could you please summarize this in hemmingway 5 th grade without jargon

There are two primary categories of nutrients that make up the human diet. They include the
macronutrients carbohydrates (carbs), fiber, fats, protein, and water and micronutrients,
such as vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Each plays an important role in general health,
normal body function, recovery, and human performance. Any fitness professional will confirm
that most of the success of a fitness or performance program lies in the nutritional habits of
the individual. For that reason, a personal trainer should be able to identify and explain the
role of the major nutritional components of a healthy diet, recognize and make suggestions
to improve unhealthy eating habits, and be prepared to answer the nutritional questions a
client is sure to have.
TEST TIP!
It is outside the scope of practice for a Certified Personal Trainer to prescribe meal
plans to clients. However, they can review a client’s eating habits and make suggestions
of ways they can improve and eat to support their fitness goals.
MACRONUTRIENTS
The three macronutrients required by the body are carbohydrates, protein, and fat. Each is
needed in large quantities daily to support the body’s normal functioning and to support
additional physical activity. To create molecules within the body that are usable for repair and
growth, there is a delicate balance that must be achieved between catabolism and anabolism.
Catabolism describes the breaking down of more complex molecules into simple molecules,
like when a protein is broken down into individual amino acids. Anabolism describes the
opposite—the creation of more complex molecules from more simple molecules, like when
amino acids are linked together to form proteins. Each macronutrient has specific and, in
some cases, unique physiological uses that a fitness professional should be familiar with.
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbs are the main source of energy for the human body. After being digested, carbohydrates
are processed into glucose, which is converted to energy and used to support various
metabolic processes including physical and mental activity. When sugar moves into the cells,
blood glucose begins to stabilize. If all the glucose is not used for energy, some of it is stored
in the liver as glycogen.
The primary source of energy for high-intensity exercise comes from carbohydrates. Carbs
protect muscle mass (protein) from being catabolized during exercise and fuel the central
nervous system and brain. Limiting carbs results in more nitrogen loss. Nitrogen is a
MACRONUTRIENTS:
A type of food necessary
in large quantities in the
diet to support function
and energy production (i.e.,
carbohydrate, protein, and
fat.)
MICRONUTRIENTS:
Substances required in
small quantities in the
diet for optimal body
functioning; vitamins and
minerals.
ANTIOXIDANTS:
Substances that protect the
body from free radicals and
the cellular damage they
cause.
CATABOLISM:
The breaking down in
the body of complex
molecules into more simple
molecules.
ANABOLISM:
The building of complex
molecules in the body
from more simple, smaller
molecules.
AMINO ACIDS:
Simple organic compounds
known as the building
blocks of proteins.
GLUCOSE:
A simple sugar the body
uses for energy production
on the cellular level.
GLYCOGEN:
The stored form of glucose
found in the liver and
muscles.
 ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 508
component of amino acids, and when there is not enough present, muscle breakdown occurs.
There are two types of carbohydrates: simple and complex.
Simple Carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates are just that—simple, short-chain carbohydrates. They are small
molecules known as monosaccharides (the simplest form of sugar) and disaccharides (two
monosaccharides together). Simple sugars are easily broken down and converted to energy
because they are relatively small molecules. Therefore, when simple carbs are eaten, blood
glucose levels will increase quickly. Simple carbohydrates are naturally occurring in fruits,
vegetables, milk, and milk products. Processed foods also contain simple carbohydrates.
Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are common disaccharides, and glucose and fructose are
common monosaccharides.
Complex Carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates are made of larger molecules that are broken down into
monosaccharides. Starches and fibers, whole grain breads and cereals, starchy vegetables, and
legumes are examples of complex carbohydrates. These carbs are known as polysaccharides
(meaning many monosaccharides) and contain longer chains of sugar, which take longer to
digest. Therefore, the consumption of complex carbs can help to maintain blood sugar levels
and prevent rapid blood glucose fluctuations.
