PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Let's assume that we have studied the problem, designed a 
logical plan (our flowchart or pseudocode), and are now ready 
to write the program instructions. The process of writing pro- 
gram instructions is called coding. The instructions will be writ- 
ten on a form called a coding form.^The instructions we write
will be recorded in a machine-readable form using a keypunch, 
key-to-tape, or key-to-disk, or entered directly into computer 
memory through a terminal keyboard.
The computer cannot understand instructions written in just 
any old way. The instructions must be written according to a set 
of rules. These rules are the foundation of a programming Ian
guage. A programming language must convey the logical steps 
of the program plan in such a way that the control unit of the 
CPU can interpret and follow the instructions. Programming 
languages have improved throughout the years, just as comput- 
er hardware has improved. They have progressed from machine- oriented languages that use strings of binary Is and 0s to prob- lem-oriented languages that use common mathematical and/or
English terms.
There are over 200 problem-oriented languages. The most
common of them are COBOL, FORTRAN, PL/I, RPG, BASIC, PASCAL.
COBOL
COBOL was the most widely used business-oriented programming language. Its name is an acronym for Common Јlisincss-Oriented Zanguage. COBOL was designed to solve problems that are oriented toward data handling and input-output
operations. Of course, COBOL can perform arithmetic operations as well, but its greatest flexibility is in data handling. COBOL also was designed as a self-documenting language. Selfdocumenting languages are those that do not require a great deal
of explanation in order to be understood by someone reading
the program instructions. The self-documenting aspect of COBOL is made possible by its sentencelike structure and the very
generous maximum symbolic field-name length of 30 characters. With a field-name length of up to 30 characters, the name
can clearly identify the field and its purpose.
FORTRAN IV
The FORTRAN IV language is oriented toward solving problems of a mathematical nature. The name FORTRAN comes
from the combination of the words formula translation. The
version of FORTRAN IV has been designed as algebra-based
programming language. Any formula or those mathematical
relationships that can be expressed algebraically can easily be
expressed as a FORTRAN instruction. FORTRAN is the most
commonly used language for scientific applications.
PL/I
PL/I stands for programming language I. It was designed as
a general-purpose language incorporating features similar to
COBOL for data handling instructions and features similar to
FORTRAN for mathematical instructions. PL/I is much more
than a combination of the good features of both COBOL and
FORTRAN, as it has many capabilities that are unique. Yet,
although PL/I is one of the most versatile and the most powerful of the programming languages, it is not the most commonly used. COBOL and FORTRAN have been available for a longer
period of time than PL/I, and many more users work with those
languages. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих
словосочетаний:
Языки программирования; блок-схема; кодированная
форма; вид, удобочитаемый для компьютера; в соответствии с набором правил; представить логические шаги
программы; таким образом; совершенствовать языки программирования; машинно-ориентированные языки; проблемно-ориентированные языки; обычный термин; язык
для программирования экономических задач; обработка
информации; операции по вводу-выводу данных; гибкость; идентифицировать поле и его цели; решение проблем
математического характера; сферы научного применения;
универсальный язык; включать свойства; уникальные возможности; многофункциональный и самый мощный из
языков программирования.