Dịch đoạn văn sau sang tiếng việt trừ những từ ngữ chuyên ngành như trong kỹ thuật, lập trình, học máy,..., giữ nguyên định dạng và không đề cập thêm gì hết

Fowler's stages of faith development. These theories propose that moral understanding and faith development are linked to cognitive development.



Computational models can provide insights into the cognitive processes involved in these theories. For instance, a model could simulate the cognitive processes involved in the development of moral understanding or faith development. This model could then predict the cognitive abilities and limitations of individuals at each stage based on their moral understanding or faith development.



#### 15.3 Cognitive Development in Infants



Cognitive development in infants is a fascinating and complex process that involves the rapid acquisition of various cognitive abilities. This development is influenced by a variety of factors, including genetic predispositions, environmental influences, and the infant's interactions with their surroundings. 



### Section: 15.3a Sensorimotor Stage



The sensorimotor stage, as proposed by Jean Piaget, is the first stage of cognitive development and typically spans from birth to approximately two years of age. During this stage, infants learn about the world around them primarily through their senses and motor activities, hence the term "sensorimotor". 



#### Sensorimotor Substages



Piaget further divided the sensorimotor stage into six substages, each characterized by the development of new cognitive abilities and behaviors. 



1. **Reflexive Schemes (birth - 1 month):** At this stage, newborns' interactions with the environment are largely reflexive, such as sucking and grasping.



2. **Primary Circular Reactions (1 - 4 months):** Infants start to repeat actions that bring them pleasure or meet their needs, like sucking their thumbs.



3. **Secondary Circular Reactions (4 - 8 months):** Infants begin to show an awareness of things beyond their own body; they might repeat an action to trigger a response in the environment.



4. **Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8 - 12 months):** Infants start to show intentional, goal-directed behavior; they can now string together actions to achieve a goal.



5. **Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 - 18 months):** Infants start to experiment with new behavior to see what happens; this is often referred to as the "trial and error" stage.



6. **Early Representational Thought (18 - 24 months):** Infants start to form mental representations of objects and events, marking the transition to the next stage, the preoperational stage.



#### Computational Models of the Sensorimotor Stage



Computational cognitive science can provide valuable insights into the cognitive development that occurs during the sensorimotor stage. For instance, computational models can simulate the cognitive processes involved in the development of goal-directed behavior or the formation of mental representations. These models can then predict the cognitive abilities and limitations of infants based on their understanding of these concepts.



Moreover, computational models can also help us understand the neural mechanisms underlying these cognitive processes. For example, the primary motor cortex, which plays a crucial role in motor control, undergoes significant development during the sensorimotor stage. Computational models can simulate the development and functioning of the primary motor cortex, providing insights into how infants learn to control their movements.



In conclusion, the sensorimotor stage is a critical period in cognitive development, characterized by rapid learning and the acquisition of new cognitive abilities. Computational cognitive science, with its ability to model and predict cognitive processes, provides a powerful tool for understanding this complex stage of development.



### Section: 15.3b Preoperational Stage



The preoperational stage, as proposed by Jean Piaget, is the second stage of cognitive development and typically spans from approximately two to seven years of age. During this stage, children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols. However, they are still not capable of logical thought and are characterized by egocentrism and centration.



#### Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage



1. **Symbolic Function Substage (2 - 4 years):** During this substage, children start to represent objects with words and images. This includes understanding that symbols or objects can represent something else, such as a toy car representing a real car. 



2. **Intuitive Thought Substage (4 - 7 years):** In this substage, children start to reason intuitively and become more analytical about the world around them. However, their thinking is still largely based on intuition rather than logic.



#### Key Concepts in the Preoperational Stage



- **Egocentrism:** This is the inability to see a situation from another person's point of view. During the preoperational stage, children are egocentric and struggle to understand perspectives other than their own.



- **Centration:** This is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation while neglecting other important features. For example, a child might judge the amount of a substance by its appearance rather than by its quantity.



- **Conservation:** This is the understanding that certain properties of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes. Children in the preoperational stage typically struggle with conservation tasks.



#### Computational Models of the Preoperational Stage



Computational models of the preoperational stage aim to simulate and understand the cognitive processes that occur during this stage. These models often focus on the development of symbolic representation and the limitations in children's reasoning abilities. 



For example, a computational model might simulate a child's performance on a conservation task, such as understanding that the amount of water remains the same when poured from a tall, thin glass into a short, wide one. By modeling the cognitive processes involved, researchers can gain insights into why children at this stage struggle with such tasks and how their understanding develops over time.



