this is my material for the study of an exam remove redundant information and concisely explain evrything i mean every bit of information " Research Methodology
Module-1 :
Meaning, Objectives and Characteristics of research - Research methods Vs Methodology -Types of research - Descriptive Vs. Analytical, Applied Vs. Fundamental, Quantitative Vs. Qualitative, Conceptual Vs. Empirical - Research process - Criteria of good research -Developing a research plan.

1.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH

	Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. 
	Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
	The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
	Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” 
	D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”
	the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing  the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not beendiscovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think ofresearch objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulativeresearch studies);

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testingresearch studies).


1.3 MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.

1.4 Characteristic of Research:
1. Research is a Systematic and critical Investigation, into a Phenomenon. 
2. It adopts Scientific method.
 3. It is Objective and Logical.
 4. It is based up on Observable Experience or empirical evidence.
 5. Research is directed towards finding answers to Pertinent questions and solutions to Problems. 
6. It emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or theories.

1.5 Research Methods versus Methodology

Research Methods: Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed as research methods.
Research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to  arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.

Research Methodology: Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques
but also the methodology.

The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method ortechnique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of beingevaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.

1.6 Significance of Research

Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organisation.
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative work;
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories.

1.7 TYPES OF RESEARCH 

The basic types of research are as follows:
	Descriptive vs. Analytical
	Applied vs. Fundamental
	Quantitative vs. Qualitative
	Conceptual vs. Empirical
	Some Other Types of Research

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical:
	Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.

	The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.

	Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data.

	The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.

	In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.



2. Applied vs. Fundamental :

	Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization.

	whereasfundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”

	The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.


3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative :

	Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

	Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.

	Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.

4. Conceptual vs. Empirical:

	Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

	On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.

	Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.






5. Some Other Types of Research:
All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.

1.8Research and Scientific Method
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct
statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.

Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by the demands of logic and objective procedure.”

1.9 Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The chart shown in Figure 1.1 well illustrates a research process.
The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process:

	formulating the research problem; 
	extensive literature survey;
	developing the hypothesis;
	preparing the research design;
	determining sample design;
	collecting the data;
	execution of the project;
	analysis of data; 
	hypothesis testing;
	generalisations and interpretation, and
	preparation of the report or presentation of the results,
  i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached.
 
1. Formulating the research problem:
There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up.

2. Extensive literature survey:
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval.

3.Developing the hypothesis:
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.

How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the followingapproach:

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives inseeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.

4.Preparing the research design:
The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description,
                               (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

5. Determining sample design:
   A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe.
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected.
(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as  systematic sampling.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute
a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample.
(v) Quota sampling:
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling:
(vii) Multi-stage sampling:
(viii) Sequential sampling:

6.Collecting the data:
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
(i) By observation:(ii) Through personal interview:(iii) Through telephone interviews:(iv) By mailing of questionnaires:(v) Through schedules:


7.Execution of the project:Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be
adequate and dependable.

8. Analysis of data:
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.

9. Hypothesis testing:
After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose.

10.Generalisations and interpretation:
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.

11.Preparation of the report or presentation of the results:
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:
  (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end matter.
 In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements    and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research andan explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scopeof the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findingsand recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, theyshould be summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence andbroken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down theresults of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
1. At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should alsobe given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vagueexpressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information
more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experiencedin conducting research operations may as well be stated.
1.10  Criteria of Good Research

One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:11
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research12 as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

1.11 Developing a research plan:
	A description of the research problem; 
	An argument as to why the problem is interesting and important; 
	A review of the literature relevant to the research problem; 
	A description of the way in which the problem will be approached and the proposed research methodology;

1.12 Problems Encountered by Researchers in India
Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several problems.
Some of the important problems are as follows:
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side and business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other side.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in supplying the needed nformation to researchers.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate information.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common.
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new  Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government and other agencies doing this job in our country.
10. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the process of data collection and related things.

M1 topic- Developing a research plan:
After identifying and defining the problem as also accomplishing the relating task, researcher must arrange his ideas in order and write them in the form of an experimental plan or what can be described as ‘Research Plan’. This is essential specially for new researcher because of the following:
(a) It helps him to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him to look for
flaws and inadequacies, if any.
(b) It provides an inventory of what must be done and which materials have to be collected as
a preliminary step.
(c) It is a document that can be given to others for comment. 
Research plan must contain the following items.
1. Research objective should be clearly stated in a line or two which tells exactly what it is that the researcher expects to do.
2. The problem to be studied by researcher must be explicitly stated so that one may know what information is to be obtained for solving the problem.
3. Each major concept which researcher wants to measure should be defined in operational terms in context of the research project.
4. The plan should contain the method to be used in solving the problem. An overall description of the approach to be adopted is usually given and assumptions, if any, of the concerning method to be used are clearly mentioned in the research plan.
5. The plan must also state the details of the techniques to be adopted.
6. A clear mention of the population to be studied should be made.
7. The plan must also contain the methods to be used in processing the data.
8. Results of pilot test, if any, should be reported. Time and cost budgets for the research
Project should also be prepared and laid down in the plan itself.