Glycemic Index
All foods affect blood glucose differently, and sugar levels are not dependent on just the type
or amount of carbs consumed. The measure of how quickly blood glucose increases after
carbohydrate ingestion is known as the glycemic index (GI). Foods are scored from 1 to 100,
with the slower-digesting carbs (blood glucose increases at a slower rate) at the low end and
fastest-digesting carbs (blood glucose increases at a faster rate) at the high end. Pure
glucose measures 100 on the glycemic index. Proteins and fats are not scored on this index.
The GI of a food is typically considered to be low, medium, or high according to the following
ranges:
Low GI: 1 to 55
Medium GI: 56 to 69
High GI: 70 and above
MONOSACCHARIDES:
Any of the class of sugars
that cannot be hydrolyzed
to give a simple sugar.
PROCESSED FOODS:
Foods that have been
frozen, packaged, enhanced
with vitamins or minerals
(fortified), previously
cooked, or canned
to preserve them for
consumption.
DISACCHARIDES:
Any of a class of sugars
with molecules that contain
two monosaccharide
residues.
GLYCEMIC INDEX (GI):
A system that ranks foods
on a scale from 1 to 100
based on their effect on
blood sugar levels.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
Figure 14.1 Glycemic Index
The GI of a food depends on several factors, including the type of sugar. Fructose has a
value of 19, whereas maltose, for example, has a value that exceeds the normal GI scale at
105. Foods that are high in the component of starch called amylose have a lower GI because
they are difficult to digest. Amylose and amylopectin molecules make up starch and can
sometimes be resistant to digestion. In addition, processed foods will generally have a higher
GI than less processed or whole foods.
The preparation and ripeness of food can alter the GI of a food. The longer a food is cooked,
the higher the GI. Heat makes the chemical bonds in carbohydrates easier to break by
digestive enzymes. Complex carbohydrates in fruit break down into simple carbohydrates
as the fruit ripens. Unripe bananas have a GI of 30, and an overripe banana has a GI of 48.
The GI is a useful tool in determining the impact of foods on blood sugar. Foods with a high
GI will increase insulin levels, causing hypoglycemia and increasing hunger. This could lead
to overeating and weight gain. Foods with a low GI are digested slowly and do not increase
insulin as dramatically. This increases satiety and keeps hunger at a more manageable level.
Some studies have found that eating lower GI foods results in less overeating, a better
cholesterol reading, and decreased risk of obesity or diabetes. If the client has diabetes,
then eating a diet of low GI foods may reduce the complications of diabetes. Low-glycemic
foods do not spike blood sugar levels and therefore help maintain insulin sensitivity. This
also allows the body’s cells to use glucose more effectively.
INSULIN:
A hormone produced in the
pancreas to regulate blood
sugar.
HYPOGLYCEMIA:
The condition of lower-thannormal blood glucose
OBESITY:
An abnormal or excessive
accumulation of body fat
that may cause additional
health risks.
DIABETES:
A condition characterized by
an elevated level of glucose
in the blood
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It should also be noted that the combinations of foods can affect their glycemic impact
and digestion. For example, a meal high in fat will require more time in the stomach for the
breakdown and packaging of dietary fat before the stomach is emptied. A higher-fat meal will
also promote the body’s release of insulin, which serves to control blood glucose levels. This
can reduce the immediate GI impact of the meal consumed and delay or reduce the amount
of glucose in the bloodstream. On the other hand, a meal low in fat but high in carbohydrate
or sugar can exaggerate the body’s GI response and cause a rapid change in blood sugar and
insulin production—greater than any one meal ingredient alone.
Intake Recommendations: Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are essential nutrients that most people need in their diets in significant
quantities for good overall health. The acceptable macronutrient distribution range for daily
carbohydrate intake for adults is 45 to 65 percent of total daily Calories, as recommended
by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. This means that for a diet of 2,000 Calories per
day, carbohydrate intake should be around 900 to 1,300 Calories. For weight loss, daily
carbohydrate intake can drop to as low as 25 to 40 percent.
