Based on the findings in Chapter 4, what specific revisions should be made in Chapter 2.  Chapter 2; The nature of the position of law enforcement officer necessitates professionalism and mental stability. Officers must make split-second decisions that have the potential to affect the lives of citizens. At times, law enforcement officers may be required to end a citizen’s life to protect others’ lives. There are screening procedures in place to guarantee that only candidates with sound mental health are approved for the position. The screening of police veterans can be useful to detect police officer’s suffering from symptoms that can affect their ability to safely perform the duties of the position. Police officers may be susceptible to difficulties such as stress, fear, relationship conflicts, family dysfunction, and failed marriages (Tuttle, Giano, & Merten, 2018). Emotional depletion, panic, and low mood have all been linked to the pressures of wearing the badge (Maria et al., 2017). Not only does pre-screening weed out individuals who would most likely fail at the job, but it may also identify police officers with interpersonal and emotional problems who are still able to execute the job functions.
Law enforcement officers have been applying for early disability retirement pensions at an increased rate for stress-related psychiatric and medical conditions. As a result, law enforcement agencies are prematurely losing valuable resources, and officers with training and experience.
To combat this, pre-employment psychological testing to identify psychological susceptibility is widespread among law enforcement agencies (Marshall et al., 2020a). Utilization of psychological screening methods to determine a police officer candidate’s potential for wrongdoing dates back over a century (Termann et al., 1917), and has been prompted by considerations surrounding liability risks in law enforcement (Ellingwood et al., 2018).
Common tools used to assess psychological susceptibility include the polygraph instrument, MMPI-II-RF, MMPI-II, and CPI. Once a candidate passes the pre-employment screening and is officially a police officer, screening does not come to an end. Fitness for duty procedure is implemented on an as-needed basis to ensure the police officer is still mentally fit to perform the duties of the job. A fitness for duty process can be used to identify impairment in work functioning due to psychiatric factors with the prospect of later returning the officer to full duty (Price, 2017).
Due to the high potential for stress, anxiety, family strife, negative emotions, and interpersonal challenges in the police force, it is crucial that hiring agencies do thorough screenings on prospective officers (Griffin & Sun, 2017). These circumstances can affect the daily life of police officers and those around to them. For example, it has been found that the expectations of a law enforcement career are linked to troubled marriages (Griffin & Sun, 2017). Analysis of personality traits, probable psychopathology, and potential behavioral concerns is a crucial element of the recruiting process for law enforcement professionals.
Compared to other groups, police officers are more prone to suffer emotionally and mentally because of their profession (Lewis-Schroder et al., 2018; Milligan-Saville et al., 2018; Petrie et al., 2018). Ways to attempt to combat this statistic is through various screening measures, aimed to uncover characteristics consistent with those that have been shown to exhibit symptoms of mental illness. Some data on police recruit screening have found that measuring recognized risk variables such as early indicators of mental illness did not predict future mental health difficulties (Marshall et al., 2021). Given the rewards of being approved for a particular military specialty, the motives for candidates to conceal disqualifying conditions are substantial. Another reason screening has not been effective is because many military applicants and personnel do not disclose conditions and symptoms because of the stigma associated with mental health (Warner et al., 2011).
Other evidence reveals that people who struggle with a variety of mental health and substance use difficulties tend to have personality features that raise the risk of psychopathology (Watson et al., 2019; Widiger et al., 2019). Both reticent and paranoid qualities, as well as impulsive features, have been shown to relate to a wide range of mental and drug use problems (Brandes et al., 2019; Haltigan et al., 2018). There are several important tools used to assess the probability of successfully engaging in law enforcement duties while maintaining psychological fitness. The (MMPI-2-RF) is the most current version of the most widely used police pre-employment tool to assess impaired psychological functioning (Ben-Porath, 2019; Corey, 2016; Kim, 2021). It is used in nearly half of police candidate evaluations whereas the MMPI-2 is used in over one-third of evaluations (Corey, 2016). The (CPI) is the most widely administered tool to assess normal psychological functioning (Corey, 2016).