Module-2:
 Defining the research problem - Selecting the problem - Necessity of defining the problem -Techniques involved in defining the problem - Importance of literature review in defining a problem - Survey of literature - Primary and secondary sources - Reviews, treatise, monographs patents - web as a source - searching the web - Identifying gap areas from literature review -Development of working hypothesis.


2.1 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
We can, thus, state the components1 of a research problem as under:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes   to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible  alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the context of a given environment.

2.2 SELECTING THE PROBLEM

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research guide in this connection.

The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a researchproblem or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task tothrow any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv)The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a researcher must ask himself the following questions:
	Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
	Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?


	Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate
in research as subjects?
If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may become sure so far as
the practicability of the study is concerned.
(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.
If the subject for research is selected properly by observing the above mentioned points, the research will not be a boring drudgery, rather it will be love’s labour. 

2.3 NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM
The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored . What techniques are to be used for the purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution. It is only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out the research design and can smoothly carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research.

2.4 TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this a frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one after the other: 
(i)	statement of the problem in a general way; 
(ii)	understanding the nature of the problem; 
(iii)	surveying the available literature 
(iv) developing the ideas through discussions; and
      (v)rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
A brief description of all these points will be helpful.
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way:First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey.
(ii)Understanding the nature of the problem:The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss itwith those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with whatobjectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again all
those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem.

(iii)Surveying the available literature:All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems.


(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions:Discussion concerning a problem often produces
useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher
must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same
area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey.

(v) Rephrasing the research problem:Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the
environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over the
problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing
the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task.

In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while defining a research problem:
(a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
(b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly stated.
(c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided.
(d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
(e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.


2.5 IMPORTANCE OFLITERATUREREVIEW IN DEFINING A PROBLEM:

A research literature review is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners.
A research literature review can be divided into seven tasks:
1.	Selecting research questions. A research question is a precisely stated question that guides the review.
2.	Selecting bibliographic or article database, web sites, and other sources. A bibliographic database is a collection of articles.
3.	Choosing search terms. Search terms are the words and phrases that you use to get appropriate articles, books, and reports.
4.	Applying practical screening criteria. Preliminary literature searches always yield many articles, but only a few relevant.
5.	Applying methodological screening criteria. Methodological criteria include criteria for evaluating the adequacy of a study’s coverage and its scientific quality.
6.	Doing the review. Reliable and valid reviews involve using a standardized form for abstracting data from articles, training reviewers to do the abstraction, monitoring the quality of the review, and pilot testing the process.
7.	Synthesizing the results. Literature review results may be synthesized descriptively. Descriptive syntheses are interpretations of the review’s findings based on the reviewer’s experience and the quality and content of the available literature.

 
 
When writing a literature review, the author shall consider these things:
•	tightly associate the review contents and context with the research questions
•	emphasizes the relationships between research problems and the outcomes of the literature review.
•	identify areas of controversy in the literature.
•	list the questions that need further research.
•	write solid and avoid abstract to show a full analysis path
•	write directly on the topic or sub-topics.
•	include an overall introduction and conclusion to state the scope of the research coverage.
•	formulate the review questions and problems.



Purposes

A literature review goes beyond the information search. It helps you identify and articulate the relationships between the literature and your field of researchhave summarized following basic purposes for a literature review:
•	It provides a context for the research,
•	It justifies the research,
•	It ensures the research has not been done before (or that it is not just a "replication study") or there are gaps in previous researches,
•	It shows where the research fits into the existing body of knowledge,
•	It enables the researcher to learn from previous theory on the subject,
•	It illustrates how the subject has been studied previously,
•	It highlights flaws in previous research,
•	It outlines gaps in previous research,
•	It shows that the work is adding to the understanding and knowledge of the field, and
•	It assists on refining, refocusing or even changing the topic.
Besides these basic points, a literature review can also help the researcher to
•	identify the research trend in this area,
•	determine the definitions of the main terms appeared in previous researches
•	establish the knowledge base on the subject
•	adjust the scope of the research
Steps in the Literature Review Process
1. Identify a research topic. 
2. Review secondary sources to get an overview of the topic: For example, look at the Review of Educational Research, Harvard Educational Review, Psychological Bulletin, Review of Research in Education, or the Annual Review of Psychology. 
3. Develop a search strategy and use appropriate preliminary sources and primary research journals (see Boxes 3.2, 3.4, and 3.6), check the references at the end of relevant research publications, access personal networks, and/or build relation¬ships with appropriate community representatives. 
4. Conduct the search and select specific articles to review. 
5. Obtain full text references (e.g., journal articles or books). 
6. Read articles and prepare bibliographic information and notes on each article. 
7. Evaluate the research reports. 
8. Synthesize your findings. 
9. Use the literature review to gain a conceptual framework and to formulate research questions, hypotheses, or both.



