teach me Chapter 9 Technical Research282
Finally, remember that your report and the completed surveys may remain on file for
later reference by employees who know nothing about your project. Be sure that your docu-
ment is self-contained. Later readers who uncover the “time capsule” of your project should
be able to understand its procedures and significance from the report you have written.
Usability Testing
Usability typically involves setting goals, selecting criteria, developing test materials, so-
liciting participants, setting up the testing environment, conducting the test, and writing
a results report. For more information on formal usability testing, three useful books are
Jakob Nielsen’s Usability Engineering, Jeffery Rubin’s Handbook of Usability: How To Plan,
Design, and Conduct Effective Tests, and Carol Barnum’s Usability Testing Essentials: Ready,
Set, Test. Usability testing is such an important form of research that some companies
employ full-time usability testers and have well-equipped usability labs. Like surveys, us-
ability testing can combine quantitative research and qualitative research.
Almost any product or process can be tested for usability, but this chapter will focus
on usability testing of print and digital documents. Usability testing of Web sites is dis-
cussed in Chapter 14. Procedural documents, including user guides, instructions, and
Help files should all be tested for how usable they are. Procedures are considered usable
if they are
■ Easy to learn
■ Efficient to use
■ Easy to remember
The first step in usability testing, as in other research, is to identify the goal of the re-
search. Usability testing can answer questions such as the following:
■ How clear are the instructions?
■ How quickly can a user find information in a Help file?
■ How useful are the illustrations in a user’s guide?
Although many characteristics of a document may be tested, it is best to test only one
characteristic at a time.
A usability-testing lab allows testers to observe and measure how actual users interact
with objects, software, Web sites, or documents. These interactions may be monitored
with cameras or one-way mirrors, or computers may record key strokes to see how users
try to access information. Some labs even have equipment that allows testers to record
users’ eye movements as they look for information on a computer screen.
While quantifiable characteristics, such as the number of clicks to complete a task,
can be measured, it is just as important to measure users’ satisfaction with a product or
document, that is, to measure how usable they perceive the document to be. Surveys, in-
terviews, and focus groups can help technical communicators learn how users feel about
their interactions with a product or document. One low-tech way of testing user inter-
action with a document is a think-aloud protocol. In this method, the user works through
283Using Borrowed Information Correctly
a process such as finding information in a Help file or learning a new software program
while speaking his thoughts aloud. The tester records the thoughts and makes notes about
the user’s actions. As in other qualitative research, it is important to sort the data gath-
ered by these methods, and to classify them in ways that reveal how usable the item is.
>>> Using Borrowed Information Correctly
In some workplace writing, issues of citation can become complicated, especially in col-
laborative projects that use documents published by the writer’s organization, and that
will be published under the organization’s name. (See Chapter 3 for more on collabora-
tive writing.) However, whenever you are using material that has been published in a
book, periodical, or on another organization’s Website, you should cite your sources.
Most errors in research papers occur in transferring borrowed information. This sec-
tion has three goals: (1) to explain why you must acknowledge sources you have used, (2)
to outline a research process from the point at which you identify sources of information,
and (3) to provide sample documentation styles from three well-known style manuals.
Avoiding Plagiarism
One basic rule underlies the mechanical steps described in the rest of this chapter:
With the exception of common knowledge, you should cite sources for all
borrowed information used in your final document, including quotations,
paraphrases, and summaries.
Common knowledge is information generally available from basic sources in the field.
In the case of Tanya’s research project, common knowledge is a definition of hybrid electric
vehicles. When you are uncertain whether a piece of borrowed information is common
knowledge, go ahead and cite the source. It is better to err on the side of excessive docu-
mentation than to leave out a citation and risk a charge of plagiarism (the intentional or
unintentional use of the ideas of others as your own). Following are three main reasons
for documenting sources thoroughly and accurately:
1. Courtesy: You owe readers the courtesy of citing sources where they can seek addi-
tional information on the subject. Sources should be given for quotations, paraphrases,
and summaries.
2. Ethics: You have an ethical obligation to show your reader where your ideas stop
and those of another person begin; otherwise, you are parading the ideas of others as
your own.
3. Law: You have a legal obligation to acknowledge information borrowed from a copy-
righted source. In fact, you should seek written permission for the use of borrowed
information that is copyrighted when you plan to publish your document or when
you are using your document to bring in profit to your firm (as in a proposal or re-
port). If you need more specific information about copyright laws or about the legali-
ties of documentation, see a research librarian.
