Summerize: "2.2. Methodology: Five Traditional Method and the Alternatives
The methodology of English language teaching encompasses various approaches and techniques. They have evolved over the years and have been influenced by different theories of language acquisition.
The Grammar-Translation method, Audio-Lingual methodology, Communicative Language Teaching methodology, Task-based Language Teaching method and Content-based language teaching method are all approaches to language teaching and learning. 
The Grammar-Translation and Audio-Lingual methods tend to be teacher-centered, whereas the Communicative Language Teaching, Task-based Language Teaching, and Content-based language teaching methods are learner-centered.

2.2.1. The Grammar-Translation Method
The Grammar-Translation method, which was shaped German linguists in 19th century (the most influential of them was Karl Plotz, the scholar who lived from 1819-1881), emphasizes on grammar rules and translation of vocabulary and texts from the target language into the learner's native language. This method is mostly used for studying classical languages such as Latin and Greek.

2.2.2. The Audio-Lingual Method
The Audio-Lingual method, which was invented for the needs of the US Army during the Second World War (one of the founders was Charles Carpenter Fries, the director of the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan), is based on the assumption that language learning is a process of habit formation through the repeated practice of language patterns. In this approach, learners are drilled in a series of language patterns until they can produce them accurately.

2.2.3. The Communicative Language Teaching Method
The Communicative Language Teaching method (developed in the 1970s by a group of British applied linguists, including Michael Halliday, David Wilkins, and Christopher Brumfit) focuses on meaning communication and authentic language use. Learners are encouraged to interact and use language in meaningful contexts, and teachers act as facilitators rather than directors of the learning process.

2.2.4. The Task-based Language Teaching Method
The Task-based Language Teaching method (created in the 1980s by Jane Willis and Dave Willis), emphasizes authentic and meaningful use of language by using tasks as the organizing principle for language learning. In this approach, learners are given tasks to do, enabling them to engage in meaningful communication.

2.2.5. The Content-based Language Teaching Method
The Content-based Language Teaching method (having roots in the 1960s, but gained more traction in the 1990s and was influenced by the work of James L. Cummins and Merrill Swain) integrates language learning with the study of non-language content such as science, social studies or literature, allowing learners to acquire language through a purposeful focus on content.

2.2.6. The Alternative Methods
In comparison to the traditional methods, it is also worth to mention a few alternatives. 
One them is the Total Physical Response (developed by James Asher in 1970s), it uses physical movement to respond to verbal input when teaching language or vocabulary concepts. This method imitates how infants learn their first language and helps to decrease student inhibitions and stress.
Another alternative method is The Silent Way (developed by Caleb Gattegno). It emphasizes that the teacher should remain quiet in the classroom, while the focus should be on encouraging learners to use as much language as possible.
Lastly, Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen created the Natural Approach, which was introduced in their book The Natural Approach in 1983. This approach is based on how children learn their first language and aims to apply this process to adult language learning.
(Komorowska 2005: 29)

2.2. Factors in SLA
2.2.1. The Critical Period Hypothesis
There are several factors that affect SLA. The first is the learner's age. Research has shown that younger learners tend to acquire a new language more quickly and with greater proficiency than older learners do. The critical period hypothesis, which was created by Wilder Penfield and Roberts (1959), asserts that there is a specific time period during brain development in which language acquisition is most efficient. This time period occurs in a linguistically rich environment, and after this window of time, learning language becomes more challenging and requires more effort. The idea has been a topic of discussion among linguistics and language acquisition for a while as to whether age has a connection to the ability to learn language. Essentially, the hypothesis stipulates that within the first few years of life, given appropriate stimuli, individuals can acquire a first language. This relies on neuroplasticity, and if there is no language input until after this period, full language proficiency may not occur. 

2.2.2. Motivation
Another factor that affects SLA is the learner's motivation (Masgoret and Gardner 2003). Motivation plays a crucial role in language acquisition as it determines the level of effort and persistence that learners put into learning the language. A learner who is motivated to learn a language will be more willing to put in the time and effort required to acquire proficiency in the new language. 
There are four main types of motivation in second language acquisition:
1.	Instrumental motivation: This type of motivation is focused on achieving a practical goal, such as using the language for a job or academic purposes.
2.	Integrative motivation: This type of motivation is more personal and relates to one's desire to connect with the culture and people that speak the language.
3.	Intrinsic motivation: This refers to the internal drive to learn a language for the sake of personal growth and enjoyment.
4.	Extrinsic motivation: This refers to learning a language for external reasons, such as receiving grades or rewards.