The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and other major nutritional science institutions
recommend getting carbohydrates from unprocessed or minimally processed whole grains,
vegetables, fruits, and beans. Processed food includes foods that have been frozen, packaged,
enhanced with vitamins or minerals (fortified), previously cooked, or canned to preserve them
for consumption. Conversely, unprocessed foods are the natural, edible parts of an animal or
plant that have not been cooked, frozen, or otherwise fortified for preservation. These may
also be referred to as fresh or raw foods.
Unprocessed carbs naturally contain fiber, while processed carb options often have the fiber
removed. The lack of fiber in refined carbs may promote overeating and increase weight gain.
US DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE (USDA):
A US federal department
that manages programs for
food, nutrition, agriculture,
natural resources, and rural
development.
VITAMINS:
Organic compounds
essential for normal growth
and nutrition.
MINERALS:
Elements in food that the
body needs to develop and
function.
UNPROCESSED
FOODS:
Fresh or raw foods that are
the natural, edible parts of
an animal or plant.
FIBER:
A type of carbohydrate
derived from plant-based
foods that the body is
unable to break down.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
Table 14.1 Food Sources of Carbohydrates
CARBOHYDRATE
SOURCE
GRAMS OF CARBOHYDRATES
PER 100 GRAMS OF SOURCE
Almonds 4 g
Apple 9 g
Asparagus 1 g
Banana 19 g
Barbecue sauce 8 g
Beef sirloin 0 g
Beer 2 g
Bread (brown, one slice) 48 g
Broccoli 2 g
Butter Trace
Cashews 28 g
Celery 1 g
Cheddar cheese Trace
Cheese pizza 25 g
Cheesecake 35 g
Chicken 0 g
Coconut 6 g
Cod 0 g
Coffee 0 g
Crab 0 g
Cream cheese (plain) Trace
Doughnut 49 g
Flounder 0 g
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CARBOHYDRATE
SOURCE
GRAMS OF CARBOHYDRATES
PER 100 GRAMS OF SOURCE
Goat milk 5 g
Grapes 13 g
Hamburger 22 g
Hardboiled egg Trace
Honey 76 g
Human milk (breast milk) 7 g
Jelly 69 g
Lettuce 1 g
Mango 15 g
Margarine Trace
Mayonnaise Trace
Mustard 21 g
Onion 5 g
Orange 6 g
Oysters (raw) Trace
Peanut butter 13 g
Peanuts 6 g
Pickles 6 g
Pineapple 12 g
Pistachios 19 g
Plain yogurt 6 g
Pork chop 0 g
Potato 20 g
Table 14.1 Food Sources of Carbohydrates (CONT)
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
CARBOHYDRATE
SOURCE
GRAMS OF CARBOHYDRATES
PER 100 GRAMS OF SOURCE
Prawns/shrimp 0 g
Raisins 64 g
Red wine Trace
Rice 30 g
Salami (sliced) 2 g
Salmon 0 g
Scallops Trace
Skim milk 5 g
Spinach 1 g
Sponge cake 53 g
Swiss cheese Trace
Tuna 0 g
Turkey (roasted) 0 g
Vegetable oil 0 g
Vinegar 1 g
Walnuts 5 g
Whole milk 5 g
FIBER
Dietary fiber is a type of carbohydrate found in plant sources that the body cannot digest.
Fiber is an important nutrient that supports digestion, weight management, blood sugar, and
cholesterol. It promotes bowel movements and helps get rid of harmful substances in the
body. This keeps the digestive system clean and healthy. There are two types of fiber: soluble
and insoluble.
Table 14.1 Food Sources of Carbohydrates (CONT)
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Figure 14.2 Sugar (left), Starch (middle), and Fiber (right)
Soluble Fiber
Soluble fiber dissolves in water and absorbs water from partially digested food. It helps slow
the digestion process and regulate blood glucose levels, which leads to lower levels of lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. Foods rich in soluble fiber include beans, oatmeal,
nuts, lentils, apples, and blueberries. High-fiber foods such as fruits are low-calorie foods,
which make it easier to lower caloric intake.