Pre-employment Screening
Police officers put their lives at risk every day they are on the job. They need to have character, physical fitness, intelligence, and emotional health to competently protect the public. If a police officer has overt prejudice, unconscious bias, character flaws, inadequate reasoning, or judgment, is physically impaired, or is emotionally compromised, then the lives of the general population are also at risk (Berger et al., 2020). Pre-employment screening of police officers is common among police departments nationwide. The rationale for pre-employment screening is to ensure candidates are psychologically intact for the position, free of any condition that might have a negative impact on the ability to safely perform police duties and has the mental fortitude to deal with the stresses of the job.
The tools most used involve a polygraph and several different self-questionnaires such as MMPI-2, MMPI-2 RF, MMPI-3, CPI, M-PULSE, MPQ, and POST-10. According to a recent study, the way law enforcement officers answer the self-questionnaires depends on if it is administered by the agency or a third party (Marshall et al., 2021). The polygraph exam is used to detect those at high risk for corrupt, immoral, and illegal behavior. Despite research documenting the credibility of its psychometric properties as an instrument (Palmatier & Rovner, 2015), there is almost no evidence linking a polygraph exam to successful employees.
Research reveals that polygraphs may not always be an accurate indicator of someone’s suitability for a law enforcement career (White, 2018). Police agencies that deployed polygraphs and police agencies that did not were grouped in the research. Police departments without polygraphs had fewer arrests and more years on the job before an arrest when compared to agencies that used polygraphs for prescreening purposes (White, 2018). The utilization of polygraph examinations as a means of pre-hire screening for police employment has been a subject of ongoing debate within the scholarly community. Several scholars, including Handler et al. (2009), and Cumming (2007), have recognized various shortcomings such as the false sense of confidence it often instills in its outcomes and its vulnerability to being tricked.
MMPI-2
MMPI-2- scales measure factors research has shown to predict psychological injury (Neuroticism, Psychoticism, Introversion, Disconstraint, and Aggressiveness) and psychopathology (Depression, Anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder [PTSD]) with subsequent psychological injury (Marshall et al., 2020a). The (MMPI-2) was created to identify and diagnose prevalent mental illnesses. The MMPI-2 is the most extensively utilized instrument for assessing psychological cohesion and competence in jobs such as police officers (Floyd & Gupta, 2022; Kim, 2021). Various validity studies have been conducted on the MMPI-2, as it has the advantage of using validity scores to detect response bias in psychiatric and forensic evaluation as well as in routine screenings (Greene, 1991; Kim, 2021). Among the most prevalent mental illnesses are mood disorders (Benjamin et al., 2015; Kessler et al., 2005). They create social disruption because of frequent relapses and are significant suicide risk factors (Calabrese et al., 2003; Dome et al., 2019).
A study of thousands of new recruits investigated connections between MMPI-2 scores and behaviors resulting in termination of police employment. The study concluded that certain scores on the MMPI-2 were associated with behaviors that were not conducive to successful police employment (Loya et al., 2022). The outcome reinforces the ability to predict police misconduct in new cadets (Loya et al., 2022; Sellbom et al., 2007, Bartol, 1991). Another study included approximately 12,000 police officers. About 440 of those officers were accused of excessive force and 160 were accused of racist behavior. The study that the police officers accused of excessive force and/or racist behavior all have higher K scores and Lower F scores when compared to the rest of the police officers in the sample (Borgagna, 2022). Similarly, the MMPI scores of over 4,000 police candidates were analyzed to see if scores were connected to negative work behavior. According to the statistics, police with L scale scores beyond a particular threshold displayed a higher rate of negative work behavior than those with lower scores (Weiss et al., 2013).
In separate studies, no connection was found to exist relating MMPI-2 scores to emotional impairment (Marshall et al., 2020b; Marshall et al., 2021). Some research examined whether MMPI-2 Pre-hire screening scores relate to a police officer’s risk of psychological impairment, as indicated by officers off sick due to a confirmed work-related mental illness. The study found no indication that pre-hire MMPI-2 test scores might predict future psychological damage (Marshall et al., 2020b). Even with the assumption of predicting future alarming behaviors, the negative findings can be overlooked or waved to send the cadet to the following round of the recruiting process (Inwald &Thompson, 2021). Over the last year, several departments have also been loosening their guidelines, resulting in the appointment of more questionable or mentally unsuitable candidates (Inwald & Thompson, 2021).