2.6 Survey of literature

o	Before taking up the work on a research problem one has to know whether any work was reported on the same problem.
o	If so he should know the extent to which the work was carried out.
o	He should also know the work on the related field.
o	Unless one knows the details regarding the work done in the earlier years in the same or related problem it is not possible to carry out the work.
o	The total body of chemical/physics knowledge called the literature is located on the combined shelves of all the chemical and physics libraries in the world.
o	The process of extracting the information about a research problem or a compound or a method etc., from the literature is called the literature survey.
o	Literature survey is not difficult and nowadays the literature search has become very simple.
The literature can be divided into two broad categories as • Primary sources • Secondary sources
>Primary Source Literature:Primary source literature refers to original source materials created without use of interpretation and review and not previously published in any format. Primary source literature also includes materials that contain information recorded at the time of creation. Some original source material is subject to the peer review process. Peer review is defined as an organized procedure carried out by a select committee of professionals in evaluating the performance of other professionals in meeting the standards of their specialty. Review by peers is used by editors in the evaluation of articles and other papers submitted for publication. Most journal articles are subject to the peer review process.
• Conference Abstracts • Data Sets • Dissertations and Theses (if original research) • Government Documents • Journal Articles • Laboratory Notebooks • Manuscript Letters • Oral histories • Patents • Rapid Communications (letters to journals or brief communications) • Speeches • Statistics • Trial Transcripts.
>Secondary Source Literature: Secondary source literature refers to materials that are interpretations or evaluations of primary source materials using scholarly analysis and provide access to primary source literature. Secondary source literature also includes journal articles or dissertations that review or evaluate previous research.
Almanacs • Atlases • Books/Monographs • Citation Indexes/Databases • Commentaries • Directories • Dissertations and Theses (if include review material) • Encyclopedias • Journal Articles • Popular Press • Practice Guidelines • Reviews of the Literature • Trade Publications • Treatises.
What is a patent?
an arrangement between the inventor and the  state such that the inventor receives a limited-time monopoly to exploit the invention.
Patents are the most important form of publication of industrial research
Monograph
A monograph is a specialist work of writing on a single subject or an aspect of a subject, usually by a single author.
The term "monographia" is derived from the Greek 'mono' (single) and grapho (to write), meaning "writing on a single subject". Unlike a textbook, which surveys the state of knowledge in a field, the main purpose of a monograph is to present primary research and original scholarship. This research is presented at length, distinguishing a monograph from an article. For these reasons, publication of a monograph is commonly regarded as vital for career progression in many academic disciplines. Intended for other researchers and bought primarily by libraries, monographs are generally published as individual volumes in a short print run

Treatise
A treatise is a formal and systematic written discourse on some subject, generally longer and treating it in greater depth than an essay, and more concerned with investigating or exposing the principles of the subject.

web as a source

The World Wide Web provides access to vast amounts of information of many differentsorts (Ó Dochartaigh 2002). You can search the holdings of other libraries and downloadthe complete text of government reports, some conference papers, and newspaper articles.You can find policies of local governments, descriptions of individual social scientistsand particular research projects, and postings of advocacy groups.

searching the web
Clarify your goals.
Quality is not guaranteed.
Anticipate change.
One size does not fit all.
Be concerned about generalizability.
Evaluate the sites.
Avoid Web addiction.
Cite your sources.








Identifying gap areas from literature review
Once you have found a promising research area of interest, you must identify research questions that are not only unresolved but whose exploration can meaningfully contribute to existing theory and/or practice. In this section, you will learn to identify such promising research questions by avoiding common beginner's mistakes, understanding how to identify a "gap" in the scholarly literature, and making sure it is worthwhile to try to fill the gap.

Development of working hypothesis

After extensive literature survey researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypothesis. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypothesis are developed is particularly important sine they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which test must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which tests must be conducted in the analysis. In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and the keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facts of the problem. It also indicated the type of data required and the type of methods of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.



















