```
The Impact of Wildlife on
Human Livelihoods in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka A Case Study of Ampara
summary
The
impact of wildlife on human livelihoods in the dry zone of Sri Lanka,
particularly in the Ampara district, presents a complex interplay of ecological
dynamics and socio-economic challenges. This region, which encompasses
approximately 75% of the island's land area, is characterized by its unique
biodiversity and distinct climatic conditions, influenced significantly by
seasonal monsoons. Notably, the area serves as a critical habitat for various
species, including the Asian elephant, whose interactions with agricultural
practices have led to increasing human-wildlife conflicts(Banu Nissanka, 2021)(Fernando,
2019) that threaten local livelihoods, especially in farming and fishing
sectors. (Sri Lanka
Dry-Zone Dry Evergreen Forests - Wikiwand, 2021) (Sri Lanka Dry-Zone Dry
Evergreen Forests - WikiMili, the Best Wikipedia Reader, 2024)
Ampara
district's economy is predominantly agrarian, with paddy cultivation as a
mainstay; however, the encroachment of wildlife, particularly elephants, poses
substantial risks to crop yields and food security. Farmers have reported
significant losses, with wildlife damage accounting for as much as 15% of
agricultural production in certain instances. (Sri Lanka Dry-Zone Dry Evergreen Forests,
2020) (Dry Zone in
a Biodiversity Hotspot, 2020) This
has led to heightened economic vulnerability among rural communities and a
growing reliance on mitigation strategies, such as electric fencing and
community conservation programs, aimed at reducing these conflicts while
promoting sustainable practices. (Sri
Lanka - Rapid Food Security Assessment on the Flood Impact: Ampara District,
February 2024 - Sri Lanka, 2024) (Lanka,
2023) 
The socio-economic implications of
wildlife interactions extend beyond agricultural loss, as they contribute to
broader environmental challenges exacerbated by climate variability, such as
flooding. The 2024 flooding events in Ampara, for example, have underscored the
district's vulnerabilities and the need for adaptive strategies that consider
both human and ecological needs. (Sri
Lanka - Rapid Food Security Assessment on the Flood Impact: Ampara District,
February 2024 - Sri Lanka, 2024)(https://www.facebook.com/AsianDevBank,
2022) Community resilience initiatives have emerged, focusing on skill
development and sustainable entrepreneurship, reflecting a growing recognition
of the necessity for integrated approaches to coexist with wildlife and
preserve local livelihoods. (Pant
et al., 2023) 
The ongoing discourse surrounding
human-wildlife conflict in Sri Lanka emphasizes the urgent need for effective
management strategies that balance conservation efforts with the economic
realities faced by local communities.(Bennett, 2024) (Episode 24 – Sanctuaries in
Ampara District – Ministry of Wildlife and Forest Resources Conservation,
2022) As the region navigates these complexities, the interplay between
wildlife protection and agricultural sustainability continues to be a focal
point for policy development and community engagement in the dry zone of Sri
Lanka. (Sri Lanka:
Rich in Biodiversity, and Human-wildlife Conflict, n.d.) (Cabral et al., 2018)
Geographic
and Ecological Context
The dry
zone of Sri Lanka, encompassing a significant portion of the island, is
characterized by distinct geographic and ecological features that play a
crucial role in shaping local wildlife and human livelihoods. Covering an area
of approximately 48,400 square kilometers (18,700 sq mi), the dry zone accounts
for about 75% of Sri Lanka's land area, excluding the southwestern corner and
the Central Highlands, which are dominated by lowland and montane rainforests,
respectively (Sri
Lanka Dry-Zone Dry Evergreen Forests - Wikiwand, 2021) (Sri Lanka Dry-Zone Dry
Evergreen Forests - WikiMili, the Best Wikipedia Reader, 2024).