2.2.3. Prior Knowledge
The learner's prior knowledge of a language is an important factor that affects Second Language Acquisition because it provides a foundation upon which new language learning can be built. When a learner has some level of proficiency in a language, they can use their existing knowledge to help understand and acquire new vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. Additionally, learners with prior knowledge of a language often have a better understanding of the culture and context in which the language is used, which can facilitate communication and comprehension. On the other hand, if a learner has limited or no prior knowledge of a language, they may struggle more with acquiring new language skills as they lack a foundation to build upon. Therefore, prior knowledge of a language plays a critical role in the language learning process and should be considered when designing language programs and teaching strategies.


2.4. Language skills
We can distinguish two basic categories of language skills: productive and receptive. The productive skills, as the name suggests, are an active process of creating statements/content in a given language, both in written and spoken form. Whereas, the receptive skills consist in receiving content, decoding it, both in text and sound form.
Thus, these all make up the four main language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. 

2.4.1. Listening
Second language learners encounter many challenges while developing their listening skills, such as different speech patterns, unfamiliar accents and vocabulary. Additionally, learners must be able to follow the structure of the conversation, the tone and pitch of the speaker's voice, and the context in which the message is being conveyed. Developing these skills requires extensive practice, patience, and constant exposure to language input.
According to Houston (2020), in second language acquisition, there are three stages of listening comprehension: pre-listening, listening, and post-listening. In the pre-listening stage, learners are given information about the context, topic, and purpose of the listening activity. This stage provides learners with the necessary background knowledge to understand the listening text. In the listening stage, learners listen to the text and focus on comprehension. Lastly, in the post-listening stage, learners reflect on the listening text, review the vocabulary and phrases, and complete comprehension activities.
To improve their listening skills, second language learners can immerse themselves in the language by watching TV shows in L2, listening to the target language language audio, and engaging in conversation with native speakers. Additionally, they can practice by using online resources such as podcasts and YouTube videos in L2.
In conclusion, listening is a critical skill for Second Language Acquisition, and it requires practice and exposure to the target language input. Developing effective listening skills enables learners to engage in meaningful communication, enhances their overall language proficiency, and ultimately leads to successful language acquisition.

2.4.2. Speaking 
Developing English speaking skills involves several factors that interplay in the learning process. These are motivation, exposure, and opportunities to practice.
Motivation is a significant factor that affects English speaking skills. Language learners who are motivated to learn and practice English speaking are more likely to develop their skills effectively. Motivation can stem from a variety of factors, such as personal interest, anticipated benefits, or perceived cultural value. Thus, teachers and language instructors should design activities and materials that can help improve learners' motivation and willingness to speak English. (Gardner, Lalonde, Moorcroft, and Evers 1987)
Another critical factor in acquiring English speaking skills is exposure (Skehan 2003) to the language. Such exposure can include various activities, such as watching movies and TV shows, listening to English music, and interacting with native English speakers. These activities can help learners to become familiar with the sounds, intonation, and structure of the language, which are essential for effective English speaking.
Finally, opportunities to practice English speaking are crucial for learners to develop their skill. Language learners must have ample opportunities to speak English, even in a classroom setting, through role-playing activities, group discussions, and oral presentations, among others. In the controlled, classroom environment, scaffolding might be noticeably beneficial. Learners can also practice English speaking outside the classroom by engaging in conversations with native speakers or joining English-speaking clubs.
To conclude, speaking skills are crucial in second language acquisition, and learners must actively work on improving them. Language instructors can help in this process by providing materials and activities that motivate learners, as well as creating opportunities for language practice. Meanwhile, language learners can improve their English speaking skills through dedicated practicing, exposure to the language, and seeking regular feedback from their teachers. With consistent effort and dedication, learners can become proficient in speaking English and communicate more effectively with other English speakers worldwide.