MMPI-2-RF
The MMPI-2-RF is a multi-item self-report scale intended to assess a variety of modern psychopathology symptoms and personality characteristics. The MMPI-2-RF components are organized into multiple scales that evaluate clinical content (Sellbom et al., 2020). The measures where police candidates exhibit behaviors that may negatively affect their competence in carrying out one’s job responsibilities.
Studies have determined future problematic behaviors in police officers can be predicted based on prior behaviors (Corey et al., 2018; Sellbom et al., 2021;; Tarescavage et al., 2014). Surveys have shown the MMPI-2-RF’s efficacy as a pre-hire screening instrument (Roberts et al., 2019; Detrick et al., 2015). Others argue that the MMPI-2-RF does not come without flaws (Balthrop 2018; Corey & Ben-Porath, 2014). In pre-employment evaluation scenarios, misrepresentation of symptoms is a major problem, particularly when pathological characteristics, sentiments, or behavioral abnormalities are diminished, omitted, or minimized. It is possible for an unsuitable cadet to be sworn in because of misleading or erroneous psychiatric reporting (Balthrop 2018; Corey & Ben-Porath, 2014). Some studies have substantiated the validity of MMPI-2-RF results in the law enforcement pre-hire process (Detrick et al., 2015; Fischler et al., 2015; Tarescavage et al 2015), evaluations of work performed while under probationary status, (Corey, Sellbom, & Ben-Porath, 2018; Roberts et al., 2019), and police misconduct investigations and officers fired from the department (Sellbom et al., 2007).
The MMPI-2-RF has been administered both in person and remotely and proctored both in person and remotely. A study was conducted to see if any significant differences in scores were discovered in any combination of the in person or remote testing or proctoring. The study concluded that regardless of in person testing, in person proctoring, remote testing or remote proctoring, the scores were very similar (Menton et al., 2022).
MMPI-3
The MMPI-2-RF was updated and given the name MMPI-3 (Ben-Porath & Tellegen, 2020). It consists of over 300 questions that are scored on multiple validity scales looking for inconsistent responding, over-reporting, underreporting, and various other scales. Corresponding with the results from the MMPI-2-RF literature, recent research of over 650 applicants for law enforcement found that MMPI-3 scores correlated with the POST-10 dimensions (Whitman et.al. 2021). Study outcomes from the MMPI-3 were shown to have convergent validity in this research when used to assess potential police officers. The findings were in line with previous research utilizing the MMPI-2-RF
A separate study examined scores to determine if there were significant differences between officers without any previous law enforcement experience and those with some law enforcement experience. The study was not able to find any significant difference between the groups, regardless of the level of experience. (Whitman et al., 2022a). Thus, scores may be generalized among police candidates coming in without experience, with some experience, or with a lot of experience.
In another study, applicants for careers in law enforcement, corrections, firefighting, and emergency dispatch were assessed based on their MMPI-3 scores and their responses to the Psychological History Questionnaire (PsyQ) (Whitman et al., 2022b). The study included more than 1900 people; approximately 1300 were police officers, and the remaining 600 were other potential candidates for jobs in public safety. The study concluded that Significant correlations were found between MMPI-3 scores and other aggregated scale scores obtained from PsyQ data, especially in the behavioral/externalizing area. This research lends support to the MMPI-3’s suitability for usage with prospective police officers and shows that the correlations between the MMPI-3 and other public safety occupations are consistent with those found with police applicants (Whitman et al., 2022b).

California Psychological Inventory
The California Psychological Inventory (CPI) is an evaluation consisting of over 400 questions meant to analyze the character, conduct, and interpersonal relationships of an individual (American Psychological Association, 2022). CPI is the most used instrument for assessing normal psychological functioning used in nearly 43% of the tests (Corey, 2016). The topics covered in the questionnaire are those that typically concern the respondent’s daily routines, values, and perspectives on moral and social issues. Anyone with the equivalent of a fourth-grade education or higher can take it, though it is designed for those as young as 12 and as old as 70.
The assessment results are displayed in the form of a profile that contains many specialized scales and factors. Its usual application is within “typical” communities, where it serves to provide light on things like occupational inclinations, social habits, psychological balance, and value systems (Johnson & Roberts, 2021). In a recent study, the results corresponded with previous research on MMPI-2 and MMPI-2RF that offer credence to the reliability of using the CPI as a pre-hire test tool for police. The results showed that Police officers that were given poor performance reviews but here superiors for negative behavior were shown to have similar scores on the CPI (Roberts et al.,2019).