Insoluble Fiber
Insoluble fiber does not dissolve in water and instead adds bulk to the stool. This helps food
move through the digestive tract. It promotes regularity, prevents constipation, and cleanses
the colon. Adding bulk to a diet increases satiety, leading to less eating. Whole wheat bran,
whole grain couscous, brown rice, nuts, legumes, carrots, cucumbers, and tomatoes are good
sources of insoluble fiber.
Many foods provide both soluble and insoluble fiber. The more natural a food is, the more
fiber it contains. Processed foods have less fiber, and meat, dairy, and sugar have no fiber.
When foods are refined, such as white rice and bread, the fiber has been removed.
Prebiotics
Prebiotics are fibers that are fermented in the gut. Bacteria necessary for digestion use
prebiotics as food. Some whole grains, bananas, greens, onions, garlic, soybeans, and
artichokes contain prebiotic fibers. These foods contain plant fibers that help healthy bacteria
grow in the gut. Prebiotics also improve calcium absorption, metabolism, and digestion and
help process carbohydrates.
LOW-DENSITY
LIPOPROTEIN (LDL):
The form of lipoprotein
in which cholesterol is
transported in the blood. It
is sometimes considered
the “bad cholesterol.”
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
Intake Recommendations: Fiber
Fiber is essential to one’s health, yet the typical American still falls short of the recommended
daily amount. The National Academy of Medicine recommends that women consume 25
grams of fiber per day and men consume 38 grams. Although beneficial to overall health,
increasing fiber intake too quickly could lead to gas, bloating, and cramps. Gas is a byproduct of digesting fiber and a common side effect of high-fiber diets.
Though fiber is removed from processed foods, many of them have added fiber. These types
of food can help individuals increase their daily intake. Ingredients such as polydextrose,
psyllium husk, pectin, and soluble fiber dextrin are examples of added fiber. Eating foods
with added fiber may increase overall intake for improved health. However, the nutrition label
should be examined closely for added sugar and/or sodium, and intake should be monitored.
FIBER AND DISEASE
The body cannot digest fiber, but it is a vital nutrient for good health and longevity. Many
studies have been conducted on the role of dietary fiber intake and disease prevention.
Adequate fiber intake has been found to reduce instances of the following:
• Heart disease. Fiber protects the body against heart disease by decreasing bad
cholesterol (Low-Density Lipoprotein or LDL) and improving insulin resistance.
• Type 2 diabetes. An increase in complex carbohydrate and fiber intake can help
regulate blood sugar and prevent the progression of type 2 diabetes.
• Diverticulitis. Fiber softens the stool, which can prevent the inflammatory condition
in the intestines and colon.
• Colon cancer. Fiber in the diet keeps the intestinal tract moving and healthy, which,
in turn, keeps the colon functioning properly and reduces the risk of colon cancer.
• Breast cancer. Research has found a 12–19 percent lower risk of breast cancer in
adolescent and adult females who consumed adequate fruits and vegetables (fiber) daily.
FATS
Fats—sometimes referred to as lipids—are necessary for vital bodily functions. They are
organic molecules made up of carbon and hydrogen elements joined together in long groups
called hydrocarbons. The arrangement of these hydrocarbon chains and their interaction with
each other determine fat type. In addition, fat stores energy, protects vital organs, provides
insulation, transports fat-soluble vitamins, and plays a role in tissue growth and hormone
production. It also helps the body use vitamins and keeps skin healthy. Fatty acids are the
FATS:
Organic compounds that
are made up of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. Fats
are a source of energy in
foods and are also called
lipids. They come in liquid
or solid form.
HYDROCARBONS:
A compound of hydrogen,
and carbon, such as any
of those that are the chief
components of petroleum
and natural gas.
FATTY ACIDS:
The smaller, absorbable
building blocks of the fat
that is found in the body.
