3. Basic syntactic notions.
The syntactic language level can be described with the help of special
linguistic terms and notions: syntactic unit, syntactic form, syntactic meaning,
syntactic function, syntactic position, and syntactic relations.

Syntactic unit is always a combination that has at least two constituents. The basic
syntactic units are a word-group, a clause, a sentence, and a text. Their main
features are:
they are hierarchical units – the units of a lower level serve the building material
for the units of a higher level;
as all language units the syntactic units are of two-fold nature:
content side syntactic meaning
Syntactic unit = =
expression side syntactic form
c) they are of communicative and non-communicative nature – word-groups
and clauses are of non-communicative nature while sentences and texts
are of communicative nature.
Syntactic meaning is the way in which separate word meanings are combined to
produce meaningful word-groups and sentences.
Green ideas sleep furiously. This sentence is quite correct
grammatically. However it makes no sense as it lacks syntactic meaning.
Syntactic form may be described as the distributional formula of the unit
(pattern).
John hits the ball – N1 + V + N2.

Syntactic function is the function of a unit on the basis of which it is included to a
larger unit.
in the word-group a smart student the word ‘smart’ is in subordinate
attributive relations to the head element. In traditional terms it is used to
denote syntactic function of a unit within the sentence (subject,
predicate, etc.).

Syntactic position is the position of an element.
The order of constituents in syntactic units is of principal importance in
analytical languages. The syntactic position of an element may
determine its relationship with the other elements of the same unit: his
broad back, a back district, to go back, to back sm.
Syntactic relations are syntagmatic relations observed between syntactic units.
They can be of three types – coordination, subordination and predication.
Coordination (SR1) – syntagmatic relations of independence. SR1 can be
observed on the phrase, sentence and text levels. Coordination may be symmetric
and asymmetric. Symmetric coordination is characterized by complete

interchangeability of its elements. pens and pencils.Asymmetric coordination
occurs when the position of elements is fixed. ladies and gentlemen. Forms of
connection within SR1 may be copulative (you and me), disjunctive (you or me),
adversative (strict but just) and causative-consecutive (sentence and text level
only).
Subordination (SR2) – syntagmatic relations of dependence. SR2 are established
between the constituents of different linguistic rank. They are observed on the
phrase and sentence level. Subordination may be of three different kinds –
adverbial (to speak slowly), objective (to see a house) and attributive (a beautiful
flower). Forms of subordination may also be different – agreement (this book –
these books), government (help us), adjournment (the use of modifying particles
just, only, even, etc.) and enclosure (the use of modal words and their equivalents
really, after all, etc.)…
Predication (SR3) – syntagmatic relations of interdependence. Predication may be
of two kinds – primary (sentence level) and secondary (phrase level). Primary
predication is observed between the subject and the predicate of the sentence while
secondary predication is observed between non-finite forms of the verb and
nominal elements within the sentence. Secondary predication serves the basis for
gerundial, infinitive and participial word-groups (predicative complexes).
THE WORD-GROUP THEORY
Definition and general characteristics of the word-group.
There are a lot of definitions concerning the word-group. The most adequate one
seems to be the following: the word-group is a combination of at least two notional
words which do not constitute the sentence but are syntactically connected.
According to some other scholars (the majority of Western scholars and
professors B.Ilyish and V.Burlakova – in Russia), a combination of a
notional word with a function word (on the table) may be treated as a
word-group as well. The problem is disputable as the role of function
words is to show some abstract relations and they are devoid of
nominative power. On the other hand, such combinations are
syntactically bound and they should belong somewhere.
General characteristics of the word-group are:
As a naming unit it differs from a compound word because the number of
constituents in a word-group corresponds to the number of different denotates.
a black bird (2), a blackbird (1);
a loud speaker (2), a loudspeaker (1).
2) Each component of the word-group can undergo grammatical changes without
destroying the identity of the whole unit. to see a house - to see houses.

