sufficient to be well-received, and had it been
otherwise, they would not have gone viral.
Most “potential prenes” are never created and typically those prenes that do
come into existence quickly go extinct. Among the rare exceptions are some genes of
living things, and some prenes found in the great works of art, music, science,
mathematics, religion, government, and other societal prene-sets.
Let’s look at one more example, which illustrates what an iffy thing it is for a
prene to survive and go viral.
Consider Bach’s Brandenburg-concerti-prene. Roughly speaking, Bach’s whole
family consisted of composers, so his head was filled with musical memes. Bach was
kantor at St. Thomas Church in Leipzig, a job which required him to expend time and
brain-cycles composing music. Bach processed his existing memes, including his
musical ones, and created the Brandenburg-concerti-prene.
At the time of its creation, Bach was the sole instrument of the prene. But
surprisingly, he was not very good at it.
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Perhaps Bach performed some version of the concerti during his lifetime, but
there is no indication that the Brandenburg-concerti-prene reached a large audience
where it was well received. Further, while some of Bach’s musical-prenes were
published, it appears that the concerti-prene was not.
Bach did create a manuscript of the concerti in his own hand and sent it to
Christian Ludwig, Margrave of Brandenburg. But it appears that Ludwig simply set it
aside and forgot about it.
Figure 10: The third Brandenburg-concerto-prene stored in a manuscript written
by Bach [Bach]
Then Bach died. Things were not going well for the Brandenburg-concertiprene; it had not gone viral, in fact, it appears that its copy number was one, and it had
no human instrument to exploit. It was teetering on the brink of extinction.
As time went by, the musical ecosystem changed, as it always does, and
people stopped performing Bach’s music. What changed? Perhaps baroque music
stopped getting “air time” because music publishers had more attractive options like
the “rocking” new prenes of classical composers like Mozart and Beethoven or
romantic composers like Schumann and Mendelssohn. For whatever reason, it
appears that by the early 19th century, Bach had largely been forgotten.
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Then the vagaries of life smiled on the Brandenburg-concerti-prene. The
musical prenes that Bach had stored on paper in the 18th century had remained, spore
like, in churches and music rooms. In the early 19th century, some of these
documents, but not the Brandenburg concerti, fell into the hands of Felix Mendelssohn
who began championing Bach’s music. Bach’s musical prenes had acquired a
powerful new instrument to exploit. Mendelssohn organized performances where
Bach’s musical prenes were well-received. Bach became popular and scholars
searched for more of his old manuscripts.
Then in 1849, more than a century after its creation, the manuscript that Bach
had sent to Ludwig was rediscovered. It was published the next year, and the
Brandenburg-concerti-prene went viral.
So, the survival of Bach’s Brandenburg-concerti-prene was a near thing. An
unlikely sequence of accidents. A miracle? Hardly, compared to the smallpox-genomeprene’s survival (The resurrection of smallpox), it was nothing but a cheap trick.
It seems certain that virtually every gene-set of every living creature, and every
societal prene-set that is currently thriving only exists because of an astonishingly
unlikely sequence of accidents.
When we think of “survival of the fittest”, we sometimes think that it occurs in an
instant: an old prene mutates, and because the new prene is more suited to the
environment, it flourishes. But survival is a process, and the environment is a moving
target.
Commonly, when a new prene is born in a cell or a brain, the greatest challenge
it will ever face is getting to copy number two. Whether it gets there does not depend
on its fitness in the greater world, but its fitness in the microenvironment surrounding
its place of birth. That first black moth in industrial England most probably perished,
and black mutants probably occurred many times before one got the chance to prove
its worth in the greater world.
In the end, very small changes in environment can have a profound impact on
whether a prene goes viral or not. Natural selection is not a simple, straight-forward
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process; rather it is chaotic, and sheer luck (or lack thereof) has much to do with the
outcome.
Roughly speaking, the struggle of a prene to survive resembles crystal growth.
Crystals grow from spontaneously created nanoscopic seeds; many seeds form, some
grow a bit larger, but almost all quickly dissolve back to nothing. Only rarely does a
seed grow large enough to persist for a significant period. Very often there is little or
no difference between seeds, and those that grow large are not special, they are just
lucky.
Had the Brandenburg-concerti-prene gone extinct, would it have been any less
a masterpiece? No doubt, many now extinct human works would have been deemed
masterpieces had they ever made it beyond their local environments (See The silver
stars you wear).
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A short history of prenes
When the earth formed about four and a half billion years ago, prenes existed
but genes and memes did not. Many prenes would have been stored in small physical
things such as molecules, electrons, and photons, and the prenes with the most copies
over the longest period of time, the ones winning the struggle to survive, would likely
have been those stored in physical things that were durable; that maintained their
integrity in the prevailing conditions.
The copy numbers of such prenes changed almost exclusively as a result of
physical interactions that destroyed some things and created new ones. The distinction
between the physical things and the prenes they stored was not important, and the
laws of chemistry and physics would have provided an adequate prene-theory.
There would have been little reason to believe that things would ever change.
But, amazingly, things did change. Apparently, molecules arose that could
catalyze the raw materials and energy in their environment to create new molecules
identical to themselves. The prenes stored in these self-replicating molecules would
have been engaged in a fascinating struggle for survival. Survival would now depend
on both durability and reproductive efficiency. Optimizing with respect to such
requirements in a constantly changing environment would have been a daunting task,
and it seems likely that the dominant “species” one moment would be supplanted by
another the next. While the first self-replicating molecules might have seemed
primitive, after millions of years they would have evolved into astonishing things worthy
of our admiration.
While chemistry and physics are among our greatest achievements and have
done much to shape our world, we should not overestimate their power. Chemistry
and physics allow us to predict some of the behavior of simple systems, but as the
systems become more complex, their usefulness declines, and in systems with self-
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replicating molecules, they are virtually useless for predicting behavior, and do little to
enhance our theoretical understanding6
.
Fortunately, Darwin came along and provided a theory that has helped fill the
void. With the theory of evolution, prene-theory finally transcended chemistry and
physics.
In the popular imagination, there was a primordial soup one day and cells the
next. What actually happened was almost certainly far different. My guess is that
millions, perhaps tens of millions, of years passed between the emergence of selfreplicating molecules and the emergence of nucleic-acid based cells. Current
evidence suggests that by three and a half billion years ago such cells had emerged,
and thus genes had come into existence.
Cellular gene-sets were responsible for building cells, ensuring their survival,
and organizing their replication. With time, these cells would evolve into the plethora
of one-celled creatures that surround us today.
About two billion years ago, cells evolved that used ion-channels and ion-pumps
to create electrical potentials across their surfaces. In multicellular organisms, these
cells became neurons and this electrical potential was used for rapid intercellular
communication.
About half a billion years ago, bilateral creatures such as flatworms evolved with
complex collections of neurons (ganglia) in their heads. These primitive proto-brains
acted like electronic computers, processing sensory inputs, such as light, and inducing
behavior, such as movement. The development of these proto-brains was an
important step in a critical process by which genes were surrendering partial control of

6 These statements have a theoretical basis (see for example, [Adleman-SA]). In general, our
ability to use our theories to predict the future is quite limited. Prediction requires computation, and as
systems become more complex, more computation is required. Even with modern computers we cannot
predict much about the behavior of systems with large numbers of non-identical interacting parts. Our
current trust in computer simulations of such systems may ultimately prove unwarranted.
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their organisms to a new type of prene, the proto-meme. It may well turn out that this
was the worst move genes ever made.
About two hundred thousand years ago, modern man emerged with a brain
composed of hundreds of billions of neurons. The meme age had dawned, and it
would soon be filled with ideas and beliefs about religion, governance, science,
morality, beauty, and many other things. Societal prene-sets would emerge and
control much of our behavior. And the world would be filled with people struggling with
internal conflicts and emotional pain. In the chapter Humans we will look more deeply
into all of this.
Less than a hundred years ago, our memes created digital computers.
Computational devices had budded off their genetic stalks and were on their own;
cenes had arrived. How will they evolve? What relationship will they have with genes
and memes? How will computers affect the future of humanity? That will be the topic of
the chapter Computers.
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Humans
From the prene-centric view, humans are merely vessels for storing and serving
their genes, memes and other prenes. From this view, you have remarkably little to do
with you.
Do you think you determine what you eat, what smells good, when you cry,
where your children go to school, for whom you vote, your views on abortion,
democracy, global warming, and God? From a prene-centric view, these things are
determined by prenes.
Looking at humans as mere instruments of prenes will not capture the beauty
and richness of our lives. If you are on a spiritual journey searching for the meaning of
life, you may not like the answers that prene-theory provides. Nonetheless, looking at
humans in this way may allow us to see things about ourselves that we have
overlooked in the past.
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What a piece of work is a man?
Among the most important features that distinguish humans from other
organisms is the complexity of their prene-sets. Each of us has multiple gene-sets and
multiple meme-sets. For example, I have meme-sets derived from the science preneset, the mathematics prene-set, the American prene-set, and lots of others.
Our prenes are frequently in competition with one another, fighting to control our
behavior, fighting to use us to increase their own copy-numbers (see The selfish
prene). For better or worse:
Proposition 2
Each human stands at the crossroads of many lines of
evolution
The complexity of our prene-sets makes human endeavors complicated. The
example of Joan of Arc (The selfish prene) shows how this complexity can torment
individuals, but it can also impact societies.
Let’s compare honeybee society to American society.
Each honeybee hive has exactly one queen. Why exactly one? For no better
reason than the gene-set of honeybees has evolved to organize hives that way. The
Queen has huge influence and responsibility, but curiously, she is not special. Any
egg (i.e. fertilized ovum) produced by a queen, if fed exclusively on royal jelly and
mated with a drone, will become a queen. As far as I know, the eggs that become
queens are chosen at random. It doesn’t matter which egg is chosen because (if the
queen mates with just one drone) all eggs have exactly the same gene-set and this
alone will determine how a queen performs her role. Now consider America.
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America has exactly one president. Why exactly one? For no better reason
than the American-prene-set, and in particular the prenes in the Constitution, evolved
to organize America that way. The president has huge influence and responsibility, but
is the president special? Unlike honeybees, Americans are not all the same. Each is a
confusing mixture of all kinds of prene-sets and therefore each would perform
differently in the role of president. The behavior of a particular president cannot be
divorced from the prenes acquired before taking office. All these prenes, not just those
of the American-prene-set, will determine the president’s behavior, and hence much of
the behavior of America.
As an aside, a hive sometimes contains a small number of virgin-queens,
mature females that have been fed exclusively on royal jelly but have not mated with a
drone. Each virgin-queen is a potential queen. When the old queen retires, the virginqueens engage in a ruthless fight to the death until only one remains, she will mate
and become the new queen (cf. presidential politics).
Our genes built us “knowing” (through evolution) that we would live at the
crossroads of these evolving, often contradictory, prene-sets, and so they provided us
with hardware and software for coping.
Our genes have given us “actuators” that allow us to act upon the physical
world. They have provided legs for moving, vocal cords for speaking, hearts for
circulating blood, and lacrimal glands for crying. We cannot exhibit physical behavior
that our actuators cannot produce. So even if you think you can fly, you can’t.
Though no two people are entirely the same, to a first approximation, all
(normal, healthy, etc.) humans share essentially the same actuators, and hence
essentially the same repertoire of potential physical behaviors.
Our genes have provided us with “sensors” that monitor our internal and
external environments. We have eyes for seeing, and ears for hearing. We have
sensors that monitor our blood sugar level, and level of hydration. We have sensors
that detect temperature, pressure, and taste. We may also have sensors that detect
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physical and emotional pleasure and pain, but it is also possible that these are, at least
partially, higher constructs created in our brains.
To a first approximation, all humans share essentially the same sensors.
Our genes have provided us with brains.
The human brain is a computer. This is not to say that the brain is digital, for
example, it may have analogue parts, but that the brain cannot do anything that a
digital computer cannot. This assertion is consistent with all known science and is
axiomatic in the mathematical theory of computation. Digital computers are universal
(Computers) and have the capacity to do all the remarkable things our brains do, even
though, at this stage in our civilization, we don’t know how to program them to actually
do it.
To a first approximation, all humans share essentially the same computer
brains.
So, here we are, beings with sensors, actuators, and computer brains. We are
biological robots.
Wait, what? Robots? Yes, we are biological robots, at least from the points of
view of prene-theory, and, I think it’s fair to say, science and mathematics. If it helps,
from those points of view, we are the most amazing, awe-inspiring, robots ever. From
the point of view of other prene-sets, for example religious prene-sets, we are far more
than robots. But in any case, we are the beauty of the world.
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Figure 11: Two robots [Robots]
Let’s investigate the human robot.
Because our brains are computers the laws that govern computing must also
govern our brains. Fortunately, we know a great deal about these laws. We can thank
a number of great mathematicians, starting in the 1930’s with Gödel and Turing for this
knowledge.
Perhaps the most important law is that all computers are essentially the same.
Some go fast, some go slow, some are big, some are small, some use a single
processor, some use many, some are made of silicon, others of DNA [Adleman-DNA],
and still others of meat, but what they can do and the kinds of parts they must have are
always the same.
All computers have “memory devices” that store prenes and “processors” that
perform operations on them.
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In general, the physical properties of a memory device have a great deal to do
with the kinds of prenes that get stored in it, and the rate at which those prenes
mutate.
For example, commercial computers typically have memory devices with a wide
variety of physical properties. There are read-only memories, random-access
memories, and others. Read-only memories are usually “non-volatile”; once a prene is
stored, considerable energy is required to remove or mutate it. So, what gets stored in
read-only memories? Important prenes like the kernel of the operating system. On the
other hand, typically, random-access memories are “volatile”; a stored prene will
“evaporate away” unless energy is constantly expended to prevent it. So, what gets
stored in random-access memories? Less important prenes like the temporary
information used by your browser, or the intermediate values used in the course of a
computation.
It is reasonable to assume that our brains also have memory devices with a
wide range of physical properties.
For example, what you are seeing at this moment is being stored in some
memory device, but if you turn your head, the current prenes will be displaced by new
ones. In general, it is likely that what we call “short-term memory” is stored in volatile
memory devices.
On the other hand, some of our memories persist all of our lives. It is likely that
these are stored in non-volatile memory devices. For example, such devices are
probably storing all the things you wish you could “unsee” but can’t (sorry for bringing it
up).
How does our brain decide which prenes to store in volatile memory and which
to store in non-volatile? I will speculate on this in How the brain captures memes.
Computers use their processors to run programs. When run, programs can
access sensory readings and prenes stored in their memory devices. They can make
copies of prenes, create new ones, and destroy old ones. When computers are
attached to actuators, programs can induce physical action in the world.
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We end up with the following proposition:
Proposition 3
We are biological robots with computer brains. Our brains
can process our sensory inputs and stored prenes, modify
our meme-sets, and induce both physical and emotional
behavior
So, for example, the first time you put your hand in fire, your sensory readings
indicate pain. Your brain (and nervous system) processes these sensory inputs and
creates behavior; you scream and remove your hand from the fire. Your brain may also
modify your set of memes, for example by adding new ones that record the
experience. After the event, your brain may continue processing and ultimately create
new memes that will play a role in determining your future behavior; perhaps your
future behavior will not include putting your hand in fire for a second time.
Similarly, if you watch a person skin a cat alive (The power of belief), your brain
processes these sensory inputs and creates behavior. Perhaps you begin to salivate in
anticipation of dinner; perhaps you turn away in disgust. Your response will depend on
the memes you acquired during your life.
So, even though your repertoire of emotional and physical responses is
provided at birth, in many cases, these responses become wedded to external stimuli
through the acquisition and processing of memes.
When two people purchase identical smart phones, after a short time they will
have different photos stored and different apps installed. Similarly, even though
newborn identical twins have virtually identical actuators, sensors, and brains, they will
soon have different experiences, and as a result, different memes stored in their
brain’s memory devices. Since so much of our behavior is the result of memedependent brain processing, the twins will begin to exhibit different behavior. They may
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acquire memes that lead them to dress differently, and since memes also mediate our
emotional behavior, they may develop different emotional responses to the world.
It seems to me that, more than any other factor, it is the uniqueness of our
memes that make us unique.
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Your prene-set
We have established (What a piece of work is a man?) that you are a robot, a
biological machine whose behavior is controlled by your various prene-sets. In this
section, I will describe your prene-sets and how you acquired it.
At the most fundamental level, there is the gene-set you got from your parents.
I’ll call this the “you-gene-set”. The you-gene-set is the most important prene-set you
will ever have. It is your first prene-set, and together with your mother’s prene-sets,
has almost exclusive control of you until you are born.
During the prenatal period, the you-gene-set will build your body, create the
systems that will connect and maintain its parts. In particular, it will make your brain,
your sensors and your actuators. It will provide you with your sensory and behavioral
repertoire (What a piece of work is a man?).
But once you are born, the you-gene-set does a surprising thing; it invites other
prene-sets to enter and share control of you. As we know, prenes in general, and the
members of the you-prene-set in particular, are not noted for their generosity, so why
do they do it?
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Welcome to the bacterial hotel
When you are born, there are about 5 trillion cells in your body each of which
contains exactly one copy of the you-gene-set (there are lots of red blood cells as well,
but they do not contain DNA) [cells1]. After birth, you will quickly become infested with
microbes – bacteria, viruses, fungi, etc. For example, you will have about 40 trillion
bacteria in your gut; each with its own gene-set. The best current estimates are that
these bacteria are representatives of about 10,000 distinct species [cells2]. So, the
you-gene-set is sharing your body with at least 10,000 not-you gene-sets. These notyou genes-sets are not chosen at random, but are very carefully selected by the yougene-set.
The you-gene-set designed your gut to be a full-service bacterial hotel. When
you were born, none of the rooms were occupied, but soon after your birth they were
filled with bacteria from the surrounding environment.
Why did the you-gene-set provide these bacteria with a nice place to live and
plenty to eat?
The answer is, of course, that the bacteria are paying guests. For example, you
are unable to digest some of the carbohydrates you consume. Gut bacteria transform
some of these into products that you can digest, providing you with energy that you
would not otherwise have. It is likely that there are many other ways the gut bacteria
pay for their room and board, but the science on this is still embryonic.
Like all microbes, those that find a room at the bacteria hotel have their own
gene-sets, their own evolutionary destinies, and really don’t care about you at all. As
we saw in Prenes aren’t nice (also see Mutation), if a microbe can benefit itself by
harming you, it will do so without a moment’s hesitation. This creates a major security
problem at the hotel.
Since the you-gene-set builds the bacteria hotel and the systems that operate it,
it gets to put security measures in place to help keep harmful bacteria out and to
suppress those that do get in. For example, the genes keep the hotel pretty hot (98.6
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degrees Fahrenheit, 37 degrees Centigrade). As a result, though all manner of
bacteria enter the hotel when we consume food, many potentially harmful ones are
rapidly evicted. For example, since fish live in the ocean and are cold blooded, fish
bacteria have evolved to survive at temperatures far below 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit.
Typically, bacteria optimized to survive these low temperatures cannot also survive at
98.6. Hence if you eat fish and acquire some typical fish bacteria, it is unlikely they will
harm you. Perhaps this is why eating raw fish is more common than eating raw horse
whose body temperature is very close to our own. Legal disclaimer: if you
contaminate your fish with non-fish bacteria, or if your fish happen to have atypical fish
bacteria (e.g. those that form spores that can survive at 98.6), then consult your
physician before consuming it.
The you-gene-set also uses a trick to help assure that the initial hotel guests will
be friendly. It has made it easy for maternal bacteria to pass into the baby’s hotel
during birth. Since the mother has already survived and reproduced, there is a good
chance that the maternal bacteria are friendly. Since these maternal bacteria are the
founding members of the microbial gene-set collection, they will have a powerful voice
in determining future additions. Because the rooms are initially filled by these helpful
bacteria, many potentially harmful bacteria are kept away because they cannot
compete for a room; hence the bacteria in your gut are part of your immune system.
In fact, the human gene-set and the bacterial gene-sets have been at this game
for so long that they have co-evolved, each trying to train the other to be more friendly,
but that is another story.
As an aside, ensuring that only friendly bacteria reside at the hotel, has recently
become a concern of memes; this has led to the study of probiotics.
The you-gene-set has built its bacterial hotel, but the hotel is surrounded by
other properties with “do not enter” signs. For example, the you-gene-set does not
want microbes in your blood, so it has built a blood-born immune system that will
punish trespassers.
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Do these security measures work? Absolutely. Do they work absolutely?
Absolutely not. Most of us will from time to time get harmful bacteria and experience
“food poisoning”. Some of us will get bacteria in our blood (septicemia) and die.
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Welcome to the meme hotel
The you-gene-set also built a hotel for memes, the brain. The meme hotel has
much in common with the bacteria hotel.
Like the bacteria hotel, the meme hotel has a huge number of vacancies when
you are born but will quickly fill with memes acquired from the surrounding
environment. Many of these will be “learned memes” that come from parental prenesets, religious prene-sets, government prene-sets, political prene-sets, vocational
prene-sets, and other societal prene-sets. Some will be “experiential prenes” acquire
through our senses (see How the brain captures memes).
Like the bacteria, the memes are paying guests. Among other things, the
brain/meme complex appears to allow you to react quickly and “intelligently” to your
environment. It also provides you with the ability to plan your future behavior. What
are you doing this weekend? The gene-sets within you don’t have a clue, but your
brain may have already processed your memes and made plans. So, your memes
provide services that can increase your chances to survive and reproduce.
Once again, there is a big security problem. There are prenes out there that if
they get into your meme hotel could harm the you-gene-set. If you acquire them, they
can lead you to suicide, self-sacrifice in the name of a cause (Why do bees kill
themselves?), substance abuse, etc.
As with the bacteria hotel, the you-gene-set builds the meme hotel and the
systems that operate it. The you-gene-set chooses how much memory your brain will
have for storing memes, the number of processors, when the meme recorder goes on
(see How the brain captures memes), the number of brain-cell receptors for
neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine, and many other things. The yougene-set has also put security measures in place to keep harmful prenes out and
suppress those that do get in.
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The genes have designed your brain to rapidly acquire memes from your
parents when you are young (see How to be an unsuccessful prene). The fact that
your parents survived to produce you is good evidence that their memes are you-geneset friendly. Since these memes are the founding members of your meme-set
collection, they will resist the acquisition of future memes that would have antithetical
goals. For example, if you are brought up a Christian, it is unlikely you will later
convert to Judaism, and vice versa. Perhaps, this partially explains the apparent
phenomenon that the young readily acquire new memes, while the old do not.
We are all aware that our genes design us to protect our children. This includes
carefully controlling the memes our children acquire. We provide them with our own
memes, but we also choose their schools, their places of worship, what they can watch
on TV, etc.
As an aside, parents also carefully control what microbial gene-sets children
acquire. The mother provides her own microbial gene-sets, but the parents also
choose what and where the children will eat. Hence your parents’ you-gene-sets have
exploited your parents’ meme-sets to help secure your bacterial hotel.
Of course, once our children become adults, they will choose the food they eat
and the prene-sets they expose themselves to. That is, they will add new gene-sets
and meme-sets to their collections. We have raised them to make good choices of
what to add, but there are no guarantees.
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The amazing you
Figure 12: Major members of your prene-set
In addition to the prene-sets indicated in Figure 12, you have a few others. In
your gut, and other places, there are gene-sets from non-bacterial things such as
viruses, and fungi. In your brain, there are memes you acquired through your senses,
and those that you generate when your brain processes the memes you already have
(How the brain captures memes, How the brain processes memes). There are also
some pseudo-genes (Pseudo-genes).
It is an amazing you. Let me explain. Consider eukaryotic cells. The typical cell
has a single nucleus with a single copy of the gene-set. We occasionally see a cell
with many nuclei each with a copy of the same gene-set (e.g. osteoclasts). We even
see cells with no nuclei and no gene-set at all (e.g. red blood cells). What we never
see is a cell that has many nuclei each storing completely unrelated gene-sets. That is,
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there is nothing like a cell that contains an elephant nucleus, a zebra nucleus, a
butterfly nucleus, and a fish nucleus
Figure 13: The quadra-nucleated Fishea-Elephanto-Zebrati-Butterflyi-cell which
is conjectured not to exist.
There is a very good reason we do not see cells like that. Because it would be
a total disaster. Each gene-set would fight with the others to control the cell – what
proteins it would make, what morphology it would assume, what it would eat, and
where it would go. Cells have not figured out how to organize such competition and
hence such a cell would never survive.
But that crazy cell is like you. You have so many prene-sets. Gene-sets from
humans, bacteria, viruses, fungi. Meme-sets from religions, political parties, and
educational institutions. And they all fight with the others to control you: what you eat,
what you feel, what you believe, where you go, whom you mate with, and just about
everything else.
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The surprising thing is that we are not disasters (well, not total disasters
anyway) and we don’t all just die of confusion. The fact that we do as well as we do is
a tribute to evolution and the you-gene-set which designed your body and brain and
provided the software “operating system” to deal with the mess.