Module 3:
Research design and methods – Research design – Basic Principles- Need of research design  -Features of good design – Important concepts relating to research design – Observation and Facts, Laws and Theories, Prediction and explanation, Induction, Deduction, Development of Models - Developing a research plan - Exploration, Description, Diagnosis, and Experimentation - Determining experimental and sample designs.


3.1 Research design and methods

The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation of
the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”.

Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design.
“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”

In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes
the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.

As such the design includes anoutline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications tothe final analysis of data. More explicitly, the desing decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research design into the following parts:
(a)the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study;
(b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be made;
(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
(d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the  sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design as
under:

(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem.
(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the data.
(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints.


In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the population to be studied;
(a)	and (d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

3.2 Need of research design
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, 
There by making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure
of effort, time and money.
we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our research project. Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the  availability of staff, time and money. Preparation of the research design should be done with great care as any error in it may upset the entire project. 
Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at and as such
constitutes the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work.

3.3 Features of good design
A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many investigations.
Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied.

research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors:
(i) the means of obtaining information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) the availability of time and money for the research work.

If the research study happens to be an exploratory or a formulative one, wherein the major emphasis is on discovery of ideas and insights, the research design most appropriate must be flexible enough to permit the consideration of many different aspects of a phenomenon.

3.4 Important concepts relating to research design 

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various concepts
relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.

1. Dependent and independent variables:A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables.  Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called ‘continuous variables’.
2. Extraneous variable:Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts.
A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.

3. Control:One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.

4. Confounded relationship:When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s). 

5. Research hypothesis:When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific
methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable.
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.

7. Experimental and control groups:In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.

8. Treatments:The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually referred to as ‘treatments’. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the usual studies programme and the special studies programme.

9. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment.

10. Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very carefully.














Module 6:
IPRs- Invention and Creativity- Intellectual Property-Importance and Protection of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)- A brief summary of: Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks, Industrial Designs- Integrated Circuits-Geographical Indications-Establishment of WIPO-Application and Procedures.




6.1 IPRs- Invention and Creativity-
Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce.

IP is protected in law by, for example, patents, copyright and trademarks, which enable people to earn recognition or financial benefit from what they invent or create. By striking the right balance between the interests of innovators and the wider public interest, the IP system aims to foster an environment in which creativity and innovation can flourish.

