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1.2. The concept and essence of resistance
First of all, the study of resistance in order to identify its essential parameters implies an appeal to its most characteristic formulations. And since resistance is a significant element in many areas of human life, there are a number of scientific disciplines in which the phenomenon of "resistance" is studied. Among them are physics, history, biology, medicine, psychology and others. However, each science views resistance from a unique position and perspective. So in physics, resistance is “a property, ability (of materials, structures, etc.) to resist any influences, changes.” In financial science, resistance is “a price market situation in which there is a tendency for new sales in order to slow down the continued rise in prices.” In sociology, resistance is "resistance, opposition". In ecology, resistance is defined as "the resistance of an organism (population, biocenosis) to the effects of various factors (for example, poisons, pollutants, parasites, diseases)" . In psychoanalysis, resistance is “the forces and processes that prevent the awareness of information by counteracting the transition of memories, ideas and symptoms from the unconscious to consciousness” . And in psychology, resistance is considered, among other things, as a personality trait, unwillingness to follow orders, “a reaction to group pressure, etc.”
Each given scientific representation of resistance contributes to the general understanding of the phenomenon. While not all of the areas of science discussed above are relevant to the study of human nature, they reflect various aspects of human life and its interaction with environmental conditions, including physical, social, biological, physiological and psychological factors. However, in all scientific approaches related to resistance, there is a general concept of the ability of an object to withstand and / or counteract the impact. This idea is most widely developed by A. Reber, who defines resistance as “any action of the body that is directed against some kind of force, rebuffs it, fights against it, opposes it” .
In this work, the focus is on resistance as applied to a person, starting with a more general understanding, gradually moving to a conflictological paradigm.
From the previous definitions, it is clear that the phenomenon of resistance is a complex, multifaceted and multiformat activity that can be accompanied by both physical and verbal, intellectual and emotional actions. At the same time, the concept of "action" can also mean "non-action", refusal or refraining from action. Activity is a typical human form of active interaction with the outside world, the main essence of which is the purposeful transformation and transformation of this world. This process involves a certain confrontation between the subject and object of this activity. The theory of social action, reflected in the works of M. Weber, F. Znaniecki and T. Parsons, highlights the role of value attitudes, activity motives, orientation, expectations, as well as other factors important for goal-setting and implementation of activities, along with an analysis of the rational components of goal-setting activity . The concept of social action was introduced into scientific circulation by the sociologist Max Weber. According to M. Weber, social action includes a combination of the subjective motivation of an individual or group and the orientation of this individual / group to the behavior of other people (groups) in the past, present or future.
Thus, resistance can be divided into its subject and object, where the subject of resistance is a resisting person (group), and the object is the impact directed at the subject, causing resistance. As with any activity, resistance is characterized by purposefulness. Let's consider this in more detail. In a situation of resistance, two events take place, logically connected by causal relationships. The reason is "a phenomenon that directly causes, generates another phenomenon (consequence)." Then for resistance, the cause will be an event-impact, and the effect will be an event-resistance. At the same time, the concept of cause is rooted in the past, the goal is focused on the future, while the motive of human activity can be both in the past and in the future. Schematically, the situation of resistance can be formulated as follows: there is some event (an object of resistance) that affects the subject (a person, a group of people, society, etc.) in a certain way; the subject evaluates the event as unfavorable for himself and resists its impact, as he has the goal of preventing the development of the situation in an unfavorable direction for himself. Thus, two more essential elements of the situation of resistance can be distinguished: the subject's assessment of the object of resistance (negative), as well as the goal of the subject of resistance. Next, we will consider how such an assessment and goal-setting takes place.
Personality. The formation of personality is associated with the presence of long-term goals and an ideal image of oneself. The values of each individual depend on the goals that he perceives as positively significant in accordance with the norms accepted in society, personal experience and individual preferences. Personality implies a set of stable motives that underlie the orientation of the subject in the social environment and his assessments of situations. The person's ability to be flexible and at the same time resist the pressure of the environment will depend on the type of personality. A.F. Lazursky distinguishes three mental levels of personality - the lowest, the middle and the highest. People with a lower mental level practically do not resist the social environment, obey it, they do not differ in an independent attitude and are not capable of self-realization. With an average mental level, people adapt to the environment, find their place in it and are able to use it to achieve their goals. Such people are distinguished by flexibility of mind, high awareness, purposefulness, initiative, and a good understanding of themselves. People with a high mental level are characterized not only by the ability to adapt to the environment, but also by the ability to influence it to one degree or another, to remake it in accordance with their needs and goals.
Mistrust. As already noted, an important element of the situation of resistance is evaluation. The first thing that a person evaluates before any interaction is significance and safety. At the same time, if the expectation of the good is more significant than the feeling of danger, risky behavior arises (active resistance to circumstances, to the world). While in the case of preferring security to the desire to gain, the person avoids activity (hidden resistance).