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smaller, absorbable building blocks of the fats found in the body and the fats humans ingest,
which come in several forms including saturated and unsaturated fats. Three fatty acids
combine with glycerol to form a triglyceride. Triglycerides are a type of fat and in fact are the
most common form of fat in the body (bodyfat). The body makes triglycerides and as a part
of the diet they make up the majority of the fats that we eat.
H – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C
OH
H O
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Saturated
Monounsaturated
H – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C = C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C
OH
H O
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
one double bond
Polyunsaturated
H – C – C – C – C – C – C = C – C – C = C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C – C
OH
H O
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H H H
H
H H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
multiple double bonds
Butter
Animal fats
Tropical oils (coconut)
Olive oil
Avocados
Peanuts
Pecans
Almonds
Omega-3/Omega-6
Flax
Fish
Hemp
Canola
Safflower
Unsaturated
Figure 14.3 Structure of Fats
Saturated Fat
Saturated fats are usually solid at room temperature and have no double bonds within the
molecular structure. Therefore, it is “saturated” with hydrogen atoms. Saturated fats are
considered to be a detrimental fat and can cause cholesterol buildup in the arteries and
increase the risk for heart disease. Food sources include butter, solid shortening, lard,
cheese, red meat, ice cream, coconut oil, and palm oil.
Unsaturated Fat
Unsaturated fats are considered to be a beneficial fat and are usually liquid at room
temperature. Two types of unsaturated fats are monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Monounsaturated fats such as omega-9 fatty acids are so
called because they have only one double bond in their molecular structure.
Polyunsaturated fats have more than one double bond. Polyunsaturated fats include omega-3
fatty acids, where the position of the double bond is found three carbon atoms from the end
of the molecular chain acids, and omega-6 fatty acids, where the last double bond is found
six carbon molecules from the end of the fatty acid chain.
TRIGLYCERIDE:
A chemical compund
formed when three fatty
acids combine with glycerol.
The most abundant fat in
the body.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
Sources of monounsaturated fats include olive oil, sesame oil, canola oil, peanut butter,
peanuts, cashews, and avocados. Sunflower seeds, pumpkin seeds, corn oil, safflower oil,
soybean oil, pine nuts, walnuts, salmon, tuna, and sardines are good sources of polyunsaturated
fatty acids. Unsaturated fats are often labeled as a “good fat” because they improve highdensity lipoprotein (HDL) (HDL cholesterol) levels, reducing the risk for heart disease.
Trans Fat
Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat. Known as another detrimental fat, trans fats are
both naturally occurring and man-made. Natural trans fats come from animal products such
as beef, lamb, and dairy, and artificial trans fats are created by adding hydrogen to liquid
vegetable oils. Artificial trans fats are used to prolong the shelf life of processed foods.
Trans fat can be found in some vegetable shortenings and margarine, crackers, cookies,
snacks, and foods fried in partially hydrogenated oil. The problem with trans fat is that it
elevates LDL cholesterol and lowers HDL cholesterol. This may increase the risk of coronary
artery disease (CAD).
Essential Fatty Acids
Essential fatty acids cannot be synthesized by the human body, which means they must be
obtained from the diet. The primary essential fatty acids are linoleic acid omega-6 fatty acids
and linolenic acid omega-3 fatty acids. Others include arachidonic acid (omega-6),
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (omega-3). Arachidonic
acid is required by the body but can be made from other essential fatty acids. EPA and DHA
are also required by the body but are made from other essential fatty acids.
Table 14.2 Sources of Essential Fatty Acids
FATTY ACIDS FOOD SOURCES
Linoleic acid (omega-6) Safflower oils, sunflower oils, corn oils, soy oils,
primrose, pumpkin, wheat germ
Linolenic acid (omega-3) Fish oils, flaxseed, pumpkin, soy, and canola
Arachidonic acid (omega-6) Chicken, beef, pork, fish
EPA and DHA (omega-3) Cold-water fatty fish, salmon, shrimp, oysters, trout
HIGH-DENSITY
LIPOPROTEIN (HDL):
A lipoprotein that removes
cholesterol from the blood.