In the next section, we will delve deeper into the concrete operational stage, the third stage of cognitive development according to Piaget's theory.



### Section: 15.3c Concrete Operational Stage



The concrete operational stage is the third stage of cognitive development according to Jean Piaget's theory. This stage typically occurs between the ages of seven to eleven years. During this stage, children start to think logically about concrete events and begin to understand the concept of conservation, reversibility, and cause and effect relationships.



#### Characteristics of the Concrete Operational Stage



1. **Logical Thinking:** Children in this stage start to develop logical thinking and can solve problems systematically. However, their thinking is still concrete and tied to tangible and familiar events and objects.



2. **Understanding of Conservation:** Children begin to understand that the quantity or amount of an object remains the same even if its appearance changes. For example, they understand that the amount of water remains the same whether it's in a tall, thin glass or a short, wide one.



3. **Reversibility:** Children in the concrete operational stage understand that actions can be reversed. For example, they understand that if you pour water from one glass into another and then pour it back, the amount of water will be the same as it was initially.



4. **Cause and Effect Relationships:** Children start to understand cause and effect relationships. They can predict the outcome of an event based on their understanding of the relationship between actions and their consequences.



#### Key Concepts in the Concrete Operational Stage



- **Classification:** This is the ability to group objects based on their characteristics. Children in the concrete operational stage can classify objects into different categories based on multiple characteristics.



- **Seriation:** This is the ability to arrange objects in an order based on a characteristic, such as size or weight. Children in this stage can arrange objects in a series.



- **Transitivity:** This is the ability to understand that if A is related to B, and B is related to C, then A is also related to C. For example, if a child knows that their brother is taller than them, and they are taller than their sister, they can understand that their brother is also taller than their sister.



#### Computational Models of the Concrete Operational Stage



Computational models of the concrete operational stage aim to simulate and understand the cognitive processes that occur during this stage. These models often focus on the development of logical thinking and the understanding of conservation, reversibility, and cause and effect relationships.



For example, a computational model might simulate the process of understanding conservation by representing the amount of a substance as a numerical value and showing that this value remains constant even when the appearance of the substance changes. Similarly, a model might simulate the process of understanding reversibility by representing actions as operations that can be performed in reverse order.



### Section: 15.3d Formal Operational Stage



The formal operational stage is the fourth and final stage of cognitive development in Jean Piaget's theory. This stage typically begins around the age of twelve and continues into adulthood. During this stage, individuals start to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems. 



#### Characteristics of the Formal Operational Stage



1. **Abstract Thinking:** Individuals in this stage can think abstractly and understand complex concepts that are not tied to concrete, tangible events or objects. They can consider multiple variables and possibilities in a systematic and logical manner.



2. **Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning:** This is the ability to develop hypotheses or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude, the best path to follow in solving the problem. This type of reasoning involves the ability to think about all the possible factors that can affect a situation.



3. **Problem Solving:** Individuals in the formal operational stage can solve problems in a logical and methodical way. They can plan a systematic approach for solving problems, and can consider multiple solutions and outcomes.



4. **Metacognition:** This is the ability to think about one's own thoughts and processes. Individuals in the formal operational stage can reflect on their own thoughts, feelings, and mental processes, and can consider how they learn and solve problems.



#### Key Concepts in the Formal Operational Stage



- **Propositional Thought:** This is the ability to evaluate the logic of propositions or statements without referring to real-world circumstances. For example, individuals in the formal operational stage can understand that the statement "If it is raining, then the ground is wet" is logically valid, even if it is not raining at the moment.



- **Combinatorial Systems:** This is the ability to understand and apply systems of combinations. For example, individuals in this stage can understand the possible combinations of outfits that can be made from a set of clothes.



- **Probabilistic Reasoning:** This is the ability to understand and calculate probabilities. Individuals in the formal operational stage can understand that flipping a coin has a 50% chance of landing on heads and a 50% chance of landing on tails, and can calculate more complex probabilities as well.



The formal operational stage marks the culmination of cognitive development, as individuals gain the ability to think abstractly, reason logically and systematically, and reflect on their own thoughts and processes. However, it's important to note that not everyone reaches this stage, and even those who do may not apply formal operational thinking in all areas of life.



### Conclusion



In this chapter, we have delved into the fascinating world of cognitive development from a computational cognitive science perspective. We have explored how computational models can be used to understand and predict cognitive development, and how these models can be applied to real-world situations. We have also discussed the importance of considering individual differences in cognitive development, and how computational cognitive science can help us understand these differences.