Intellectual property rights (IPR) have been defined as ideas, inventions, and creative expressions based on which there is a public willingness to bestow the status of property.
 IPR provide certain exclusive rights to the inventors or creators of that property, in order to enable them to reap commercial benefits from their creative efforts or reputation. There are several types of intellectual property protection like patent, copyright, trademark, etc. 
Patent is recognition for an invention, which satisfies the criteria of global novelty, non-obviousness, and industrial application. IPR is prerequisite for better identification, planning, commercialization, rendering, and thereby protection of invention or creativity. 
Each industry should evolve its own IPR policies, management style, strategies, and so on depending on its area of specialty. 
Intellectual property is divided into two categories:
1.	Industrial Property includes patents for inventions, trademarks, industrial designs and geographical indications. 
2.	Copyright covers literary works (such as novels, poems and plays), films, music, artistic works (e.g., drawings, paintings, photographs and sculptures) and architectural design. Rights related to copyright include those of performing artists in their performances, producers of phonograms in their recordings, and broadcasters in their radio and television programs.
Types of Intellectual Properties and their Description
Originally, only patent, trademarks, and industrial designs were protected as ‘Industrial Property’, but now the term ‘Intellectual Property’ has a much wider meaning. IPR enhances technology advancement in the following ways
	it provides a mechanism of handling infringement, piracy, and unauthorized use
	it provides a pool of information to the general public since all forms of IP are published except in case of trade secrets.
IP protection can be sought for a variety of intellectual efforts including
	Patents: A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention. Generally speaking, a patent provides the patent owner with the right to decide how - or whether - the invention can be used by others. In exchange for this right, the patent owner makes technical information about the invention publicly available in the published patent document.
	Copyright is a legal term used to describe the rights that creators have over their literary and artistic works. Works covered by copyright range from books, music, paintings, sculpture and films, to computer programs, databases, advertisements, maps and technical drawings.
	A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises. Trademarks date back to ancient times when craftsmen used to put their signature or "mark" on their products.
	An industrial design constitutes the ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an article. A design may consist of three-dimensional features, such as the shape or surface of an article, or of two-dimensional features, such as patterns, lines or color.
	Geographical indications and appellations of origin are signs used on goods that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities, a reputation or characteristics that are essentially attributable to that place of origin. Most commonly, a geographical indication includes the name of the place of origin of the goods.
6.2 Intellectual Property-Importance
Positive Impacts:
 IPRs play very important role in the progress and development of the society. IPRs not only provide incentive to the creator of his creation but also lead to a healthy competition among creators which ultimately leads to the progress of the society. Some of the positive impacts of IPR are:
	IPRs are important for free flow for energy for enhancing invention and research. IPRs provide incentive to the individuals for new creations. IPRs provide due recognition to the creators and inventors. These laws provide them both the means and incentive to create newer works, products and services.
	Intellectual Property Rights enhance innovation and creativity by protecting the rights of inventors and artists. Since the filing of patents requires the disclosure of information that would enable others to replicate the inventor’s discovery, others can use and build upon this shared knowledge to create newer and/or better products. IPRs ensure material reward for intellectual property.
	 IPRs ensure the availability of the genuine and original products. Intellectual Property rights, such as patent and copyrights, are an important means used by firms to help protect their investments in innovation.
	IPRs may be helpful in the solution to global challenges like in the field of alternate sources of energy, new products to the farmers and development of low cost drugs for poor people.
	IPRs are necessary to stimulate economic growth. Protection of intellectual property rights is essential in maintaining economic growth. They encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development. Effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally.
Negative Impacts:
Though the purpose of IPRs is to enhance innovation and creativity by protecting the rights of creators and leading to the growth and advancement of human beings but do IPRs actually play a constructive role in the progress and development of society and mankind or it is a form of intellectual protectionism or a form of a temporary monopoly enforced by the state, is an issue of great concern.
They are considered to benefitting concentrated i.e. IPRs confer authority over resources to a few. The few gain power over the goals of many. The objective of IPRs is to protect the public interest but, in fact, the public interest is harmed.
6.3 Protection of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)-
Intellectual property rights are like any other property right. They allow creators, or owners, of patents, trademarks or copyrighted works to benefit from their own work or investment in a creation. These rights are outlined in Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which provides for the right to benefit from the protection of moral and material interests resulting from authorship of scientific, literary or artistic productions.
Intellectual property rights are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds. They usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time.
Intellectual property rights are customarily divided into two main areas:
(i) Copyright and rights related to copyright. 
The rights of authors of literary and artistic works (such as books and other writings, musical compositions, paintings, sculpture, computer programs and films) are protected by copyright, for a minimum period of 50 years after the death of the author.
Also protected through copyright and related (sometimes referred to as “neighbouring”) rights are the rights of performers (e.g. actors, singers and musicians), producers of phonograms (sound recordings) and broadcasting organizations. The main social purpose of protection of copyright and related rights is to encourage and reward creative work.
 (ii) Industrial property. 
Industrial property can usefully be divided into two main areas:
•	One area can be characterized as the protection of distinctive signs, in particular trademarks (which distinguish the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other undertakings) and geographical indications (which identify a good as originating in a place where a given characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin).

The protection of such distinctive signs aims to stimulate and ensure fair competition and to protect consumers, by enabling them to make informed choices between various goods and services. The protection may last indefinitely, provided the sign in question continues to be distinctive.
•	Other types of industrial property are protected primarily to stimulate innovation, design and the creation of technology. In this category fall inventions (protected by patents), industrial designs and trade secrets.

The social purpose is to provide protection for the results of investment in the development of new technology, thus giving the incentive and means to finance research and development activities.

A functioning intellectual property regime should also facilitate the transfer of technology in the form of foreign direct investment, joint ventures and licensing.

The protection is usually given for a finite term (typically 20 years in the case of patents).

6.3 A brief summary of: 
6.3.1 Patents:A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, which is a product or a process that provides a new way of doing something, or offers a new technical solution to a problem. 
 An  invention may be defined as the idea of making a new and useful article, method or substance Patent protection means that the invention cannot be commercially made, used, distributed or sold without the patent owner's consent. A patent owner has the right to decide who may or may not use the patented invention for the period in which the invention is protected.
 The patent owner may give permission to, or license, other parties to use the invention on mutually agreed terms. He may also sell the right to the invention to someone else, who will then become the new owner of the patent. A Patent is granted for a period of 20 years from the date of filing the application of patent. Once a patent expires, the protection ends, and an invention enters the public domain, that is, the owner no longer holds exclusive rights to the invention.