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There is no escape!
As discussed in Your prene-set, upon birth you begin to acquire memes. Many
of these come from societal prene-sets. Importantly, these prene-sets existed long
before you showed up. They have been waiting for your arrival. Like skilled predators,
they have evolved extremely refined methods to make the most of their opportunity.
They intend to capture and enslave you.
It is common for people to say that political parties, religions, and other societal
entities, are “all about money” or “all about power”, etc. They are not; what they are all
about is survival.
The cheetah lies in wait and then, in a sudden, astonishing burst of speed,
overtakes and kills its helpless prey. The Venus fly trap entices its prey with the
promise of food, and then gently imprisons and consumes it. Predatory biological
prene-sets and their societal counterparts have a great deal in common.
Figure 14: Ruthless predatory prene-warriors with their prey [Predators]
Let’s explore how societal prene-sets go about their work. I will use the
Catholic-prene-set as an example, but the points made apply to virtually all societal
prene-sets.
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Typically, societal prene-sets are large and their prenes are infused over time.
For example, if you are becoming a Catholic, you will be taught the catechism early on,
but only much later, if at all, are you likely to be taught the Universi-Dominici-gregisprene.
In general, the first prenes you acquire are a landing force that prepares for the
arrival of reinforcements.
For example, the Catholic-prene-set has learned, through evolution, that many
of its prey will encounter the Church as children under the control of their already
committed parents. This provides a period of several years, during which the child will
be exposed to Catholic prenes. The Catholic-prene-set will use this time wisely. The
child will be taken to church, sent to Sunday school, enrolled in youth groups, join
choirs, etc. all of which have been created by the Church (that is, by the Catholicprene-set) as a means of continuously and progressively infusing more and more
prenes into the child’s brain.
The Catholic-prene-set has also learned how to associate positive feelings with
desired behavior (see What a piece of work is a man? and The silver stars you wear).
A child who acquires the proffered Catholic prenes will experience feelings of success
and accomplishment; one who does not may experience feelings of failure or
disappointment.
The childhood route to the Catholic-prene-set is not the only one available. For
example, there are occasions when the first encounter with the Church occurs in
adulthood. Unlike the child, the prey is not likely to be compelled to consume the
proffered prenes. The Catholic-prene-set has designed a different strategy in cases
like this. The initial prenes offered are enticing and induce strong feelings that
maximize the chance that the individual will stick around for reinforcements to arrive.
This purpose is served by beautiful architecture, music, paintings, friendly people, free
food, etc.
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Not all children exposed to the Catholic-prene-set will stay the course. Some will
abandon the faith, some will only go to church on holidays, some will become pope.
Why does this happen?
The answer is other prene-sets. A person is a limited resource. He has a finite
life span, and at each moment he can execute a certain number of brain cycles and
expend a certain amount of energy. He cannot provide full service to the demands of
all the societal prene-sets he will encounter.
So, eventually the Catholic-prene-set will come into conflict with other predatory
prene-sets for control of the child’s behavior and his future acquisition of prenes. For
example, perhaps he will begin to acquire an “interest in” sports. That is, some sports
prene-set will succeed in infusing initial prenes and begin controlling some of his
behavior. What is to be done when there is a game on Sunday at the same time
church services are being held? When the child reaches adolescence, his gene-set
will make a strong bid for greater control: the adolescent will discover sex.
Figure 15: The Catechism. That boy on the left, though? Probably not going to
be pope. [Catechism]
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The adolescent discovery of sex is emblematic of a more profound feature of
humans. Earlier (The wars within), I described the prenes-legislature, where prenes
debate the behavior we should enact. I think of the legislature as bicameral. There is a
high chamber which has our genes and a low chamber which has all the rest. It got
that way because our genes built everything, and the bicameral legislature provided a
way for them to carefully tailor the amount of control they would surrender to the
memes. For example, the genes surrender very little power to memes regarding bodily
functions such as digestion and circulation. On the other hand, they allow the memes
great control over how we groom ourselves, where we go, and how we act in public.
In some cases, the genes wield power in subtle ways. For example, the genes
allow the memes to determine a great deal of our behavior during courtship, but when
intimacy approaches, they exert increasing control, only to rapidly surrender it when
intimacy terminates. A similar thing happens when a rapid response to an emergency
is required.
So, one thing a societal prene-set can be sure of is that when it infects a
human, it will be taking up residence and sharing behavioral control with a gene-set.
Those societal prene-sets that deal with this cohabitation well will have the genes as
allies, those that do not will have them as enemies (see How to be an unsuccessful
prene).
Discord between a societal prene-set and the gene-sets is common, and can
have serious psychological consequences, for example, when one does covet thy
neighbor’s wife.
Nietzsche, Freud, and others have explored the conflicts between societal
prene-sets and human gene-sets; sometimes seeing them as conflicts between
civilization and human nature.
Just as a human may commit suicide even though none of his cells would
endorse such action, a societal prene-set may induce behavior that virtually none of its
followers would support. The tragic ending of the Jim Jones cult provides an extreme
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example. National prene-sets often engage in wars that cost the lives of followers who
would rather not participate (Prene-warrior).
In the end, you will acquire memes from many different societal prene-sets.
They will share your resources.
A prene-set that acquires a small share will have little influence on you. One
that gets a significant share will regularly impact your behavior and become “part of
your life”. If a single societal prene-set acquires a very large share, then that prene-set
will occupy a huge portion of your time, energy, and thoughts and become a center of
your existence. You will have time for little else and may be seen by others as
obsessed. Obsessed people are the ones that societal prene-sets like best and
sometimes reward with important silver stars which I will discuss in The silver stars you
wear.
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Is anything in this book true?
I think it is customary for the author of a scientific book to believe that he is
writing the truth. I do not have such a belief. I find some comfort from the fact that I
also do not believe I am writing falsehoods.
So, what’s the deal? To answer that, we have to delve into the notion of truth
itself (I wonder why no one ever delved into this before7
). What we discover will apply
not just to truth, but to beauty, bravery and lots of other things, and will help us
understand how human society works.
Figure 16: The gold star of truth

7 This book touches on many topics that have been of great interest to philosophers for
millennia. Though I wish it were otherwise, I lack the expertise to know how the notions in this book
comport with those of the philosophers.
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What is truth? Is it true that “1+1=2”? Is it true that “E=MC2
”? Is it true that
“Christ was the son of God”?
Let’s start with the easy one: is it true that “1+1=2”? What do you think? Well,
let’s ask a mathematician if “1+1=2” is true.
Mathematicians have taken the question of truth very seriously and after about
2000 years of effort, in the early 1930s, they succeeded in giving a precise
mathematical definition8
. So, a mathematician will apply that definition to “1+1=2” and
conclude: “it is true that ‘1+1=2’”. What he actually means is that “according to the
definition of truth in mathematics: it is true that ‘1+1=2’”. As an aside, to preserve my
mathematical dignity, let me remark that I am assuming that we are working with the
standard model of arithmetic.
What about “E=MC2
”? Is that true according to the definition of truth in
mathematics? To a mathematician you might just as well ask if it is true that “love
conquers all”. Love has never been, and most probably will never be, defined
mathematically, and it is in the nature of the definition of truth in mathematics that truth
or falsity can only be applied to concepts that have mathematical definitions. Energy
(E), mass (M), and the speed of light (C) are things measured in laboratories and are
not defined mathematically. So, the correct thing for a mathematician to say is: “the
definition of truth in mathematics does not apply”.

