COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
Programming is the process of preparing a set of coded intructions which enables the computer to solve specific probems or to perform specific functions. Theiessence of computer
programmingjis the encoding of the program for the computer
by means of algorythms. The thing is that any problem is expressed in mathematical terms, it contains formulae, equations
and calculations^ But the computer cannot manipulate formuae, equations and calculations. Any problem must be specially
processed for the computer to understand it, that is — coded or
programmed.
The phase in which the system's computer programs are
written is called the development phase. The programs are lists
of instructions that will be followed by the control unit of the
entral processing unit (CPU). The instructions of the program
must be complete and in the appropriate sequence, or else the
wrong answers will result. To guard against these errors in logic
nd to document the program's logical approach, logic plans
hould be developed.
There are two common techniques for planning the logic of
 program. The first technique is flowcharting. A flowchart is a
plan in the form of a graphic or pictorial representation that uses
predefined symbols to illustrate the program logic. It is, thereore, a "picture" of the logical steps to be performed by the
omputer. Each of the predefined symbol shapes stands for a
general operation. The symbol shape communicates the nature
of the general operation, and the specifics are written within the
ymbol. A plastic or metal guide called a template is used to
make drawing the symbols easier.
The second technique for planning program logic is called
pseudocode. Pseudocode is an imitation of actual program intructions. It allows a program-like structure without the burden of programming rules to follow. Pseudocode is less timeonsuming for the professional programmer than is flowcharting.
t also emphasizes a top-down approach to program structure. Pseudocode has three basic structures: sequence, decision,
and looping logic. With these three structures, any required logic
can be expressed. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Let's assume that we have studied the problem, designed a 
logical plan (our flowchart or pseudocode), and are now ready 
to write the program instructions. The process of writing pro- 
gram instructions is called coding. The instructions will be writ- 
ten on a form called a coding form.^The instructions we write
will be recorded in a machine-readable form using a keypunch, 
key-to-tape, or key-to-disk, or entered directly into computer 
memory through a terminal keyboard.
The computer cannot understand instructions written in just 
any old way. The instructions must be written according to a set 
of rules. These rules are the foundation of a programming Ian
guage. A programming language must convey the logical steps 
of the program plan in such a way that the control unit of the 
CPU can interpret and follow the instructions. Programming 
languages have improved throughout the years, just as comput- 
er hardware has improved. They have progressed from machine- oriented languages that use strings of binary Is and 0s to prob- lem-oriented languages that use common mathematical and/or
English terms.
There are over 200 problem-oriented languages. The most
common of them are COBOL, FORTRAN, PL/I, RPG, BASIC, PASCAL.
COBOL
COBOL was the most widely used business-oriented programming language. Its name is an acronym for Common Јlisincss-Oriented Zanguage. COBOL was designed to solve problems that are oriented toward data handling and input-output
operations. Of course, COBOL can perform arithmetic operations as well, but its greatest flexibility is in data handling. COBOL also was designed as a self-documenting language. Selfdocumenting languages are those that do not require a great deal
of explanation in order to be understood by someone reading
the program instructions. The self-documenting aspect of COBOL is made possible by its sentencelike structure and the very
generous maximum symbolic field-name length of 30 characters. With a field-name length of up to 30 characters, the name
can clearly identify the field and its purpose.
FORTRAN IV
The FORTRAN IV language is oriented toward solving problems of a mathematical nature. The name FORTRAN comes
from the combination of the words formula translation. The
version of FORTRAN IV has been designed as algebra-based
programming language. Any formula or those mathematical
relationships that can be expressed algebraically can easily be
expressed as a FORTRAN instruction. FORTRAN is the most
commonly used language for scientific applications.
PL/I
PL/I stands for programming language I. It was designed as
a general-purpose language incorporating features similar to
COBOL for data handling instructions and features similar to
FORTRAN for mathematical instructions. PL/I is much more
than a combination of the good features of both COBOL and
FORTRAN, as it has many capabilities that are unique. Yet,
although PL/I is one of the most versatile and the most powerful of the programming languages, it is not the most commonly used. COBOL and FORTRAN have been available for a longer
period of time than PL/I, and many more users work with those
languages. .Найдите в текстах COMPUTER PROGRAMMING и PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES слова, близкие по значению
следующим:
Nouns: command; line; characteristic; form; evolution; enumeration; mistake; method; character; manual (instruction);
consumption; storage; basics; abbreviation; interpretation; cor- relation; possibility.
Verbs: include; inform; process; protect; apply; permit; stress;
suppose; learn; make up; write; key; explain; define; perfect;
advance; decide; execute; demand. Adjectives: full; incorrect; usual; necessary; accessible; required; considerable; floppy; possible.