It is sometimes considered
the “good cholesterol.”
CORONARY ARTERY
DISEASE (CAD):
The narrowing or blockage
of coronary arteries.
OMEGA-6
FATTY ACIDS:
A family of pro-inflammatory
and anti-inflammatory
polyunsaturated fatty acids
that have in common a final
carbon-carbon double bond.
OMEGA-3
FATTY ACIDS:
An unsaturated fatty acid
occurring chiefly in fish oils.
EICOSAPENTAENOIC
ACID (EPA):
A fatty acid found in
fish and fish oils, which
is believed to lower
cholesterol, especially
cholesterol bound to lowdensity lipoproteins.
DOCOSAHEXAENOIC
ACID (DHA):
An omega-3 fatty acid that
is a primary structural
component of the human
brain, cerebral cortex, skin,
sperm, testicles, and retina.
 ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 518
Intake Recommendations: Fats
The American Heart Association (AHA) recommends keeping fat calories to 30–35 percent
of daily Calorie intake. Staying closer to 20 percent is beneficial for weight loss and
maintenance. The International Olympic Committee recommends following a meal plan with
no less than 15–20 percent of fat for highly active individuals and athletes.
Table 14.3 Fat Recommendations Based On Calorie Intake
Total
calories
per day
15 PERCENT 20 PERCENT 25 PERCENT 30 PERCENT 35 PERCENT
Calories Grams Calories Grams Calories Grams Calories Grams Calories Grams
3,000 450 50 600 67 750 83 900 100 1,050 117
2,500 375 42 500 56 625 69 750 83 875 97
2,250 338 38 450 50 563 63 675 75 788 88
2,000 300 33 400 44 500 56 600 67 700 78
1,750 263 29 350 39 438 49 525 58 613 68
1,500 225 25 300 33 375 42 450 50 525 58
The requirements for essential fatty acids vary by age. Although many studies have shown
that essential fatty acids play a critical role in preventing cardiovascular disease, cancer,
arthritis, hypertension, and diabetes. Fatty acids are also critical for optimal brain and vision
function. The Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for essential fatty acid is general, and
there may be differences for special populations, including athletes. The following are the
nutritional reference intakes as published by the National Academy of Medicine in 2006:
Linoleic acid: 17 grams per day for men ages 19–50; 12 grams per day for women ages
19–50
Alpha-linolenic acid: 1.6 grams per day for men ages 19–50; 1.1 grams per day for women
ages 19–50
AMERICAN HEART
ASSOCIATION (AHA):
A nonprofit organization
that funds cardiovascular
research and educates
consumers on healthy living
and good cardiac care.