Chapter 9 Technical Research284
Certainly some plagiarism occurs when unscrupulous writers intentionally copy the
writing of others without acknowledging sources. However, most plagiarism results from
sloppy work during the research and writing process. Described next are two common
types of unintentional plagiarism. Although the errors are unintentional—that is, the
writer did not intend to cheat—both result in the unacknowledged use of another per-
son’s work. That’s plagiarism.
Mike Pierson, a supervisor at M-Global’s Cleveland office, has been asked to deliver a
presentation at an upcoming conference on hybrid electric vehicles. In his last-minute rush
to complete the presentation—which will be published in a collection of papers from the
meeting—Mike is taking notes from a source in the company library. He hurriedly writes
notes from a source on a note card but fails to indicate the source. Later, when he is writing
the paper draft, he finds the card and does not know whether it contains information that
was borrowed from a source or ideas that came to him during the research process. If he
incorporates the passage into his paper without a source, he will have committed plagiarism.
In our second case, Mike transfers a direct quotation from a source into a computer
document file but forgets to include quotation marks. If he were to incorporate the quo-
tation into his presentation later with the source citation but without quotation marks,
he would have plagiarized. Why? Because he would be presenting the exact words of
another writer as his own paraphrase. The passage would give the appearance of being his
own words that are supported by the ideas of another, when in fact the passage is a direct
quote. Again, remember that the test for plagiarism is not one’s intent; it is the result.
The next section shows you how to avoid plagiarism by completing the research process
carefully. In particular, it focuses on a methodical process that involves (1) bibliography
notes, (2) a rough outline, (3) notes of three main kinds, (4) a final outline, and (5) drafts.
Selecting and Following a Documentation System
Documentation refers to the mechanical system you use to cite sources from which you
borrow information. This section briefly compares documentation styles from three im-
portant style manuals—from the previously mentioned APA, the Modern Language As-
sociation (MLA), and the Council of Science Editors (CSE)—and provides examples for
the most common citations. For complete details about a particular documentation system
you are using, consult one of the manuals in the list that follows or consult the Web site of
the organization that publishes the manual. Pay special attention to new guidelines these
manuals may provide for documenting information from online databases and the Internet.
There are almost as many styles for documenting research as there are professional or-
ganizations, but all have the same goal of showing readers the sources from which you gath-
ered information. One of your early steps in research is to determine which style manual to
use. Often your instructors select a discipline-specific style manual. Style manuals guide the
writer through the editorial rules governing everything from use of headers and pagination
and graphic and text layout to managing data display and, of course, the rules for document-
ing sources. Style manuals are regularly revised by the organizations that publish them. One
of the areas of greatest changes is the rules for citing electronic resources. As the variety
and use of electronic materials continue to evolve, so, too, do the style manuals. Be sure
to check the edition of the style manual you are using to make sure it is the latest available.
285Using Borrowed Information Correctly
Following are just a few documentation manuals commonly used in business, indus-
try, and the professions. You can often locate useful tips and examples at the Web sites
maintained by each of these organizations in addition to the purchasing information or the
style manual itself.
American Psychological Association (APA)
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th ed. 2010.
Council of Science Editors (CSE)
Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers, 7th ed. 2006.
Modern Language Association (MLA)
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th ed. 2009.
University of Chicago Press
A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 7th ed., 2007.
University of Chicago Press
Chicago Manual of Style, 16th ed. 2010. Also noteworthy:
University of Wisconsin’s Writing Center
Writer’s Handbook
Web site: http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook
Purdue Online Writing Lab
Web site: http://owl.english.purdue.edu
We focus briefly on the APA, MLA, and CSE manuals and compare documentation styles
for citing works. The three systems share some characteristics. Each uses parenthetical refer-
ences in the body of the report that lead the reader to a separate works-cited or reference
page. Each system cites the author’s name and either the publication year (APA and CSE) or
the relevant page number where the fact, quote, or observation can be located (MLA). Fre-
quently, the content of the parenthetical references is blended into the text with perhaps only
the date or page in parentheses. The works-cited or reference page is arranged alphabetically
by the author’s last name for APA and MLA. CSE uses a numbered bibliography system.