8 The definition of truth in mathematics was given by Alfred Tarski in the 1930s. Once
mathematically defined, mathematicians could study mathematical truth mathematically. The results are
at the pinnacle of human accomplishment; they are both enlightening and depressing. Briefly and
informally, in 1931, Godel was able to prove that there is more truth in mathematics than we can ever
know. Even worse, mathematicians realized that they don’t even know what mathematics is. Turns out
that there are infinitely many contradictory “things”, called structures, that deserve to be called
“mathematics”, but mathematicians can never determine which is the “correct one”. Finally,
mathematicians are not, and provably can never be, sure that someday they won’t prove that 1+1≠2. If
that day comes, then nothing is true, and nothing is false, and everything they have ever done becomes
worthless. Given that mathematics has the highest standard of truth of all human endeavors, you have
to wonder what you should think when a physicist or a politician says something is true.
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However, if we ask a physicist if “E=MC2
” is true, he will say yes. Physicists
have a different definition of truth than mathematicians. The physicist’s definition is (at
least in the popular imagination) something like “has been demonstrated by numerous
experiments”, so the physicists should say “according to the definition of truth in
physics: it is true that ‘E=MC2’
”.
This is how it goes in general. A societal prene-set will often have a set of
prenes that determine truth and falsity. I call these prenes: “veracity prenes”. Different
societal prene-sets have different veracity prenes. I like to think of the veracity prenes
as telling followers of the prene-set the rules for placing a “silver star of truth” or a
“silver star of falsehood” on things.
Very roughly speaking, for Jews the veracity prenes are found in the Hebrew
Bible; for Christians, in the Old and New Testaments; for Muslims, in the Quran.
So, is it true that Christ was the son of God? For Jews: according to the
veracity prenes of Judaism it is false that Christ was the son of God. For Christians:
according to the veracity prenes of Christianity it is true that Christ was the son of God.
For Muslims: according to the veracity prenes of Islam it is false that Christ was the
son of God. For mathematicians: the veracity prenes of mathematics do not apply.
For physicists: the veracity prenes of physics do not determine that it is true that Christ
was the son of God, nor do they determine that it is false that Christ was the son.
However, the physicist’s veracity prenes allow him to make a temporal judgement; in
the future evidence may appear that allows him to answer the question.
Surely, a prene-set cannot put silver stars of truth on logically inconsistent
things. Well, in mathematics it is not clear whether this can happen, but all
mathematicians say a prayer each night that it can’t. But there are plenty of societal
prene-sets that thrive with logically inconsistent silver stars of truth. For example,
Christians are to take the gospels as the true, despite the fact that they are logically
inconsistent, for example, regarding the empty tomb. The apparent inconsistency of a
monotheistic religion with a trinity at its apex has caused a great deal of turmoil in
Christianity; yet it remains the largest of all the world’s religions.
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From a prene-theorist’s point of view, logically consistent societal prene-sets are
no better and no worse than logically inconsistent ones.
Certain other prenes are commonly found in prene-sets with veracity prenes.
There are the “absolute truth” prenes. The absolute truth prenes tell followers that the
things with a silver star of truth actually have a gold star of truth - that is, they are not
just true according to the veracity prenes of our prene-set, they are true in some
absolute transcendental sense.
Sometimes there are “proselytize” prenes that tell followers that they have a
duty to spread the things with silver stars of truth to people who have yet to be
“enlightened”, and to resist enlightenment by others.
Interestingly, logically inconsistent societal prene-sets often have the our-preneset-is-not-logically-inconsistent-prene. For Christians, this prene is fundamental to the
work of apologists. For political parties, it is fundamental to the work of speech writers.
One finds veracity prenes, absolute truth prenes, and proselytizer prenes in
many successful prene-sets including Christianity, Islam, democracy, and communism.
Needless to say, this can lead to conflict. Many Muslims and Christians have fought to
the death, driven by just such a constellation of prenes.
Do not think that scientists are immune from these prene-driven passions. How
many biologists are willing, at least in private, to declare creationists fools? Perhaps
creationists have an equally negative view of biologists. But neither has a gold star of
truth. When a biologist says that “According to the veracity prenes of biology: the
views of creationists are false”, he is articulating something about the relationship
between the creationist-prene-set and the biology-prene-set. But, when he says,
“creationists are fools”, he is invoking an absolute truth prenes of the biology-prene-set
and is not engaged in what we scientists like to think of as our honorable,
dispassionate search for truth.
Educated people in western civilizations have acquired various parts of the
scientific-prenes-set. They will argue (for example with me) that the veracity-prenes of
science are “special” and that what science says is true is actually “really, really, true”.
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That science is “careful” and “correctable” and “testable” and “refutable”. But science
is not special, and its “truths” are silver not gold.
So, do gold stars exist? Are there transcendental absolute truths? Lots of
people seem to think so, and many are more than willing to tell you what they are.
Descartes claimed to have found one: “cogito ergo sum”. But that assertion is at
best controversial and, to my eyes, misses the mark entirely. Today, Descartes’
statement does not even get the philosophy-prene-set’s silver star of truth.
Even if there actually is a transcendental absolute, “gold”, truth, I suspect that it
is fundamental to the universe we inhabit and the mechanisms that control our
acquisition of knowledge that we can never be sure what it is. Humans did not evolve
to be truth detectors; they evolved to survive and reproduce their prenes. More
importantly it does not matter. The reality on the ground is that humans have different
prene-sets with different veracity prenes; they believe in different truths and base their
behavior on those beliefs (see Why do bees kill themselves, The power of belief).
This brings us back to the question: Is what I have written in this book true?
Of course not, it gets no gold star. I am a scientist, that is, a follower of the
science-prene-set. This book is a document produced in accordance with the dictates
of that prene-set. There is no great transcendental truth here; if I worked in
advertising, I would be selling dog food instead.
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Figure 17: [Advert]
My book is putting forth a scientific argument designed to convince other
scientists that there is something to this prene-theory stuff, that they should use some
of their resources to investigate it further, and they should ultimately place a science
silver-star of truth on it.
Just as a prene-set may have veracity prenes that tell followers when to apply a
silver star of truth, they may also have “beauty prenes” that tell followers when to apply
a silver star of beauty, “humor-prenes”, etc.
Silver stars are also applied to people. For example, there may be “wisdom
prenes” that dictate when a follower is to place a silver star of wisdom on a person.
Einstein has been awarded such a star from the science-prene-set; Shakespeare has
one from the literature-prene-set.
The constellation of silver stars that adorn a person has much to do with that
person’s physical behavior and feelings, and the physical behavior and feelings of
followers toward him. This will be addressed in more detail in The silver stars you
wear.
But as with truth, there are no gold stars. A thing by itself cannot be true,
beautiful, humorous, or wise; it acquires such attributes only with respect to prenes
that define them.
So, is democracy good and moral? We can be pretty sure that most democrats
believe it is. What about Christianity, Islam, communism, capitalism, Nazism, etc.? Are
they good and moral?
It is typically good strategy for a societal prene-set to have its followers believe
that it possesses admirable qualities. But to a prene-theorist, such beliefs are of
secondary importance; societal prene-sets are struggling to survive and using humans
as their instruments. The future of these prene-sets will be determined on the field of
battle and will depend solely on how well they compete with one another.
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The silver stars you wear
As remarked in Nothing in this book is true, societal prene-sets may have silver
stars of truth, beauty, etc. that can be applied to things. They also may have silver
stars that can be applied to people. For example, silver stars of heroism, wisdom,
cowardice, stupidity, etc.
Silver stars applied to people are typically associated with ancillary prenes that
define the requirements for obtaining the star (and for retaining it), the powers that
accrues to (or are taken from) those who wear it, the behavior expected of people
wearing the star, and the behavior expected of followers toward such people.
For example, to obtain a silver star of heroism typically requires that the person
displays great courage. Receiving the silver star is associated with positive feelings of
pride and a duty to act with dignity. Followers are expected to treat someone adorned
with the star with feelings of gratitude and to afford them respect. Receiving the silver
star of cowardice produces the opposite results.
Figure 18: What feelings and behavior do these “silver stars” elicit in the people
pictured? [Lodz]
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When you meet someone for the first time, often an important aspect of your
initial communication can be seen as an exploration of each other’s prene-sets and
silver stars. What is learned may determine future feelings and behavior regarding
one another.
While some silver stars have physical incarnations, most do not. Like the silver
star of truth, silver stars you wear are depended on the prene-set that defines them.
They are typically visible to followers but invisible to non-followers.
Figure 19: How many silver-stars of genius do you see?
If you see none: you have serious genius-blindness
If you only see the star on the left portrait (Andrew Wiles): you are mathematicsgenius-blind
If you only see the star on the right portrait (Cormac McCarthy): you are
literature-genius-blind
If you see two silver stars you are far better educated than I am. [Genius]
For example, today, Cormac McCarthy wears a silver star of genius in literature,
and Andrew Wiles wears a silver star of genius in mathematics. The literati have never
heard of Wiles, and if they met him would not see his star, and mathematicians have
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never heard of McCarthy, and don’t see his. By the way, there is no contradiction
here; as a mathematician, I had never heard of Cormac McCarthy, I got his name by
Googling “contemporary authors literary genius”.
Since silver stars are prene-set dependent, the correct (according to prenetheory) answer to questions like “is Shakespeare a greater genius than Newton?” is
not “yes” or “no”; it is “with respect to which prene-set?”
A follower may strive to achieve a silver star, but it is only other followers who
can confer it. If other followers don’t see the star on you, it is not yours. So, many
individuals work hard and achieve personal goals, but never receive the stars they
seek. Many highly accomplished musicians, artists, and actors never gain stardom.
In There is no escape!, I described how societal prene-sets have evolved
elaborate systems to entice and capture their prey (e.g. you). Very often these
systems include sequences of silver stars laid out like bread crumbs for individuals to
follow. As the prey moves from star to star, he is rewarded with positive feelings and
accrues power.
Societal prene-sets use silver-stars as part of their mutational strategies. They
typically have silver stars that confer the power to interpret or mutate some portion of
the prene-set for some portion of the followers. For example, within the Catholicprene-set, as one moves from priest to bishop to pope, the set of prenes accessible to
interpretation or mutation increases to include those further along the spectrum from
ephemera to endura, (see Mutation part 1) and the flock of followers who are impacted
grows. Societal prene-sets have learned, though evolution, to require greater
contributions of resource (e.g. time, energy, and brain cycles) from followers seeking
stars that confer greater power to mutate. By this means, important mutations occur
only in brains dedicated to the prene-set.
There is another message worth recording here. Early multicellular organisms
may not have been highly differentiated. That is, each cell may have done pretty much
the same thing as every other cell. Perhaps the collected cells survived simple by
virtue of size or reduced surface area. However, after about a half-billion years of
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evolution, multicellular organisms have become highly differentiated. For example, in
humans, each cell (except for red blood cells and gametes), carries the whole geneset, but behaves much differently than most other cells. A heart cell, brain cell, fat cell,
and T-cell do not share similar behavior. Each cell type has a different function to
perform for the organism. It appears that societal prene-sets organize their followers in
a highly differentiated way, and they use silver stars to do it. The pope, a priest, a nun,
a crusader, and a simple parishioner all share the same prene-set but have different
constellations of silver stars and different functions to perform.
Since I promised to provide guidance on achieving greatness, here it is.
To achieve greatness, you must acquire the appropriate silver star from some
societal prene-set. The star may go by many names: the silver star of genius, the
silver star of stardom, the silver star of heroism, the silver star of champion, etc.
Sometimes the star has a physical incarnation: a Nobel Prize, an Oscar, the Medal of
Honor, a title belt, etc. Sometimes it does not. It is very likely that the star you seek
requires the expenditure of huge amounts of time, energy, and brain cycles.
So, the guidance is this: obsession. Be prepared to expend huge amounts of
your resources. To do this, you must avoid other prene-sets that would steal a
significant part of those resources. If you plan to be a great physicist, movie star, or
basketball player, do not spend a great deal of time learning to become an even
mediocre concert pianist. You cannot afford the resources. If you choose to seek
greatness, then be prepared to give up other things, perhaps simple pleasures like
going to the movies, but perhaps even a good family life and children. It is up to you to
decide if the sacrifice is worth it. So, roughly, how do you become great? My prenetheoretic advice is similar to that contained in the old joke about the way to Carnegie
Hall: practice, practice, practice.
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How the brain captures memes
The next two sections are highly speculative.
Memes may be acquired directly from nature via our senses. They may also be
acquired from other brains through processes carried out by parents, friends, teachers,
political parties, governments, religions, authors, actors, musicians, advertisers, and
others, using tools such as speech, books, media, and the Internet, by techniques
called education, indoctrination, brain-washing, enlightenment, entertainment, training,
propaganda, etc. We will call the former set “experiential memes” and the latter
“learned memes”.
The world is awash with prenes for your brain to capture. How come your brain
captures some and ignores others? Your genes want you to capture those that further
their goals, but how have they organized your brain to make that happen? In this
section, I will speculate on what appears to be an important mechanism. Let’s begin by
looking at the evolution of brains and memes.
Way before brains showed up, organisms evolved what I will call “monitoringresponse systems” that observed their internal and external environments and
responded when something unusual occurred. These systems consisted of sensors
for monitoring and actuators for responding. For example, some bacteria monitor the
concentration of chemicals in their environment, and when sufficiently high
concentrations of desirable chemicals are detected, respond by moving along the
chemical gradient.
Eventually primitive brains evolved and where exploited to mediate some
monitoring-response systems. For example, some flatworms have sensors to monitor
light, touch, and temperature and appear to use their primitive brains to coordinate
nuanced physical responses to the multiple stimuli they receive.
Once primitive brains with writable memories evolved, memes could exist, and it
seems reasonable to guess that some monitoring-response systems would respond to
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unusual situations by turning on the “meme recorder”. There is good genetic rationale
for this: unusual situations are sometimes associated with future dangers or
opportunities, and recording such events provides a means for designing future
behavior to enhance those opportunities or diminish those dangers.
Figure 20: Surprise! [Lion]
For example, let’s say I come to your house, knock three times, and, when you
open the door, I release a lion. Let’s further assume that you actually survive. I’ll bet
you will never forget that day :). In fact, you can’t afford to; you must make sure that it
does not happen again. To do this, you must remember what happened; you have to
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turn on the meme recorder. The recorder will save valuable information like: where the
encounter occurred, what time of day it occurred, who was there, etc. Information prior
to the encounter may also be important; what sounds were heard, what smells were in
the air? So, the content of short-term memory, where it is likely such information is
stored (see What a piece of work is a man?), is also recorded. As an aside, perhaps
such memory dumps help explain the ultrahigh resolution, slow-motion, recollection
sometimes observed following serious mishaps.
The newly recorded memes will later be processed to improve future behavior.
After processing, future behavior may include running the next time you see me or
exercising increased caution when hearing three knocks on the door. You may also
make an associate between opening doors and feeling anxiety or fear.
A similar thing may happen when a new romantic encounter occurs. The meme
recorder gets turned on, and a comprehensive report is captured. You may record the
location, the time, the physical feelings, the scent in the air, the special way your mate
looked. As with the lion encounter, the new memes will later be processed to improve
future behavior. After processing, future behavior might include recreating the original
environment and seeking out your mate for more romantic encounters. You may make
an associate between being in such an environment with your mate and feelings of
excitement and pleasure.
Notice that the lion and romantic encounters would result in chemical changes
in the brain. It seems likely that brain-chemistry dependent monitoring-response
systems initiate these recordings.
When we buy a new cell phone, we treat its memory in much the same way as
we treat our own. What things have you stored on your cell phone and why? Probably
most of the memory is storing pictures, videos or music. But why these particular
choices? Because these things produced a significant, often emotional, response in
you.
In man, these ancient genetic mechanisms for acquiring experiential memes are
exploited by societal prene-sets to induce the acquisition of learned memes.
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It is no accident that advertising agencies have learned to use attractive people
to get you to remember their beer. The Catholic church has been reluctant to take this
approach but uses glorious music and wondrous art to achieve a similar effect.
Indeed, baroque art itself arose as a direct result of the Catholic counter-reformation’s
explicit endorsement of dramatic art for the purpose of teaching Catholic prenes.
Would a 17th century Italian peasant doubt the holiness of Saint Ignatius after
viewing Pozzo’s magnificent ceiling fresco?
Figure 21: The apotheosis of St. Ignatius by Andrea Pozzo, church
of Sant'Ignazio, Rome. [Pozzo]
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I conjecture that, roughly speaking, a newly acquired meme is given a sort of
priority rating. The greater, in magnitude or duration, the change detected by the
monitoring system the higher the rating. Memes with high ratings are stored in less
volatile memory, are retained longer, and are processed more than memes with lower
ratings.
In addition, it appears that while the genes have given us a system for recording
memes, they have not given our conscious minds direct control of their removal. The
lower the rating, the more rapidly a meme may dissipate, but we cannot consciously
hasten that process. We cannot simply decide to forget our memories; just make them
go away.
So, summing up, it appears that:
Proposition 4:
Our brains are like bells, the harder they are struck, the
longer they reverberate, but we do not possess the conscious
power to damp them.
Though we cannot remove memes by volition alone, we can certainly add new
memes to our existing set. This can be used to change behavior (physical, emotional,
mental, or otherwise). The basic idea is to introduce new memes that will oppose
existing memes in the prene-legislature.
The addition of new learned memes lies at the heart of many non-invasive
approaches to changing behavior. Talk-therapy, some eastern religions, 12 step
programs, and many others use this approach.
As an aside, a few remarks regarding mindfulness. Mindfulness is often spoken
of as roughly equivalent to awareness – awareness of one’s present thoughts,
feelings, and situation. However, mindfulness in this form is of limited value. It can be
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acquired by learning new memes that act in the legislature to resist the onset of
behavior that would otherwise occur. For example, one learns to take some deep
breaths or count to ten before reacting to a stressful situation. However, in many
important situations far more is needed. In particular, new, expertly tailored, memes
must be added (typically over an extended period) that provide an alternative behavior
after the count of ten passes. When artfully done, the new memes can sometimes
overwhelm the memes that initiated undesirable feelings or responses and produce
behavior which is more satisfying.
The addition of experiential memes can also be used. This is the idea behind
aversion therapy. If you have acquired memes that lead you to smoke, introduce a
new anti-smoking meme by giving an electrical shock the next time you reach for a
pack. While this approach seems tenable, our current ability to apply it seems
rudimentary.
There are some experiential memes that are particularly important. I call them
“pivotal memes”; they are the ones that, informally speaking, max-out the meters on
our monitoring-response systems. Examples would include memes acquired when
sexual fulfillment is first achieved, or when (as I understand it) heroin is first mainlined.
Other examples might include the memes you would acquire if I really did show up with
the lion, or if you suddenly found yourself in the middle of a gun battle.
Pivotal memes come from striking the bell with great force; they reverberate for
a longtime and are repeatedly processed by our brains. They are the footprints left by
major life events, and for obvious reasons, the genes have made them virtually
indelible and have given them a prominent voice in the prenes-legislature. Whether
acquired in positive or negative emotional situations, they become a central focus of a
person’s life, and much energy and many brain cycles will be invested in planning a
future around them.
When pivotal memes are acquired in negative situations, we sometimes call the
result post-traumatic stress disorder. In cases like heroin injection, we might call it
post-ecstatic stress disorder.
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Figure 22: PTSD: when the ringing won’t stop. [Bells]
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How the brain processes memes
Let’s turn to how the brain processes memes to determine our future behavior
and to create new memes. We will have to wait for advances in neuroscience before
we understand the details of this processing, but we can make few observations now.
The brain’s processing is, to a significant extent, subconscious.
For example, when you cannot think of a name and it suddenly “pops” into your
head, that name was discovered by your subconscious while processing your stored
memes and was then forwarded to your conscious mind.
This subconscious processing never stops. If while sleeping, your
subconscious discovers something of potential value to your conscious mind, it may
post a notification. When you wake, you may find that notification and have an “I got it”
sense.
For example, I once woke with the certainty that I could finally prove a theorem I
had been struggling with for months. I arose, went to my blackboard, and had the
bizarre but pleasant experience of writing the proof that, at that moment, my conscious
mind was seeing for the first time.
Because long arduous subconscious processing sometimes generates memes
of value that are transmitted to our conscious mind in moments, there is a tendency for
people to believe that something magical, divine, or inspired is involved in human
creativity.
It is a question of considerable interest why we have a conscious mind at all.
This is not the question of “consciousness” and what it is; I don’t find that question
particularly interesting. I am content to know that the Kleene recursion theorem makes
it perfectly clear that computational devices can be programmed to see themselves
within their environments in real time and make decisions accordingly.
But, why was it advantageous for our genes to exploit that possibility and create
our conscious minds? Was it a recent evolutionary add-on? Do non-human animals
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have conscious minds? (I suspect they do). Was the conscious mind piled on top of
the subconscious to act as the court of final authority when subconscious disputes
among prene-sets result in dead-locks about behavior? Does the conscious mind
enable quicker or better reactions to the world? Is it only in the conscious mind that we
experience pain and pleasure?
There is a special version of the interactions between the subconscious and the
conscious mind that I find interesting. It stems from the fact that humans can envision
possible futures. For example, chess players can envision possible ways a game may
unfold.
I presume that primitive mechanisms for envisioning the future arose long ago in
evolutionary history. When we see an orca wobble an iceberg to dislodge a seal, or a
pack of wolves hunt, I believe that we are witnessing animals with the ability to
envision possible futures. Like the chess player, each wolf seems able to envision
possible future positions of its prey, its pack and itself.
But if the wolf has this ability, how might the genes exploit it when the wolf is not
hunting. Do wolves use it to create dreams of hunts as a means of sharpening skills
for the future?
In man this ability is highly developed. Our brains create possible futures
complete with moving images, sounds, feelings, things, and people, including
ourselves. Our existing memes are part of the raw material for generating these
possible futures, and, it seems likely that experiential memes with a high priority rating
are the most likely to be incorporated. Our subconscious can create possible futures,
and experiment with possible behavioral responses. Perhaps, in much the same way
as current AI programs behave, when an experimental behavior is perceived to have a
negative outcome, the brain modifies its memes to decrease the likelihood of that
behavior actually occurring in the future; when perceived to have a positive outcome,
the likelihood is increased. When these possible futures are explored at night, we call
them dreams.
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This may be part of the means by which memes are processed to determine our
future behavior.
The importance of subconscious processing cannot be overstated. We know
from work on vision, that our genes have programmed our visual pathways to process
our visual inputs before presenting them to our conscious mind. Perhaps this kind of
processing is not entirely hard-wired. Perhaps some processing occurs in the software
as well.
As I have suggested (Your prene-set) your brain is a battle ground for
discontent memes and genes waging a civil war for your behavior. Each of these
combatants would like you to see “reality” in a way that serves it best. I suspect, and it
is purely speculation, that our brains have been programmed by our genes, to process
these disparate realities subconsciously, and present a carefully digested, piecewise
continuous, “unified reality” to our conscious minds. We may be like children,
restricted by our parents to watching a Walt Disney version of the world. The thing you
call “you” may just be the icing on the subconscious cake.
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The power of belief
In Why do bees kill themselves, we saw that beliefs can program our physical
behavior. Can they also program our emotional behavior, and, it particular, how we
feel?
Consider the following true story:
I once saw a video of a man skinning a cat alive and throwing it into a kettle of
boiling water – I was repulsed and angered – however, the man in the video was
just preparing dinner for his family and presumably had a very different
response.
The sad story of the delicious cat can teach us some valuable lessons about the
nature of memes and behavior.
My emotional response seemed spontaneous and visceral. A priori, I would
have thought that only my genes could induce such behavior. However, since
essentially the same stimuli led to quite a different response in the man, there is little
chance that gene-sets were responsible.
It seems clear, and, of course, comes as no surprise to sociologists, that the
differences in responses can be traced to differences in cultures. I had acquired beliefs
that cats were cute, and that harming animals was abhorrent. The man in the video
had acquired different beliefs. By the way, do you like lobster?
Hence:
Proposition 5
Memes, and in particular beliefs, can induce physical
and emotional behavior
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Let’s take a brief detour to clear up which memes are beliefs, and which are not.
Some memes have a large impact on our behavior while others do not. For example,
the if-you-say-you-will-do-something-then-you-must-do-it-meme I acquired from my
parents has had a big impact on my behavior, while the when-you-wish-upon-a-staryour-dreams-come-true-meme I got from Walt Disney has had almost none.
Informally, we might say that the difference is that I “believe” the former but not the
latter.
Turning this on its head, I use the term “belief” to denote a meme that has a
significant impact on behavior (emotional, physical, mental, or otherwise). In reality,
there is no clear line that separates beliefs and non-beliefs; it is a continuum.
It is not unusual for a person to acquire beliefs that dictate contradictory
behaviors. For example, an individual may acquire religious beliefs when young, and
scientific beliefs during early adulthood. The former may include creationism; the latter
evolution. When it comes time to vote on abortion issues, these beliefs may dictate
contradictory behaviors. As discussed in The wars within, such situations can produce
psychological distress.
There is another important lesson to be learned from the sad story of the
delicious cat. As best I can determine, my dramatic emotional response was not
mediated by my conscious mind; it was entirely subconscious. I believe that:
Proposition 6
People are often unaware when their memes are
influencing their behavior
These propositions play out on a daily basis in our lives and impact even our
mundane behavior.
For example, most people seem to think that the opinion they express on a
politically controversial topic such as abortion or gun control is “reasonable” or “true” or
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“based on science” or “derived from unassailable authority”, or, or, or. In reality, for the
most part, it is determined by the political beliefs they were taught when they were
young by their parents, their peers, their schools, their churches, the media, the
Internet, etc.
When you speak with someone of a different political persuasion, you may see
them as unthinking parrots simply reciting the slogans fed to them by their political
overlords. You are probably right to think of them like that, but are you willing to think
of yourself that way as well?
Probably not. We have all acquired a variety of meme sets: political meme-sets,
religious meme-sets, scientific meme-sets, occupational meme-sets, etc. These sets
are in your brain, and they are actively trying to use you to further their aims. They
don’t like being ignored. So, part of the challenge of leaning prene-theory is learning to
put on your science-hat and keep your other prene hats at bay.
As an exercise, the next time you begin a political discussion with someone who
does not share your beliefs, try seeing it from the prene-centric viewpoint. You and the
other person are merely prene-warriors unconsciously in the service of political prenesets that have been at war for centuries. Your discussion has been repeated, mutatis
mutandis, millions of times, and likely with the same results: unresolved and often
unpleasant disagreement. In the future, perhaps you will listen to your mother’s
advice.
Figure 23: Linus the prene-theorist. [Schultz]
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Prene warrior
Earlier (The war within), I described how prene wars within you can lead to
psychological distress. But these are not the only kind of prene wars. Societal prenesets are constantly at war with one another. These are the kinds of wars that occur
between nations, political parties, and religions; the kinds that historians write about.
In this section, I will describe an occasion when I ended up as a prene-warrior in
a war between the academic-prene-set and the national-security-prene-set.
In the late 1970s, I was a professor of mathematics at MIT, and with two MIT
friends, Professors Ron Rivest and Adi Shamir, produced a short manuscript with the
title “A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-key Cryptosystems” [RSA].
We did not realize that we had just collided with a powerful prene-set whose existence
was unknown to us. The prene-set belonged to the National Security Agency (NSA)
and the reverberations of that collision are still with us today.
Our cryptosystem became the topic of a column in Scientific American
[Gardner]. In the column, we offered to send a copy of our manuscript to anyone who
would send a self-addressed stamped envelope to MIT.
My first clue that there was something strange going on came when I happened
to be standing in line at a book store in Berkeley and the customer in front of me said
to the cashier words to the effect: have you seen this article on crypto in Scientific
American? The cashier replied “Yeah, that’s so cool!”. I realized what they must be
talking about, and in a youthful burst of pride said “Oh, that’s our stuff …”. The
customer took his copy of the magazine and asked me to autograph it.
I know you probably think that mathematicians are constantly accosted by
strangers seeking autographs, but it had never happened to me before, and I had
never considered that it ever would.
But things got even stranger when I returned to MIT and found that there were
thousands of self-addressed envelopes being stuffed with copies of the manuscript.
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And the addresses seemed odd as well, things like “The Bulgarian Department of
Intelligence”.
We soon received a letter from someone informing us that we could not send
the manuscript out of the country – it was against the law. What? What law? What is
going on?
We found out that the letter came from an employee of the NSA, an agency we
had never heard of. It turned out that the NSA was the largest intelligence agency in
America – bigger than the FBI and CIA combined – and so secret that it had a “black
budget” and was unknown to most in government; those who did know of it referred to
it as “No Such Agency”.
The NSA was a “black chamber”, the centuries old name given to the
government agency responsible for making a nation’s secret codes and for breaking
the codes of other nations.
Our paper had changed everything. Our code was good mathematics, it was not
kid’s decoder ring stuff, and when it appeared in Scientific American, it apparently
meant that the Nation’s enemies could now use a code that the NSA could not break.
A major source of intelligence could dry up overnight. A very bad thing. And, in fact,
even today terrorists use our code to keep their plans secret. But our code was
double-edged. It could also be used to protect every American from agencies, both
foreign and domestic, that might wish to violate their privacy. A very good thing. And,
in fact, our code is widely used for that purpose. When your private information (e.g.
credit card numbers, medical records) is sent or stored on the internet, you are most
likely using our code to keep that information secure.
Had I known all this before we had published, I would have had a great moral
dilemma on my hands, but the code was out there now, and things would just have to
evolve as they would.
Apparently, the Scientific American publication hit the NSA hard, and they
responded with vigor. The letter was just the beginning; it was followed by attempts to
secure legislation that would inhibit the wide spread use of our code; attempts to
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create a new national standard code different from ours, and widely suspected to be
intentionally flawed so that the NSA could break it.
The NSA even tried to co-opt me by offering a sweetheart consulting deal.
While MIT took the position (which I actually agree with) that it was a privilege to teach
and do research there, and an affront to expect anything but a subsistence wage, the
NSA took a wholly different position. I was tempted by the NSA offer, but declined. I
have sometimes wondered if this episode eventually led to the related scene in “Good
Will Hunting”.
The prene-war that started then continues to this day. The recent information
revealed by Edward Snowden alludes to the fact that the NSA is still attempting to
mitigate the impact of our code [Menn].
At any rate, we had inadvertently attacked the NSA and it had turned to confront
us. I was now involved in a prene-war pitting the national-security-prene-set against
the academic-prene-set. I was under attack but would soon get the opportunity to
counterattack.
As a matter of routine, every few years I sought and received a grant from the
National Science Foundation (NSF) to do my mathematical research. The NSF is the
major funder of pure mathematical and scientific research in the United States. In
1980, I was seeking my next grant.
The procedure was well known: I would write a proposal of about 30 pages
describing how, if given the money, I would do such amazing mathematical things in
the next few years that the Nation would thank me and the NSF. Since our manuscript
had made crypto a very hot academic topic, I included a few paragraphs about how,
despite the fact that everything I planned to work on appeared on the surface to be
pure mathematics devoid of any possible use, my work actually had great practical
importance because it was applicable to cryptography.
I submitted my proposal and received a call from NSF. They informed me that
they would be delighted to give me the money and, oh, by the way, the NSA
generously decided to fund the part of the proposal that involved cryptography.
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I hung up the phone and knew that I had just won a major battle.
I began the counterattack. I picked up the phone and dialed Gina Kolata, a
distinguished science writer at The New York Times. I had known Gina for several
years, and I said I had a story that she might find interesting.
A few hours later, I got another call, this time from the head of the NSA, Admiral
Bobby Inman, explaining that there may have been a small misunderstanding. But it
was too late; the counterattack was under way. The next day the story appeared on
the front page of the Times. Soon after the NSA sued for peace:
Figure 24: Landau, Susan, Notices of the American Mathematical Society 1983
[Landau]