Climate
and Topography
The
climate of the dry zone is primarily influenced by the seasonal monsoons, with
the Northeast Monsoon, active from October to January, providing the majority
of the annual rainfall, which ranges from 1,500 to 2,000 mm(Sri Lanka
Dry-Zone Dry Evergreen Forests, 2020). The landscape is characterized by
low-lying terrain interspersed with isolated inselbergs, the highest of which
is Ritigala at 766 meters above sea level. This unique topography contributes
to a varied ecosystem, encompassing a mix of tropical dry broadleaf forests and
scrublands (Sri
Lanka Dry-Zone Dry Evergreen Forests - Wikiwand, 2021) (Sri Lanka Dry-Zone Dry
Evergreen Forests, 2020).
Biodiversity
The
biodiversity of the dry zone is particularly notable, as it exhibits close
affinities with the flora and fauna of southern India, reflecting a unique
ecological crossover (Dry Zone in a Biodiversity Hotspot, 2020) (Sri
Lanka Dry-Zone Dry Evergreen Forests, 2020). This
region is part of the Western Ghats/Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot, which
encompasses both mountainous and lowland habitats. The dry zone is home to
numerous protected areas, such as Gal Oya National Park and Wasgamuwa National
Park, which harbor a wealth of wildlife and contribute to ecological stability (Dry
Zone in a Biodiversity Hotspot, 2020) (Sri Lanka Dry-Zone Dry Evergreen
Forests, 2020). Among the most significant species found in this region are
the Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), which are often involved in human elephant
conflicts due to their habitat being encroached upon by agricultural activities(Banu
Nissanka, 2021) (Bennett,
2024).
Socio-Ecological
Dynamics
Historically, the dry zone has been
significant for agricultural practices, particularly in the context of ancient
hydraulic civilizations that developed sophisticated water management systems
over 2,300 years ago. This historical context highlights the interplay between
human activity and the ecological framework of the region (Dry Zone in a
Biodiversity Hotspot, 2020) (Sri Lanka Dry-Zone Dry Evergreen Forests -
WikiMili, the Best Wikipedia Reader, 2024). Furthermore, the region's
climatic variability and biodiversity present both opportunities and challenges
for local communities, as they navigate the impacts of wildlife on agricultural
productivity and food security(Sri Lanka Dry-Zone Dry Evergreen Forests,
2020).
Human
Livelihoods in Ampara
Ampara district, located in the
Eastern Province of Sri Lanka, presents a complex landscape of livelihoods
heavily influenced by its natural resources and environmental challenges. The
main economic activities in Ampara are centered around agriculture, particularly
paddy cultivation, alongside fisheries and casual labor in trades such as
masonry, carpentry, and cattle rearing(Sri Lanka - Rapid Food Security
Assessment on the Flood Impact: Ampara District, February 2024 - Sri Lanka,
2024) (Lanka, 2023).
This agrarian foundation underscores the district's reliance on the rich
biodiversity of the region, including its extensive wildlife, which directly
impacts the livelihoods of local communities.
Agricultural
Practices
Agriculture
remains the backbone of Ampara’s economy, with paddy fields serving as the
principal source of sustenance for many families(Lanka, 2023). The fertile
land, nourished by local rivers and reservoirs, allows for the cultivation of
not only rice but also various other crops such as coconuts and vegetables.
However, the increase in human-wildlife conflicts, especially involving
elephants, has posed significant threats to agricultural productivity. As
elephants encroach upon farmlands in search of food, they damage crops, leading
to reduced yields and heightened economic vulnerability for farmers(Lanka,
2023) .
Fishing
and Coastal Livelihoods
The district's proximity to the
eastern coastline provides additional livelihood opportunities through fishing.
Coastal communities engage in both subsistence and commercial fishing, relying
on the abundant marine resources of the region(Sri Lanka - Rapid Food
Security Assessment on the Flood Impact: Ampara District, February 2024 - Sri
Lanka, 2024). 