 6.3.2 Copyrights:Copyright is a legal term describing the rights given to creators for their literary and artistic works. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or works. 
The works covered by copyright include literary works such as novels, poems, plays, reference works, newspapers and computer programs; databases; films, musical compositions, and choreography; artistic works such as paintings, drawings, photographs and sculpture; architecture; and advertisements, maps and technical drawings.
 The reproduction in various forms such as copying, printing, recording, public performance or adaptation are prohibited under these rights. 
Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed (Simon,2001). This right provides economic right to the creator that is the financial benefit for a period lasting of fifty years after the creator's death.
6.3.3 Trademarks:A trademark refers to a recognizable sign, design or expression which identifies products or services of a particular source from those of others. It can be patented like invention and industrial designs. 
The trade mark can be a combination of words, letters, numbers, drawings, images, symbols and even sounds. These are generally registered for seven years but they can be renewed indefinitely by applying again. 
It provides protection to the owner of the mark by ensuring the exclusive right to use it to identify goods or services or to authorize another to use it, in return for payment. It helps consumers identify and purchase a product or service because of its nature and quality, indicated by its unique trademark.
6.3.4 Industrial Designs:An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of patterns and colors in three dimensional forms, containing aesthetic value. 
It can be a two or three dimensional pattern, used to produce a product. Even the traditional craft items like hand-woven articles like carpets, cotton bed covers can also be registered for protection as an Industrial design (Kannan, 2010). 
The design has to be registered against imitation and unauthorized copying. The protection is provided for five years and it can be renewed for fifteen years.
6.3.5 Integrated Circuits:Semiconductor Integrated Circuit is a product, having transistors and other circuitry elements, which are inseparably formed on a semiconductor material or an insulating material. The initial term of registration is for 10 years; thereafter it may be renewed from time to time.
6.3.6 Geographical Indications:Geographical indicators are the signs used on goods that have a specific geographical origin. 
A GI indicates that a product comes from a certain place and has special qualities due to that place of origin whichcould be a village or town, a region or a country. 
It is an exclusive right given to a particular community and thus the benefits of its registration are shared by the all members of the community. It may be used by all producers or traders whose products originate from that place and which share typical characteristics. 
Well-known examples of GIs include Bordeaux (wine), Darjeeling (tea), Chanderi (sarees), Kullu shawls and Tuscany (olive oil).
6.4 Establishment of WIPO-Application and Procedures.
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is one of the 17 specialized agencies of the United Nations.
WIPO was created in 1967 "to encourage creative activity, to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world."
Objectives and main activities
The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)[1] is the United Nations specialised agency that coordinates international treaties regarding intellectual property rights. Its 184 member states comprise over 90% of the countries of the world, who participate in WIPO to negotiate treaties and set policy on intellectual property matters such as patents, copyrights and trademarks.
WIPO was established in 1967 by the WIPO Convention, which states that WIPO’s objective was “to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world …” (WIPO, 1967, Article 3). Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, WIPO currently administers 24 treaties and facilitates the negotiation of several proposed treaties covering copyrights, patents and trademarks.
Although WIPO was originally established explicitly to promote the protection of intellectual property, when it joined the UN family in 1974 its objective had to be redefined as a public-interest or humanitarian goal. Article 1 of the key agreement establishing WIPO’s relationship to the UN restates WIPO’s purpose as: “for promoting creative intellectual activity and for facilitating the transfer of technology related to industrial property to the developing countries in order to accelerate economic, social and cultural development…” (WIPO, 1974).
The five strategic goals laid out by WIPO in its 2005-2006 programme and budget are:
	To promote an extensive intellectual property culture
	To integrate intellectual property into national development policies and programmes
	To develop international intellectual property laws and standards (partially defined as promoting laws forbidding the circumvention of technological restrictions)
	To deliver quality services in global intellectual property protection systems
	To increase the efficiency of WIPO’s management and support processes.


WIPO ADR Procedures
 
Mediation: a non-binding procedure in which a neutral intermediary, the mediator, assists the parties in reaching a settlement of the dispute. (Depending on the parties' choice, mediation may be followed, in the absence of a settlement, by arbitration, expedited arbitration or expert determination.)

Arbitration: a neutral procedure in which the dispute is submitted to one or more arbitrators who make a binding decision on the dispute. (Depending on the parties' choice, arbitration may be preceded by mediation or expert determination.)

Expedited Arbitration: an arbitration procedure that is carried out in a short time and at a reduced cost. (Depending on the parties' choice, expedited arbitration may be preceded by mediation or expert determination.)

Expert Determination: a procedure in which a dispute or a difference between the parties is submitted to one or more experts who make a determination on the matter referred to by the parties. The determination is binding, unless the parties have agreed otherwise. (Depending on the parties' choice, expert determination may be preceded by mediation or followed by (expedited) arbitration.)