CSE offers three style choices: the name–year system, the citation–sequence system,
and the citation–name system. The name–year system is similar to APA style, using a par-
enthetical reference to the date. In the citation–sequence system and the citation–name
system, the parenthetical citation refers to a numbered list of citations at the end of the
document. For the citation–sequence system, the sources in the bibliography are num-
bered sequentially in the order in which they appear in the document. In the citation–
name system, the sources in the bibliography are alphabetized by the authors’ last names,
and then numbered in that order. When using CSE, you must determine which system is
preferred—the name–year system, the citation–sequence system, or the citation–author
system. Check with your instructor or editor.
There are significant and subtle variations in parenthetical entries and workscited list-
ings when the style manuals are closely compared. The Handbook in Appendix A offers a
few basic examples. Writers must consult the style manual itself for a thorough discussion.
Chapter 9 Technical Research286
>>> Reporting Your
Research
Although you may occasionally conduct workplace
research for your own use, you will usually be ex-
pected to share your results with others. The written
formats for sharing research include reports, which
are discussed in Chapters 10 and 11; proposals and
white papers, which are discussed in Chapter 12; and
presentations within your organization, to clients, or
to other members of your profession, which are dis-
cussed in Chapter 15.
ABC Format for Technical Research
The ABC format offers an effective way to organize your presentation of your research,
whether you are presenting it in a report, a proposal, an article in a professional magazine
or journal, or even a presentation at a professional conference. The abstract identifies the
problem you are discussing and provides your reader the background for the problem that
you are discussing. This should include a review of the pub-
lished research, often referred to as a literature review. Many of
the research papers you write for school will be literature re-
views of articles and books you have read about a topic. The
body explains your methodology, or how you gathered data
from your primary sources, and presents, analyzes, and dis-
cusses your results. The conclusion identifies your most im-
portant findings. It may also recommend actions to be taken,
or it may recommend further research.
See Model 9–1 on pages 295–299 for Tanya Grant’s com-
plete memo report, which cites research.
Writing Research Abstracts
The term abstract has been used throughout this book to de-
scribe the summary component of any technical document.
As the first part of the ABC pattern, it gives decision makers
the most important information they need. However, here
we use abstract for a narrower purpose: It is a stand-alone
summary that provides readers with a capsule version of a
piece of research, such as an article or a book. This section
(1) describes the two main types of research abstracts, with
examples of each and (2) gives five guidelines for writing
research abstracts.
ABC Format: Research
■ ABSTRACT: Provides the background the
reader needs to understand and evaluate
the research.
• Identifies the question, problem, or issue
being researched.
• Reviews the published research about the
topic, or secondary sources.
• Overviews the organizational plan of the
document.
■ BODY: Presents and discusses the findings.
• Explains the methodology used to gather
information from primary sources.
• Presents the results, using tables, charts,
and graphs as necessary.
• Interprets the findings through analysis
and discussion.
■ CONCLUSION: Identifies the most impor-
tant findings and explains the implications
of the findings.
• May include recommendations.
• May make a prediction.
lightpoet/Shutterstock
287Reporting Your Research
Types of Abstracts
There are two types of abstracts: informational and descriptive. As the following defini-
tions indicate, informational abstracts include more detail than descriptive abstracts:
Informational Abstract
■ Format: This type of abstract includes the major points from the original document.
■ Purpose: Given their level of detail, informational abstracts give readers enough
information to grasp the main findings, conclusions, and recommendations of the
original document.
■ Length: Although longer than descriptive abstracts, informational abstracts are still
best kept to one to three paragraphs.
■ Example: A sentence from such an abstract might read, “The article notes that func-
tional résumés should include a career objective, academic experience, and a list of the
applicant’s skills.” (See corresponding example in definition of a descriptive abstract.)
Descriptive Abstract
■ Format: This type of abstract gives only main topics of the document, without
supplying supporting details such as findings, conclusions, or recommendations.
■ Purpose: Given their lack of detail, descriptive abstracts can help readers decide only
whether they want to read the original document.
■ Length: Their lack of detail usually ensures that descriptive abstracts are no more
than one paragraph.
■ Example: A sentence from such an abstract might read, “The article lists the main
parts of the functional résumé.” (See corresponding example in definition of an
informational abstract.)
You may wonder when you’ll need to write abstracts during your career. First, your
boss may ask you to summarize some research, perhaps because he or she lacks your tech-
nical background. Second, you may want to collect abstracts as part of your own research
project. In either case, you must write abstracts that reflect the tone and content of the
original document accurately.
