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Brahmanism

"Welcome to Theology Talks, where we delve into the profound mysteries and rich history of religious thought. In today's episode, we'll explore Brahmanism, an ancient tradition that evolved from the Vedic texts and paved the way for Hinduism. Join us as we journey through the beliefs and reforms that shaped this influential spiritual system, and uncover how it continues to impact society and religious practices today. Don't forget to like, subscribe, and hit the bell icon for more thought-provoking discussions on the past and present of theology."

Brahmanism, also known as Vedic Religion, evolved from the Vedas during the Late Vedic Period, around 1100 to 500 BCE, originating in the Indus Valley Civilization after the Indo-Aryan Migration between 2000 and 1500 BCE. It claims Brahman as the supreme being, influencing Hinduism's development.

The Vedas were seen as the universe's eternal words, always existing and "heard" by sages in meditative states rather than revealed to anyone. Brahman, the being who spoke these words, was both the universe's creator and the universe itself. The Vedas were recognized as defining Sanatan Dharma, or the "Eternal Order," which Brahman established. The priestly upper class, or Brahmins, who understood Sanskrit, upheld the Vedas' authority, unlike the lower classes. This exclusivity boosted Brahmins' standing but eventually led to reform calls, as many objected to a single class setting religious rules for everyone.

The reforms in Brahmanism led to Hinduism (known by adherents as Sanatan Dharma), while those rejecting Brahmanism—and Hinduism—formed new philosophical and religious sects, including Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism. Brahmanism continued to shape Hinduism and remains influential today. Since the mid-20th century, reformers in India and elsewhere have opposed Brahmanism for encouraging inequality and the caste system by favoring the Brahmins.

Origin & the Vedas The exact origin of Vedic thought remains unknown, but two theories exist: the Indo-Aryan Migration theory and the Out of India Theory (OIT). The Indo-Aryan Migration theory suggests that the Vedic vision developed in Central Asia, around the Kingdom of Mitanni in northern Iraq, Syria, and Turkey, and arrived in India as the Indus Valley Civilization declined between 2000 and 1500 BCE. The OIT proposes that the Indus Valley Civilization developed the Vedic vision, which was then exported to Central Asia and returned with the Indo-Aryan Migration. This theory, however, is generally dismissed due to limited evidence, aligning more with the Indo-Aryan Migration theory.

Several deities’ names, notably Indra, were known in Central Asia, and rita, the concept of "cosmic order," was established there. Around the 3rd millennium BCE, nomadic Aryan tribes migrated into Central Asia, with some—Indo-Iranians and Indo-Aryans—splitting; the Indo-Iranians settled the Iranian Plateau while the Indo-Aryans moved to the Indian subcontinent. The term "Aryan" originally referred to a class of "free" or "noble" people, unrelated to race. The association with light-skinned races only appeared in the 18th and 19th centuries, influenced by racialized views.

The Indus Valley Civilization, among the ancient world's most advanced societies, likely practiced some form of religious observance, although their undeciphered script leaves much unknown. Statuary and seals suggest they worshiped spirits called yakshas, which required sacrifices and observances. Yaksha worship focused on everyday needs without addressing cosmology, a perspective that emerged only later with Vedic thought, potentially merging with yaksha rituals.

The Vedas were orally passed down from teacher to student until written during the Vedic Period (about 1500 to 500 BCE) and consist of four texts.
Rig Veda
Sama Veda
Yajur Veda
Atharva Veda

Each of these texts is divided into specific subtexts:

Aranyakas – Rituals and observances
Brahmanas – Commentaries on rituals
Samhitas – Benedictions and prayers
Upanishads – Philosophical narratives and dialogues
These texts collectively define the Vedic vision, central to Brahmanism.

Precepts of Brahmanism
The Indo-Aryans, also called the Vedic peoples, wrote in Sanskrit and are believed to have blended their spiritual and cosmic vision with that of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Vedas moved the people's relationship with the supernatural beyond day-to-day rituals honoring spirits in a reciprocal arrangement, guiding them toward understanding the origins of existence and the purpose of life. Vedism, as an attempt to answer life’s deepest questions, became Brahmanism when it identified a First Cause.

The Vedic sages observed that the world operated under laws suggesting an order attributed to various gods, who often embodied human qualities. These laws were defined as rita, and their presence implied a rule-maker greater than the gods described in the texts—a “god-behind-the-gods” who guided them. This ultimate being was Brahman.
Brahman was understood as a distinct entity, so powerful that it was beyond human comprehension. This being existed in reality, outside of it, and as reality itself, all at once. Brahman had always existed and would continue to exist, but was too vast for humans to directly connect with. The gods of the Vedic pantheon served as Brahman’s avatars, yet for a personal connection, humans needed a link within their own being.

It was believed that the source of all life wouldn’t create without providing a way to commune with it. Humans were seen as body, soul, and mind, with an added “oversoul” – the Atman – enabling a link to Brahman, as it was part of Brahman itself. Each individual carried this divine spark, and by nurturing it, one could find peace and comfort in the presence of the divine.

Just as each person held a spark of Brahman, the various gods were all aspects of Brahman, each addressing a human need yet part of one essence. Scholar John M. Koller explains:
“The Vedic sages recognized that Brahman, as ultimate reality, defied literal description. Conceptually, it could be approached by the highest qualities, yet, as Brahman is beyond conception, even these qualities – being, knowledge, bliss – must ultimately be denied. This concept, via negativa, known as neti, neti or ‘not this, not this,’ shows that Brahman is beyond understanding.”