Module 4:
Sampling design - Steps in sampling design - Characteristics of a good sample design - Types of
sample designs - Measurement and scaling techniques - Methods of data collection – Collection of primary data - Data collection instruments


Introduction :A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. 

Sample  design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the
sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. 
There are many sample designsfrom which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to applythan others. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriatefor his research study.
4.1 Steps in sampling design:
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:
(i) Type of universe:The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we  cannot have any idea about the total number of items.
(ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an individual.  The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that he has to select for his study.
(iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the population as possible.
(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum.
(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure concerning the population.
(vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself.


CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE: 
1. Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased representation
of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
2. Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result in systematic bias.
3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the sample, there may arise a systematic bias.
4. Indeterminancy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations.
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries.

4.2CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN
From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good sample design as under:
(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

4.3 Types of sample designs:

There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the representation basis and the element selection technique. On the representation basis, the sample may be probability sampling or it may be non-probability sampling. 
Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection,  whereas non-probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling. On element selection basis, the samplemay be either unrestricted or restricted. 

When each sample element is drawn individually from the population at large, then the sample so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are covered under the term ‘restricted sampling’. The following chart exhibits the sample designs as explained above. 

Thus, sample designs are basically of two types viz., non-probability sampling and probability sampling. We take up these two designs separately.
 
Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the  sample.
Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling. 
In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his choice concerning the items remains supreme.
Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under quota sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different strata, with some restrictions on how they are to be filled.
In other words, the actual selection of the items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion. This type of sampling is very convenient and is relatively inexpensive. But the samples so selected certainly do not possess the characteristic of random samples. Quota samples are essentially judgement samples and inferences drawn on their basis are not amenable to statistical treatment in a formal way.

Probability sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. 

It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process. Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected.
 The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results obtained from a random sample, and this fact brings out the superiority of random sampling design over the deliberate sampling design.

Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why random sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a representative sample.
In brief, the implications of random sampling (or simple random sampling) are:
(a) It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the sample; and   all choices are independent of one another.
(b) It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen.
 
4.4 Measurement and Scaling Techniques

MEASUREMENT SCALES :we can write that scales of measurement can be considered in terms of their mathematical properties. The most widely used classification of measurement scales are: (a) nominal scale; (b) ordinal scale; (c) interval scale; and (d) ratio scale.

(a) Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball players in order to identify them.
Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin. A nominal scale simply describes differences between things by assigning them to categories. Nominal data are, thus, counted data.

(b) Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale.
The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomena.
Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ (an equality statement is also acceptable) without our being able to state how much greater or less. The real difference between ranks 1 and 2 may be more or less than the difference between ranks 5 and 6.

(c) Interval scale: In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established as a basis for making the units equal. The units are equal only in so far as one accepts the assumptions on which the rule is based. Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero, but it is not possible to determine for them what may be called an absolute zero or the unique origin. The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic.

(d) Ratio scale: Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term ‘absolute zero’ is not as precise as it was once believed to be. We can conceive of an absolute zero of length and similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time. For example, the zero point on a centimeter scale indicates the complete absence of length or height.
Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc. are examples.

Sources of Error in Measurement
Measurement should be precise and unambiguous in an ideal research study. This objective, however,
is often not met with in entirety. As such the researcher must be aware about the sources of error in
measurement. The following are the possible sources of error in measurement.
(a) Respondent:At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative feelings or it is just possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not admit his ignorance.

(b) Situation:Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any condition which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the interviewer-respondent rapport.

(c) Measurer:The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering questions. His  behaviour, style and looks may encourage or discourage certain replies from respondents.

(d) Instrument:Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. The use of complex words, beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate
space for replies, response choice omissions, etc.

Tests of Sound Measurement
Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and practicality. In fact, these are the three major considerations one should use in evaluating a measurement tool. “Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to measure. Reliability has to do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure ... Practicality is concerned with a wide range of factors of  economy, convenience, and interpretability ...”1 We briefly take up the relevant details concerning these tests of sound measurement.
1. Test of Validity*
Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an instrument measures what
it is supposed to measure.
(i) Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of the topic under study.
(ii) Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or estimate the existence of some current condition.
Relevance: (A criterion is relevant if it is defined in terms we judge to be the proper measure.)
Freedom from bias: (Freedom from bias is attained when the criterion gives each subject an equal opportunity to score well.)
Reliability: (A reliable criterion is stable or reproducible.)
Availability: (The information specified by the criterion must be available.)

