The Attributive Clauses ((Підрядні означальні речення)
Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative and appositive ones.
Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent, whereas attributive appositive clauses disclose its meaning.
The facts those men were so eager to know had been visible, tangible, open to the senses. (ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE)
The fortunate fact that the rector's letter did not require an immediate answer would give him time to consider.  (ATTRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE CLAUSE)
•	Attributive relative clauses are joined to the principal clause syndetically by means of connectives, and asyndetically; 
•	Attributive appositive clauses only syndetically by means of conjunctions.
Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive and non-restrictive or descriptive.
 Types of the Attributive Clauses:
1. Attributive Limiting (Restrictive) Clauses. (Підрядні обмежувальні речення)
2. Attributive Descriptive (Non-Restrictive) clauses. (Підрядні описові необмежувальні речення)
3. Attributive Appositive Clauses. 
An attributive relative restrictive clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. It is not separated by a comma from the principal clause because of its close connection with it. Attributive relative restrictive clauses are introduced by:
(a) relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as');
•	Mary is our aunt who always gives us presents at Christmas.
•	The cat which is sitting under the tree is mine.
•	 All that could be done had been done
(b) relative adverbs (where, when);
•	She has invited us to the village where her parents live.
(c) asyndetically
•	There was simply nothing else he could do. (Coppard)
•	I think my father is the best man I have ever known. (Shaw)
2. An attributive relative non-restrictive clause does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. As the connection between the principal clause and the attributive non- restrictive clause is loose, they are often separated by a comma.
Attributive relative non-restrictive clauses are in most cases introduced syndetically by means of:
(a) relative pronouns (who, which);
•	The driver, who was very young, had only just got his license.
•	This novel, whose author is a woman of eighty, is very amusing.
•	All this age, which I judged to be near fifty, he looked extremely young.
(b) relative adverbs (where, when).
•	I returned to Paris, where I remained for a week.
The relative pronoun that is hardly ever used to introduce an attributive relative non-restrictive clause.
He had emotion, fire, longings, that were concealed behind a wall of reserve. (Dreiser)
Attributive Appositive Clauses.
Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antecedent, which is expressed by an abstract noun. An attribute appositive clause is not separated from the main clause by a comma.
Appositive clauses are chiefly introduced by the conjunction that, occasionally by the conjunction whether or by adverbs how or why.
They are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically.
•	The question whether it was he or his enemy was hotly discussed.
•	He stopped in the hope that she would speak.
•	 I don’t see any reason why you should leave our house.
•	 Andrew had a warm desire that the conversation might continue.
An adverbial clause performs the function of an adverbial modifier.
It can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the main clause.
•	When they finished their work, they went for a walk.
•	As it was very hot, we decided to swim in the river.
•	 If he were here, he would help us.
•	 They were so hungry as if they hadn’t eaten for many days.
According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial clauses: adverbial clauses of time, place, cause, purpose, condition, manner, comparison, result, concession.
The Adverbial Clauses of Time (Підрядні речення часу)
An adverbial clause characterizes the action expressed in the main clause from the temporal point of view. The action may be expressed by a finite or non-finite form of the verb. Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the following conjunctions: when, while, as, whenever, till, until, after, before, now that, hardly, no sooner, scarcely.
•	They were playing in the garden when they heard a scream
•	When they are fully grown these snakes can be over two metres long.
•	I put on my coat before I went out.
•	The message arrived after I’d left.
•	The concert had hardly begun before all the lights went out.
•	 I had no sooner lit the barbecue than/when it started to rain
Adverbial Clauses of Place (Підрядні речення місця)
An adverbial clause of place defines the place or the direction of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the conjunctions where and wherever 
•	He looked where she pointed.
•	People greeted them enthusiastically wherever they came.
•	 I am quite comfortable where I am.
•	 Why can’t we go where it is very warm?
Adverbial clauses of cause (or causative clauses) express the reason, cause, or motivation of the action expressed in the main clause or of its content as a whole. Adverbial clauses of cause (reason) are introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in official style they may be introduced by the conjunctions on the ground that, for the reason that, in view of the fact that.
•	As he was tired he preferred to stay at home.