One study was even performed to determine if exposure to traumatic events and stress of the job would equate to personality shifts. 38 police officers participated in the study. The police officers were given the CPI when they were initially hired and then a subsequent CPI was given after the officer had anywhere from 5-10 years of experience. Mean trait scored declined on all traits in the study. The study concluded that Police officer empathy is negatively affected by experience (Willis & Schuldberg, 2016).
POST-10
California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training developed the most widely used tool for evaluating prospective police officers in the US (Mitchell, 2017; Spilberg & Corey, 2018). The tool is referred to as the POST-10 because it stems from 10 screening dimensions that incorporate both standard personality variables driven primarily by the five-factor model of personality correlations with positive outcomes and the requirement that the applicant be free of job-related psychopathology (Sellbom et al., 2019). The POST-10 domains include areas such as risk-taking behavior, emotional regulation, stress tolerance, impulse control, assertiveness, social competence, teamwork, decision making, adaptability, dependability, and integrity (Sellbom et al., 2019)
The usual assessment battery for these sorts of psychological evaluations consists of a normal personality test, a complete examination of psychopathology or disturbed personality, a detailed examination of patient history, and a clinical consultation (Mitchel, 2017). The POST-10 has been referred to as the gold standard of psychological suitability for police employment (Mitchel, 2017). The Post-10 dimensions are scored at a low, medium, or a high. Any candidate that scores a high in any dimension is deemed to be not suitable for police employment (Sellbom et al., 2019).
The MMPI-2-RF is the only instrument for which there is published evidence of relevance to the POST screening dimensions (Tarescavage et al., 2015). The scores that were connected to unfavorable emotionality were especially prominent predictors of a variety of POST-10 suitability scales. The scales that were shown to be the most accurate predictors of poor police performance were those that evaluated features of positive emotionality, impulsivity, and absorption (Sellbom et al., 2019).

The Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire
The MPQ is one of the instruments used to evaluate the personality of a police officer candidate. The Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) is a 276 true or false self-survey utilized in elucidating the connections between temperamental psychological dispositions and healthy and unhealthy ways of behaving (Sellbom et al., 2021). It is common practice that Law enforcement officer candidates are evaluated before they are hired using a valid and reliable personality test.
In a study of nearly 1700 police applicants, the validity of the MPQ was assessed (Sellbom, 2019). Researchers looked at the relationships between MPQ scale scores, biodata, and clinician suitability scores on Post-10, in addition to post-hire job performance. The results of the study lend credence to the MPQ’s potential as a normal-range personality indicator. The findings document evidence of the MPQ’s significance in determining whether an applicant is mentally fit for a career in law enforcement (Sellbom et al., 2019).
An updated study of 1600 police officer candidates concluded similar results. The findings of this study suggest the MPQ has some predictive value in police pre-employment exams (Sellbom et al., 2019). Thus, it would be concluded that the MPQ is a successful tool being utilized to screen out candidates that are not mentally fit to safely perform the duties of the profession.
Post-Hire Fitness For Duty Screening
A fitness-for-duty process can be used to identify impairment in work functioning due to psychiatric factors with the prospect of later returning the officer to full duty (Price, 2017). Assessing a police officer’s fitness for duty begins during the application process and continues throughout the length of their employment. Fitness for Duty evaluations measure whether an individual is physically, mentally, and emotionally capable of successfully executing their job properly. To avoid severe civil responsibility and other serious penalties, police agencies have an obligation to guarantee that the officers under their supervision are psychologically competent to fulfill their jobs. Questions about a law enforcement officer’s emotional well-being, or their inability to carry out their duties, are legitimate concerns in certain situations. Excessive use of force, domestic violence, drowsiness, drug addiction, and other unproductive habits are all examples of such conduct that may occur. There are several warning signs that should be investigated further, including but not limited to: verbal threats, suicidal ideation, and mental hospitalizations. When such conduct happens and it is thought that it is at least partially related to a mental health issue, an examination may be required to determine the nature of the psychological issue and its influence on work performance (IACP Police Psychological Services Section, 2018; Price, 2017). The criteria used to determine psychological fitness vary by state and individual agency (Berger et al., 2020). A fitness-for-duty process can be used to identify impairment in work functioning due to psychiatric factors with the prospect of later returning the officer to full duty (Price, 2017).