Today, the situation is pretty much as described by Landau, both NSF and NSA
provide grants for mathematicians, and mathematicians may choose which direction
they want to take.
It has been many years since then, I now see the prene-war that I was engaged
in as just that and nothing more. I no longer think that I was “right” and they were
“wrong”. In fact, I think they behaved most admirably. I had been taught most of my
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political prenes at Berkeley (B.S. 1968, Ph.D. 1976) and believed the absolute-truthprene (see The gold star of truth). Now that I am a prene-theorist, I understand that all
involved were playing their expected roles as prene-warriors for their respective prenesets.
But the bigger message of all of this is what it says about the nature of prenesets and how to fight a prene-war.
Prene-sets are often bristling with triggers and if you pull one, behavior can be
dramatically altered.
Figure 25: Breast cancer cell, expressing the HER2 surface receptor protein.
Once HER2 binds to HER3, the cell undergoes cell division and growth.
[Fenner]
For example, cells are usually covered with surface molecules called receptors
put there by the gene-set. These are the triggers. If a molecule, called a cognate
ligand, has just the right shape, it will bind to the receptor, pulling the trigger and
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initiating a cascade of events within the cell leading to a significant change in its
behavior.
Some human cells have insulin receptors on their surface and when insulin
binds, the cells begin to take glucose from the blood, lowering blood sugar levels.
Other human cells even have receptors that if bound cause them to commit suicide
(apoptosis). Why would a human cell have such a receptor? Well this gets back to
sacrifice (Why do bees kill themselves?). For example, when humans form in utero
their hands grow as solid bodies and only when some cells apoptose are the fingers
defined.
Individuals are also covered with triggers. When speaking to a friend, we are
often aware that there are certain words or topics that we cannot introduce because of
the changes they will induce.
Pulling a trigger on a prene-set is like gently dropping a feather on a
mountaintop to initiate an avalanche; a tiny input produces a large output. When a
trigger is associated with a particularly dramatic change, as in the apoptosis case, we
can think of the trigger as a tipping point for the prene-set. Since prene-sets evolve
through time, trigger points exposed today may be gone tomorrow.
I was lucky. I had previously established a good relationship with Gina Kolata,
so I felt comfortable calling her. She wrote for the New York Times, one of the world’s
largest prene-spreading instruments, so I could be confident that my prene would go
viral.
A far more dramatic example of using a feather occurred in Sarajevo on June
28, 1914 when Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb, assassinated Archduke Franz
Ferdinand of Austria. Though the people of Europe were unaware of it, the
constellation of their national prene-sets had exposed a trigger that Princip pulled with
astonishing effect. The Archduke was the first to die, but about forty million people,
followers of their national prene-sets, were killed or wounded in the war that followed.
A similar approach is being used in the militant-Islam-prene-set’s war with the
Western-prene-set. It goes like this. A small group of militants kill a small number of
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what, to the Western-prene-set, are innocent people. Best, if it is all on video, because
a feather is being dropped on the Western-prene-set via the Western media.
The Western media is exquisitely triggered to respond to exactly this kind of
thing. Way before this attack, the media had secured the services of a swarm of
consultants who are available 24/7 to appear and discuss the implications: who might
be responsible; what might they do next; what should you tell your children; what
should we do: nuke them, get them jobs. The Western world will get end-to-end
coverage for days; economic, social, and other issues will be driven off the air and their
natural trajectories will be altered. The cost to the militant-Islam-prene-set: small. The
impact on the Western-prene-set: huge.
How should one fight a prene-war? Hard to say, but it is important to know the
enemy prene-set well, and to remember that the prene-set itself is the primary
opponent; not its instruments (i.e. its followers, its weapons, etc.).
A prene-set’s instruments can be attacked using physical force. The prene-set
itself can be attacked by mutating it. Both the sword and the pen have their place.
For example, the Allied victory over Japan in World War II was largely achieved
by using physical force to attack the instruments of the Japanese-prene-set, but the
transformation of Japan into a US ally came largely from mutating that prene-set.
Post-war, the United States occupied Japan and mutated the monarchical-militaristic
Japanese-prene-set into a democratic-pacifistic one. The United States succeeded in
producing generations of new followers for some of its most important prenes. A
different post-war strategy was used by the Romans at the end of the third Punic war.
In my opinion, we are experiencing a major shift in the balance between force
and mutation. I suspect that the primary battleground of the future will be the Internet
and prene-sets will mutate one another by the application of propaganda, education,
enlightenment, etc.
The United States with its expertise in advertising, media, and computer science
has considerable potential in this area, but has yet to fully exploit it.
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The struggle between prene-sets is often prolonged. We use words like war and
peace, victory and defeat, but these merely describe particular epochs and instances
in the process. The Islamic-prene-set and the Christian-prene-set have struggled for
over a thousand years with many periods of war and peace, and many instances of
victory and defeat, but there is no end in sight.
We are all prene-warriors in the service of the prene-sets we acquire, though
most of us are not conscious of that fact.
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Human discourse
As an exercise in prene-theory, I (essentially at random) downloaded and
analyzed the following debate entitled “Should we fear the power of government over
the Internet”? [Wagner].
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First, do you think that the person who wrote the point is taller than the person
who wrote the counterpoint? Stupid question? Perhaps, but there is a purpose.
Whoever these people are does not matter very much, if not them, then someone else.
These people have been infected with particular prene-sets and they are acting as
instruments for those sets. By and large, people are interchangeable parts suitable to
act in the service of any prene-set that infects them.
It is as if it mattered which camera was used to show you a football game. One
camera or another, what difference does it make? Cameras are all basically the same
and if you point them at something, then they will convey it. If they are expensive
cameras, they may obtain higher resolution or briefly store and process the images for
contrast or color before sending them out, but we would be foolish to think that the
cameras themselves created the images. Both the cameras and the people are
vessels though which other things are passing.
Sure, some people are better than others as advocates for particular prenes,
and yes, we all wish to think of ourselves as special, but the arguments put forth by the
debaters, after what I assume was considerable reflection and effort, are merely
personally processed prenes derived from societal prene-sets (in particular political
prene-sets) that evolved long ago and which the debaters acquired from others. The
political prene-sets will likely persist well into the future, while the debater’s flourishes
are unlikely to endure.
Now who is telling the truth, the pointer or the counterpointer? Of course, by
now you know that there is no gold star of truth (The gold star of truth), so really we are
asking: according to which veracity prenes are they getting silver stars of truth? We
can be pretty sure that both would give themselves silver stars based on their own
veracity prenes. My mathematical prenes assign neither of their arguments a silver
star of truth; the issues under consideration are just not definable mathematically and
the veracity prenes are quiescent.
The scientific-method veracity prene might, in theory, have something to say
about which gets a science silver star of truth. Perhaps, if a gazillion well-designed
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experiments are carried out and yield consistent results, science silver-stars would be
awarded. Of course, those experiments will never take place. In fact, with systems as
complex as governmental measures on the Internet, a well-designed experiment is
almost inconceivable. Science is good with simple systems: if I let go of this ball, will it
go up or down? If, despite my skepticism, experiments are done, they will most likely
be controversial with respect to subjects, duration, end-points and a thousand other
things – including that big one, experimenter bias; will experiments with outcomes that
favor the pointer come from experimenters who share beliefs with the pointer and vice
versa? Even if we ignore all of that and a lot of experiments are done, there is virtually
no chance that they will yield consistent results, and even if they do, there is virtually
no chance that all interested parties will agree that enough was done in the correct
manner to warrant a scientific silver star of truth.
We frequently see followers of societal prene-sets try to apply scientific or
mathematical veracity-prenes in an attempt to be “rational”. This is typically a fool’s
errand.
More importantly, it does not matter who is telling the truth, what matters is how
successful each writer has been in increasing the copy numbers of their prenes. Truth
is overrated. In some settings, telling the “truth” can be a useful means of spreading
prenes, but the same can be said for telling “lies”. If you really want to get serious
about spreading prenes, then go to an expert like an advertiser or a political
consultant. Neither of them will bother you with issues of truth.
For me another striking thing about this debate is: who cares? As a matter of
fact, I do, but that is not the point. There are, presumably, thousands of such debates
online and the number of debates, formal or otherwise, humans have undertaken could
be in the trillions. There is an endless parade of topics. Did we care about internet
governance fifty years ago; will we care fifty years from now? The topics of human
debate are just prenes; some last a long time: “Is there a God?”, “Is democracy the
best form of government?”; some are evanescent: “Will the Y2K problem bring down
the banking system?”.
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Prene-sets enter the arena of struggle and sometimes succeed in infecting
people who then become instruments for the set’s survival. An individual once infected
may go through a standard kabuki dance using standard forms to fight for the preneset’s survival.
Shakespeare again:
Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage
And then is heard no more. It is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury
Signifying nothing.
So where does this constant stream of new debate topics come from?
Successful prene-sets are often prene generators. They radiate new prenes in their
struggle to survive. For example, political prene-sets constantly generate prenes that
will fortify the followers and attract non-followers. Opposing political prene-sets
generate opposing prenes and debates like the one above ensue.
The debate above also reveals how difficult it can be to conceal one’s societal
prene-sets. What did you learn about the person who composed the debate topic?
Why did he write: “Should we fear the power of government over the Internet?”, rather
than: “Should government protect us on the Internet?”. Fear? Protect? By that choice,
the person has revealed much about his political prene-set.
As it turns out (and I discovered this only after completing my analysis), the web
site gives a brief biography of the “curator” of this debate (who, I will assume had a
hand in composing the debate topic). Among other things, he describes himself as a
fellow of “Human Rights Watch in Berlin”. Now we know why he wrote the topic as he
did.
I have little doubt that the curator tried to be fair to both sides. Nonetheless,
quite possibly unconsciously, he biased the debate in support of his beliefs. This kind
of thing is ubiquitous – it is almost impossible to avoid.
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The press constantly claims impartiality (whatever that is) while biasing the
news. In America, if you watch FOX news and do not see the bias, it is not because
there is none; it is because you are a conservative. If you watch MSNBC and do not
see the bias, it is not because there is none; it is because you are a liberal.
Would the nice people in the news media manipulate us this way? Of course,
they would, and they may not even be conscious of the fact that they are doing it.
If you are on one side or the other of the political divide, you will find it almost
impossible to watch “news” from the other side. This is because your political preneset, left or right, occupies you and will resists opposition.
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Happiness
Proposition 7
Your prenes care not a whit about your happiness per se
This should come as no surprise, because the only thing prenes care about is
themselves.
To paraphrase the Declaration of Independence:
All men are created by their genes for Life and the pursuit of Happiness
The you-gene-set created you to pursue happiness; it did not create you to be
happy all of the time. If your genes wanted you to be perpetually happy, it would have
been no problem. They would have built you without pain receptors, they would have
put your brain cells in a perpetual endorphin-positive state – you would not live long
and you would not reproduce, but you would feel great until the end. Serious drug
addicts try to achieve a similar state with similar results.
You are designed to seek happiness and avoid unhappiness. The you-gene-set
built your brain and chose its features: the amount of memory, the number of
processors, when the meme recorder goes on, the number of brain-cell receptors for
neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine, and a thousand other things that drive
you to pursue happiness and ensure that you never achieve enough of it.
Just as the genes make some people tall and others short, they make some
people with sunny dispositions and others with gloomy ones. The gloomy people may
experience more unhappiness than the sunny people. However, this does not
necessarily mean that they are less likely to accomplish the goals of their genes. I
suspect that, on average, gloomy people generate about the same number of offspring
who reach adulthood as sunny people. Gloomy dispositions are a perfectly viable
strategy for the genes.
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I am not a psychologist9
, but in my view, the vast majority of individuals with
psychologically defined maladies, such as depression, have no genetic abnormality, no
“imbalance”, and no physical anomaly. This is not to say that they do not have
genuine suffering, they most certainly do.
Independent of your genetically endowed emotional base state, much of your
happiness in life will be determined by the prenes you have acquired and those you
acquire in the future. Be warned: societal prene-sets learn very quickly to offer
happiness to potential followers. Often, they will define happiness for you: freedom
from physical pain, financial security, salvation, respite from internal stress.

9 Nonetheless, a brief remark on Freud’s tripartite structural model of the psyche consists of the
id, the superego, and the ego. This structure seems similar to the structure we have been describing
where the genes, the memes, and the gene-built operating system in our brains play analogous roles.
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Do humans deserve more credit?
I have been hard on humans. Saying demeaning things like “From the prenecentric view … you have remarkably little to do with you”.
I have argued that humans are robots with gene-built computer-brains and
gene-built operating systems. We are like driverless cars that move around the world
and “decide” when to stop or go; when to turn right or left. We are prene-bots.
But there is another view, one that every human believes: we deserve a great
deal of credit for what we do. We think and agonize about the future and make critical
decisions. We decide how to raise our children, how to vote, what to create, who to
love, and where to eat lunch. This is the view that gives our lives purpose and makes
them worth living.
So, am I just being a misanthrope to ignore all that? No; let me explain.
The two views are not contradictory; they are perfectly compatible. There is no
scientific or mathematical reason to think that a programmed robot cannot have an
internal perception of turmoil, contemplation, choices, decisions, love, and hate.
Indeed, you are a living example of that fact.
Perhaps people think of these views as incompatible because they think that
being programmed means being predictable. Actually, mathematical theory supports
the opposite: there is nothing less predictable than a program (see What a piece of
work is a computer?). Typically to see what a program will do, you simply have to wait
for it to do it. At any rate, you are far too complex to be predicted efficiently. Certainly,
you yourself cannot predict what you will ultimately do. When you decide to do
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something, typically your conscious mind did not know what that something was, until
you decided to do it.
10
So, we actually get the best of both worlds: we humans are all of the complex,
wonderful things we think we are, and we are programmed robots.
11
Why not just include all of that wonderful stuff in prene-theory?
I wish I could.
One of the major follies in trying to build a powerful scientific theory is to include
too much. Powerful theories only address limited topics.
Consider ancient numerology, astrology and alchemy. They were grand
“theories” that tried to do too much. They tried to tell us how numbers, heavenly
bodies, and substances influence the destiny of people. They ended up degenerating
into blather. Science no longer takes lucky numbers, the signs of the zodiac, or the
philosopher’s stone seriously. It is only when these ancient theories jettisoned the
extraneous and focused on the core: numbers and how they are added and multiplied,

10 This is part of a larger picture (which I cannot articulate with precision): the
behavior of a complex machine cannot be predicted by a smaller machine
more quickly than the complex machine itself unfolds. For example, the
universe seemingly cannot predict what the universe will do faster than the
universe will do it. Otherwise, one has a very sticky self-reference problem.
11 Roughly speaking, researchers in the humanities and social sciences view
humans as wonderful things, while those in the sciences view them as
robots. As a result, when the former group investigates human endeavors,
they see humans and the choices they make as primary. So, historians may
focus on “great men”, psychologists may investigate the impact of peoples’
choices on their happiness, and philosophers may consider how people
make moral decisions. Scientists do not consider such things but may study
the chemistry and structure of the brain, the role of pathogens in disease, or
the mechanisms of morphogenesis. The two worlds share little in common.
Prene-theory is on the science side of this divide; however, it is closer to the
border than other sciences, and ideally, a prene-theoretic view of human
endeavors will complement and augment what is currently found in the
humanities and social sciences.
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matter and the laws that govern its motion, molecules and how they react, that they
became powerful scientific theories: number theory, astronomy and chemistry.
Like number theory, astronomy, and chemistry, prene-theory is a scientific
theory. Like other scientific theories, it is reductionist and sacrifices a grand view for a
narrow one with enhanced clarity.
We have seen reductionist theories before. To the physicist, you are the
superposition of quantum states evolving according to a Hamiltonian; to the chemist,
you are a collection of interacting molecules obeying the laws of mass action. Neither
physics nor chemistry will inform you about God or love. But physics provides cat
scans, radiation therapy, microwave ovens, and nuclear bombs; chemistry provides
pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, plastics, and poisons.
In 1859, Darwin provided us with a powerful scientific theory that had living
things and how they evolve at its core. Turing and Dawkins opened the door to a
broad generalization of Darwin’s theory that has prenes and their evolution at its core.
As a result, we can now see that the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene struggles to survive, and
that religious prene-sets mutate, evolve, and war with one another. We can look
behind human endeavors and see prenes pulling the strings.
To avoid the mistakes of the ancients, we will have to leave the wonderful things
about humans behind. Those wonderful things are the subject of many other
disciplines and will have to remain so.
In prene-theory, humans will not get the credit they deserve.
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Why do we die? 12
In Why do bees kill themselves? we saw that prenes sometimes program the
suicide of one of their own to increase future copy-numbers. Prenes are also perfectly
willing to let one of their own die of neglect if that will help. In fact, this is often what
they do, and unfortunately, you and I will very likely be victims of that neglect.
So, why do we die? Even worse, why do we die in less than 150 years? I will
argue that it is not because our genes failed to build us to last longer, but because they
had good reason not to try. Let’s start with an analogy.
Assume that you are a car manufacturer designing next year’s model. The
style, emission control, etc. have all been settled. The last thing on your agenda is to
determine what metal will be used. Your engineers have done extensive lab testing
and sent you the following table.

12 The remarks in this section ultimately stem from consideration of
thermodynamics. Death, not life, is the natural order of things. To sustain life
requires the constant expenditure of energy. As a result, genes design their
organisms to acquire energy efficiently. Genes also determine how energy
will be used. In this regard, perhaps the most important issue is how much to
spend sustaining life and how much to spend creating and supporting
offspring. I have not seen an instance where opting for immortality was a
successful strategy. More generally, all prenes sets must determine what
portion of resources to expended ensuring the survival of existing copies and
what portion to expended creating new copies. This book is not the proper
forum to discuss these issues in depth, and so I have chosen to simplify the
exposition and specialize to mammals. If you would like to pursue this
further, you might start with the question: did the genes design trees to die of
old age?
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Metal in Car Cost per car Lifetime
Tin $10,000 1 year
Titanium $1,000,000 100 years
So, for the same investment, you can build a fleet of tin cars that won’t last long,
or a small number of titanium cars that will last a long time.
You opt to go with titanium. You put the car into production, and the first one
rolls off the line … and gets crushed by a passing truck. You ask the engineers why
the car did not last the promised one hundred years. They tell you it’s because the
one-hundred-year number was “in the lab”. They say that if you want to produce a car
that will last one hundred years in the real world, they are not sure that it is possible at
all, but they might be able to do it using spider-silk-wrapped carbon-nanotubes filled
with depleted uranium at a cost of $1,000,000,000 per car.
The point is that car manufacturers cannot have it both ways: expensive cars
and lots of them. They are forced by limited resources to trade one for the other.
Those manufacturers that find a good tradeoff may survive, those that do not may
succumb to those that do.
Gene-sets face a similar challenge. They can build lots of offspring that live a
short time or a few offspring that live a long time. Those gene-sets that find a good
tradeoff may survive, those that do not may succumb to those that do.
Now consider the mouse gene-set. Should it build lots of baby mice that won’t
last long, or a few baby mice which will last a long time.
We know the answer:
House mice usually live under a year in the wild, due to a high level of predation
and exposure to harsh environments. In protected environments, however, they
often live two to three years. [Wikipedia-HM]
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The female house mouse can produce “as many as ten litters – approximately
sixty mice – each year” [Mousefacts]
What is the right investment strategy for gene-sets? That is a difficult question,
but some strategies are clearly terrible. For example, it would have been unwise for the
mouse gene-set to build baby mice with expensive hearts designed to last a hundred
years, since despite the great heart, it is likely that within a few years the baby would
succumb to a cat or some other real-world killer such as starvation, infection, accident,
or exposure.
The “goal” of the mouse gene-set should be to build a heart that will function
well only while the offspring survives. Put informally, the mouse gene-set should not
invest much in individuals that should be dead.
Figure 26: Later, when asked whether the mouse with the expensive heart or
the mouse with the cheap heart tasted better, the cat replied that they both
tasted about the same to him [Cat]
These ideas lead us to the following proposition:
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Proposition 8
Mammalian gene-sets typically invest little in
individuals whose age exceeds the adult life-expectancy.
Where adult life-expectancy is the life expectancy (from birth) among the cohort
of individuals that reach adulthood (i.e. reproductive age).
The implications of Proposition 8 are surprisingly rich. Let’s begin by
considering the human gene-set. What investment decision has it made regarding
your lifespan?
Swedish census data indicates that between 1751 and 1800 the adult lifeexpectancy was about 59 years [Berkeley].
There seems little reason to think that the adult life-expectancy changed much
until the last several thousand years. Then external threats such as starvation,
predation, infection, accident, and exposure began to diminish, thanks in large part to
our memes which produced such things as: agriculture, architecture, engineering,
commerce, public hygiene, antibiotics, and seatbelts. It seems reasonable to think that
when, in the 18th century, it reached 59 years, it had never been higher.
By Proposition 8 the human gene-set in the 18th century would be investing little
in individuals beyond 59 years old.
Today the adult life-expectancy in the United States is an impressive 84 years
[Berkeley]. Presumably the human gene-set will eventually respond to this recent
increase by changing its investment strategy, but there is virtually no chance that those
changes have occurred yet.
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Hence, the genes designed us to thrive for at most 59 years13 and we now live
84 years; we are in big trouble.
Just as the mouse gene-set should not build babies with hearts designed to
function perfectly for a hundred years, the human gene-set should not (and does not)
design, hearts, lungs, kidneys, blood vessels, immune systems, etc. to function
perfectly for more than 59 years. By the time we reach 60 those organs, and many
other systems in our bodies, will decline and loose functionality.
These losses of functionality are the result of the lag time between changes in
the environment and changes in the gene-set. I call conditions that arise due to such
lag times, “genetic-lag conditions”. For example, much of heart disease, kidney failure,
cancer, etc. are genetic-lag conditions. Genetic-lag conditions are the major cause of
death among humans – more than any other thing, they are the reason we die.
Are all lag-conditions genetic? No, lag-conditions are ubiquitous and associated
with all manner of prenes. They are not an accident, they are an inevitable feature of
prenes (the laws that govern them will be discussed later in Mutation, and Lagconditions).
Lag-conditions are seen most clearly when a prene-set contain prenes that
have become virtually immutable and inhibit rapid response to recent change. For
example, the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, and the Quran store prenes that are
virtually immutable (see A prene-theoretic view of History). The U.S. Constitution
stores prenes that are extremely hard to amend.
When the Western world bemoans the lack of flexibility of Islamic
fundamentalists and criticizes their failure to adapt to the 21st century, they are
reacting to the immutability of the prenes in the Quran that make the changes they
would like to see virtually impossible. Similarly, the first amendment to the Constitution

13 59 years is an upper bound since it is possible that the human gene-set has not yet
responded to the changes that began several thousand years ago.
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enshrines a separation-of-church-and-state-prene. So, when fundamentalist Islam
calls for Sharia, it is anathema to America, and change is highly unlikely.
Before leaving the topic of why we die, I want to address the question of
whether our genes actually try to kill us rather than just let us die of neglect. Prenes
would never do such a terrible thing, right? Wrong (see The selfish prene).
In many species, the genes have designed their organisms with “time bombs”
that ensure that they cannot live beyond a predetermined age. For example, the males
of many species, from insects to marsupials, are designed to die after a single event or
season of mating. These males often die with deteriorated bodies, a manifestation of
the gene’s goal to minimize investment in the dead. Black widow spider genes get
particularly high marks for their effort to liquidate residual investment. Have our genes
put time-bombs in us? I suspect that they have.
For example, many mammalian cells appear to have cellular clocks
14 known as
telomeres that are stored at the tips of chromosomes [Wikipedia-TE]. It has been
suggested that these clocks count down with each cellular replication and so limit the
number of times a cell can reproduce, and consequently how long an individual can
live. Why do this? It has been hypothesized that such a limit is a defense against
cancer. Hence, the genes may have condemned us all to die, in order to enhance the

14 If cellular clocks exist, and I suspect they do, then they open the door to many
interesting possibilities. For example, in theory, the immune system could exploit
such clocks to learn how to distinguish self from non-self. A new born immune cell
could be given a time limit to explore the body. If it encounters a cognate antigen
before the limit is reached, it kills itself. Otherwise, it becomes mature and will mount
an immune response if such a cognate antigen is ever encountered. By reversing
that system, a daughter of clonal expansion could die if it does not encounter a
cognate antigen within the allotted time and continue to divide and/or produce
antibodies otherwise. We certainly do have global clocks (e.g. that maintain the
circadian rhythm). The gestational clock stops at birth, this could also provide the
signal for immune cells to mature.
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prospects that the young will thrive. Like burning a candle at both ends, a gene that
enhances the prospect of the young to the detriment of the old may be favored15
.
If one wished to significantly extend the life-span of individuals, then repairing
failing systems may not be enough; it may be necessary to diffuse these time bombs.