We have seen that computational cognitive science is not just about creating models, but also about testing these models against empirical data. This iterative process of model creation and testing is what allows us to refine our understanding of cognitive development. We have also discussed the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in computational cognitive science, as insights from fields such as psychology, neuroscience, and computer science can all contribute to our understanding of cognitive development.



In conclusion, computational cognitive science provides a powerful tool for understanding cognitive development. By combining computational models with empirical data, we can gain a deeper understanding of how cognition develops and changes over time. This understanding can then be used to inform interventions and treatments for cognitive disorders, as well as to design educational programs that are tailored to individual cognitive abilities.



### Exercises



#### Exercise 1

Create a simple computational model of cognitive development. What variables would you include in your model, and why?



#### Exercise 2

Choose a specific aspect of cognitive development (e.g., language acquisition, problem-solving skills, etc.). How would you use computational cognitive science to study this aspect of development?



#### Exercise 3

Discuss the importance of empirical data in computational cognitive science. How does empirical data contribute to the creation and testing of computational models of cognitive development?



#### Exercise 4

Discuss the role of interdisciplinary collaboration in computational cognitive science. How can insights from different fields contribute to our understanding of cognitive development?



#### Exercise 5

How can the insights gained from computational cognitive science be applied in real-world situations? Provide examples of how these insights could be used to inform interventions and treatments for cognitive disorders, or to design educational programs.



## Chapter: 16 - Memory



### Introduction



Memory, as a cognitive function, is a fascinating and complex topic that has been the subject of extensive research in the field of cognitive science. This chapter, Chapter 16, delves into the intricacies of memory from a computational cognitive science perspective. 



Memory is not a monolithic entity but rather a system of interrelated processes that work together to encode, store, and retrieve information. These processes are not only crucial for our daily functioning but also form the basis of our identity and our understanding of the world around us. 



In this chapter, we will explore the computational models that have been developed to understand these processes. These models, grounded in both psychological theory and neuroscientific data, provide a framework for understanding how memory works at a mechanistic level. 



We will also discuss the role of memory in other cognitive processes, such as learning and decision making. This will involve an examination of how memory representations are formed and updated, and how they influence our behavior. 



Finally, we will consider the implications of this research for artificial intelligence and machine learning. By understanding how memory works in the human brain, we can develop more sophisticated and human-like algorithms for data storage and retrieval.



This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive overview of memory from a computational perspective, bridging the gap between cognitive science, neuroscience, and artificial intelligence. Whether you are a student, a researcher, or simply someone interested in the workings of the human mind, we hope that this chapter will provide you with a deeper understanding of this fascinating cognitive function.



### Section: 16.1 Types of memory



Memory, in the context of cognitive science, can be broadly categorized into two types: short-term memory and long-term memory. These two types of memory differ in their capacity, duration, and the nature of the encoding processes.



#### 16.1.1 Short-term memory



Short-term memory, also known as working memory, is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a short period of time. The duration of short-term memory is typically in the order of seconds to minutes. The capacity of short-term memory is limited, often characterized by the "magic number" 7±2, which suggests that the average number of items that can be stored in short-term memory is between 5 and 9.



In the context of computational cognitive science, models of short-term memory often involve temporary activation of neural networks. For example, the Hopfield network model can be used to represent short-term memory, where patterns of activation over the network nodes represent different memory items, and the state of the network can change rapidly in response to input.



#### 16.1.2 Long-term memory



Long-term memory, on the other hand, is the capacity for holding a large amount of information in a semi-permanent state for a long period of time. The duration of long-term memory can be from minutes to a lifetime. The capacity of long-term memory is virtually unlimited.



Models of long-term memory in computational cognitive science often involve changes in the strength of connections between nodes in a neural network. For example, the Hebbian learning rule, which states that "cells that fire together, wire together", can be used to model the formation of long-term memories. In this model, repeated activation of a particular pattern of nodes leads to strengthening of the connections between those nodes, making the pattern more likely to be activated in the future.



#### 16.1.3 Interplay between short-term and long-term memory



The interplay between short-term and long-term memory is a crucial aspect of memory function. Information in short-term memory can be consolidated into long-term memory through processes such as rehearsal and encoding. Conversely, information in long-term memory can be brought into short-term memory through retrieval processes.