Evaluating a candidate’s suitability and fitness for employment involves assessing and understanding personality attributes in relation to job performance. Research on police personalities is broken down into traits that are linked to good police performance and traits that are linked to bad police performance (Spillburg and Corey, 2019). Over two decades ago, The California Peace Officers Standards and Training produced a set of psychological screening measures for use in evaluating police candidates. They currently constitute the most exhaustive attempt to uncover the psychological traits, actions, and competencies related to the on-the-job performance of law enforcement officers (Corey and Zelig, 2020). The screening measures are used during fitness for duty evaluations to determine how an officer’s mental condition may impair their decision-making ability (Corey and Zelig, 2020). According to Corey, 2016 these screening measures are used in 80% of assessments. The assessments are composed of personality traits in relation to job performance.
In 2018. over 160 police officers were fatally wounded while performing law enforcement duties and another 159 police officers completed suicide that same year (Lohr, 2019). The suicide rate of police officers is significantly higher than the suicide rate of the general population (Roufa, 2019). The high death rate of police officers either on the job or by way of suicide is symbolic of the amount of stress they routinely must face on the job. The 159 police officers that completed suicide in 2018 all passed a fitness for duty evaluation prior to being hired.
A police officer’s mental fitness for duty may fluctuate. Stress and long years on the job may have a profound impact on a police officer, changing both their character and their capacity to do their job safely and successfully (Challacombe et al., 2019; Fila el al., 2017). The level of stress a police officer encounters on the job may vary from day to day. Police officers with increased neuroticism and psychoticism are more likely to be experiencing elevated stress (Kaur & Reddi, 2021). The results of these studies strongly implicate the need for continued assessment of fitness for duty throughout the career in addition to the stringent guidelines required to obtain initial employment (Cyaooacombe et al., 2019; Fila et al., 2017; Kaur & Reddi, 2021).
Discussion
Chapter 4; Due to the accumulation of traumatic experiences and the high incidence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other related disorders, first responders are widely regarded as a suitable population for routine mental health screening. The promotion of screening is frequently advocated as a strategy to support the maintenance of a mentally sound work environment. Police agencies engage in screening procedures with the aim of identifying initial signs of mental disorders, thereby facilitating timely mental health services. Police departments conduct pre-employment testing to decrease the likelihood of recruiting individuals who may exhibit vulnerability to prospective mental health issues. With the presentation of problematic behaviors, it may be necessary for experienced law enforcement personnel to undergo a fitness for duty evaluation. Notwithstanding the deployment of screening tools, a substantial prevalence of mental health concerns persists among police officers. RQ 2 included the analysis of 46 articles.
Predicator of Job Performance
The main finding derived from the examination of 11 studies over the span of 2014-2022 is that the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) has the potential to function as a prognostic instrument for forthcoming occurrences of misconduct by police officers. According to Marshall et al. (2020a), the MMPI-2 scales have been developed with the purpose of evaluating a range of characteristics that have been discovered in research as potential indicators of mental illness and psychopathology. A research investigation was conducted to explore the association between MMPI-2 scores and the particular behaviors that resulted in the cessation of employment within a substantial group of recently enlisted persons in the domain of law enforcement. According to Loya et al. (2022), the results of the study revealed a significant association between certain scores on the MMPI-2 and behaviors that hindered the attainment of successful employment within the police force. A distinct investigation unveiled that police officers who have faced allegations of employing disproportionate force and/or displaying racist conduct demonstrate elevated K scores and diminished F scores when compared to their peers within the sampled police officer population (Borgagna, 2022). Further research provides evidence to support the claim that the MMPI-2 exhibits a notable level of precision in forecasting potential behavioral problems among law enforcement personnel, encompassing mental, ethical, and performance-related difficulties (Sellbom et al., 2007; Weiss et al., 2013). Marshall et al. (2020b) and Marshall et al. (2021) conducted two further studies that yielded results indicating the absence of a statistically significant association between MMPI-2 scores and mental health issues.