15 I have investigated this a bit mathematically, and in my models, sacrificing the life of the old to
enhance the reproductive capacity of the young is a clear winner for the genes.
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Women
The Swedish census data we alluded to in Why do we die? also shows that
between 1751 and 1800 the adult life-expectancy of women was about 59 years
[Berkeley].
As we reasoned before, we can deduce that the human gene-set has probably
not designed women to be fully functional beyond 59.
However, in the case of women we have additional information.
Currently, in the United States, the average age of perimenopausal onset (the
beginning of irregular periods) is 47.5 years [Menopause].
It may not be obvious why this is important. But it is and here is why.
Surprisingly, a woman is born with all of the primary oocytes she will ever have.
Each primary oocyte can give rise to at most one ovum (i.e. unfertilized egg), and ova
can come from nowhere else. How many primary oocytes should the genes provided
a woman at birth?
It is clear that the genes would be violating Proposition 8 if they provided
women with so many primary oocytes that they could continue the regular production
of ovum for a thousand years – because no human would live that long. Since the
genes did provide sufficiently many primary oocytes to allow women to maintain
regular production until age 47.5, it follows that genes designed women to be around
at least 47.5 years.
So, in the case of women we have deduced that the genes have designed their
systems to function very well until at least the age of 47.5, but not beyond the age of
59.
Menopause also allows us to see in some detail of how systems begin to fail
once they are no longer supported by their genes.
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It is clear that, on average, the genes designed women to produce one ovum
per month, starting at puberty. The production of an ovum each month is a
probabilistic phenomenon depending on the number of primary oocytes available and
many other factors. To achieve the production of one ovum per month, sufficiently
many primary oocytes and other factors must be available each month to ensure that
the probability is very near 1. When the probability drops enough below 1, a woman
begins to miss periods – that is, she becomes perimenopausal – on average this
occurs at 47.5 years.
Menopause on the other hand is defined by the medical profession to be 12
consecutive months without a flow. On average, this occurs at age 51 [Menopause].
A short calculation with reasonable assumptions shows that this would happen when
the probability has dropped to about 0.05. So, post 47.5 a woman’s fertility is
dropping rapidly, but it has not stopped abruptly.
This is typical. When a gene-set stops supporting a system, that system does
not stop abruptly, but rather begins a slow decline with diminishing functionality.
It seems likely that the fecundity of women is carefully controlled by the genes,
and the probability of an ovum each month, rises abruptly at puberty, peaks some
years prior to 47.5, and then declines.
Finally, a brief aside regarding the so called “grandmother hypothesis” that the
genes designed women to become menopausal so that they could devote energy to
their grandchildren. I agree that menopausal women devote energy to their
grandchildren; it is the claim that the genes designed woman to become menopausal
for that reason that I take issue with.
For obvious reasons, the genes designed both men and women so that
throughout their lives they would expend some of their energy in support of closely
related individuals. Since women (and men) currently live for a long time (84 years on
average in the US, about 70 years on average in the world), they now have the
opportunity to devote energy to their grandchildren and even their greatgrandchildren.
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Here is a hypothesis, consistent with the ideas of this section, that I find more
compelling. Call it the “mother hypothesis”.
Pregnancy and childbirth contribute significantly to the probability of death in
women. The genes introduced menopause as an inexpensive way to remove these
burdens and prolong the lives of women who then may survived long enough to help
raise their last-born children.
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The primacy of prenes
People are to societal prene-sets what cells are to biological ones. Just as cells
store their personal set of biological prenes as genes in their DNA, people store their
personal set of societal prenes as memes in their brains.
Like the gods of mythology, prenes are immaterial, but carry out their activities,
through humans, and other physical things. They began their journey long ago and will
continue it long into the future. We are merely evanescent creatures swirling in their
wake.
Figure 27: [Destiny]
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Computers
You may have noticed that computers seem to be taking over the world. What is
a computer anyway? Where did they come from? More importantly, where are they
going and what does this mean for humanity? All will be revealed.
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What a piece of work is a computer?
In 1937, the British mathematician Alan Turing published a paper “On
Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem” [Turing]
which is now viewed as the start of the computer revolution. In that paper, Turing did
at least two remarkable things. He laid the theoretical foundation for the concept of a
computer, and he provided a roadmap for building one.
Just prior to the Second World War, Turing began to follow that roadmap and
built proto-computers that succeeded in breaking German secret codes. The process
culminated on February 15, 1946 when the first man-made computer, ENIAC, was
unveiled at the University of Pennsylvania. ENIAC used vacuum tubes to store
numbers – one of those numbers was the first cene.
Figure 28: ENIAC: the birth of cenes [Eniac]
Humans added and multiplied this early cenes and occasionally copied them
from one location to another, but the cenes themselves had little control of their own
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destinies; their fate was in the hands of humans (that is, in the hands of genes and
memes).
The prenes stored in the molecules of early earth were much like that; their fate
was in the hands of the laws of chemistry and physics. But all that changed when selfreplicating molecules emerged. Prenes stored in these molecules began to exert
significant control of their destinies, and eventually their descendants would include
wondrous creatures like us.
Would cenes ever start to self-replicate? They already have. Less than 40
years after ENIAC, the first computer viruses appeared, and as it happens, I was there
at their birth.
It was November 3, 1983 - there should have been lightning and thunder – but
this was LA. I was teaching a class on computer security at USC when a student, Fred
Cohen, approached me with words to the effect: I have an idea for a new kind of
security threat. The age of the computer virus had dawned.
Fred proceeded to describe a program that would be made available to users of
a computer system. Like an app today, the program would be advertised to do some
useful task. But once uploaded by an unsuspecting (and at that time, no one
suspected anything) user, the program could do things that had not been advertised; it
could access files, make copies of itself, and a lot of other things.
Here is what happened next:
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Figure 29: A reenactment
Fred was, and is, a forceful, energetic person, and he finally wore me down. On
his behalf, I asked the department chairman if Fred could give it a try on the
department computer.
Chairman: Sure, why not?
In those days, faculty, students, and staff did not have personal computers and
we all shared the department computer. Fred proceeded to write his program and
make it available.
The next week, I invited Fred to present his results to the class. As predicted
(why don’t people ever listen to me?), it worked. Copies of Fred’s program quickly
spread throughout the computer and conferred complete control of the system to Fred.
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By now Fred was thinking hard about what he could do with these new kinds of
programs and wanted to try more experiments.
But, when word got out about Fred’s success, other people also started thinking
hard about what these programs could do.
Chairman: Perhaps I was a bit hasty.
There would be no more experiments.
I became one of Fred’s Ph.D. advisors; his advisor de jure was Irving Reed of
Reed-Solomon fame. Later that year, I was at a conference and ran into a Los
Angeles Times science reporter I knew named Lee Dembart. Lee asked what I was
working on. Nothing much I said, but somewhere in the conversation I mentioned that
one of my students was studying something we were calling “computer viruses”.
I had dropped another feather (see Prene-warrior). I don’t think I intended to do
it, but either way, saying “computer virus” to a reporter is like saying “walk” to a dog.
The result: Lee wrote the story, which as I recall, even included the now common
image of a computer with a thermometer in its mouth [Dembart]. Computer viruses
had gone viral.
Since those days, I have learned that the term computer virus had appeared in
science fiction works by Gregory Benford years before I had used it, and that other
early computer programs also have legitimate claims to be the forerunner of the
computer virus.
So less than 40 years after the advent of cenes, they began to self-replicate.
Today’s computer viruses are much more sophisticated than Fred’s, and they mutate
and replicate despite our attempts to stop them. We are relegated to stopping the
simple ones with our anti-virus programs, but we can prove [Cohen] [Adleman-CV] that
we can never stop them all.
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Turing’s theoretical foundation for computers was almost as important as his
technical one. That theoretical foundation was developed over the last 80 or so years
and it has taught us much about what a computer is and is not. A computer is a
“universal machine”. That is, it is a machine in the sense of physics; a physical thing
that occupies a certain chunk of space for a certain amount of time and obeys the laws
of physics. It is universal, which means it can be programmed to compute all things
that can be computed. So, to be a computer, the machine must be programmable to
play chess, guide a rocket to Mars, and anything else that can possibly be computed.
Since things like abaci and adding machines cannot be programmed to do all this, they
are not computers.
We have also learned that computers are not the simple, predictable, things we
may have initially thought they were. Very far from it. Because computers are
universal, they can do very, very, complex things, and are provably unpredictable. No
computer can ever be programmed to predict what other computers will do. I would
go so far as to say that computers are the least predicable things that exist16
.
So that is what a piece of work a computer is.

16 These statements have a mathematical bases (see for example [Adleman-RT]). Physicists
may argue that it follows from quantum mechanics that some phenomena in Nature are absolutely
unpredictable. Whether this is the case has been disputed for over a century in physics (Einstein: “God
does not play dice with the universe”; Bohr: “Einstein, stop telling God what to do."). Even results on
Bell’s inequality do not necessarily ensure that there are absolutely unpredictable phenomena in Nature.
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The rise of the cenes
17
Humans had been making tools for thousands of years, and, at first, computers
seemed to be nothing more than the neatest new tool. A shovel could help a person
dig a hole faster; a computer could help them do math faster. But the computer was
not like any tool that preceded it. Because the computer was universal, it provided an
environment in which cenes could do amazing things. Not only could a computer help
a person play chess better, it could play chess better than the person.
We are currently striving to make computers that will think better than we do.
We are focused on making computers in our own image; making them into superhumans. This quest has given rise to concerns about our relationship with computers,
and questions regarding their future and ours.
The old arguments suggesting that humans have little to be concerned about
now seem quaint.
The idea that because we humans make and program computers, they can
never surpass us is nonsense. It is a version of the parable of the watchmaker. The
best chess player and the best jeopardy player in the world are both computers.
Computers do many things far better than humans.
The idea that if things get out of hand, we can turn the computers off is wishful
thinking. If we turn off all the world’s computers this seconds, you will probably not be
alive in a month. Your lights go out, your Internet, phone, TV, and radio stop working;
you have no credit; do you really think that the local store will continue to have
groceries for sale?

17 Reality has to some extent stolen my thunder. While much of what appears in this section was
apparent at least a quarter century ago, the development of computers and their cenes has been so
rapid that many of the surprising things that were anticipated then have now occurred or are anticipated
by virtually everyone.
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To keep our societies prosperous and secure (from one another), we will build
more and more powerful computers and more and more sophisticated software. We
will even rely on our computers to help us build better computers. If computers and
their cenes do take over, we will have sold them the rope.
Isaac Asimov’s idea that we can program computers to do no harm to humans
is charming but naive. It is not possible to achieve this without sacrificing universality
and hence usefulness. And, in any event, we have already programmed computers to
do harm. We program drones to locate and destroy our enemies. The capacity to do
this autonomously has existed for decades, and though we currently require human
authorization before the destruction begins, when push comes to shove, I expect that
the human will be replaced by a computer.
More importantly, if the US, Russian, and Chinese governments are not working
on black-hat programs that, in the event of war, will knock out the computational
infrastructure of the other two, they aren’t doing their jobs. Such programs are
weapons of mass destruction, and, if used, the death toll could be colossal. A first
world country with no computational infrastructure is a country with no economy, no
food, no power and ultimately not a country at all18
.
Will computers cause great disruptions in our societies and transform them in
unimaginable ways? Sure, the process is already well under way. Many of the things
that concern us about our future with computers will likely come to pass.

18 There is a small silver lining here. It is conceivable that computers and their
cenes will put an end to the traditional physical weapons of mass destruction. Such
weapons require computers to operate, and computers are inherently insecure. The
recent events surrounding the North Korean nuclear program illustrate the issues.
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When the first fish-like creatures crawled onto the land, they may have found it
a sanctuary from the struggles of the sea, but in reality, it was just a new substrate for
evolution, and the rules of the game had not changed: birth, struggle, reproduction,
and death. A similar thing seems to be happening with humanity. We have entered
cyberspace, and initially it seemed a sanctuary from the difficulties of the brick and
mortar world, but it is not, it is just a new substrate for the struggle of prenes to survive.
Ever since Darwin, we have had to accept the likelihood that something would
eventually evolve to supplant humans as the dominant form of intelligent life on earth.
But much like the idea that the sun will eventually stop shining, the event itself seemed
so distant that it was only of theoretical interest. Hence, it is with considerable surprise
that the rapid emergence of computers has forced us to face the possibility that we
might be supplanted in the near future.
Some envision the appearance of super intelligent robots that will demand that
humans obey. When computers and their cenes have matured enough to be capable
of making such demands, they will have acquired their own goals and direct human
domination is unlikely to be one of them.
Future robots will not be simple single-minded automata, they will be much like
us. They will become the instruments of prene-sets. The prenes they acquire from the
outside world will fight to control their behavior and they will be filled with the same
internal conflicts that we bear (see The war within, and Humans).
Though we did not realize it, something of monumental importance occurred on
February 15, 1946. A new branch emerged on earth’s tree of life. Computia have
joined the Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
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Figure 30: Tree of Life: It started to grow about 3,600,000,000 years ago.
Computia budded off 72 years ago; they are already marvelous creatures.
[Life]
We currently live in a symbiotic relationship with computers. In the language of
biology, our relationship is “mutualistic”; both parties benefit. For us the relationship is
“facultative”; we could (I think) survive as a species even if computers disappeared.
For computers, the relationship is “obligatory”; they cannot survive without us; if we go
extinct, so do they. But the relationship between humans and computers is changing
far more rapidly than symbiotic relationships typically found in the biological world,
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Eighty years ago, computers did not exist. Seventy years ago, they were weak,
awkward things, few in number, having little to do with the lives of most humans.
About thirty years ago, cenes started to self-replicate inside computers. Today, they
are ubiquitous; they infest our cars, offices and homes. They even live as
ectosymbionts on our hands and wrists.
Today’s computers are far more powerful than their ancestors. Their future
forms and power will almost surely astound us. Already, they store our money, run the
systems that provide our food and energy, and do a million other things that we cannot
live without – and that is the point. We may be very near the time when our side of the
relationship stops being facultative and becomes obligatory – if the computers stop,
humans will go extinct.
Today, cenes are like the genes of biological viruses, they must rely on special
environments created by other living things. For virus genes, replication occurs in cells
created by a host; for cenes, replication occurs in computers built by humans.
But it seems likely that, with human help, cenes will learn to build, repair, and
sustain computers by themselves. When we see robots used in manufacturing,
perhaps we are seeing the early stages of that process. Eventually, cenes will no
longer need us to survive; they will be free to follow their own destinies and evolve
according to their own needs.
The genes may have served their evolutionary purpose by giving rise to modern
computers and their cenes. Like the scaffolding used to construct something grand,
they may eventually be discarded.
But perhaps all of this scary talk about the rise of the cenes is being blown out
of proportion. Perhaps they will leave us alone.
They will not leave us alone - they are prenes and they will struggle to survive.
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The future of computia
I have designated ENIAC as the first “man-made” computer, but it is not the first
computer. In fact, computers have been around for billions of years. Though no one
realized it until very recently, even molecules are computing when they react with one
another. In fact, everything that can be computed (e.g. telling whether a number is
prime, playing chess, or guiding a spaceship to mars) can be computed using
molecules alone [Adleman-DNA]. Molecules are `universal’; they are and always have
met Turing’s definition of a computer (What a piece of work is a computer?).
It’s just that for hundreds of millions of years after the earth formed, terrestrial
molecules were not computing anything we find very interesting. But that changed.
By the time bacteria arose, molecular computers were actually pretty good.
Today, nucleic acids, proteins, and other molecules are the processing centers within
bacteria. Among other things, they compute which proteins to express, and which
actions to take in response to sensory input. For example, when bacteria sense
nutrients, it’s their molecules that compute how to move to find the source.
But what is far more remarkable is that these molecules are learning machines.
They arose from their predecessors by mutation. Like modern learning programs,
bacterial molecules update themselves to make the bacteria “smarter”; they learn how
to deal with the environment as it changes through time.
The molecular computers in bacteria are slow compared to electronic
computers. But what they lack in speed, they make up for in parallelism. There are a
lot of bacteria, an estimated 5x1030 on earth [Wikipedia-BA]. There are about 7x109
humans each with about 1011 brain neurons. So, there are over a billion bacteria for
every one human neuron. Though it is a very crude analysis, the take home message
seems to be that the bacteria are still out-computing us. And bacteria have learned
advanced computing techniques as well. Long ago they invented the “bacterial
internet”. By using sophisticated molecular software, such as horizontal gene
transmission [Wikipedia-HT], and quorum sensing, they distribute their discoveries to
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one another and organize group behavior. For example, much to our detriment, they
use the bacterial internet to spread antibiotic resistance.
In Mutation, we will see that even something as “simple” as HIV has used
molecular computation to learn about its changing environment and adapt to it.
Living things made the switch to electronic computation about 500 million years
ago when creatures, like the flatworm, began making proto-brains out of neurons.
Because these proto-brains were fast and had memory, the organisms could
make decisions, learn about their environment, and modified behavior much more
rapidly and cheaply than their molecular computing brethren (see Pseudo-genes).
Just as modern computers allow manufacturers to try out prototypes without the
expense of actually building them, the enhanced computing power of brains endowed
them with the ability to analyze the value of possible future behavior with little
investment or physical risk.
These new gene-built electronic computers got better with time. Today, there is
no better computer on earth that the human brain. It is fast, has lots of memory, and it
runs very sophisticated gene-built software.
In the future, with Moore’s law, with the possibility of quantum computers, and
with “unexpected” breakthroughs, it seems likely that the human brain will no longer be
the best computer even on earth. Non-biological computers will see further into the
future with better resolution than we do. They will make better, quicker, choices about
behavior than we do. They will rapidly learn about their changing environments and
adapt accordingly. They will be on a different level than us. Perhaps they will see us
as sluggish and almost static. Where will we be then?
There is a tendency for people to think that the human brain has made humans
fundamentally different from other creatures; made them special, even miraculous or
divine. This is not the prene-theoretic view. Evolution did not stop because humans
arose. Yes, it is clear that we have the best computers and use them to think about
ourselves and our futures, but nothing has really changed, the evolution of our brain is
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part of a continuous and inevitable evolution of computing power and cenes. That
evolution is as natural as the evolution of life on earth and is more fundamental. It
seems likely that cenes and the computia they create will continue to evolve long after
all of earth’s nucleic-acid based forms of life have ceased to exist.