RECOMMENDED DAILY
ALLOWANCE (RDA):
The average daily level of
intake that is sufficient
to meet the nutrient
requirements of nearly all
(97%-98%) healthy people.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
Table 14.4 Food Sources of Fat
FAT SOURCE
GRAMS OF FAT PER
100 GRAMS OF SOURCE
Almonds 54 g
Apple Trace
Asparagus Trace
Banana Trace
Barbecue sauce 7 g
Beef sirloin 21 g
Beer Trace
Bread (one slice) 1–2 g
Broccoli Trace
Butter 81 g
Cashews 47 g
Celery Trace
Cheddar cheese 34 g
Cheese pizza 12 g
Cheesecake 35 g
Chicken 7 g
Coconut 62 g
Cod 1 g
Coffee Trace
Crab 5 g
Cream cheese (plain) 47 g
Doughnut 16 g
Flounder 11 g
 ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 520
FAT SOURCE
GRAMS OF FAT PER
100 GRAMS OF SOURCE
Goat milk 5 g
Grapes Trace
Hamburger 10 g
Hard-boiled egg 11 g
Honey Trace
Human milk (breast milk) 4 g
Jelly 0 g
Lettuce Trace
Mango Trace
Margarine 80 g
Mayonnaise 79 g
Mustard 29 g
Onion Trace
Orange Trace
Oysters (raw) 1 g
Peanut butter 54 g
Peanuts 34 g
Pickles Trace
Pineapple Trace
Pistachios 54 g
Plain yogurt 4 g
Pork chop 19 g
Potato Trace
Table 14.4 Food Sources of Fat (CONT)
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
FAT SOURCE
GRAMS OF FAT PER
100 GRAMS OF SOURCE
Prawns/shrimp 2 g
Raisins Trace
Red wine 0 g
Rice Trace
Salami (sliced) 45 g
Salmon 8 g
Scallops 1 g
Skim milk Trace
Spinach 1 g
Sponge cake 27 g
Swiss cheese 29 g
Tuna 22 g
Turkey (roasted) 7 g
Vegetable oil 100 g
Vinegar 0 g
Walnuts 52 g
Whole milk 9 g
PROTEIN
Protein is made of chains of amino acids, which are necessary for building and maintaining
body tissues. Protein may be broken down for energy, but it is not a preferred energy
source for the body. Typically, protein breakdown for energy occurs when intake of the other
macronutrients is insufficient, during times of starvation (overall negative energy balance), or
in cases of extreme exertion. To determine the metabolic use of protein, scientists measure
Table 14.4 Food Sources of Fat (CONT)
 ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 522
nitrogen levels. A positive nitrogen balance occurs during periods of growth and recovery.
A negative nitrogen balance happens when the body uses more protein than is taken in.
Examples might be starvation, infection, or after burn injury.
Amino Acids
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. They are made of the following four elements:
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. The human body requires 20 different amino acids
for proper tissue growth and function. Of those, nine are essential amino acids that must be
obtained from the diet.
Table 14.5 Amino Acids
9 ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
Cannot be made by the body, must be
obtained from the diet.
Not essential in the diet as the body can
synthesize it.
Isoleucine (BCAA) Alanine
Leucine (BCAA) Arginine
Histidine Asparagine
Lysine Aspartic acid
Methionine Cysteine
Phenylalanine Glutamic acid
Threonine Glutamine
Tryptophan Glycine
Valine (BCAA) Proline
Serine
Tyrosine
Proteins are either complete or incomplete. A complete protein has all the essential amino
acids in sufficient amounts. For example, dairy, eggs, meat, poultry, seafood, and soy protein
are complete proteins. Quinoa and soy are plant-based complete proteins.
ESSENTIAL AMINO
ACIDS:
Amino acids that are not
made by the body in the
optimal amounts and
therefore must be obtained
through the diet.
COMPLETE PROTEIN:
A food source containing all
nine essential amino acids
the body needs.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
Incomplete proteins are either missing or do not have an adequate amount of one or more
essential amino acids. Most plant-based sources of protein—beans, peas, grains, nuts,
seeds, greens—do not have a complete amino acid profile. Incomplete protein sources,
when eaten together, can provide a complete amino acid profile. These are called
complementary proteins.
Consuming complete protein is critical to maintaining lean body mass. Combinations of
incomplete proteins may be used to ensure adequate intake of essential amino acids. These
can include nuts with whole grains such as peanut butter on whole wheat toast. Whole
grains with beans, such as beans and rice or hummus and pita bread, also make a complete
protein. Beans with nuts can be combined to make a complete protein as well.
Intake Recommendations: Protein
Protein intake is weight-adjusted and decreases with age. Intake recommendations vary
based on physical activity, sex, and health status. It is also dependent upon client goals.
Increasing protein intake leads to greater strength and muscle mass gains when paired with
resistance exercise. When in a negative energy balance, it helps preserve muscle mass.
Increased protein intake also limits age-related muscle loss and provides greater muscle
protein synthesis (MPS).