According to a study conducted by Kim et al. (2021b), the application of Machine Learning (ML) methods in conjunction with the MMPI-2 has demonstrated reliable and consistent outcomes in accurately classifying and predicting an individual’s suicidal ideation and past suicide attempts. The existence of a tool that demonstrates a high level of precision in projecting mental health results is beneficial. However, exercising caution throughout the selection procedure may present notable hazards, especially regarding the progression of cadets to following stages of the recruitment process. A further investigation that centers on the development of an innovative scale inside the MMPI-2 framework. The main purpose of this scale is to identify potential suicide risk in patients receiving assessment, namely those who may display reluctance in expressing clear suicidal thoughts or acts. According to Nichols et al. (2021), the results of this study indicate that the metric utilized is a dependable measure for assessing the probability of suicide.
Notwithstanding the underlying principle of effectively predicting probable problematic behavior, there exists a proclivity to overlook or minimize unfavorable outcomes in order to progress the cadet to the subsequent phase of the recruitment procedure (Inwald & Thompson, 2021). Over the past year, several departments have implemented changes to their regulations, resulting in the recruitment of persons with questionable qualifications or mental unsuitability (Inwald & Thompson, 2021). Hence, the effectiveness of the screening measures depends on the following compliance with the measured outcomes.
Personality and Psychopathology Interplay
A major theme that emerged from the analysis of 13 articles on the MMPI-2-RF and police officers over the span of 2011 to 2021 is that mental illness can modify cognitive, emotional, and interpersonal inclinations, potentially impacting the behaviors and capabilities of law enforcement officers. The MMPI-2-RF is a comprehensive self-report inventory designed to evaluate a wide range of contemporary psychopathological symptoms and personality traits. The MMPI-2-RF elements are grouped into various scales that assess for clinical significance. The instrument measures criteria by which police candidates demonstrate actions that have the potential to hinder their effectiveness in fulfilling their professional duties. One study identified the scores related to thought dysfunction are correlated with feelings of isolation and a lack of focus on achieving goals (Roberts et al., 2018).
Psychopathology can profoundly modify personality, either in a positive or negative manner. For instance, it is possible that enduring a severe mental illness, could permanently influence one’s cognitive, emotional, and interpersonal tendencies (Widiger, 2011). This modification of personality does not necessarily indicate just a persistent but mild expression of psychopathology. It may also signify the emergence of new personality traits because of the presence or encounter of psychopathology. The study findings suggest that the MMPI-2-RF spectrum scales show promise validity in evaluating psychopathology associated to personality disorders, in terms of criterion, concept, and incremental measures (Brown & Sellbom, 2020; Sellbom, 2019). It has been established that potential hazardous conduct in law enforcement professionals may be anticipated by analyzing their previous behaviors (Corey et al., 2018; Sellbom et al., 2021). Another study was implemented to explore the correlations between MMPI-2-RF and biodata, as well as post-hire metrics for performance, in a specific group of officers. They were deemed psychologically fit, were later employed, and had accessible records of their performance after being hired. The results suggest that combining MMPI-2-RF scores with biodata can enhance the accuracy of predicting undesirable outcomes (Corey et al., 2018).
The MMPI-2-RF had a revision and was subsequently renamed as MMPI-3 (Ben-Porath & Tellegen, 2020). The assessment has more than 300 items that are evaluated using numerous validity measures to detect inconsistent responses, exaggerated reporting, minimized reporting, and other relevant scales. In line with the findings of previous studies on the MMPI-2-RF, a recent investigation revealed a significant correlation between MMPI-3 scores and the post-10 dimensions (Whitman et al., 2021). The research derived exhibited convergent validity for assessing law enforcement officer candidates. However, some contend that the MMPI-2-RF is not without its shortcomings (Balthrop 2018; Corey & Ben-Porath, 2014). In situations when individuals are being assessed for employment, the deliberate deception of symptoms poses a significant challenge, especially when it involves downplaying, omitting, or minimizing pathological traits, emotions, or behavioral abnormalities. An inappropriate cadet may be erroneously sworn in due to false or inaccurate psychiatric reporting (Balthrop 2018; Corey & Ben-Porath, 2014).
Criterion Validity and Predictive Accuracy
An important finding based on reviewing 15 studies from 2014 to 2024 regarding the MMPI-3 and its use in pre-employment screening, demonstrates that the instrument is essential for identifying traits that could adversely affect police performance. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) has consistently been one of the most extensively utilized psychological instruments in the assessment of police officer applicants during pre-hire screenings. The newest version, the MMPI-3, is a recently revised iteration of the MMPI-2-RF (Ben-Porath & Tellegen, 2020a,b). The MMPI-3 is inclusive of the POST-10 scales created by The California Commission on Peace Officer standards and Training (Spillberg & Corey, 2020).
