Smart Sensing Practical Report, Radius -1
	Blank	5	10	20	30	40	UK1	UK2	UK3
Red	174	143	125	131	122	127	120	098	134
Green	173	152	130	141	136	132	125	117	136
Blue	153	133	116	131	129	118	111	113	123



Smart Sensing Practical Report, Radius 50
	Blank	5	10	20	30	40	UK1	UK2	UK3
Red	160.4	146.5	123.5	128.3	123.0	131.7	122.4	101.6	131.2
Green	162.4	155.8	128.4	138.3	135.8	136.7	127.4	120.2	133.2
Blue	139.4	135.9	114.9	128.3	128.5	122.1	113.9	116.1	120.2



I have an assignment and the details are below

INTRODUCTION

The balance between paracetamol therapy and poisoning.

Background

Paracetamol is a drug which has been around since the 1950s and is widely available, frequently prescribed and available over the counter. However, in recent years there have been restrictions on the amount of paracetamol that can be bought in one purchase, due to the ease with which it is possible to overdose either intentionally or otherwise. Paracetamol is a useful analgesic and antipyretic.

In the UK it is the commonest agent used in self-harm and it has been suggested that it’s responsible for about 70,000 such cases per annum. Restrictions on purchases initially drastically reduced poisoning events, but this initial success has waned and Paracetamol related overdoses are on the rise again.

It is important to remember that paracetamol is very safe when used at therapeutic doses and that accidental overdoses generally occur due to concomitant use with paracetamol-combination products that are available over the counter.


Toxicity

Because paracetamol is metabolised by the liver, it is the commonest cause of acute liver failure. Serious or fatal adverse effects can occur at around 150 mg/kg for the average adult. This value is higher for children who are more susceptible, and similarly alcoholics who have a lower threshold for toxicity at around 75 mg/kg. Susceptible adults/patients may show severe effects with as few as 20 tablets (about 10 g) and toxicity can be increased with any factor that impairs liver metabolism, such as ethanol excess, malnutrition or metabolic enzyme inducing drugs. One of the main routes for excretion of paracetamol is via conjugate with glucuronic acid (oxidised glucose) with paracetamol to make it more water soluble that will be removed in the urine.



What you have to do:


Imagine the scenario;
You are a member of the staff at the National Poisons Unit at New Cross Hospital in London. Your role in the laboratory is to aid clinicians in the diagnosis of accidental poisonings as well as monitor therapeutic medication for chronic drug users (e.g. antidepressants, immunosuppressive drugs).

Today you have been sent samples from three patients, who are suspected paracetamol poisonings and in order to inform treatment you have to identify which individuals actually are overdosed. The key tests you will need to perform are to determine the serum paracetamol levels.

Once you have made the measurements for the serum paracetamol you should plot your graphs, and answer the questions in the booklet as indicated, which will then be used to write up your laboratory report.

You are also charged with developing a method so that it could be used at the point-of-need, that could be used by relatively untrained staff at Accident and Emergency based on a the RGB function of a Smartphone of similar device.


DETERMINATION OF SERUM PARACETAMOL

Create standard solutions to concentrations already described from 10 mM paracetamol stock into 10 ml volumetric flasks.

Concentration of standard solution (mM) 0.25 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
volume of 10 mM stock standard (ml) 0.25 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00

Add 2 ml of each standard solution/blank(water)/patient sample to a test tube.
Add 0.4 ml of 0.02 M iron(III) chloride solution
Add 0.8 ml of 0.002 M potassium ferricyanide solution
Wait for 10 minutes
Add 0.2 ml of 3 M HCl and 6.6 ml of water (to make 10 ml total volume)
Wait for 20 minutes
Read samples at 700 nm on the spectrometer after zeroing with the blank (first time only).
Read the RGB reading for your blank, standards and samples.

Prepare a standard curve by plotting absorbance against paracetamol concentration in your write up. Use this to determine the concentration of paracetamol in each of the sample solution. Record your RGB results for each in the table below.

Paracetamol Results

Solution (mM) 0(blank) 0.25 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 Pt1 Pt2 Pt3
Spectrometry Absorbance
RGB values


Smart Sensors: paracetamol toxicity practical CW


This assessed practical write up is to be submitted 2pm, 02/05/2023 ONLINE.

Please attach your graphs of paracetamol (RGB and absorbance spectrometry) concentrations to the report. These can be in cut and pasted into or report, scanned or photographs, but in all cases, please ensure that are readable.

1. Please write a brief abstract summarising the practical, the results and conclusion. (15 marks)

2. From your results plot a graph of absorbance results obtained by spectrometry against paracetamol concentration (the standard curve). (5 marks)

3. Use this to determine the paracetamol concentrations for the patient sera supplied. Mark and label these on your graph and complete the table below (3 marks)

Patient Paracetamol conc (mM) via absorbance spectrometry Paracetamol conc (mM) via RGB analysis
1
2
3








Please include your standard curve for the RGB paracetamol measurements to your practical report.