Initiatives
aimed at improving coastal resource management have been implemented to enhance
fishery productivity, thereby supporting the local economy. Despite these
efforts, the impact of environmental issues, such as flooding and habitat
degradation, continues to threaten the sustainability of fishing practices in
Ampara(Sri Lanka - Rapid Food Security Assessment on the Flood Impact:
Ampara District, February 2024 - Sri Lanka, 2024) .
Socio-Economic
Challenges
The socio-economic landscape in
Ampara is further complicated by recent flooding events, which have severely
affected food security and infrastructure(Sri Lanka - Rapid Food Security
Assessment on the Flood Impact: Ampara District, February 2024 - Sri Lanka,
2024). The heavy rainfall in early January 2024 led to widespread flooding that
disproportionately impacted the district, exacerbating existing vulnerabilities
among local communities. Many households, particularly those dependent on
agriculture and fisheries, faced significant challenges in securing their
livelihoods, highlighting the need for adaptive strategies to cope with
environmental changes.
Community
Resilience and Adaptation
In response to these challenges,
various community-driven initiatives have emerged. Training programs focused on
skill development and entrepreneurship have helped beneficiaries establish
sustainable enterprises, thereby enhancing their incomes(https://www.facebook.com/AsianDevBank,
2022). Furthermore, the introduction of microfinance systems aims to empower
local residents, enabling them to invest in more resilient livelihood
strategies. Despite the pressures from wildlife interactions and environmental
disasters, these community-led approaches illustrate a pathway toward greater
resilience in the face of adversity(https://www.facebook.com/AsianDevBank,
2022).
Interaction
Between Wildlife and Human Activities
Human-wildlife
conflicts are particularly pronounced in rural communities, where farmers often
face significant agricultural losses due to wildlife damage. In the context of
areas such as Bardia and Chitwan National Parks in Nepal, crop damage can
account for 10–15% of total agricultural production, with Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus) being a primary threat to crops, particularly rice, which
constitutes a significant portion of the losses reported(Pant et al., 2023).
This trend is echoed in other regions, including Sri Lanka, where crop foraging
by peafowl and other birds has been identified as a major issue for farmers,
leading to significant estimated crop losses(Sri Lanka: Rich in
Biodiversity, and Human-wildlife Conflict, n.d.).
The
proximity to protected areas is a critical factor influencing the magnitude of
these conflicts. For instance, in the buffer zones of Shuklaphanta National
Park, it has been observed that the likelihood of crop damage increases with
the number of mitigation measures employed. This may suggest that while these
measures can reduce conflicts locally, they may inadvertently shift problems to
adjacent areas or result in inconsistent application, thus failing to
adequately protect farmers’ livelihoods(Pant et al., 2023). In total, the
economic loss experienced by farmers near Shuklaphanta National Park was
estimated at USD 103,335 over six years, with rice, sugarcane, and wheat being
the most affected crops(Pant et al., 2023) .
Mitigation
strategies are essential in addressing these conflicts. Effective measures such
as timely identification and management of wildlife, public awareness programs,
and improved animal husbandry practices like night-penning have been
recommended to help reduce both crop and livestock losses. Additionally, the
establishment of emergency rescue teams and regulations surrounding human
activities near protected areas are critical to minimizing conflicts(Pant et
al., 2023) .
Despite some success, surveys indicate mixed perceptions among farmers
regarding the effectiveness of these measures; while 65.7% reported reduced
conflicts after implementing mitigation strategies, a notable portion still
observed an increase in conflicts(Pant et al., 2023).
The dynamics of human-wildlife
interactions are complex, influenced by factors such as human population
growth, competition for resources, and the increasing abundance of wildlife in
protected areas. This escalation often leads to negative attitudes towards
wildlife, which can result in retaliatory killings, further complicating
conservation efforts(Pant et al., 2023) .
Understanding these interactions is crucial for developing effective management
strategies that balance the needs of human communities with wildlife
conservation.