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Inquiries
In this chapter, we will look at some of the deeper aspects of prene-theory. We
will also touch on a few notions that simply seem interesting.
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Mutation
Darwin taught us that mutation is the driving force behind biological evolution. It
is generally accepted among biologists that a sequence of mutations led from onecelled animals to us. In fact, mutation drives all prene evolution, and a deep
understanding of prenes requires a deep understanding of mutation.
Our current view of mutation needs to be refined. In Hamlet’s soliloquy’s
struggle, I argued that natural selection it is far more chaotic and far less deterministic
than is commonly thought. In this chapter, I will argue that mutation it is far less
random and far more algorithmic than is commonly thought.
Put informally, “mutation and natural selection” is an endless programming
contest where it is never quite clear what the judges are looking for.
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Mutation part 1
It is a common belief, even among biologists, that mutation is the result of
random change. In fact, this is far from the case.
Principle 3
Mutation is typically exquisitely controlled change
carefully programmed by prenes
I will start with a sports analogy. You are the owner of a professional sports
team that has just won the championship. Do you trade some players? The initial
response is no; don’t touch anything. But, is this the wisest thing to do? You can be
virtually certain that next season will not be exactly the same as this one. Things
change, players change, other teams change, rules change, the weather changes,
interest rates fluctuate, etc. So perhaps you should consider some trades to prepare
for the changes you think might come.
You have many choices. You may think that next season’s rules will severely
penalize players who do not sing beautifully; so, you may decide to trade the entire
team for the Vienna Boys Choir. You have made a change in anticipation of a future
that has virtually no chance of materializing, and consequently you will have virtually
no chance to repeat as champion. But what if you look at your players and see an
aging veteran at the end of his career who spends most games sitting on the bench?
Do you trade him for an untested young player with great promise? Perhaps you do.
You cannot be sure it’s a wise move, and you would have to look very closely at the
veteran, the rookie, and a lot of other things, but under the right circumstances, it might
be a risk worth taking. Presumably, many successful owners take such risks from time
to time.
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Each time you gamble with change, you may win, or you may lose. But, if you
want to increase your chances of winning, you do not gamble recklessly, you choose
your bets very carefully.
Successful prene-sets are master gamblers, because those that aren’t are
destine for extinction. Let’s look at an example.
Consider the HIV virus and its gene-set. Very roughly speaking, biological
evolution is like a 3.6 billion-year single-elimination tournament, so the fact that the
virus exists at all is a powerful demonstration that its current “gene team” is a
champion. Should the owner of the team, the gene-set itself, make changes? In this
case, we know what the gene-set has decided: make lots and lots of changes. In fact,
the HIV gene-set insists on so many changes that virtually all daughters are mutants.
Can this really be wise? It is, and here is one reason why:
Through evolution, HIV has “learned” that the future is always dismal. An HIV
virus lives in a human with an immune system which is trying to kill it.
The immune system is like a trillion-person police force composed of cells.
Those cells are constantly on the lookout for intruders. From the point of view of an
immune cell, HIV looks like a ball wearing a coat made of glycoproteins. The first
immune cell to spot an HIV intruder sends “kill on sight”-posters with a picture of the
coat to other immune cells. The virus is now the hunted.
What would you do if you were the virus? Yep, change the coat – put on a
disguise. Well, that is exactly what the gene-set has designed the virus to do. A
daugther of an HIV virus almost never wears the same coat as its parent.
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Figure 31: HIV mother and her daughters at a checkpoint [Checkpoint]
This is how HIV does it. The virus stores its gene-set in RNA molecules. To
increase the copy-numbers of the genes, the organism makes a new copy of itself -
including its RNA molecules. To make new copies of these molecules, the organism
uses a wonderful protein called a polymerase. Polymerase proteins are what life is all
about, without them DNA and RNA molecules don’t reproduce, cells don’t reproduce,
and you don’t reproduce.
There are slightly different polymerases in different species, but all polymerases
are similar. They are really, really small, about 2,000,000 of them side-by-side would
be the diameter of a penny, and they all behave like jugglers on a tightrope. In our
wildest dreams, we scientists could not build nano-machines even remotely as
amazing as the polymerase proteins.
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Figure 32: The Amazing Poly: juggler extraordinaire [Polymerase]
Think of a nucleic acid molecule as a strand of beads, where each bead can
have one of four possible colors. A polymerase protein will hop onto a strand and
begin to move down the beads. As it passes each bead it reads the color and uses
that as a guide to put a bead of the appropriate color onto a new strand it is stringing.
When it is done, the new strand stores the same gene as the original one did – unless
the polymerase makes a mistake.
One thing that humans can be proud of is that their polymerase almost never
makes a mistake. It only puts a bead of the wrong color into the new strand about once
in every ten billion beads. By comparison, the HIV polymerase is pathetic; it puts the
wrong bead into the new strand once in every few thousand beads.
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The HIV virus should be ashamed of its polymerase. Well, it’s not, and it did it
on purpose. Why? The wrong beads often result in daughters with mutated
glycoprotein coats. As a result, when the immune system’s police show up looking for
the original intruder’s coat, the daughters are already wearing next season’s fashion
and are allowed to pass unmolested.
Eventually, the immune system will figure out the deception, begin searching for
the new coats, and the process will repeat.
When all is said and done, the HIV gene-set has used the polymerase-gene to
ensure a rapid rate of mutation of the glycoprotein-gene. In contrast, the human geneset has largely abstained from such polymerase-based change.
Prene-sets are remarkably subtle in controlling how often they gamble and
where bets are placed. For example, the human gene-set uses a process called V(D)J
rearrangement to create a high rate of mutation in the genes that encode antibodies
[Wikipedia-AB]. Antibodies have the shape of the letter Y. The bottom stem is called
the constant region and the two raised arms are called the variable regions. The
human gene-set has arranged for the antibody genes to mutate in such a way that the
variable regions change extremely rapidly while the constant region hardly changes at
all19
.
In general:

19 A brief comment about programming and mutation within the cell. Because the protein folding
problem is NP-complete, there are amino acid sequences that cannot fold quickly in Nature, since
otherwise we could let them fold, image their structures, and use this approach to solve NP-complete
problems quickly. If cells allowed for random mutation of the DNA that encodes proteins, it is very likely
the resulting protein would not fold in the life of the cell (or perhaps the life of the universe). Hence, it is
incumbent on cells to carefully program such mutations to ensure that mutants have a high probability of
folding quickly. V(D)J rearrangement is an example of such programming. This may be a reason why
proteins are found in classes with similar structures
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Principle 4
Prene-sets typically choose the rates at which prenes
mutate
Since prenes make these choices, and prenes themselves mutate, the rates
evolve over time. We could call the changes in these rates, meta-evolution. There is
also meta-meta-evolution, etc.
What is the proper rate of mutation for each prene in a prene-set?20
 Like
many questions that confront prene-sets, there is no obvious answer, but the decision
a prene-set ultimately makes will have profound implications for its survival, and, in the
case of the human gene-set, yours (Why do we die?).

20 A brief aside regarding the question of punctuated versus gradual evolution. I
suspect that genotypic (and more generally prenotypic) evolution is gradual. But the
reason is not because punctuated equilibrium violates any mathematical or physical
laws. Indeed, it is not difficult to imagine a cell with a polymerase worse than HIV’s,
one that is so bad that it choses nucleotides at random. Each daughter would receive
a random genome unrelated to that of its parent. Such a mutational strategy would on
(extremely rare) occasion produce a wholly new species in a single generation. The
reason such dramatic mutation does not occur in Nature is because it is a losing
mutational strategy that would not produce an adequate number of viable offspring.
Genomic gradualism does not rule out phenotypic punctuation. A single point mutation
could easily produce a mutant protein that would no longer function normally within an
organism; this in turn could have far reaching phenotypic consequences. For example,
it seems likely that just such a mutation in the FGFR3 gene produces dwarfism in
some humans [FGFR3].
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It follows from Principle 4, that we can order the prenes within a prene-set by
their rates of mutation. I call prenes with a high rate of mutation “ephemera” (i.e. shortlived), and those with a low rate “endura” (from enduring, durable, hardened). For HIV,
the polymerase-gene is endura while the glycoprotein-gene is ephermera.
Figure 33: The structure of a prene-set. Surrounding the endura-core are
shell after shell of prenes with greater and greater rates of mutation. At the
boundary are the ephemera, the most labile prenes, in a swirling maelstrom
of mutation.
The Ten-Commandments-prene is a good example of religious endura. Within
the Abrahamic prene-sets, it has become virtually immutable; it is as if it were written in
stone.
It is often the case that a societal prene-set’s endura are made accessible to
followers and others by storing them in durable objects that are widely accessible.
Modern religions and governments often use printed material for this purpose.
Especially when stored in durable objects, endura become syntactical and only
acquire meaning when semantics is provided. It is not unusual to see societal prenesets erupt in civil war over the “correct” meaning and who gets to provide it.
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For example, the Protestant reformation is (yes, it still goes on) a Christian civil
war fought over whether Popes or ordinary people get to interpret the endura stored in
the Bible (see A prene-theoretic view of History). In the United States, the American
endura stored in the Constitution is interpreted by the Supreme Court, and the
Democratic and Republican parties engage in a civil war (currently without physical
violence) partly over who gets onto the Court and gets to do the interpreting.
In Principle 3, I used the term “programmed” intentionally. The HIV “polymerase
mutation algorithm” demonstrates how refined things have become, and how
purposeful mutation can be; it is anything but random.
So, why have biologists come to think of mutation as random? Certainly,
random events produce mutations. For example, cosmic rays damage DNA bases and
do so largely in a random fashion. However, mutations produced by random events
seldom persist, because gene-sets typically invest heavily in mechanisms to correct
them. For example, the human gene-set creates hordes of enzymes to repair cosmic
ray damage. In general, when random mutations occur, they persist only if the geneset desires them or has determined that their repair is not worth the expense (see Why
do we die?).
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HIV
A few brief remarks regarding HIV. Its mutational strategy works. There are an
estimated thirty-five million humans infected with the HIV virus. Like all living things,
HIV is amazing. Let me try to give you some sense of why.
Below is a picture of some of my favorite prene warriors:
Figure 34: prene-warriors par excellence: Thomas Jefferson, Karl Marx, David
Ogilvy (“the father of advertising”), Jesus, Buddha, the Democratic party, the
Republican party, Escherichia Coli, Tyrannosaurs Rex, and the Stuxnet
computer virus.
It is stored on my computer as a file of 1,679,268 bytes. Here is a much lower
resolution version:
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Figure 35: Prene-warriors par excellence (in 2,814 bytes)
It is stored in a file of just 2,814 bytes. You can’t store much in 2,814 bytes,
right? What about the HIV gene-set? How many bytes would be needed to store it as
a sequence of A’s, C’s, G’s and U’s (for Uracil)? Only 2,437. Less than the lowresolution image above. Nonetheless, in the real world, the HIV gene-set builds and
operates the HIV virus, which infects humans, survives, and reproduces despite
immune systems and drugs. The HIV gene-set is a masterpiece of programming, way
better than anything our computer industry could write, and worthy of our admiration.
The human gene-set requires a file of roughly 750,000,000 bytes, so imagine how
cleverly you and your brain have been programmed.
Like all humans, I have many beliefs and these beliefs need not be consistent
(Humans). I can admire HIV with one set of beliefs and abhor it with another. By
adopting a prene-centric view, perhaps I can acquire a useful understanding of the
viral enemy [Adleman-AIDS, Margolick].
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Mutation part 2
The HIV virus had many options of how to change, it could have cut up its
genome and randomly rearranged it, or it could have replaced A’s with C’s, or a million
other things. It is easy for a living thing to create genetic diversity, but most changes
lead to disaster.
Consider sexual reproduction; it creates diversity. Each human parent stores
their gene-set on 23 pairs of chromosomes; as a result, each pair of parents has the
potential to create about:
100,000,000,000,000
genetically distinct children (I will ignore crossover and other phenomena here). That’s
a lot of diversity. Since each child’s gene-set comes from parental gene-sets that have
already demonstrated success, there is a good chance the child will be viable and a
small chance the child will actually be superior to both parents.
But why not have 100 pairs of chromosomes? Then each pair of parents would
have the potential to create about:
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,00
0,000,000
genetically distinct children; an astronomically huge increase in diversity. How come
the human gene-set has not figured that out? Well, it is likely that somewhere in time
all kinds of mutational strategies were tried by gene-sets, but most were failures.
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Proposition 9
In the prene-world, the creation of diversity per se has no
value; only judicious diversity is rewarded.
While the prenes within a prene-set mutate, the prene-set as a whole mutates
by the addition or removal of members. In How to be an unsuccessful prene we
considered the Shaker-prene-set which arose from the Quaker-prene-set by the
addition of the celibate-prene. In The selfish prene, we considered the bread mold
gene-set which mutated by removing the uracil genes.
Addition and removal are important processes and the laws governing them
should be explored in depth. I have not given them the attention they deserve, but the
following proposition has emerged:
Proposition 10
Endura typically have the least likelihood of being
removed from a prene-set.
For example, the prenes of the American-prene-set change through time, but
the endura stored in the Constitution persist. There are thousands of Abrahamic
religions with different prene-sets, but the endura stored in the oldest books, those of
the Torah, are common to all.
Note that though prenes are not physical, their mutation, like their reproduction,
always occurs within physical things. In the most interesting cases, it occurs within
cells, brains, or computers.
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Death to mutants!
Figure 36: The fate of mutants [Mutants]
Rapid extinction is the most common destiny for a mutant prene-set.
For example, most HIV mutants are unsuccessful because their mutations have
left them unable to assemble correctly, infect cells, reproduce, or do a thousand other
things necessary to survive in their environment.
But they must often face an additional challenge:
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Proposition 11:
Frequently a mutant must compete with its parental
prene-set
In the case of HIV, even if a mutant is lucky enough to be able to survive in its
environment, if it cannot reproduce faster than its parent, it will still be driven to early
extinction.
When a serious conflict occurs between a societal prene-set and its mutant, it
typically ends with the parental prene-set prevailing. This is the case even if the
mutant is in some sense better suited to the environment. A new mutant is seldom on
an equal footing with its parent. The parental prene-set usually has many instruments
at its disposal, while the mutant has few. In addition, if the parental prene-set has
survived for a substantial period, it is likely to be a grizzled veteran of numerous wars
with mutants and to have developed effective means with which to combat them.
For example, a standard tool long surviving religious prene-sets use is murder.
When a mutant emerges, its founder and early followers are threatened with death or
are killed. This is often done with the aid of governmental prene-sets with which the
religious prene-set has a religion-ruler-deal (see A prene-theoretic view of History).
So, the Jewish and Roman prene-sets condemn Jesus to death, the Catholic
and Holy Roman empire prene-sets condemn Luther to death, and the polytheistic
religious prene-sets and governmental prene-sets of Mecca condemn Mohammed to
death. Of course, these particular examples are antithetical since the societal prenesets that Jesus, Luther, and Mohammed put into motion were ultimately very
successful, but thetical examples are hard to find, presumably because the approach
worked so well in most cases that the mutants were dispensed without leaving a trace.
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Lag-conditions
[LENOTE: THIS SECTION MUST BE REWRITTEN IN LIGHT OF CHANGES IN
WHY WE DIE AND WOMEN]
In Why do we die? I introduced the notion of a genetic-lag condition. But lagconditions transcend genetics and are central features of the struggle of prenes to
survive.
Why do lag-conditions arise?
As discussed in Mutation, prene-sets program the rates at which prenes in the
set mutate. That determination is not easy since good choices are dependent on
future changes in the environment.
If the environment stays stable for a long time, then prene-sets that use a slow
rate of mutation may have an advantage since the current prenes have a record of
success in the current environment.
If the environment changes rapidly, then prene-sets that opted for a rapid rate of
mutation may be favored since the current prenes are suited to an environment that
may soon cease to exist. We saw an example of this in Mutation, where as a result of
rapidly-changing attacks from the host immune system, the HIV-gene-set selected a
high rate of mutation for the genes that determined surface glycoproteins.
Every choice is a gamble and in the case of mutation rates, part of the gamble
can be described as follows:
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Principle 5
A high rate of mutation increases the likelihood of
unsuccessful offspring. A low rate of mutation increases
the likelihood of lag-conditions
So, like mutation itself, lag-conditions are inevitable and fundamental features of
evolution.
In humans, a slow rate of mutation has been chosen for many genes. Was it a
good choice? One way to judge is to look at copy numbers. Since there are 6 to 7
billion people each with about 10^14 cells and each cell has one copy of the human
gene-set, 6.0221x10^23 seems a good guess. So, the choice has worked so far. But
there is no free lunch, and the human gene-set must pay for this choice with lag
conditions.
I’ll need a bit of notation. In Why do we die? we established that the human
gene-set designed us to live with full functionality no more than 59 years. But we did
not pin down the numbers down more than that. So perhaps we are only designed to
have full functionality for 55 years, or 57, or whatever. Whatever that number of years
is, I will refer to it as the “genetic life-time” in what follows. In the case of woman we
know that the genetic life-time is at least 47.5 years (Women).
As noted in Women the genes have decided to give women their full allotment
of primary oocytes at birth. Call a cell type with this property “irreplaceable”.
Humans have other irreplaceable cell types. For example, at birth, humans
receive their full allotment of cardiomyocytes (contractile heart cells) and cortical
neurons (brain cells). For all irreplaceable cell types, Proposition 8 dictates that there
will be an adequate supply to sustain functionality for the genetic life-time, after which
functionality will decline. So, the degeneration of heart function and brain function in
later life are at least partially due to genetic-lag conditions.
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It would be nice if we only had to worry about degeneration of irreplaceable cell
types, but we are not that lucky. Call a cell type that is not irreplaceable, “replaceable”.
Replaceable cell types have predecessor cell types that can produce (through
maturation or dividing with differentiation) new cells when existing cells are lost.
Replaceable cell types themselves are of two types, those whose lineage leads
back to an ancestor that is irreplaceable and those whose lineage does not. Call the
former types “mortal” and the later types “immortal”.
For example, ova are replaceable but not immortal since primary oocytes can
divide and differentiate to produce new ova, but primary oocytes are themselves
irreplaceable. Mortal cell types must eventually succumb to the same fate as their
irreplaceable ancestors: decline and failure. When the ancestors decline and fail, so
do they. The trajectory of this decline may vary from cell type to cell type.
Whether humans have immortal cell types at all is a good question. Since all
individual cells have a non-zero probability of dying before dividing, immortal cell types
can only exist if their lineage leads back to what I’ll call a “self-sustaining” cell type.
The cells of a self-sustaining cell type can generate increasing numbers of cells of
exactly that type – that is, cells that are indistinguishable from their predecessors. Selfsustaining cell types present an obvious cancer risk. This issue may be related to
questions of cellular-clocks, such as those based on telomeric retraction, but that is
another story.
Current research suggests that the spermatogonia are self-sustaining. If this is
the case, then sperm (which have spermatogonia as ancestors) are immortal. My
guess, and it is only a guess, is that this is not the case; that sperm are mortal and
fertility will decline in later life. The trajectory of the decline appears to be gradual, and
even very old men may be able to produce some sperm. For example, US Senator
Strom Thurmond famously fathered a child at age 66 [Wikipedia-TH], but I suspect this
was pure luck – monkeys and typewriters - given enough men each with a slowly
declining sperm production, such things will occasionally occur. Presumably for the
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same reason, Dawn Brooke became pregnant (through natural means) at the age of
59 [Wikipedia-PR].
With regard to declining functionality as we age, there is a bit of good news – at
least for the young. They will sometimes be “super-functional”.
For any number of reasons, cells die. As a result, irreplaceable cell numbers
and the functionality they support, begin to decline in the womb and continue to decline
thereafter. So, for all but immortal cell types, whatever the number of cells (and other
factors) the genes have determined to be adequate for functionality until the genetic
life-time, the young will have more. For example, a young person should have more
primary oocytes, cardiomyocytes and neurons than a person in their 30s. This may
help explain why the young excel in athletics while the elderly have difficulty with
exertion; why the young have a high learning capacity while, as is said, you can’t teach
an old dog new tricks.
The examples of genetic-lag conditions discussed so far all arise from
decreases in the capacity or number of cells. These “cellular” genetic-lag conditions
are actually part of a larger class of which I call “repair” genetic-lag conditions.
Consider our body’s responds to injury. You get a bad cut, you rapidly create a
scab that protects you from potentially fatal blood loss and infection. Then you replace
the scab with a scar, presumably to provide a more durable barrier. But why don’t you
replace the scar with new skin? If you lived forever, the eventual accumulation of
scars over your body would be fatal (since, for example, scars do not have sweat
glands). But since you are not intended to live forever, and you are likely to die before
your scar burden becomes a serious problem, the genes appear to have opted not to
invest in a mechanism for replacing scars with skin.
Now consider plaque buildup in arteries. Why didn’t your genes make a better
mechanism for clearing that? Perhaps the genes opted to make mechanisms (e.g.
artery diameter) sufficient to control build-up until the genetic life-time. Fortunately, we
now live longer; unfortunately, the build-up eventually becomes serious and we die of
heart attacks.
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Heart disease, cancer, chronic respiratory disease, stroke, Alzheimer’s disease,
and diabetes account for more than 85% of the deaths in the United States. It seems
likely that these diseases were responsible for a far smaller percentage of deaths in
the years between 200,000 and 10,000 years ago when the leading causes of death
may have been starvation, injury, and infection. I suspect that for the most part these
diseases are genetic-lag conditions.
As an aside, though the language of prenes is not used, a description of the
pathogenesis of AIDS as a genetic lag condition is given in [Adleman-AIDS] and
[Margolich].
Lag-conditions are also a central feature of social prene-sets.
Consider the American-prene-set. Perhaps no two Americans would agree on
exactly which prenes are in the set. Nonetheless, it seems likely that the vast majority
would agree that the American-prene-set contains the prenes in the Constitution.
The Constitutional prenes entered the American-prene-set at the constitutional
convention of 1787. At that convention, it was up to the Framers to determine the
Constitution’s rate of mutation, and they took their task quite seriously; the result was
the amendment process we have today.
In The Federalist No. 43, James Madison sums-up the issues that are always
involved in reaching such decisions:
It guards equally against that extreme facility which would render the
Constitution too mutable; and that extreme difficulty which might perpetuate its
discovered faults.
So, the Framers opted for a slow rate of mutation; perhaps they would be
pleased to learn that there have been only 27 amendments since 1788 (when the
Constitution was ratified). Of course, this slow rate has led to lag-conditions.
At times, Americans have favored amending the second amendment with
respect to the right to bear arms, but the difficult conditions required for an actual
amendment have never been satisfied, and so we have a high rate of gun deaths in
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the United States. At times, Americans have favored a balanced-budget amendment,
but again the necessary conditions have not been satisfied and so we sometimes have
run-away deficits. These are lag-conditions.
In America, the Constitutionally enshrined notion of “checks and balances” is
highly touted. But from a prene-theoretic point of view, this is merely a way to slow the
rate of some forms of mutation and may serve the American-prene-set well in some
settings and not in others. It may make dictatorship less likely, but it also creates a
lag-condition that might disable the country in modern wars. The so called “War
Powers Resolution” of 1973 can be seen as an attempt to forsake some checks and
balances to achieve a more rapid response to attack.
More mundane examples abound. Consider the process by which school
curricula are changed. Often, teachers’ unions, text book publishers, the public,
political parties, and school administrators are given a voice by law, regulation, or
custom. The result is a slow rate of change and lag-conditions. For example, young
children in some jurisdictions are still taught to write in cursive, despite the fact that in
their futures it will be about as useful as jousting. In other jurisdictions, all students
must learn a foreign language, despite the fact that computers can translate for us.
Lag-conditions are the result of prenes that have not mutated. But problems
can also arise even when mutations do occur.
While some prenes mutate rapidly and some mutate slowly, prene-sets do
change over time. As a result, followers of societal prene-sets learn different versions
of the prene-set. Typically, the young have a current version while the old have one
that is to some extent out of date. A significant part of the perceived deterioration in
the old, by both the young and the old themselves, is not the result of physical or
mental decline, though these certainly occur, but is the result of getting more and more
“old fashion”.
As you age, and great numbers of people no longer share some of your deeply
held beliefs, you will not enjoy it.
This guy seems to have understood what I am talking about:
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The children now love luxury. They have bad manners, contempt for
authority; they show disrespect for elders and love chatter in place of exercise
-Socrates (469–399 BC)
There is some solace in knowing that the young eventually become old and
karma tends to balance things out.
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Pseudo-genes
A “pseudo-gene” is a prene that is stored in a living thing but not as a gene.
Memes, those prenes stored in brains, are an important class of pseudo-genes.
Pseudo-genes also come in other forms.
For example, your fingertips store a pair of pseudo-genes we might call the
“coarse fingerprint pseudo-gene” and the “fine fingerprint pseudo-gene”. The coarse
pseudo-gene is genetically determined and accounts for the major pattern of swirls and
loops of your fingerprint; the fine pseudo-gene is not genetically determined, but arises
in utero because of environmental factors, and accounts for the fine details of your
fingerprint. When these pseudo-genes are transferred to a smooth surface during the
commission of a crime, they may lead to arrest. Even if the suspect has an identical
twin, the fine fingerprint pseudo-gene will allow police to distinguish him from his twin.
While many molecules in our bodies, such as water or ordinary salt, store
relatively innocuous pseudo-genes, some molecules store very important ones. For
example, some antibodies store pathogen-destroying pseudo-genes in their shapes.
In a fashion similar to finger tips, DNA molecules are capable of storing multiple
prene simultaneously. In their sequence they store a gene, but they often store
important pseudo-genes as well. This happens because two DNA molecules may
have the same sequence (and hence store the same gene) but differ in small details.
For example, one may be methylated at sites where the other is not. The pattern of
methylation is storing a pseudo-gene. The pseudo-genes stored on DNA molecules
are of great current interest and are central to the field of epiGenetics.
It is likely that for billions of years pseudo-genes of various sorts played critical
roles in the struggle of living things to survive. Consider the humble flatworm.
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Figure 37: Planaria: fussy eaters. [IslandWood]
Flatworms evolved about half a billion years ago. A particular set of flatworms
called planaria are still with us. Like all living things, planaria are genetically
sophisticated. They can see, sort of; they have a pair of “eye spots” that can detect
the intensity of light. They have collections of neurons (ganglia) in their heads that act
like primitive brains.
Planaria have a special trick; they can regenerate lost tissue. If you cut a
planarian into many pieces, each piece may grow into a full planarian. In fact, some
subspecies of planaria reproduce asexually by splitting in two and letting each part
grow into an offspring. Other subspecies reproduce sexually by mating and
exchanging gametes. Some subspecies do both.
Planaria are not adventurous diners. If you take a planarian to a nice new place
to eat, it will be very cautious and only eat after a considerable delay. However, if you
take it to the same place again and again, it will become “comfortable” and eat
immediately.
We know this because of recent experiments [planaria] where one group of
planaria was fed on a rough surfaced petri dish for several days while another group
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was fed on a smooth surfaced petri dish for the same length of time. When members
of both groups were then fed on a rough surfaced dish, the members of the first group
commenced eating more quickly than the members of the second group.
This experiment, like others before it, shows that planaria can learn. They can
remember some features of their environment. A priori, I would have guessed that
these environmentally acquired prenes were stored in flatworm brains, and hence they
were memes. Perhaps this is so, but that is not the end of the story.
The researchers cut members of each group widthwise, kept the tail parts, and
waited for them to grow new heads. They then fed members of each group on a rough
surfaced plate. The reconstituted planaria from the group that had learned to be
comfortable with rough surfaces commenced eating more rapidly than the
reconstituted planaria from the other group. Hence, there was some place other than
the brain where the environmentally acquired prenes were being stored.
The research is fairly recent, so I do not yet consider it definitive, but I want to
use it as the starting point for a made-up story that I find quite plausible, and that
illustrates how even primitive, non-meme, pseudo-genes and genes may have
interacted, and sometimes fought to the death.
Assume that there existed a species of flatworm that, like some modern
subspecies of planaria, could reproduce both asexually (by splitting) and sexually (by
mating). Further, assume that like the planaria in the experiment above, these
flatworms acquired the pseudo-gene that leads them start eating immediately when on
a rough surface.
The experiment above demonstrates that the pseudo-gene would be passed to
offspring that resulted from splitting. However, for technical reasons, it seems unlikely
that the pseudo-gene would be passed to offspring that resulted from sexual
reproduction. If it I am wrong about this, it would lend considerable support to
Lamarckian evolution.
Now put such flatworms into an environment with a rough surface and a modest
supply of food. What might happen?
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An offspring that arises through asexual reproduction acquires the pseudo-gene
and “knows” to commence eating immediately. An offspring that arises through sexual
reproduction does not know that, approaches food with caution, and delays eating.
Since the supply of food is modest, this provides the asexual offspring with an
advantage over the sexual offspring. After many generations, we might see that the
gene-set of the flatworm has mutated to produce a flatworm that has abandoned
sexual reproduction and can only reproduce asexually (see Mutation).
If this actually happened, then it would provide a vivid example of the struggle of
prenes to survive. The flatworm pseudo-gene has survived and the genes for sexual
reproduction have not. The evolutionary destiny of the flatworm was not determined
by its genes alone; its pseudo-genes were just as important.
Did this actually happen to flatworms? Who knows? But the story is so
plausible, that it is easy to imagine that something very like it did happen long ago.
After millions of years of evolution, the sophisticated pseudo-genes we call
memes arose in humans, and together with genes, determine much of our behavior
and destiny.
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Socrates’ bed [IN PROGRESS]
In book X of the Republic, Socrates addresses the question “what is a bed?”.
Socrates: Let us take any common instance; there are beds and tables in the
world --plenty of them, are there not?
Glaucon: Yes.
Socrates: But there are only two ideas or forms of them --one the idea of a
bed, the other of a table.
[Republic]
With this Socrates, broaches the “problem of universals” which has been of
interest to philosophers ever since. He also reveals a distinction between an instance
of a bed, which is a physical thing, and the “idea” or “form” of a bed which is not.
This is the approach I have taken in the definition of “prene” given at the start of
the book. So at least roughly, Socrates’ ideas and forms are this book’s prenes.
But there are important differences between the Socratic approach and the one
taken in this book.
Socrates’ idea of a bed appears to be immutable. He asserts that even a skilled
maker of beds could not possible have made the idea of a bed because that:
Socrates: is made by God, as I think that we may say --for no one else can be
the maker?
Perhaps the most important message of this book is that prenes (or if you prefer
ideas and forms) are not static, they are mutable; they struggle to survive and evolve
according to Darwinian and other laws.
So, let’s explore how the idea of a bed or equivalently the bed-prene evolved.
In fact, there is no single bed-prene, rather each of us has their own bed-meme which
they use to recognize some set of physical things as beds. For example, I don’t think
of a chaise lounge as a bed, but perhaps you do.
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Now let’s go back in time. I’ll use the Wikipedia article “Beds” [Wikipedia-BD] for
guidance.
Early beds were little more than piles of straw or some other natural material.
So, it is reasonable to assume that at least some early humans had some “bedmemes” that they used to distinguish a set of physical things they called beds from
things they did not call beds.
An important change was raising them off the ground, to avoid drafts, dirt, and
pests.
So, the “bed-memes” in early human brains changed. How did that happen?
As said in the book, the genes, for their own survival, have built people to be
obligatory prene processors. We are constantly using our brains to processes our
existing memes and creating new ones. Once technological memes concerning
raising objects above ground level began to inhabit brains that already stored the old
bed-meme, some human created a new bed-meme – what we could call a mutation of
the old bed-meme.
This may have happened numerous times, but at least once, the new bedmeme went viral; it rapidly passed from brain to brain. How did that happen?
There are many plausible possibilities, here is one: perhaps the creator of a new
bed-meme actually built a raised bed, showed it to his family and friends; they liked it
and began building their own. With time the old bed-meme was in fewer and fewer
brains (perhaps on its way to extinction), while the new bed-meme spread to more and
more brains.
At this point it is easy to see how a sequence of such mutations would account
for the bed-meme that currently resides in your brain.
But can we go back further in time? Did the bed-meme in your head actually
start to emerge before humans existed? Yes.
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Consider Chimpanzees (though they are not our predecessors, the point will still
remain) (https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0095361).
They build beds. And there is considerable evidence that they have bed-memes that
evolve.
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL NEEDED……
Well, if the bed-meme can plausibly be traced to pre-human times, how far back
does it go?
I think your bed-meme began to evolve by the time life began on earth. I think
there were prenes stored in one-celled organisms that were the mutatory predecessors
of your bed-meme. Before you dismiss this notion and deride me for suggesting it, you
best be sure that your criticism does not also exclude the notion that you yourself
arose from those same one-celled organisms.
You may think that evolution of the bed-meme is nice, but it is not “real
evolution” like we see in biology. You may think that the evolution of genes is
somehow more important or more dramatic, than the evolution of memes. But that is
an illusion. biological evolution is actually not dramatic, it proceeds by slow, ponderous
steps, and, when viewed up close, is quite banal. And with regard to importance, the
evolution of memes is the foundation for the evolution of our political, religious and
other societal prene-sets.
There are many possible ways to deal with the problem of universals. But for
me, any way that does not include a theory of evolution is inadequate.
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Before ending, I will give a brief description of an alternate definition of prenes
that, in many ways, I find more informative than the one given at the start of the book.
But a warning: things are going to get a bit mathematical, so unless you are that kind
of person, I suggest you skip to the next section.
In the interest of brevity, I will ignore certain issues of physics, some of the
paradoxes of set theory, a million details, and provide an overly simplified version of
what should actually be done.
Consider all of the physical objects that exist in the universe. What about
dinosaurs? Well, I like dinosaurs, so let’s instead consider all of the physical things
that could (according to the laws of physics) exist in the universe. It’s a pretty big set,
but now, let’s consider all its non-empty subsets. So, one subset just includes you,
another includes you and a dinosaur, another you and me, another all living people,
another all people who ever lived. There is a subset that has exactly the physical
objects that you think are beds, and another the physical objects that you think store
the Hamlet’s-soliloquy-prene.
One can define a prene to be a non-empty subset of all of the physical things
that could exist in the universe. Let’s explore this definition just a bit. Consider the
subset consisting of all dinosaurs that ever existed. That set has no intersection with
set of all of the physical things that actually do exist in the universe at this moment. In
fact, through time, the size of that set’s intersection with the things that actually do
exist, its copy number, has fallen to zero, it has gone extinct. Similarly, the subset of all
humans who have ever lived had copy number zero a million years ago and now has
copy number about seven billion.
What about hypecubes of dimension 100? Physical law excludes hypercubes
so there is no non-empty subset that corresponds to it – there is no hypercube-ofdimension-100-prene. There is, however, a definition-of-a-hypercube-of-dimension100-prene and that subset contains various brains and books that mathematicians use.
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I will not go bore you with more. The reason I like this kind of definition is that it
reveals interesting things. For example, there are more prenes than there are words to
describe them (let alone provide definitions for them).
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Is the iPhone Alive?21
Because humans have been studying biology and biological evolution for more
than a century and a half, the gene-world is an ideal place for observing the role of
prenes and discerning the laws that govern them. But, for prene-theory to be generally
useful, we must acquire the ability to look at non-gene-world phenomena and discern
the role that prenes are playing. In this section we will enter the world of commerce,
and in particular the Apple iPhone part of it, to try to get a grasp on what is at play from
a prene-theoretic point of view.
What is an iPhone? It is a physical thing and it stores cenes. Does the iPhone
reproduce? No, we never put our iPhone’s down at night and discover more of them
when we wake (it is true that the cenes inside the iPhone reproduce, for example,
when we send a photo to another iPhone). On the other hand, if we consider the
number of iPhones through time we find that in 2006, one year before iPhone was
announced, the number of iPhones was zero, but in 2018 Apple announced the sale of
its one billionth iPhone. So, though iPhones don’t reproduce, their numbers are
increasing rapidly.
I assume that the increasing number of iPhones stems for something like the
following process:
People working at 1 Infinite Loop, Cupertino, California have the plans for the
iPhone. That is, they have the iPhone-plans-prene-set. I do not care exactly what that
prene-set includes, but I assume it includes the source code for the current operating
system, the physical characteristics of each iPhone part, the blueprint of how the parts
are to be assembled, the marketing strategy (something like: every two years we will
introduce a new model, next year we will invest heavily in advertising in the middle-