Examination of RGB results
4. Examining your results, can you use the RGB data to plot a standard curve against paracetamol concentration? Explain how you have achieved this. (15 marks)

5. Is it possible to use this to calculate the concentrations of paracetamol in the patient samples? (6 marks)

6. How do these concentrations compare to those found by absorbance spectrometry (above)? (4 marks)

7. References must be in the UWE Harvard style (https://www.uwe.ac.uk/study/study-support/study-skills/referencing/uwe-bristol-harvard) (2 marks)

Please include your RGB and spectrometry standard curves for the paracetamol measurements to your practical report.


 Below are the values resulting from the experiments:

Paracetamol, mM Absorbance (700nm)
0 0
0.25 0.022
0.5 0.056
1 0.125
1.5 0.239
2 0.27
Pt 1 0.07
Pt 2 0.185
Pt 3 0.079


Smartphone RGB values

Paracetamol, mM R G B
0 160 157 140
0.25 129 131 117
0.5 110 121 110
1 83 112 106
1.5 70 111 108
2 58 112 113
Pt 1 101 118 108
Pt 2 80 122 119
Pt 3 111 129 119


Smart sensing practical report

Smart Sensing Practical Report, Radius -1
Blank 5 10 20 30 40 UK1 UK2 UK3
Red 174 143 125 131 122 127 120 098 134
Green 173 152 130 141 136 132 125 117 136
Blue 153 133 116 131 129 118 111 113 123



Smart Sensing Practical Report, Radius 50
Blank 5 10 20 30 40 UK1 UK2 UK3
Red 160.4 146.5 123.5 128.3 123.0 131.7 122.4 101.6 131.2
Green 162.4 155.8 128.4 138.3 135.8 136.7 127.4 120.2 133.2
Blue 139.4 135.9 114.9 128.3 128.5 122.1 113.9 116.1 120.2

The lab report is below

Abstract

This laboratory report investigates the determination of acetaminophen concentrations in unknown solutions, comparing traditional UV-Vis spectrometry against smartphone-based RGB colorimetric analysis. Utilizing a series of acetaminophen standards and unknown samples, absorbance was measured at 700 nm, and RGB values were converted into percentage color metrics. The study delineated a linear correlation between acetaminophen concentration and both analytical methods’ outputs, enabling the estimation of unknown samples’ concentrations. UV-Vis spectrometry affirmed its accuracy and reliability, while smartphone RGB analysis demonstrated significant feasibility as a rapid, cost-effective alternative. Such a minute variation indicates that smartphone analysis is in need of some improvements, which supports the fact that it is very promising for diagnostic intents and applications in the field in particular. The progress of this study indicates a creative employment of pervasive technology for chemical analysis and a further development of innovative methods for non-standard use of analysis tools.

Introduction

Acetaminophen, often called as paracetamol, has been a pillar in the drugs used for the pharmaceutical management of some conditions such as headaches, fevers, and mild to moderate pains since 1950 (Ennis et al., 2016). Acetaminophen is well known as a pain reliever and fever reducer named as safe with cutting down pregnancy and breastfeeding dosages. While it is a common practice, the danger of overdose is still a major concern that comes from the fact it is available in a multitude of over-the-counter versions. A serious threat to acute liver failure is overdose of acetaminophen. This can happen either accidentally or intentionally suggesting the importance of getting the diagnosis as soon as possible and using the accurate test methods (Hodgman, & Garrard, 2021). The objectives of this practical work are twofold: First and foremost, to identify acetaminophen at different levels in unknown liquids, and secondly to make comparisons between results obtained from traditional Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) spectrometry and those obtained using a smartphone application This comparison aims to explain whether the smartphones this method of acetaminophen detection at the point of need is plausible and reliable, which could result in their introduction both in the clinical and emergency settings as a more convenient and accessible method.

Materials and Methods
This laboratory activity involved an array of materials including a 10 mM stock solution of acetaminophen, a 20 mM iron (III) chloride solution, a 2.0 mM potassium hexacyanoferrate (III), and a 3 M hydrochloric acid diluted with deionized water. Experimental groups, constituted of pairs of participants, were required to try and prepare a set of acetaminophen standard solutions by diluting their 10 mM stock solution to specified concentrations (0, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 40 µM) in the way mentioned in Table S1.

The process started with a dilution of each patient's sample unknown also with the previously prepared acetaminophen standard solutions aiming to reach the concentration that will be visible in colorimetric analysis. Consequently, 2 mL amount of each solution was treated with equal amount of 0.02 M iron (III) chloride and 0.8 mL amount of 0.002 M potassium ferricyanide. After proper mixing, mixtures were left to react for 10 minutes before the addition of 0.2 mL of 3 M HCl. Further, these mixtures were diluted with deionized water by quantify to 10 mL. Following this period, the absorption of the solution was taken after 20 minutes using a UV-Vis spectrometer at 700 nm. Later on, RGB analysis was conducted using the color memory from a captured image of a smartphone camera. The resultant color data were then converted into percentage values for the RGB components via implemening obtained formulas (% R = (R/(R+G+B)) ×100 , % G = (G/(R+G+B)) ×100 , % B = (B/(R+G+B)) ×100). Accordingly, a standard curve built by constructing the unknown samples' concentr

Such a detailed examination implies the main task of the balance between chemical accuracy and developing innovative technological applications. As a consequence, comparative analysis of old and new pharma analyses will be the starting point.