Reality, however, can be felt in nonconceptual ways. Indian thinkers saw Brahman both personally and conceptually, using vivid imagery. This approach engages the senses, sparking feelings and faith, highly valued alongside abstract thought. This understanding is active, prompting one to embrace or avoid reality in its immediate forms. Knowledge, bliss, and being, describing Brahman abstractly, take form as gods and goddesses who are tangible, loveable, or fearsome. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu and Arjuna’s charioteer, claims he is, indeed, Brahman.

Gods and goddesses in human-like forms – even with extra limbs or an elephant head – were more relatable than a cosmic force. The priestly Brahmins encouraged people to choose any deity, as all were equally aspects of the First Cause and Ultimate Reality. Through the Vedas' chants, hymns, and mantras, recited by Brahmins, the people were reminded of their own divinity, the importance of living in harmony with cosmic order, and the existence of this order, even if they couldn’t fully understand it.

Brahmanism & Hinduism
Neither the Vedic priests nor the people originally referred to their belief system as Brahmanism. The term was coined by European scholars in the 16th century and later became interchangeable with Hinduism. Saying Brahmanism became Hinduism points to changes in its details rather than the foundation, known to priests and adherents then and now as Sanatan Dharma. The universe was seen as ordered by divine intelligence, with each individual playing a role. Hinduism later detailed how a person was to fulfill this role.

As Koller notes, active religious understanding encourages individuals to either embrace or distance themselves from reality based on their perception. Life can seem uncertain or reveal itself as a realm of meaning, and Hinduism acknowledged this, allowing for detachment while encouraging full participation in life’s offerings as gifts from Brahman. Followers are guided to focus on life goals (purusharthas), falling into three main forms:
Artha refers to one's home life, career, and material wealth. Kama encompasses love, sensuality, sexuality, and physical pleasure. Moksha represents enlightenment, liberation, and freedom through self-actualization. While these are seen as temporal pleasures, their divine origins mean their value should be acknowledged. Though everyone will eventually die, while alive, individuals must focus on their life goals, fulfilling their karma (actions) in line with their dharma (duty). Each person is born with a unique duty that no one else can fulfill. If one fails in a lifetime, reincarnation occurs, bringing another opportunity to complete the cycle of life and death.

This cycle, called samsara, is often likened to a child’s game, where one repeats life until they finally align their karma with their dharma, connect with their Atman, and break free from samsara. This understanding offered a comprehensive explanation of the universe’s creation and the meaning of life. However, by around 600 BCE, reformers began rejecting the Vedas' authority, forming new schools of thought.

Brahmanism & the Nastika Schools

The concept of samsara implied a hierarchy, explained by Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita when he tells Arjuna about the three gunas—states of being that either aid or hinder spiritual growth—and emphasizes the significance of dharma. As part of the Eternal Order, Krishna explains the caste system (the varnas), which defines one’s dharma. The four varnas are:

Brahmana: priests, intellectuals, teachers
Kshatriya: warriors, protectors, police
Vaishya: merchants, bankers, farmers
Shudra: unskilled laborers, servants
Beneath the Shudras are the Dalits, or untouchables, who are excluded from the varna system. The Vedas supported the varna system and were considered the word of the Creator, making them unchallengeable. However, around 600 BCE, some thinkers began to question the priests' authority, as they had exclusive access to the Vedas, chanted in Sanskrit, a language the people couldn’t understand, leaving them dependent on the Brahmins for interpretation.
This situation eventually caused a split in Hinduism, with some accepting the authority of the Vedas and their priests, while others rejected it. The schools of thought that accepted the Vedas were called astika ("there exists"), and those that rejected them were known as nastika ("there does not exist"). This debate centered on the authority of the Vedas. Although many schools of thought emerged during this period, the three most notable were Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism.

Of these, only Jainism posed a significant challenge to Hinduism. Charvaka was a materialist philosophy focused on life’s pleasures and denied life after death, which limited its appeal, and it eventually faded away. Buddhism, though it gained some popularity in parts of India, struggled to compete with Hinduism, while Jainism fractured into different schools with varying expectations for believers. Buddhism did not achieve widespread popularity until the reign of Ashoka the Great, who embraced and promoted it, but even then, its influence spread more outside of India. Jainism rejected the concept of Brahman or a creator god but maintained belief in supernatural beings (devas), the importance of karma, and the cycle of rebirth and death. Its emphasis on The Five Vows and 14 Steps provided a clear path for followers while avoiding the authoritarian aspects of Hinduism and the materialism of Charvaka.

Conclusion

Hinduism ultimately withstood the challenges posed by other philosophical systems because monarchs valued the caste system for maintaining social order, and Brahmanism's vision, with its pageantry and grandeur, resonated with people. The idea of a divine being accessible through multiple deities, each requiring their own festivals, kept the populace engaged in various celebrations throughout the year. Hinduism’s evolution from Brahmanism encouraged individuals to fulfill their divine duties and be content with their position in life, which was seen as the result of actions from previous lives.

Originally, however, Brahmanism did not emerge to control people but to answer questions about the origin of the universe and humanity’s place in it. The Vedas addressed these concerns, and Brahmanism developed this vision to help people understand a seemingly chaotic world.

Since the mid-20th century, reformers have worked to dismantle aspects of Brahmanism, especially the privileged status of the Brahmins, in the name of equality. One of the most notable reformers, B. R. Ambedkar, campaigned against the discrimination faced by the Dalits, a problem linked to the Brahmin hierarchy. His efforts, and those of others, have sought to create a more equal society, reflecting the original vision of Brahmanism—a divine being that cared for everyone equally, placing a spark of itself within each individual.