The California Commission on Peace Officer standards and Training (Spilberg & Corey, 2020) mandates rigorous requirements that necessitate the evaluation of all recruits for law enforcement across various parameters: Emotional Regulation and Stress Tolerance, Avoidance of Substance Use and Other Risk-Taking Behavior, Impulse Control and Attention to Safety, Assertiveness, Social Competence, Teamwork, Decision Making and Judgment, Adaptability and Flexibility, Conscientiousness and Dependability, and Integrity and Ethics. A study examined the correlations between issues identified in pre-hire screenings of public safety candidates using the MMPI-3 assessment. The MMPI-3 scores showed regular and substantial associations with the POST-10 aspects.
Previous studies have demonstrated that law enforcement professionals endure elevated levels of stress compared to individuals in most other professions and frequently suffer significant mental health issues (Price, 2017). The initial two peer-reviewed research focused on the examination of the MMPI-3 and its application in pre-employment screening for police officer candidates. These studies assessed the accuracy and practicality of using the MMPI-3 in this context (Whitman et al., 2021; Whitman et al., 2022). One study found that the MMPI-3 was not only effective in assessing police candidates but was also unable to find any indication to suggest significant or widespread differences in emotional or interpersonal issues that can be attributed to being subjected to occupational-related stressors (Whitman et al.,2022). The MMPI-3 PCIR identified 16 thresholds that were linked to a higher likelihood of experiencing difficulties in at least part of the POST-10 dimensions (Whitman et al., 2021). These findings of the research support the criterion validity of MMPI-3 scores in the pre-hire screening of police officers (Whitman et al., 2021).
A recent study contributes to the existing body of literature on the interpretation of MMPI-3 results in pre-hire psychological examinations. It provides information on the frequencies of interpretable examinations, as well as the average scores and validity coefficients for MMPI-3 scores in a sample that includes nearly 2,000 public safety candidates. The findings confirmed the capacity to make accurate conclusions based on MMPI-3 scores across several groups, including police officers, correctional officers, dispatchers, firefighters, and male and female police officer applicants (Whitman et al., 2023). A supplementary analysis of 527 male and female police candidates revealed that there is no substantial disparity in the effectiveness of the MMPI-3 assessment tool between male and female candidates (Talerico et al., 2024).
The MMPI-3 can detect both under reporting and over reporting as well. Research has demonstrated that both the MMPI-2 RF and MMPI-3 incorporate mechanisms to address the issue of deliberate underreporting within this specific group. This is advantageous, as the majority of applicants desire to present themselves in the most favorable light. The L-r and K-r validity measures have demonstrated use in detecting test takers who intentionally provide inaccurate or incomplete responses (Brown & Sellbom, 2019; Detrick & Chibnall, 2014; Tarescavage, Brewster, et al., 2015; Tarescavage, Fischler, et al., 2015). Another study supports the use of MMPI-3 and has determined that it’s possible to detect response bias related to the over reporting of symptoms (Reeves et al., 2022).
Utility of Neurocognitive Testing
The analysis of 7 papers on neurocognitive assessments reveals that they are widely acknowledged as a valuable tool for assessing the psychological capabilities of law enforcement professionals, particularly in the context of fitness-for-duty evaluations. Research has demonstrated that neurocognitive testing is a reliable method for evaluating psychological well-being, particularly in cases involving head injuries or dubious behavior by law enforcement officials (Berger et al., 2020) Testing of this nature can detect any impairments that may impact an officer’s cognitive abilities, logical thinking, and conduct, which is essential for guaranteeing that police are competent in carrying out their responsibilities in a secure and efficient manner (Rimmer, 2022).
Although there is a scarcity of specific research on neurocognitive testing in stressful and demanding scenarios for police officers, a program designed to enhance officer decision-making in such circumstances yielded favorable results, indicating that neurocognitive testing may have advantages in this context (Dube et al., 2023). Nevertheless, further empirical evidence is required to substantiate the significance of neuropsychological testing in these particular situations. Moreover, studies conducted on police officers from various locations have demonstrated that neurocognitive assessments can effectively identify the cognitive skills that are pertinent to their professional responsibilities in ensuring public safety (Rabelo & Mazariolli, 2019). Barko et al. (2020) proposed the utilization of neurocognitive testing as a means to ascertain the attributes and psychological contraindications associated with achieving proficiency in the occupation of a patrol officer (Barko et al., 2020).