In computational models, this interplay can be represented by mechanisms that allow for the transfer of activation between different parts of the network, or by mechanisms that allow for the modification of connection strengths based on the current state of the network.



In the following sections, we will delve deeper into the computational models of these memory types and explore how they contribute to our understanding of memory as a cognitive function.



### Section: 16.2 Memory processes



Memory processes are the mechanisms by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in the brain. These processes are fundamental to all cognitive functions, including perception, attention, language, and problem solving. In this section, we will discuss the three main memory processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.



#### 16.2.1 Encoding



Encoding is the process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory. This process involves the activation of specific neural pathways in response to sensory stimuli. In computational cognitive science, encoding is often modeled as the process of converting input into a pattern of activation over a neural network.



For example, in the Hopfield network model, an external stimulus is encoded as a pattern of activation over the network nodes. The specific pattern of activation represents the encoded memory of the stimulus. This process is similar to the way in which a digital image is encoded as a pattern of pixels.



#### 16.2.2 Storage



Storage is the process of maintaining encoded information in memory over time. In the brain, this process involves changes in the strength of connections between neurons, known as synaptic plasticity. In computational models, storage is often represented as changes in the weights of connections between nodes in a neural network.



For instance, in the Hebbian learning rule, repeated activation of a particular pattern of nodes leads to strengthening of the connections between those nodes. This strengthening of connections represents the storage of the memory in the network. This is analogous to the way in which a file is stored on a computer hard drive.



#### 16.2.3 Retrieval



Retrieval is the process of accessing stored information when it is needed. In the brain, this process involves reactivating the neural pathways that were involved in the original encoding of the information. In computational models, retrieval is often represented as the reactivation of the pattern of activation that represents the memory.



For example, in the Hopfield network model, retrieval of a memory involves reactivating the pattern of activation that represents the memory. This is similar to the way in which a file is retrieved from a computer hard drive.



In the next section, we will discuss the different types of memory retrieval, including recall and recognition, and how these processes are modeled in computational cognitive science.



### Section: 16.3 Memory disorders



Memory disorders are conditions that impair our ability to encode, store, and retrieve information. These disorders can be caused by a variety of factors, including brain injury, neurological disease, and psychological trauma. In this section, we will discuss several types of memory disorders, starting with amnesia.



#### 16.3a Amnesia



Amnesia is a type of memory disorder characterized by an inability to recall past events or learn new information. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including brain injury, disease, or psychological trauma. There are several types of amnesia, including post-hypnotic amnesia, which we will discuss in more detail.



##### Posthypnotic amnesia



Posthypnotic amnesia refers to an individual's inability to recall the events that occurred during hypnosis. This type of amnesia can be further categorized into recall amnesia, recognition amnesia, and source amnesia.



###### Recall amnesia



Recall amnesia refers to an individual's inability to recall, when in a normal conscious state, the events that occurred during hypnosis. This type of amnesia is often tested using nonsense syllables that were paired during hypnosis, which are unable to be recalled post hypnotically when a suggestion for amnesia was given during hypnosis. Recall amnesia can also be measured by asking individuals, after their hypnosis has been terminated, to describe what they have been doing since they first laid down on the couch for their hypnosis session.



###### Recognition amnesia



Recognition amnesia refers to an impairment of an individual's recognition memory brought on by amnesia. It has been suggested that individuals who report amnesia after hypnosis might not be experiencing post-amnesia recognition impairments. Instead, they may not be accurately describing their experience and confuse having amnesia for a lack of attention during encoding of tested stimuli.



###### Source amnesia



Source amnesia refers to the ability of individuals to correctly recall information learned during hypnosis without the recollection of where the information was acquired. This type of amnesia is often tested by administering a hypnotic induction procedure which is immediately followed by a series of tests or activities.



In the next section, we will discuss other types of memory disorders, including Alzheimer's disease and Korsakoff's syndrome.



#### 16.3b Alzheimer's disease



Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive, irreversible neurodegenerative disease that is the leading cause of dementia. It is characterized by the intracellular aggregation of Neurofibrillary tangle (NFT), which consists of hyper-phosphorylated Tau protein, and by extracellular accumulation of amyloid beta[^1^]. Symptoms of AD include memory loss, cognitive decline, and increased anxiety or aggression. The disease can be fatal.



##### Prevalence and incidence



In 2020, approximately 5.8 million Americans over the age of 65 (or approximately 1 in 10 people in that age group) had AD[^2^]. Risk for the disease increases with age, with 32% of people over the age of 85 living with AD[^2^]