Results
Paracetamol (mM)	R	G	B	%R	%G	%B
0	160	157	140	35.01	34.36	30.63
0.25	129	131	117	34.22	34.75	31.03
0.5	110	121	110	32.26	35.48	32.26
1	83	112	106	27.57	37.21	35.22
1.5	70	111	108	24.22	38.41	37.37
2	58	112	113	20.49	39.58	39.93

Paracetamol, mM	Absorbance (700nm)
0	0
0.25	0.022
0.5	0.056
1	0.125
1.5	0.239
2	0.27
Pt 1	0.07
Pt 2	0.185
Pt 3	0.079

The experimental analysis yielded a comprehensive dataset delineating the absorbance values alongside RGB coloration metrics for each acetaminophen standard solution, alongside three unknown samples, designated as UK1, UK2, and UK3. The absorbance readings, measured at 700 nm, consistently increased with the concentration, as evidenced by the standard calibration curve; the values ranged from 0.000 for the blank to 0.299 for the 40 µM standard solution. The unknown samples exhibited absorbance values of 0.062, 0.094, and 0.267 for UK1, UK2, and UK3, respectively. In parallel, the RGB analysis, converted into percentage values for R, G, and B components using designated formulas, revealed discernible shifts in color metrics corresponding to the increasing concentrations of acetaminophen in standard solutions.


		Standard Curve of Absorbance versus Paracetamol Concentration

		Standard Calibration Curve (RGB Metrics vs. Paracetamol Concentration)

Upon plotting these values to generate a standard curve and applying the calibration data, the concentrations of acetaminophen in the unknown samples were deduced. The concentration determined for UK1 was found to be approximately 8 µM, whereas UK2 and UK3 were estimated at 15 µM and 35 µM, respectively. These findings from both UV-Vis and smartphone RGB analyses were compiled into graphs demonstrating a linear relationship between acetaminophen concentration and both absorbance and color intensity metrics, thus facilitating the objective quantification of acetaminophen in unknown samples.

Discussion

The results showed the efficiency of UV-Vis spectrometry in acetaminophen amount estimations, which was expected to be based on the established analytical paradigms (Hodgman & Garrard, 2021). The linear correlation of acetaminophen concentration and absorbance confirmed the method's accuracy for precise chemical analysis. Additionally, smartphone RGB analysis was introduced as a viable substitute that provides similar sensitivity and specificity to UV-Vis spectrometry; this finding fits with the growing body of knowledge related to the use of consumer devices for scientific purposes.

The interesting fact that the RGB analysis as well as the traditional spectrometric results for known samples revealed not only the methodological accuracy but also a high potential of RGB analysis as a quick and cost-efficient analytical tool. Such an accessibility, therefore, could prove very essential in environments where there are no analytical equipment to flourish, thus giving immediate benefits in clinical cases and emergency situations. The variations among the algorithms are minor; however, they might be attributed to intrinsic sensor sensitivity differences or environmental lighting conditions (Shogah, Bolshakov, & Amelin, 2023). This highlights the importance of standardized calibration and operating procedures on deploying RGB analysis in critical applications.

Other factors influencing the that could pose a challenge to RGB colorimetric analysis could be the completeness of the reactions and the subsequent digital capture parameters, emphasizing the crucial confluence of chemistry and digital processing in this novel methods of analysis . The concept of using the mobile technology everywhere in chemical analysis, shown in this example, is expanding the field of diagnosis to incorporate the diagnostics of many more analytes (Kılıç et al., 2018).

Overall, while UV-Vis spectrometry remains the gold standard for quantifiable analysis due to its unwavering accuracy and reproducibility, the advent of smartphone RGB analysis heralds a paradigm shift towards more accessible, albeit slightly less precise, analytical methodologies. Future studies could focus on refining the RGB analysis technique, possibly through advanced image processing algorithms, to enhance its efficacy and reliability, paving the way for broader applications in both clinical and field settings.

Conclusion

The current research concluded that both traditional UV-Vis spectroscopy as well as smartphone RGB analysis can be applied for the determination of acetaminophen within the unknown samples. The linear relationships were confirmed between acetaminophen concentration and both absorbance and RGB metrics which further supported the reliability and practicality of these methods as chemical analysis tools While UV-Vis spectrometry marked the most precise method for quality and accuracy, smartphone RGB analysis revealed a major potential as the low-cost and portable option suitable for spot-checking and, perhaps, useful in the developing countries. A number of undeniable relatively minor deviations between the two approaches presented here mainly arise from intrinsic device limitations and operational variables. These, however, should not hinder the further exploration and optimization of smartphone-based colorimetric analysis, which can be utilized on-site as an alternative to traditional spectrometry.

Now, generate a "Hazard and safety procedures" section  observed during the practicals according to the brief.