2.4.3. Reading
Good reading skills are crucial for foreign language learners because of the relationship between reading and vocabulary acquisition. Research conducted by Kilic (2019) shows that vocabulary knowledge contributes significantly to reading comprehension, and vocabulary is shown to enhance reading fluency and comprehension. This relationship between reading and vocabulary acquisition is particularly important as most foreign language learners are not exposed to a natural environment in which they can encounter more complex vocabulary in everyday contexts.
One of the challenges faced by foreign language learners in improving their reading skills is understanding the grammar and syntax of English. English grammar and sentence structure can be complex and differ from other languages, leading to problems in interpreting written content. Learners may also have difficulty understanding idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms. Additionally, cultural references, such as historical and literary allusions, might pose additional challenges for students who are not familiar with the culture or history of the English-speaking world.
To improve reading skills in the context of SLA, teachers can start with integrating literacy strategies that are often applied in first language instruction. These strategies include pre-reading activities, such as predicting or activating prior knowledge, examining vocabulary, and identifying important information. During the reading activities, students can use techniques such as note-taking, summarizing, and questioning to help develop their understanding of the text. After reading, comprehension can be assessed with activities that ask the reader to summarize, make inferences, or reflect on the reading experience.
Another effective technique that can be used to improve reading skills is extensive reading (Elley 1991), which involves students reading texts that are slightly above their current level of language proficiency. This technique promotes the development of reading fluency and comprehension, and helps learners build on their vocabulary knowledge by encountering and learning new words in context.
In conclusion, although reading can pose challenges for foreign language learners, it plays an important role in language acquisition, particularly in relation to vocabulary acquisition. Teachers can support reading skills development by integrating effective strategies and techniques into their lesson plans. By improving their reading skills, learners can significantly enhance their overall level of English mastery. 
2.4.4. Writing
Writing is considered a complex skill in any language, requiring a productive use of grammar rules and vocabulary. In the case of second language learners, writing skills in English require practice, patience, and a willingness to learn.
One of the primary challenges for second language learners is mastering the grammatical structures of English. Grammatical rules in English can be complex, and the use of articles, prepositions, and conjunctions can be particularly challenging. According to Alsalami (2022), second language (SL) learners often struggle with sentence structure, word order, and verb tense, leading to difficulties in expressing their ideas coherently. Therefore, it is essential for English language learners to focus on acquiring these grammar skills to improve their writing abilities. 
Additionally, SL learners should expand their vocabulary. Vocabulary acquisition is an essential component of writing skills in English. To convey their ideas effectively, learners need to have a broad range of vocabulary. Through reading and writing exercises, learners can expose themselves to different types of language and expand their vocabulary pool. Learning new words, their meanings, and contexts can significantly enhance a learner's writing skills.
Writing proficiency in English also requires an understanding of the different writing styles and conventions used in the language. The English language has various genres of writing, such as academic writing, formal letters, business emails, and creative writing. Each writing style has its unique convention, tone, and vocabulary. Second language learners need to be familiar with these conventions to effectively communicate their thoughts and ideas.
To improve writing skills in English, it is essential to practice writing regularly. Writing exercises such as journaling, free writing, and timed writing can help learners not only develop their writing fluency but also strengthen their writing abilities. Practice increases learners' confidence in their ability to express their thoughts and ideas in English, leading to better writing skills.
To conclude, writing skills in English are essential for second language learners in the context of SLA. Learners have to develop an understanding of the grammatical rules, syntax, vocabulary, writing styles, and conventions of the English language. With consistent practice and effort, learners can improve their writing abilities and feel more comfortable expressing themselves in English.

2.5. Challenges for Chinese native speakers in learning English
2.5.1. Significant differences between European and Asian languages
First, an essential challenge for Chinese learners is the vast differences between English and Chinese. English is an Indo-European language, whereas Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family. (Li, Thompson 1989: 2) The structures of the two languages are vastly different. While English uses a Latin alphabet, Chinese uses ideograms or pictograms. Additionally, English has a flexible word order and a vast vocabulary, while Chinese has a relatively fixed word order and a limited vocabulary based on the use of characters. These vast differences in the structure, vocabulary, and grammar of the two languages make learning English a daunting challenge for Chinese learners.

2.5.2. Pronunciation and Intonation
Moreover, pronunciation and intonation present significant hurdles for Chinese learners. English is a stress-timed language, whereby the rhythm of the language is determined by the stress placed on certain syllables. Additionally, Mandarin Chinese is a tonal language, where the meaning of the word changes depending on the pitch or tone used. 
Thus, Chinese learners may find English pronunciation challenging as it requires mastering the unique accents, sounds, and rhythms of the language.

2.5.3. Cultural differences
Furthermore, cultural differences pose another challenge for Chinese learners. English is a language that is inclusive of many Western cultural norms and values that may be new to Chinese learners. Chinese learners may have difficulty understanding and adjusting to cultural nuances such as humour, sarcasm, directness, and politeness, which are fundamental aspects of English communication. Likewise, the use of idioms, phrasal verbs, and figurative expressions can be confusing for Chinese learners, whose language is more literal.

2.5.4. Lack of resources
Finally, the lack of resources and qualified teachers have also plagued English learning in China. Despite the Chinese government's extensive efforts to improve English education, there is a scarcity of materials and qualified teachers to teach the language. As a result, many learners are unable to access high quality education, leading to stunted language acquisition and proficiency.

2.5.5. Conclusion
In conclusion, the vast differences in structure, grammar, pronunciation, culture, and resources pose significant challenges for Chinese speakers learning English. This underscores the importance of developing and implementing more effective teaching and learning strategies from an early age, as well as expanding resources."