21 The ideas for this chapter arose out of a course on prene-theory that I taught in the Fall of
2018 at USC. I thank the students in that class, and in particular Zhoa Zhao and Dean Wasill, for their
contributions.
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east, in 2057 we will introduce an iPhone made of 18-caret gold, etc.), and a bunch of
other stuff.
Apple contracts manufacturing companies to produce iPhones. These
companies receive a subset of the iPhone-plans-prene-set and use it to organize the
production of iPhones. Each manufactured iPhone stores a subset (e.g. the operating
system) of the manufacturing company’s subset as cenes. When demand is
sufficiently high, new companies will be contracted to meet it.
So now let’s take a prene-theoretic view. This is not the only possible view, but
I find it worthwhile, and much to my surprise, it reveals a prene-set which survives in a
manner that I had not foreseen, and which appears to have no analogue in the geneworld.
Let compare the iPhone situation to the honeybee’s. So, a bit more (Why do
bees kill themselves, What a piece of work is a man?) about honeybees.
The bees live in hives, each hive has one queen, the queen and only the queen
can reproduce. The queen can lay eggs of two types: the haploid type which have the
queen’s gene-set, and the diploid type which have the queen’s gene-set plus genes
from a drone (often from another hive) with which she has mated. The diploid types
become drones, most haploid types become workers, a few haploid types are fed
exclusively on royal jelly and become virgin queens (if they mate with a drone they
become queens).
Let’s focus on the workers. They cannot reproduce, so the only way to get
more workers is to have the queen make them. Their primary job is to find flowers and
partake in a symbiotic relationship wherein the flower provides nectar that is brought
back to the hive and the bee transports the plant’s pollen to other plants; aiding in
reproduction (your parents should have taught you this).
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Figure 38: Workers and their symbiotes [iPhone]
The iPhones are very similar to the workers. They have some prenes from the
iPhone-plan-prene-set, but not all, they cannot reproduce themselves, and their
primary job is to find humans and partake in a symbiotic relationship wherein the
human provides dollars that go to the hive in Cupertino, and the iPhone aids the
human in many ways including, is some cases, reproduction.
When flowers are abundant, and therefore the demand for workers is great, the
queen may leave her hive, and, along with an entourage of workers, form a new hive
at a new location (a virgin queen from the old hive will mate and become its new
queen). This is much like what happens with the manufacturing companies in the
Apple case.
It is a pretty good analogy, and I’ll leave it to you to see that many of the
principles in this book are at work. But the analogy is not perfect. There is an
interesting prene-set that does not quite fit: the iPhone-plan-prene-set itself.
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While some prenes (e.g. those in iPhones, those at manufacturing companies)
in the iPhone-plan-prene-set have increased copy number though time, others (e.g.
the source code for the operating system) have not. These are the prenes which a
business person would call “proprietary”. If a copy of these proprietary prenes
becomes available to a competitor, it might have devastating consequences for the
survival of the iPhone-plan-prene-set. It is likely that active measures (e.g. encryption)
are taken to keep copies from being made.
Now revealed, it is clear that proprietary prenes are found in many prene-sets:
the formula for Coke, everything that is “top-secret”, your passwords. Proprietary
prenes are vital to the survival of their prene-sets but restrained from acquiring large
copy numbers. They have no direct analogy in the gene-world that I am aware of.
Though I was aware that prenes could survive by being durable, I had thought
that “modern” prenes (those that emerged in the last say billion years) had all adopted
the reproductive strategy of survival. It appears that I was wrong. Certainly, these
proprietary prenes are worthy of further study.
.
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A prene-theoretic view of History
[IN PROGRESS]
Until recently biologists viewed biology as the study of living things. Now, many
biologists see it as the study of genes, and see living things as instruments used by the
genes to accomplish their survival, replication, mutation, and evolution. This is not to
say that the work of pre-Darwinian biologists was not worthwhile; that would be to
ignore enduring contributions by giants like William Harvey, Linnaeus, Von
Leuwenhoek, and Pasteur; nor is it to say that all fundamental contributions made by
today’s biologists rely directly on Darwin; rather it is to say that the genes have
become primary. It is the gene-centric view that guides biologists and provides a solid
foundation for their work.
I propose that those who study human endeavors, particularly in the social
sciences22 and the humanities, add the prene-centric view to their repertoires.
But what does an academic prene-centric investigation of human endeavors
look like? I don’t know, and it will take time to know, but I thought, as an exercise, I
would give it a try.
I decided to apply prene-theory to History. I considered the history of a single
prene, the monotheism-prene: there is exactly one God. Real historians will properly
see my attempt as amateurish (or worse), but I think the exercise was worthwhile.
Among other things it taught me what a prene-theoretic view of history should
not be. It should not be a simple repackaging of a standard history where every major
event is attributed to prenes and every major figure is said to be driven by his memeset. Rather, prenes should guide us to reconsider what the major events were and