However, first of all, all information is screened out on the basis of trust in it. Information may not be accepted by a person, despite the fact that it is true, if it causes distrust, and at the same time, a person can accept false information if it does not cause distrust in him. Thus, trust can be reduced to the absence of distrust.
Resistance will depend on the direction of distrust:
1. Distrust of the subject of influence. Such distrust implies interpersonal resistance, which can be based on intuition, negative interaction experience, etc. It can be expressed by anxiety, fear, aggressive behavior, etc.
2. Distrust of yourself. It is manifested by a refusal to change, development, a desire to leave even an unfavorable, dangerous state of affairs.
3. Distrust of information. It can be expressed by rational resistance (disagreement, bringing counterarguments), or irrational (misunderstanding, forgetting, ignoring).
4. Separately, one can single out information-normative distrust, which leads to sociological resistance to the norms of society and culture. Here, self-confidence and the expectation of personal benefit are strongly manifested. In contrast to this, there is resistance from society, which is aimed at preserving the usual norms and culture, refusing some benefits in favor of security.
Social. As we have already seen, a person constantly interacts with the social and enters into various social relations. At the same time, according to D. Brühl, by nature a person is a three-dimensional being, that is, he can be considered as a biological, psychological and spiritual being. What determines the nature of its interaction with the social. So, as a biological being, a person seeks to satisfy his needs, competing in this with other people. However, it should be understood that in a modern society built on the division of labor, human consumption depends on the production of goods by society. In addition, as a psychic being, a person is definitely social, he needs to communicate with other people, their respect and love. Also, based on his sociality, a person recognizes the rights to the existence of others, and that their dignity should be respected. As a spiritual being, a person has a need for solitude, searching for himself, realizing his potential. Therefore, a person needs some free space.
J. Burton in his works on conflict prevention and resolution emphasizes the importance of meeting human needs, while his hierarchy of needs reflects the three-dimensional nature of man. J. Beton modernized A. Maslow's theory of fundamental human needs. At the basis of his hierarchy lies the need for a fair distribution of wealth. The next step is the need for security. On the third - the need for belonging (love). The fourth stage Burton assigns the need for self-esteem, and the fifth - the need for self-realization. If the second, third, fourth and fifth levels of J. Burton's classification exactly coincide with the similar levels of A. Maslow's classification, the remaining four levels of the hierarchy are unique - the needs for identity, cultural security, freedom and complicity, respectively. J. Burton believed that the coordination of interests, the satisfaction of all basic needs is the basis of peaceful interaction.
It can be noted that in assessing the satisfaction of his needs, a person does not rely on some absolute values, his sense of fairness in the distribution of benefits will depend on his expectations and relative deprivation. Expectations significantly determine the essence and direction of human activity. Social expectations both influence the actions of people and social groups and reflect their worldview, value orientations and cognitive attitudes. If an individual or group expects a certain degree of satisfaction of their needs, but receives noticeably less, this will be assessed as injustice and will lead to an increase in discontent and even aggression. Relative deprivation is the perception that one is worse off than others or lacks the necessary resources compared to the reference group. This sense of deprivation arises from a sense of inconsistency between one's own situation and that of others who are perceived as similar or belonging to the same social group. Relative deprivation can lead to feelings of frustration, dissatisfaction and resentment. Reference groups are those social groups with which individuals compare themselves. The choice of a reference group is subjective and depends on the person's social identity, aspirations, and perceived similarities with group members. Comparison can be upward, when people see themselves as inferior or inferior, or downward, when they see themselves as better off or superior. The concept of reference groups helps explain why people often perceive relative deprivation even in situations where they have more than enough resources, since the comparison is based on subjective social standards rather than objective material conditions. Perceptions of inequality, discrimination, and unfair treatment stemming from social comparisons and feelings of deprivation can motivate individuals and groups to resist and challenge others, the prevailing social order, or structures.
Thus, having been exposed to some impact, assessing its degree of significance, safety, correlating it with his expectations, ideas, feelings, will, deciding to resist this impact, the subject clothes this decision in a certain form of behavior. In general, the form can be divided into external resistance and internal resistance. In turn, external resistance can be conditionally divided into physical resistance, verbal resistance and resistance-inaction. Physical resistance implies active resistance and can manifest itself in the form of fighting, hurting, and so on. Verbal resistance is often expressed in the form of disagreement, refusal, passive-aggressive comments, etc. Resistance-inaction can be expressed in the form of non-execution of orders, disobedience to orders, resistance to physical influence, avoidance of participation or cooperation, refusal to respond to requests or demonstration of lack of enthusiasm or interest, etc. Internal resistance is rational in nature and is expressed in unwillingness to do anything, suppression of emotions and thoughts, rejection, disagreement with oneself, emotional detachment. At the same time, implicit types of resistance can be tracked by non-verbal signs: body language, facial expressions and other non-verbal signals that can be used to express resistance or discomfort in interaction.