2. Test of Reliability
The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A measuring instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results. Reliable measuring instrument does contribute to validity, but a reliable instrument need not be a valid instrument.
Reliability can be improved in the following two ways:
(i) By standardising the conditions under which the measurement takes place i.e., we must ensure that external sources of variation such as boredom, fatigue, etc., are minimised to the extent possible. That will improve stability aspect.
(ii) By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from group to group, by using trained and motivated persons to conduct the research and also by broadening the sample of items used. This will improve equivalence aspect.
3. Test of Practicality
The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of economy, convenience and interpretability. From the operational point of view, the measuring instrument ought to be practical i.e., it should be economical, convenient and interpretable.

TECHNIQUE OF DEVELOPING MEASUREMENT TOOLS
The technique of developing measurement tools involves a four-stage process, consisting of the following:
(a) Concept development;
(b) Specification of concept dimensions;
(c) Selection of indicators; and
(d) Formation of index.
The first and foremost step is that of concept development which means that the researcher should arrive at an understanding of the major concepts pertaining to his study. This step of concept development is more apparent in theoretical studies than in the more pragmatic research, where the fundamental concepts are often already established.
The second step requires the researcher to specify the dimensions of the concepts that he developed in the first stage. 
Once the dimensions of a concept have been specified, the researcher must develop indicators for measuring each concept element. Indicators are specific questions, scales, or other devices by which respondent’s knowledge, opinion, expectation, etc., are measured.
The last step is that of combining the various indicators into an index, i.e., formation of an index. When we have several dimensions of a concept or different measurements of a dimension, we may need to combine them into a single index.

Scaling Classification Bases
The number assigning procedures or the scaling procedures may be broadly classified on one or
more of the following bases: (a) subject orientation; (b) response form; (c) degree of subjectivity; (d) scale properties; (e) number of dimensions and (f) scale construction techniques. 

4.5 Methods of Data Collection: 
The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design/ plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary. The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.

4.5.1 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but in case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews.*







 
there are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive researches. Important ones are: (i) observation method, (ii) interview method, (iii) through questionnaires, (iv) through schedules, and (v) other methods which include (a) warranty cards; (b) distributor audits; (c) pantry audits; (d) consumer panels; (e) using mechanical devices; (f) through projective techniques; (g) depth interviews, and (h) content analysis. We briefly take up each method separately. 

Observation Method
The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural
sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher,
when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected
to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
There are several merits of the participant type of observation: (i) The researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group. (ii) The researcher can even gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion. (iii) The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule.

Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
(a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. (At times the interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the interviewer initiates the interview and collects the information.)
The chief merits of the interview method are as
follows:
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
(vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be held.


(b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions. The chief merits of such a system are:
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible. But this system of collecting information is not free from demerits. Some of these may be highlighted.
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to exceed five minutes in most cases.
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.

4.6 Data Collection Instruments:

Research Data Collection Instruments includes Questionnaire, Interview, Observation and Reading. 
Essentially the researcher must ensure that the instrument chosen is valid and reliable. The validity and reliability of any research project depends to a large extent on the appropriateness of the instruments. Whatever procedure one uses to collect data, it must be critically examined to check the extent to which it is likely to give you the expected results.

Questionnaire:

	This is a data collection instrument mostly used in normative surveys. This is a systematically prepared form or document with a set of questions deliberately designed to elicit responses from respondents or research informants for the purpose of collecting data or information.
	It is a form of inquiry document, which contains a systematically compiled and well organized series of questions intended to elicit the information which will provide insight into the nature of the problem under study.
	It is a form that contains a set of questions on a topic or group of topics designed to be answered by the respondent.
	The respondents are the population samples of the study. The answers provided by the respondents constitute the data for the research.
Types of questionnaires: may be designed as structured or closed form and unstructured or open form.

Interviews:Interviews become necessary when researchers feel the need to meet face to face with individuals to interact and generate ideas in a discourse that borders on mutual interest. It is an interaction in which oral questions are posed by the interviewer to elicit oral response from the interviewee.
Interviews range from formal to less formal and to completely informal interviews. There are four main kinds of interview: 
	The structural interview
	The unstructured interview
	The non-directive interview
	The focus interview.

Observation:  
The  study of photographs, videotapes, tape recordings, art objects, computer software and films fall within this type of data collection procedure.
Observation is one of the very important methods for obtaining comprehensive data in qualitative research especially when a composite of both oral and visual data become vital to the research.

Reading Documents:

Although  reading is more to do with literature review, it is also an instruments for studying public documents such as newspapers, minutes of meetings and private documents such as letters, biographies and diaries to enable the researcher obtain the language and words informants who may not be alive at the time of the research.
"