Assume, for example, that your M-Global supervisor asked you to read some influ-
ential research on information design. Later, your boss plans to use your abstracts to get
an overview of the field and to decide which, if any, of the original full-length documents
should be read in full. The examples that follow show both informational and descrip-
tive abstracts of an article by Janice Redish. The informational abstract appeared in a
bibliographic article that listed important publications about technical communication.
The descriptive abstract appeared at the beginning of Redish’s article in the journal Tech-
nical Communication. Note that the informational abstract summarizes Redish’s findings,
whereas the descriptive abstract lists two key points in the article.
Informational Abstract:
Redish, Janice C. 2000. “What is information design?” Technical communication
47, no. 2: l63–l66.
Chapter 9 Technical Research288
Redish offers two meanings of information design: “the overall process of de-
veloping a successful document” and “the way the information is presented on the
page or screen” (p. l63 ). In either case, Redish observes, the objective is “to de-
velop a document (or communication) that works for its users” through consider-
ing the users’ needs, their ability to understand what they find, and their capacity
to use their findings (p. 163 ). The author indicates four vital concerns in infor-
mation design: planning questions and front-end analysis; iterative evaluation;
the interaction and equal importance of writing and presentation; and planning
question-based guidelines for design purposes (p. l63 ). The two critical trends in
technical communication Redish indicates are the Web and single sourcing; the
visual aspects of the former and the multiple uses of the latter constrain informa-
tion design, and communicators must consider the “whole”—process and prod-
uct, writing and design—to create successful documents.2
Descriptive Abstract:
1. Defines two meanings of information design: the overall process and the pre-
sentation of information on page and on screen
2. Predicts the future importance of both meanings of information design, in
terms of design for the Web and single-sourcing3
Guidelines for Writing Research Abstracts
The following guidelines help you (1) locate the important information in a document
written by you or someone else and (2) present it with clarity and precision in an abstract.
In every case, you must present a capsule version of the document in language the reader
can understand. The ultimate goal is to save the readers’ time.
>> Abstracting Guideline 1: Highlight the Main Points
This guideline applies whether you are abstracting a document written by you or one writ-
ten by someone else. To extract information to be used in your abstract, follow these steps:
1. Find a purpose statement in the first few paragraphs.
2. Skim the entire piece quickly, getting a sense of its organization.
3. Read the piece more carefully, underlining main points and placing comments in margins.
4. Pay special attention to information gained from headings, first sentences of
paragraphs, listings, graphics, and beginning and ending sections.
>> Abstracting Guideline 2: Sketch an Outline
From the notes and marginal comments gathered in Abstracting Guideline 1, write a brief
outline that contains the main points of the piece. If you are dealing with a well-organized
piece of writing, it is an easy task; if not, it is a challenge.
2
G. J. Alred. (2003). Essential works on technical communication. Technical Communication, 50(4), 585–616.
3J. C. Redish. (2000). What is information design? Technical Communication, 47(2), 163–166.
289Chapter Summary
>> Abstracting Guideline 3: Begin with a Short Purpose Statement
Both descriptive and informational abstracts should start with a concise overview sentence.
This sentence acquaints the reader with the document’s main purpose. Stylistically, it
should include an action verb and a clear subject. Following are three options that can be
adapted to any abstract:
■ The article “Recycle Now!” states that Georgia must intensify its effort to recycle all
types of waste.
■ In “Recycle Now!” Laurie Hellman claims that Georgia must intensify its effort to
recycle all types of waste.
■ According to “Recycle Now!” Georgians must intensify their efforts to recycle all
types of waste.
>> Abstracting Guideline 4: Maintain a Fluid Style
One potential hazard of the abstracting process is that you may produce disjointed and
awkward paragraphs. You can reduce the possibility of this stylistic flaw by following
these steps:
■ Write in complete sentences, without deleting articles (a, an, the)
■ Use transitional words and phrases between sentences
■ Follow the natural logic and flow of the original document itself
>> Abstracting Guideline 5: Avoid Technical
Terms Readers May Not Know
Another potential hazard is that the abstract writer, in pursuit
of brevity, will use terms unfamiliar to the readers of the ab-
stract. This flaw is especially bothersome to readers who do
not have access to the original document. As a general rule,
use no technical terms that may be unclear to your intended
audience. If a term or two are needed, provide a brief defini-
tion in the abstract itself.
Note, also, that abstracts that might become separated from
the original document should include a bibliographic citation