3) A word-group is a dependent syntactic unit, it is not a communicative unit and
has no intonation of its own.
Classification of word-groups.
Word-groups can be classified on the basis of several principles:
According to the type of syntagmatic relations: coordinate (you and me),
subordinate (to see a house, a nice dress), predicative (him coming, for him to come).
According to the structure: simple (all elements are obligatory), expanded–
expanded elements are equal in rank - to read and translate the text ), extended (a
word takes a dependent element and this dependent element becomes the head for
another word- a beautiful flower – a very beautiful flower).
Subordinate word-groups.
Subordinate word-groups are based on the relations of dependence between the
constituents. This presupposes the existence of a governing element which is called
the head and the dependent element which is called the adjunct (in noun-phrases)
or the complement (in verb-phrases).
According to the nature of their heads, subordinate word-groups fall into
noun-phrases (NP) a cup of tea, verb-phrases (VP) to run fast, to see a house,
adjective phrases (AP) good for you, adverbial phrases (DP) so quickly,
pronoun phrases (IP) something strange, nothing to do.
The formation of the subordinate word-group depends on the valency of its
constituents. Valency is a potential ability of words to combine. Actual realization
of valency in speech is called combinability.
The noun-phrase (NP).
Noun word-groups are widely spread in English. This may be explained
by a potential ability of the noun to go into combinations with practically all parts
of speech. The NP consists of a noun-head and an adjunct or adjuncts with
relations of modification between them. Three types of modification are
distinguished here:
Premodification that comprises all the units placed before the head. two smart
hard-working students Adjuncts used in pre-head position are called pre-posed
adjuncts.
Postmodification that comprises all the units placed after the head. students from
Boston Adjuncts used in post-head position are called post-posed adjuncts.
Mixed modification that comprises all the units in both pre-head and post-head
position. two smart hard-working students from Boston.
Noun-phrases with pre-posed adjuncts.

In noun-phrases with pre-posed modifiers we generally find adjectives, pronouns,
numerals, participles, gerunds, nouns, nouns in the genitive case . According to
their position all pre-posed adjuncts may be divided into pre-adjectivals and
adjectiavals. The position of adjectivals is usually right before the noun-head. Pre-
adjectivals occupy the position before adjectivals. They fall into two groups: a)
limiters (to this group belong mostly particles): just, only, even, and b) determiners
(articles, possessive pronouns, quantifiers – the first, the last).
Premodification of nouns by nouns (N+N) is one of the most striking
features about the grammatical organization of English. It is one of devices to
make our speech both laconic and expressive at the same time. Noun-adjunct
groups result from different kinds of transformational shifts.
NPs with pre-posed adjuncts can signal a striking variety of meanings:
world  peace – peace all over the world
silver box – a box made of silver
table lamp – lamp for tables
table legs – the legs of the table
river sand – sand from the river
school child – a child who goes to school
The grammatical relations observed in NPs with pre-posed adjuncts may
convey the following meanings:
subject-predicate relations: weather change;
object relations: health service, women hater;
adverbial relations: a) of time: morning star,
                                     b) place: world peace, country house,
                                     c) comparison: button eyes,
                         d) purpose: tooth brush.
      It is important to remember that the noun-adjunct is usually marked
by a stronger stress than the head.
   Of special interest is a kind of ‘grammatical idiom’ where the modifier
is reinterpreted into the head: a devil of a man, an angel of a girl. 

Noun-phrases with post-posed adjuncts.
NPs with post-posed may be classified according to the way of connection into
prepositionless and prepositional.
The basic prepositionless NPs with post-posed adjuncts are: Nadj. – tea
strong, NVen – the shape unknown, NVing – the girl smiling, ND – the
man downstairs, NVinf – a book to read, NNum – room ten.
The pattern of basic prepositional NPs is N1 prep. N2. The most
common preposition here is ‘of’ – a cup of tea, a man of courage. It may
have quite different meanings: qualitative - a woman of sense,
predicative – the pleasure of the company, objective – the reading of
the newspaper, partitive – the roof of the house.
Based on this text provide the answers to the questions:
3. Basic syntactic notions.

4. Types of syntactic relations. Examples.

5. Definition and general characteristics of the word-group.

6. Classification of word-groups.

7. Peculiarities of noun-phrases.