Neurocognitive evaluation holds significant importance within the realm of response unit officers, as it enables the assessment of essential attributes like psychomotor skills, sensory-perceptual abilities, and cognitive processes (Ostapovych et al., 2020). Notwithstanding these findings, further investigation is warranted to have a more comprehensive understanding of the complete ramifications of neurocognitive testing on the performance of police officers, specifically within the Ugandan context (Wagner & Hout, 2019). Ultimately, the existing literature indicates that neurocognitive testing serves as a reliable method for evaluating the aptitude and abilities of police officers. However, additional research is required to investigate the full extent of its influence on performance and determine whether it should be adopted as a customary procedure in law enforcement organizations.
Discussion Research Question Two
Advocates frequently recommend mental health screening as a method to support the maintenance of a psychologically sound work environment. Personality tests are frequently conducted to screen and evaluate the mental well-being of prospective police cadets. Personality assessments are frequently carried out throughout the recruitment process for police officers. The MMPI-2 is extensively used in the process of selecting applicants. It has been employed to project the applicants who are most probable to excel in the role and do not possess personality features that are more vulnerable to mental illness.
The MMPI-2-RF is another widely utilized mental health screening tool for prospective police officers. The results of the evidence synthesis revealed that the MMPI-2-RF possesses the capability to effectively forecast the susceptibility of police officers to potential behavioral and/or emotional difficulties. In addition, the integration of biodata with the MMPI-2-RF increases the capacity to assess and identify potential emotional and behavioral concerns. Nevertheless, critics argue that the MMPI-2-RF is not devoid of its limitations During employment evaluations, intentionally deceiving symptoms presents a major obstacle, particularly when it entails minimizing, omitting, or downplaying pathological traits, emotions, or behavioral abnormalities. A cadet who is not suitable for the position may be mistakenly administered the oath of office because of misleading or incorrect scoring. (Balthrop 2018; Corey & Ben-Porath, 2014).
The theory of constructed emotion incorporates both the physical and mental aspects, as the components of an emotional experience arise from innate bodily rhythms (Barrett & Satpute, 2019). Sleep dysregulation, digestive issues, sicknesses, and changes in consciousness caused by substances influence the perception of internal bodily sensations, emotions, and the body’s ability to regulate its resources. Li et al. (2013) found that individuals with depression who died by suicide exhibit dysregulation in clock genes, which control circadian rhythm and indicate abnormalities with controlling energy. Individuals with impaired interoception, affect, and the allostatic or body budgeting system can be identified with the use of the MMPI-2 and MMPI-2-RF.
The theory of constructed emotion, which posits that emotions are constructed by multiple brain networks and are not triggered by dedicated circuits, supports neurocognitive testing by enhancing our understanding of how different neurocognitive processes contribute to emotional experiences. The theory of constructed emotion can provide a framework for defining emotional phenomena in terms of behavioral principles, which enhance cognitive approaches to emotion research (De Houwer & Hughes, 2018). Moreover, neurocognitive testing is informed by the theory through the development of performance-based tests that measure facets of emotion understanding based on componential emotion theory (Schlegel & Scherer, 2018).
Research has also shown that brains’ emotion networks can be identified and linked with various component processes such as valuation, appraisal, hedonic experience, and approach/avoidance tendencies, which are consistent with the theory of constructed emotion (Mohammadi et al., 2020). These neural networks support the identification of functional core processes of emotions, revealing the complexity with which different emotions emerge from coordinated activity across these networks. Recognizing subjective emotional experiences can be intensified by self-focused attention, indicating a dynamic relationship between subjective evaluation and objective neurophysiological data (Ito et al., 2023). Thus, neurocognitive testing methods can align with the theory of constructed emotion by harnessing a combination of subjective and objective data to analyze emotional states. In conclusion, the theory of constructed emotion underpins the process by which neurocognitive testing may assess emotional experiences, supporting the holistic understanding of how cognitive, psychological, and brain mechanisms collectively give rise to emotions.