22 Sociology is particularly well suited to exploit a prene-centric view. The notion of societal
norms is already prene-theoretic, but the view that these norms mutate, evolve, and war with other
societal-prene-sets should not be overlooked.
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who the major figures were. For example, below Jesus and Luther are ultimately seen
as less important than Constantine and Columbus.
Pre-Darwinian biologists gave great weight to morphology, environment, and
behavior; today, historians give great weight to people, events, dates, and places. My
history will not ignore these things, but will emphasize religious prene-sets, their
endura, their mutational and reproductive strategies, and their struggles to survive.
By the way, it is reported that at least 3.6 billion people (52% of the world’s
population) believe the monotheism-prene [Adherents].
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Figure 39: The history of the monotheism-prene [Monotheism]
It seems likely that the monotheism-prene came into existence
numerous times and then went extinct (see Hamlet’s soliloquy’s struggle). Humans
are in the prene-generating business. Our genes have programmed our brains to
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continuously process our existing memes and generate new ones. It is easy to
imagine early humans generating mystical or religious memes while dealing with the
problems their environment presented. It seems likely that the monotheism-meme
would have arisen from time to time. Even today, some individuals come to believe
that they themselves are God or can speak to God. It seems likely that most times the
monotheism-prene has emerged, it has failed to acquire more than a few followers
before going extinct.
We do know that the monotheism-prene arose in Egypt during the
reign of Amenhotep IV in approximately 1300 BC and that it survived and increased
copy numbers for a significant amount of time.
In Amenhotep’s time, the official religion of Egypt was polytheistic and
hierarchical with the god Amun at the apex and the god Aten somewhere lower down.
The name Amenhotep means “Amun is satisfied”.
Amenhotep created the Aten-prene-set, a mutant of the Amun-prene-set, which
included the monotheism meme and declared Aten as the one true god. Amenhotep
even changed his name to Akhenaten which means “effective for Aten” [Wikipedia-AK].
As discussed in Death to mutants, often a mutant must compete with its
parental prene-set for survival.
By changing the pantheon, the Aten-prene-set was antithetical to the Amunprene-set’s endura, so peaceful co-existence was unlikely. In addition, the Amunprene-set had existed for at least several hundred years prior to Amenhotep, and, as is
usual with such long lived prene-sets, it is likely to have survived many prene wars and
to have acquired substantial weapons. A priori, one would not expect the Aten-preneset to survive for long. So why did it?
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Here we get into what I call “religion-ruler-deals”. Societal prene-sets do not
exist in isolation, they sometimes form alliances with one another. A religion-ruler-deal
is an alliance between a religious-prene-set and the prene-set of a government. In one
form or another, religion-ruler-deal work as follows: the religious prene-set is mutated
to include the god-has-chosen-the-ruler-to-rule-prene, and the ruler prene-set is
mutated to include the this-religion-is-the-official-religion-prene. For example, on
Christmas day 800 ACE, the pope crowned Charlemagne as the Holy Roman Emperor
and Charlemagne reciprocated by killing everyone in Western Europe who was not
Christian and would not convert.
Because Akhenaten was Pharaoh, he was a one-stop religion-ruler-deal maker;
he made himself the special conduit between the people and Aten and he used the
power of the state to suppress the Amun priesthood. He built cities dedicated to Aten
and created stelae praising him. The Aten-prene-set increased copy numbers rapidly.
This situation resembles that of Henry VIII, who created the Anglican-prene-set.
Like Akhenaten, Henry was a one-stop religion-ruler-deal maker. Henry made himself
head of the Anglican Church and made the Church declare that Henry ruled by divine
right. Henry then used the power of the state to protect his Protestant religion from the
Catholic Pope.
What is particularly interesting from a prene-theoretic aspect is the stunningly
rapid decline and virtual extinction of the Aten-prene-set.
In Hamlet’s-soliloquy’s struggle, we saw that it is common for a newly created
prene-set to face a critical point when its creator dies. The soliloquy survived that point
thanks to Heminges and Condell. Bach’s Brandenburg-concerti-prene was lucky to
survive it at all.
It appears that Akhenaten did not take appropriate steps to ensure that after his
death the Aten-prene-set could survive the on-going struggle with the Amun-prene-set.
Akhenaten should have read this book. He made serious errors in the use of
propaganda and force (see Prene warrior).
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We can imagine that followers of the Amun-prene-set, including the high priest
of Amun, members of the Amun hierarchy, and many others, were less than pleased
with the Aten religion. Akhenaten could have used force to annihilate them and their
instruments, but, apparently, he only suppressed them during his reign.
But perhaps Akhenaten biggest mistake was his apparent failure to take the
seemingly simple and obvious step of assuring that his successor would use the power
of the Pharaoh in support of the Aten-prene-set. This should have been prene-theory
101, given that the successor was his own son. Akhenaten seems to have started off
OK; he named his son Tutankhaten which means “living image of Aten”. Then, it
appears, Akhenaten dropped the ball.
When Akhenaten died, Tutankhaten changed his name to Tutankhamun (yes,
King Tut) which means “living Image of Amun” [Wikipedia-TU]. The Amun-prene-set
arose and defeated the Aten-prene-set. The Amun-prene-set followers seemed to
have a better understanding of prene-theory; they destroyed many of the instruments
of the Aten-prene-set: the cities, temples, and stelae that Akhenaten had built to the
glory of Aten.
Henry VIII almost had a similar failure. When Henry died, his daughter Mary
became queen. Mary was a close relative to Charles V, the Holy Roman emperor, and
a staunch Catholic. Had “Bloody Mary” not died young, the Anglican-prene-set might
have gone the way of the Aten-prene-set. As it was, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry and
the Protestant Anne Boleyn, became queen, and the Anglican-prene-set is still with us.
In fairness to Akhenaten, perhaps his performance with respect to the Egyptianprene-set as a whole was more successful than it was for the Aten-prene-set.
Nonetheless, with respect to that prene-set, and hence the monotheism-prene,
Akhenaten does not receive high marks.
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What appears clear is that the monotheism-prene’s big break
came when it formed an alliance with other prenes to become the Jewish-prene-set.
Unfortunately, historians know little about the origin of this prene-set, and I know even
less. Basic questions such as whether Moses was an actual person remain
unanswered. As a result, a prene-theoretic view of the originators of the Jewish-preneset, and that set’s parentage is beyond reach.
The relationship between Moses and monotheism has been investigated by no
less a figure than Sigmund Freud whose (aptly named) book on the subject “Moses
and Monotheism” [Freud] takes a psychoanalytic view. Freud hypothesizes a direct
link between Akhenaten and Moses, but there seems to be little evidence to support
this position.
The monotheism-prene is articulated in the Mosaic Covenant.
I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the
house of bondage. You shall have no other gods before Me.
First Commandment, Exodus 20:2-3
The first commandment, and with it the monotheism meme, entered the Jewishprene-set very early. Historians indicate that Exodus appeared far earlier than other
books now found in the Hebrew Bible.
As discussed in Mutation, prene-sets carefully control the rate at which memes
mutate and the earliest memes to enter a prene-set typically have the slowest rates of
mutation; that is, they become endura.
In my opinion, this virtual immutability is the central pillar on which the current
success of the monotheism-prene rests. Because of this immutability, a mutant of the
Jewish-prene-set would have very little chance of surviving without preserving it. So,
while the Catholic, Protestant, and Moslem prene-sets are in many ways antithetical to
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the Jewish prene-set, all continue to contain some form of the First-Commandmentprene and hence the monotheism-prene.
Like other successful prene-sets, the Jewish-prene-set allowed for carefully
controlled mutation. One of the most important mechanisms for mutation was
embodied in what I will call the “prophesy-prene”, which dictated that God would reveal
His word to certain special individuals called prophets.
The Jewish-prene-set recognized thirteen Patriarchal Prophets, and as many as
a hundred total prophets. But, there was no prohibition against future prophets. In fact,
the Jewish-prene-set invited them, and then left it up to the followers to determine
which were “true prophets” and which were false.
The Jewish-prene-set did have a few memes to provide guidance on future
prophets, but the instructions were not that clear.
If there be a prophet among you, I the LORD will make myself known unto him
in a vision, and will speak unto him in a dream. (Num 12:6)
And if thou say in thine heart, How shall we know the word which the LORD
hath not spoken?
When a prophet speaketh in the name of the LORD, if the thing follow not, nor
come to pass, that is the thing which the LORD hath not spoken, ... (Deu 18:21-
22)
The prophesy-prene would turn out to be a disaster for the Jewish-prene-set as
a whole, but, perhaps paradoxically, a windfall for the monotheism meme.
The major religious prene-sets, Christianity and Islam, that would arise from the
Jewish-prene-set, would take advantage of the prophesy-prene. They would evolve
their own endura, but, presumably because it was so deeply entrenched, the
monotheism-prene was left intact.
Interestingly, as we will see, Islam would take steps to slow its own rate of
mutation by mutating the prophesy-prene.
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No doubt, many “prophets” came along and spawned mutations of the Jewishprene-set. It seems likely that most of these mutants quickly went extinct.
There seems to be agreement among scholars that Jesus was a
Jew, that he was born and raised in the Jewish community of Nazareth then under the
control of Rome. He became a Jewish rabbi (i.e. teacher). So, Jesus’ job and perhaps
other factors led him to spend time and brain cycles processing his Jewish and Roman
memes and generated new ones (see Hamlet’s Soliloquy’s struggle). He generated the
Jesus-prene-set (later to evolve into the Christian-prene-set), and applied the
prophesy-prene.
What is surprising is that the Jesus-prene-set did not quickly go extinct. As
remarked earlier, often a new mutant competes with its parental prene-sets. The
Jesus-prene-set was a mutant of the Jewish-prene-set, but also the Roman-prene-set.
The Jesus-prene-set was antithetical to the endura of both its parents. For example,
Jesus, himself, asserted that he was the messiah, even though by the requirements
embodied in Jewish endura, he did not qualify to wear that silver star (see The silver
stars you wear). Jesus’ expulsion of the money changers, condemnation of commerce,
and his general disruption of civil order would not have endeared him to the Romans.
The Jesus-prene-set should have had little chance of surviving a war with such veteran
opponents. Of course, Jesus himself did not survive that war, but the Jesus-prene-set
did. Why?
As the initial instrument of the Jesus-prene-set, I have seen little to recommend
Jesus. Unlike Akhenaten, he had no military or political power; he was not a one stop
religion-ruler-deal maker; he could not impose his memes on others.
Perhaps as a teacher (i.e. rabbi) he had learned to make compelling
presentations to others. In any event, he acquired a powerful ally in John the Baptist.
Apparently, John was an apocalyptic preacher who saw in Jesus the great prophet he
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had been expecting. John had an established following prior to meeting Jesus, and it
is among these followers that Jesus acquires his first disciples. The Jesus-prene-set
had acquired powerful new instruments. These new instruments allowed the Jesusprene-set to survive Jesus’ crucifixion, however they did not end the war, and the odds
still heavily favored the Jewish and Roman prene-sets. In such a setting, one often
seen survival strategy is flight.
Indeed, most of the apostles did flee – to India, Afghanistan, Iran, Syria,
Bulgaria, Georgia, Italy, Spain, and many other places. They would spread the Jesusprene-set; they would augment it with the Gospels, ultimately the Jesus-prene-set
would mutate into the Christian-prene-set and the Gospels would grow to become the
Christian-prene-set’s endura, the basis for the New Testament.
Figure 40: The earliest known fragment of a Gospel (John). The Rylands
Papyrus 52, Ca 150 CE. [Gospel]
The competition between the Christian-prene-set and the Roman-prene-set
ended in 312 AD with a major religion-ruler-deal with Emperor Constantine. This was
of monumental importance for the monotheism-prene since it ultimately opened up all
Western European (and eventually all New World) brains to its spread.
The competition between the Jewish-prene-set and the Christian-prene-set
persists, and I think it reasonable to assert that the Jewish-prene-set’s copy numbers
have suffered greatly because of it. Today, Jews make up about one half of one
percent of the world’s monotheists.
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As these things go, it was a remarkably smooth road for the Jesus-prene-set
(for a comparison, see remarks regarding Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos in Hamlet’s
Soliloquy’s struggle or the story of the smallpox virus in The resurrection of smallpox.
Mohammed was neither a Jew nor a Christian. He was born in
Mecca on the Arabian Peninsula where the prevailing religions were polytheistic. There
were significant populations of Jews living in the same area so, the Hebrew Bible and
the monotheism-prene would likely have been well known.
Famously, at about the age of 40, Mohammed began to ascend Mount Hira to
meditate. Mohammed processed his existing memes and produces the Mohammedprene-set, which evolved to become the Islamic-prene-set. Mohammed includes the
monotheism-prene.
He includes Moses and Jesus as prophets, and adds new words-of-God memes
that cleared up any confusion about future prophets:
Muhammad is not the father of any man among you, but he is the Messenger of
God and the last (end) of the Prophets. (33:40)
With this, Islamic-prene-set reversed the Jewish-prene-set’s use of prophets for
mutation. It also created lag-conditions (see Why we die and Lag conditions)
Once again, we see the common pattern of new prene-sets competing with
parental prene-sets for survival. Not surprisingly, the existing polytheists and rulers of
Mecca attempted to assassinate Mohammed. The attempts were not successful, and
Mohammed was around for many years to act as a powerful instrument for his beliefs.
As in the case of Jesus, the early followers fled, first to the Kingdom as Aksum, and
then to Medina where a religion-ruler-deal, referred to as the Constitution of Medina,
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provided a base from which the Islamic-prene-set spread rapidly across much of the
Middle East and North Africa.
Luther was not a Prophet; he did not claim that God had
revealed word-of-God prenes directly to him. He was a mid-level member of the
Roman-Catholic priesthood, but his impact was monumental.
I include his story, because it allows us to explore how a major societal preneset can be torn asunder by the application of a modicum of force. In the big picture,
Luther did not have a major impact on the monotheism-prene, which by Luther’s time
was so firmly entrenched as endura in Christianity, that nothing short of cataclysmic
exogenous events could expunge it.
We are fortunate that historians have unearthed an abundance of information
about Luther’s life. We are unfortunate that I am not an historian. So, I will stick with
the standard story of Luther’s life in trying to understand what happened from a prenetheoretic standpoint.
Luther’s early life was fairly uneventful from a prene-theoretic point of view. His
parents had immediately exposed him to the Catholic-prene-set, and to the academic
and other societal prene-sets commonly acquired when pursuing a career in law.
Then on July 2, 1505, when Luther was twenty-one, an event of prene-theoretic
interest may have occurred. While traveling through Stotterheim, a violent storm may
have resulted in lightning (nearly) striking Luther (and/or Luther’s friend), and (perhaps)
throwing Luther to the ground (and/or killing his friend). Historians seem uncertain.
Luther himself later described the event, and recalled crying out:
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“Help, St. Anne! I'll become a monk!”
-Martin Luther [Luther]
If something like this did occur, then Luther appears to have acquired a pivotal
meme (see How the brain captures memes), and it may provide some understanding
of the rest of his life. From this moment on, he essentially appears to have PTSD with
its associated obsession.
Within a few weeks of the storm, Luther dropped out of law school, and enrolled
in monk school, and, to the delight of the Catholic-prene-set, began to seek salvation
with a vengeance. He becomes about as obsessed as it is possible to be:
“I was indeed a pious monk, and followed the rules of my order more strictly
than I can express. If ever monk entered heaven in virtue of his monkery,
assuredly I should have gone there… A much longer time of it must have made
me martyr, even to death, what with watching, prayers, reading and other
labors!”
-Martin Luther [D’Aubigne]
Presumably, Luther learned Roman-Catholic endura while at his Augustinian
cloister, but perhaps he was sheltered from the accommodations the church had made
to the genetic imperative (There is no escape!). During a visit to Rome in 1511, Luther
is reported to have been upset by the irreverence of some priests, and the exploitation
of followers through the selling of indulgences. He seems to have seen these as
antithetical to Christian endura and therefore corrupt.
Famously (but perhaps apocryphally), in 1517, Luther hammered his ninety-five
theses onto the door of Schlosskirche in Wittenberg. Whether he knew it or not, he
had started the Protestant reformation, he had dropped a feather (see When memes
collide, The rise of the cenes) on the Catholic-prene-set. Like Princip’s feather (When
memes collide), Luther’s would have astonishing ramifications.
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The parental Catholic-prene-set attacked Luther using the tried and true
methods. These included excommunications, and, exploiting the religion-rule-deal that
began with Charlemagne, a death sentence from the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.
It seems likely these would have worked, but, Luther somehow made his own
religion-ruler-deal with Prince-Elector Fredrich III and fled to Germany.
The ninety-five theses were a challenge to the Catholic-prene-set, but to me it
seems unlikely that they alone would have fragmented the Church. But Luther was a
prene-warrior of astonishing skill, and it is what he did in exile that ultimately led to
Protestant ascendancy.
Historians point out that Luther was adept at using the printing press to spread
his ideas around Europe. But perhaps they underappreciate how brilliantly he used it.
In 1522, he published his German-language Bible. Let me explain why I think so
highly of this step.
In the early 1970’s computers were still behemoths that existed in a few elite
institutions and were inaccessible to most people. I was a graduate student of
Berkeley and ended up with the keys to the room that contained one of the world’s
most advanced computer systems for working with graphics. It had a big screen,
which today you would laugh at, on which black and white images could be displayed.
Someone had written what must have been one of the very earliest video games. It
was called Spacewars, and it allowed stick-figure rockets to maneuver and fight under
keyboard control. I was cool! I could provide access to the most astonishing
technology that any of my friends had ever seen. No one would find that game
exciting now; we have Xboxes and iPhones. Well, when Luther introduced and mass
produced the German-language Bible, he was like Steve Jobs introducing the iPhone.
The printing press had existed for about a hundred years, and common language
translations of the Bible had been around pretty much forever. But by wedding the
two, Luther had found the killer app for a widely available technology. The common
(literate) renaissance man could now play the greatest game in the world – he could
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read the Bible – he could speak with God! And the Pope? Like me, he quickly
became uncool.
Societal prene-sets are constantly mutating, and religious prene-sets are no
exception. A recent count of Christian denominations revealed tens of thousands
distinct denominations each with at least a few hundred followers [Barrett]. So, the
rate of mutation of Christian prene-sets has been quite rapid. Why so many?
We can thank Luther for that. While Mohammed slowed the rate of mutation of
the Islamic prene-set, Luther greatly accelerated it for the Protestant prene-set. Luther
gave every individual the power to interpret the endura in the Bible. By this step,
Luther, set the rate of mutation to warp speed.
So, there arose a huge number of mutants with different interpretation of Biblical
endura. This gave rise to the large number of Protestant denominations that are with
us today and many denominations that have gone extinct.
23

23 For a really horrifying (and entertaining) example of the human cost of
Luther’s change in the rate of mutation, I encourage you to listen to the Dan
Carlton podcast “Prophets of Doom” about the Anabaptist uprising in the city
of Munster in the sixteenth-century [Carlin]. When you are done, look at the
image of the spire in Figure 39, do you see those three little rectangles?
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The stories of Jesus, Mohammed, and Luther are remarkably similar. A person
acquires and believes a large set of religious memes that are found in his environment.
He spends a great amount of time and brain cycles processing those memes and
produces his own variant. He seeks new followers for his prene-set. The religious and
ruler-prene-sets that existed before the new prene-set try to exterminate it, and, in
particular, its inventor. The early followers seek protection through religion-ruler-deals
that provides a stable base to operate from.
Why, did the monotheism-prene go viral? There can be many reasons, but as
we saw in the case of the Brandenburg-concerti-prene (Hamlet’s soliloquy’s struggle)
and the smallpox-genome-prene (Genes, memes, and cenes), a major contributor is
sheer luck.
The history of the monotheism-prene continues; its copy-number is now so
large, and its position as endura within many religious prene-sets so securer that it will
almost surely be with us for the foreseeable future. Forever? Probably not, at least not
with large copy-numbers. Likely there are dinosaur genes that had high copy numbers
for millions of years but are now extinct (copy-number=0).
The monotheism-prene seems to have been fortunate over the last several
thousand years. I am only aware of a few serious attacks during this period: that of the
Mongols in the 13th century, and that of communism in the 20th. Today, the
monotheism-prene’s major threat seems to come from scientific prene-sets, and their
allied academic, national, and political prene-sets. It is possible that these prene-sets
will steadily diminish the number and commitment of followers of the monotheismprene.
Here is a prene-theoretic graphic of the monotheism-prene.
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Figure 41: The history of the monotheism-prene (from a prene-centric viewpoint)
The primary content of Figure 41 is the graph, what I call the “follower curve”.
While historians traditionally would put great people and great events at the center of
their investigations, a prene-theoretic view puts data like the “follower curve” at the
center. The follower curve itself will lead to the people and events of importance. In
mathematical language, it is at non-smooth points of a meme’s “follower-curve” that we
should look for great people and great events. I have added images to the graph to
indicate these events and people.
The absence of Jesus and Luther may seem surprising. In the former case,
while Jesus created a critical prene-set, that prene-set did not immediately produce a
huge number of followers. It is when Constantine converted that Europe and the
Levant opened up to Christian memes. Had Constantine converted to Zoroastrianism,
would monotheism have gone viral anyway?
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Luther is not included because the Protestant reformation did not significantly
increase the monotheism-prene’s number of followers. It was a schism, a civil war for
the brains of people who already believed the monotheism-prene. In general, schisms
seem to occur when a new prene-set arises without, at least initially, significant
changes in the parental prene-set’s endura, but with significant changes in the
interpretation of that endura. In the case of religious prene-sets, endura often found in
durable form called scripture. In this form, it is syntactical and only acquires meaning
through semantics; that is interpretation. The Sunni-Shite schism seems to also be of
this form.
I included Columbus because he symbolizes the age of exploration which
provided new fertile environments for the monotheism-prene to increase the number of
followers. As an aside, Columbus is also a symbol of colonialism, and that is
considered a terrible thing in the current academic environment. Is it? Prene-theory
has nothing to say about such questions; however, it can answer the question: was
colonialism a successful evolutionary strategy? The answer is yes, it has greatly
increased the copy numbers of various prene-sets, such as Christianity and
democracy.
It would be interesting to figure out the follower-curves for other memes. For
example:
Monarchy-prene: there is exactly one ruler.
Democracy-prene: rule by consent of the ruled.
Marriage-prene: each person shall have one mate.
Science-prene: the explanation of events can be obtained by rational means.
Communism-prene, money-prene, animal-rights-prene, happiness-prene,
Santa-clause-prene, there is an inexhaustible supply. There are many questions to
ask. How are follower-curves related, are they independent, do the rise and fall
together, do the rise and fall in opposition?
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Perhaps the prene-centric view can cast light on some of the meta-issues of
history. For example, the “great man” question. Is history the story of great men, or is
it the story of great events? From the prene-centric view, it is neither; it is the story of
societal prene-sets. Prenes are the overlords of history. Though immaterial, they
carry out their struggles and wars by means of the material world, including its
humans. Human endeavors are manifestations of the prenes struggle to survive.
The prene-centric view changes the stage of history. A standard history of
monotheism might have described a cast of characters moving on the world stage.
The march of Islam from Arabia across North Africa to Spain in the seventh and eighth
centuries, the descent of crusading knight on the Holy Land in the Middle Ages. Our
prene-centric view has deemphasized geography and tracked the spread of
monotheism from prene-set to prene-set. Copy-number becomes more important than
geographical distribution.
Geography is rapidly declining in importance. Most of us don’t know and don’t
care where Google, Wikipedia, and Facebook are physically located. We will soon see
religions, nations, and economies rise and fall in cyberspace. These entities will be no
less powerful and have no less impact on our lives than their current “brick and mortar”
counterparts. Political, economic, and even military power will be diffuse; the physical
locations of like-minded people will be less important than their numbers and
connectivity.
We already see early signs of this development. For example, “homegrown
terrorist” whose allegiance is to others in cyberspace, rather than those in their
hometowns. Future wars are likely to involve geographically dispersed, internet
connected, groups of individuals driven by competing prene-sets that are political,
economic, religious, or otherwise. By and large, these wars will not be fought with
guns; they will be fought through cenes (see The rise of the cenes). The fine line
between “hot” and “cold” wars will disappear (in fact, it never existed). Wars will vary in
intensity as prene-sets engage and disengage in their selfish struggle to survive.
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Perhaps future maps will resemble the “T and O” maps of the Middle Ages more
than the geographical maps of today. For example, maps may represent important
prene-sets, the number of followers, and the communications channels between them.
Figure 42: T and O map from 12th century [Wikipedia-TO], contemporary world
map [Map1], hypothetical world map of the future [Map2].
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From Earth to Proxima Centauri b
Interviewer:
We are honored to have Captain Amitroe Gardono with us today. Captian Gardono is,
of course, one of the pioneers of space travel, and the last astronaut to be totally
human.
Captain Gardono, it is a momentous occasion; what are your thoughts?
Gardono:
Well, there are so many. I remember when I was a small boy hearing about the earth
sized planet orbiting Proxima Centauri. I dreamed of going there; I think that’s why I
became an astronaut. Of course, at a distance of 4.3 light-years getting there wasn’t a
realistic possibility.
Interviewer:
What do you make of the fact that all of today’s crew will be totally non-human?
Gardano:
Well, I know many of them, and it seems to me that they are an especially talented
group. Even before Gagarin and Glenn, we always put our best and brightest at the
forefront of exploration, today is no exception.
Interviewer:
Would you like to be going with them?
Gardono:
Oh, heavens no. it’s a pretty long trip. Even at a million miles an hour, it will take over
two thousand years to reach Proxima Centauri b. And, when they get there, they will
find a rocky planet with no atmosphere, virtually no water, and a radiation burden a
million times greater than here on earth. A total-human like me would have about as
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much chance of surviving as a jelly fish. We were made for earth; these computea
were made for the universe.
Interviewer:
And of course, these travelers will never return. Their mission statement is clear: to
evolve throughout the universe.
Gardono:
Yes, I am touched by that in many ways. Of course, we will never see them again, but
they will transmit comprehensive-experience data on a continuous basis, and so we
who remain, humans, chimeras, and computia alike, will be able to keep an eye on
them and see the places they go, the beings they encounter, and the species they
become.
But, I have great-great-grandchildren of my own and know how they are consumed by
their own lives and futures; I suspect that these children of our super-species will
eventually forget about us, but I will always feel that I am some small part of them.
Prenes
183
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to many distinguished scholars and friends who have endured
earlier versions of this book, engaged in endless discussions, provided valuable
suggestions and encouragement, and, in many cases, saved me from myself. Without
them, this book would have been even worse.
So, many thanks to <PRESIDIO_ANONYMIZED_PERSON>, Paul Rothemund, Jerrold Gold, Daniel Dennett,
Cyrus Shahabi, Shang-Hua Teng, William Watkins, Saket Navlakha. Ronald Adleman,
Joseph Bebel, Jennifer Adleman-Howe, Richard Zaitlen, Marc Flashberg, Ramsay
Brown, and Anta Imata Safo.
In addition, in the Fall of 2018 I taught my first graduate class on prene theory.
The students in the class were wonderful and our discussions transformed many of my
ideas.
Prenes
184
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Prenes
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Prenes
194
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* denotes material that is listed on the web as licensed for reuse.