Case Studies
Human-Wildlife
Conflict in Agricultural Settings
The phenomenon of human-wildlife
conflict has become increasingly pronounced in regions where agricultural
practices intersect with natural habitats. In the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka,
particularly in the Ampara district, the escalation of these conflicts has been
linked to growing wildlife populations and habitat encroachment by human
settlements. A significant study conducted in the vicinity of Shuklaphanta
National Park revealed that the frequency of human-wildlife interactions is
exacerbated by local agricultural practices, with crop damage reported as a
primary concern for farmers(Pant et al., 2023) . Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus) and wild boars (Sus scrofa) were identified as
major contributors to agricultural losses, affecting staple crops such as rice,
sugarcane, and wheat(Pant et al., 2023) .
Strategies
for Mitigation
Efforts
to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts in this region have involved a range of
management techniques. Electric fencing has proven to be particularly effective
in minimizing crop damage by large herbivores(Pant et al., 2023). Additionally,
strategies such as constructing livestock pens with barbed wire, cultivating
unpalatable crops, and employing community-based conservation programs have
been implemented to alleviate the burden on farmers(Pant et al., 2023) (Sri Lanka: Rich in
Biodiversity, and Human-wildlife Conflict, n.d.) . The
Nepalese government has also provided financial compensation to victims of
wildlife attacks, further emphasizing the need for collaborative efforts among
governmental bodies, NGOs, and local communities to address the challenges
posed by wildlife interactions(Pant et al., 2023) (Sri Lanka: Rich in
Biodiversity, and Human-wildlife Conflict, n.d.) .
Socioeconomic
Implications
The economic implications of
human-wildlife conflict are substantial, particularly for vulnerable
communities dependent on agriculture. A survey indicated that 65.7% of
respondents perceived a reduction in conflict following the implementation of
mitigation measures, yet there remains a significant proportion reporting
increased incidents(Pant et al., 2023) (Sri
Lanka: Rich in Biodiversity, and Human-wildlife Conflict, n.d.) . The
psychological impact of these conflicts, including fear and animosity towards
certain wildlife species, can lead to retaliatory actions against animals,
further complicating conservation efforts and threatening biodiversity in the
region(Cabral et al., 2018) .
The situation in Ampara illustrates
the delicate balance required to coexist with wildlife while sustaining
agricultural livelihoods, underscoring the urgent need for integrated
approaches that consider both human and ecological needs.
Conservation Efforts
Overview
of Conservation Initiatives
Conservation efforts in Sri Lanka,
particularly in the dry zone regions like Ampara, focus on mitigating the
impact of wildlife on human livelihoods while promoting biodiversity
protection. The strategies employed are tailored to local needs, recognizing
the diverse ecosystems present across the country and the necessity for
context-specific interventions(Webster, 2024) (Admin, 2023).
Community
Engagement and Education
A
significant component of conservation in Sri Lanka is the active involvement of
local communities. Initiatives aimed at providing education to residents living
near wildlife habitats have proven beneficial. By fostering longer-term
thinking about the ecological and economic benefits of wildlife, these programs
aim to align community interests with conservation goals(Webster, 2024) (Sri Lanka: Protecting and
Conserving Natural Capital While Boosting Livelihoods for Local Communities,
n.d.). Furthermore, the development of Community Action Plans (CAPs) has
ensured that local voices contribute to conservation strategies, facilitating
activities that are economically viable and climate-resilient(Sri Lanka:
Protecting and Conserving Natural Capital While Boosting Livelihoods for Local
Communities, n.d.).
Addressing
Human-Wildlife Conflict
Human-elephant
conflict (HEC) is a prominent issue in the dry zone, affecting livelihoods and
prompting damage to crops. To address this, a National Action Plan for the
Mitigation of Human-Elephant Conflict was established in 2020, proposing both
short-term and long-term measures to reduce the frequency and severity of
encounters between humans and elephants(Admin, 2023) . This
includes public awareness campaigns, emergency rescue team establishment, and
regulation of activities around protected areas to minimize conflict potential(Pant
et al., 2023).