•	Since there is no help, let us try and bear it as best we can.
•	He is suspicious and jealous for fear anyone else might want to share in his power.
•	 They went down arm-in-arm – James with Imogen, because his pretty grandchild cheered him
The Adverbial Clauses of Purpose (Підрядні речення мети)
Adverbial clauses of purpose state the purpose of the action expressed in the main clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest.
•	She kept her back to the window that he might not see her rising colour.
•	 I tell you all this so that you may understand me perfectly.
•	Wounds sometimes must be opened in order that they may be healed.
•	He made all these exclamations in a carefully suppressed voice, lest the valet should overhear anything.
Adverbial Clauses of Condition. Types of the Conditional Clauses (Підрядні речення умови)
Adverbial clauses of this type express some condition (either real or unreal) which makes the action in the main clause possible. Adverbial clause of conditionmay be introduced by the conjunctions if, unless, once, in case, provided (that), providing (that), supposing, considering that.
Depending on the relation between the subordinate and the main clauses and on the use of tense and mood forms, complex sentences with conditional clauses may be subdivided into several types: complex sentences with clauses of real condition (Type 0, Type I) and complex sentences with unreal condition (Type II, Type III).
•	If you add sugar to cup of coffee, the coffee tastes sweeter.
•	If he has enough money, he will buy a new car.
•	If they were here, they would help us.
•	If you had been at the meeting yesterday, you would have suggested something interesting.
The Adverbial Clauses of Concession / Contrast Clauses. (Допустові підрядні речення)
In complex sentences with concessive clauses there is a contrast between the content of the main clause and that of the subordinate one: the action or fact described in the main clause is carried out or takes place despite the action or state expressed in the subordinate clause.
This type of clause is introduced by conjunctions: although, though, if; while; correlative conjunction: though … yet; whether … or; conjunctive pronouns or adverbs: whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever, whereas; or composite conjunctions: no matter how, no matter what, for all that, despite the fact that, even if, even though, even when.
•	Though we travelled slowly / though it was cold / though it rained, I enjoyed that day.
•	Whatever you may say, our decision remains unchanged.
•	Whoever he may be, he has no right to be rude.
•	No matter how she might try, she couldn’t do it.
The Adverbial Clauses of Result (Підрядні речення наслідку)
An adverbial clause of result denotes some consequence or result of the action expressed in the main clause. It may be introduced by the conjunction (so) that. Very often adverbial clauses of this type have an additional meaning of degree.
Adverbial clauses of pure result are introduced by the conjunction so that; they are usually separated from the main clause by a comma.
•	We turned the radio on, so that everybody heard the announcement.
•	Darkness had fallen, so that the streets were nearly deserted.
Adverbial clauses of result with an additional meaning of degree are introduced by the conjunction that; in these cases we find the adverb so or the demonstrative pronoun such in the main clause. Such clauses are not separated from the main clause by a comma.
•	She is so weak physically that she can hardly move.
•	He showed such great courage that he was elected unanimously
The Adverbial Clauses of Manner (Підрядне речення способу дії)
Adverbial clauses of manner characterize action, states, qualities, circumstances. 
We can use clauses beginning with as, the way, just as when we are describing how something was or how something was done. They may refer to attributes or predicatives characterizing a state or quality of a person or non-person.
•	The film depicts life as it was in 1900.
•	Complete each exercise as I showed you.
•	I wrote the note just as you told me to.
•	Everything happened just as my mother had predicted.
•	I’m sorry I talked the way I did at lunch.
The Adverbial Clauses of Comparison (Підрядне речення порівняння) 
Adverbial clauses of comparison denote an action with which the action of the main clause is compared. Clauses of comparison may be introduced by conjunctions as if, as though, than, like; correlative conjunctions as … as, so … as, as … as if.
•	Can I help you? You look as if you’re lost.
•	He sounds as though he might be getting a cold.
•	She always tries to act as if she’s my boss.
•	They talked about it as though it was worthless.
THE COMPOUND – COMPLEX SENTENCE
A compound-complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more coordinate clauses one of each at least has one or several subordinate clauses.
•	There was a song in every heart; and if the heart was young the music issued at the lips.

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