Rewilding
and Biodiversity Restoration
Rewilding
efforts are also central to conservation strategies in the region. Projects
aimed at assisted regeneration of ecosystems and the reestablishment of
wildlife corridors have been initiated, albeit with challenges related to local
weather conditions and resource availability for planting(Webster, 2024) .
Successful navigation of land ownership issues and engagement with estate
communities has been crucial in these endeavors, demonstrating the importance
of collaboration between stakeholders in fostering biodiversity(Webster, 2024).
Support
from International Organizations
International
funding and collaboration have been vital in supporting these conservation
initiatives. The World Bank's financial contributions, for instance, have
facilitated projects focused on sustainable forest management and the
enhancement of livelihoods in affected communities(Sri Lanka: Protecting and
Conserving Natural Capital While Boosting Livelihoods for Local Communities,
n.d.). The alignment of these efforts with global conservation priorities, such
as those outlined in the America the Beautiful initiative, underscores the
importance of holistic approaches to conservation that balance development with
biodiversity preservation(Final Policies on Mitigating Impacts of
Development to Further Conservation | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service,
2023).
Through a
combination of community engagement, targeted interventions, and international
support, conservation efforts in Sri Lanka aim to create sustainable solutions
that benefit both wildlife and local populations, ultimately leading to a
harmonious coexistence.
```
Adjust the above article to the following format
```Literature Review: Impact of Wildlife on Livelihoods in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka 

    Introduction
        Briefly introduce the importance of understanding the relationship between wildlife and human livelihoods in the dry zone of Sri Lanka.
        State the relevance of the dry zone in Sri Lanka's agriculture and how human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is an emerging concern.

    Wildlife in the Dry Zone
        Species Distribution: Discuss the types of wildlife common in the dry zone, including elephants, wild boars, monkeys, and leopards.
        Habitat Characteristics: Describe the ecosystems in the dry zone that support these species, including forests, grasslands, and water sources.

    Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC)
        Nature of the Conflict: Explain the ways in which wildlife, particularly large animals like elephants, impact human settlements (e.g., crop damage, infrastructure destruction, loss of life, and injury).
        Causes of Conflict: Investigate the reasons for these conflicts, such as habitat loss, human encroachment on wildlife territories, and climate-related changes that push animals into agricultural lands.

    Impact of Wildlife on Livelihoods
        Economic Impact: Analyze how wild animals affect the livelihoods of people in Ampara, especially farmers. Discuss crop destruction, loss of livestock, and damage to property.
        Social Impact: Discuss the social challenges, such as fear, stress, and changes in local community dynamics, due to the presence of dangerous wildlife near human settlements.
        Environmental Consequences: Look at the environmental degradation caused by wildlife activities, including soil erosion and the loss of biodiversity from overgrazing by wild animals.

    Existing Mitigation Measures
        Government Interventions: Review government strategies such as the establishment of electric fences, wildlife corridors, and compensation programs for farmers.
        Community Measures: Discuss community-driven solutions like community awareness programs, wildlife monitoring, and alternative livelihood strategies to reduce dependence on agriculture in conflict-prone areas.
        Effectiveness of Measures: Evaluate the effectiveness of these measures based on case studies or available research, noting both successes and challenges in their implementation.

    Challenges in Addressing the Conflict
        Resource Constraints: Discuss the limitations faced by both the government and local communities in implementing sustainable solutions, such as financial constraints, lack of technical expertise, and political challenges.
        Cultural and Ethical Issues: Address the cultural importance of wildlife in Sri Lanka and the ethical considerations surrounding conservation efforts versus human safety and livelihood protection.

    Gaps in the Literature
        Lack of Long-Term Studies: Point out the lack of longitudinal research on the long-term impact of wildlife on livelihoods in the dry zone.
        Local Contexts: Highlight the need for more localized research that considers the unique conditions of different areas within the dry zone, such as Ampara.

    Conclusion
        Summarize the key findings from the literature review.
        Identify the need for further research into both human-wildlife conflicts and solutions that can balance conservation and livelihood needs in the dry zone.
```