WEIGHT-ADJUSTED RECOMMENDATIONS
Guidelines for protein intake include the estimated average requirement (EAR) and the RDA,
which are 0.66 and 0.80 per kilogram (kg) of body weight per day. These recommendations
are independent of age, sex, and body composition. It is important to recall that protein is
needed during times of growth. Humans experience the fastest rate of growth during infancy.
So, protein intake should be high during this time.
During childhood, up until the adolescent growth spurt, protein intake is reduced by 1.0
grams per kilogram (g/kg). The recommendation for adults is further reduced by 0.4 g/kg.
However, these calculations are for sedentary individuals and do not take into account body
composition goals, level of activity, or health-related issues impacting protein needs. Muscle
growth, physical strength, and other physical-related goals require more protein intake.
ACTIVITY-ADJUSTED RECOMMENDATIONS
The RDA of protein is 0.8 g/kg of body weight or 0.36 grams per pound (g/lb) of body weight.
Most research points to an optimal intake of 0.7–1.0 g/lb or between 10 percent and 35
percent of daily calories.
INCOMPLETE
PROTEINS:
A food source that lacks
one or more of the nine
essential amino acids.
MUSCLE PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS (MPS):
A process that produces
protein to repair muscle
damage and oppose
muscle breakdown.
ESTIMATED AVERAGE
REQUIREMENT (EAR):
The average daily nutrient
intake level that is
estimated to meet the
requirement of half the
healthy individuals in a
specific life stage or sex.
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To promote skeletal muscle protein growth and physical strength in individuals with minimal
physical activity, 1.0 g/kg of body weight per day is recommended. For those involved in
moderate physical activity, 1.3 g/kg per day is recommended, and for intense physical activity
1.6 g/kg per day is recommended. Studies show that long-term consumption of protein at 2
g/kg of body weight per day is safe for healthy adults.
For every one gram of protein, there are four Calories, and the tolerable upper limit—the
highest nutrient intake that will likely not generate adverse health effects in most adults
in the general population—is 3.5 g/kg of body weight. Protein intake impacts metabolic
rate, increasing the number of Calories burned. Recent studies have shown that protein
intake of around 25–30 percent of daily Calories boosts metabolism by 80–100 Calories per
day. Adequate consumption of high-quality protein from plant sources and animal products
is essential for human growth and development. Plant-based protein sources contain
unsaturated fat, which lowers LDL cholesterol—a risk factor for heart disease. Plant sources
also contain no cholesterol.
Table 14.6 Plant-Based Sources of Protein
FOOD TYPE FOOD SOURCES
Legumes Lentils, peas, edamame, soybeans, peanuts
Beans Adzuki, black, fava, chickpeas, kidney, pinto
Nuts Almonds, pistachios, cashews, walnuts, pecans
Seeds Hemp, pumpkin, sunflower, flax, sesame, chia
Whole grains Kamut, teff, wheat, quinoa, rice, millet, oat,
Vegetables and fruits Corn, broccoli, asparagus, brussels sprouts
Table 14.7 Food Sources of Protein
PROTEIN SOURCE
GRAMS OF PROTEIN PER
100 GRAMS OF SOURCE
Almonds 17 g
Apple 0.2 g
Asparagus 2 g
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PROTEIN SOURCE
GRAMS OF PROTEIN PER
100 GRAMS OF SOURCE
Banana 0 g
Barbecue sauce 2 g
Beef sirloin 24 g
Beer 0.3 g
Bread (brown, one slice) 8 g
Broccoli 3 g
Butter 0.4 g
Cashews 18 g
Celery 0.9 g
Cheddar cheese 26 g
Cheese pizza 9 g
Cheesecake 4 g
Chicken 29 g
Coconut 5 g
Cod 21 g
Coffee 0.2 g
Crab 20 g
Cream cheese (plain) 8 g
Doughnut 6 g
Flounder 25 g
Goat milk 3 g
Grapes 1 g
Table 14.7 Food Sources of Protein (CONT)
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PROTEIN SOURCE
GRAMS OF PROTEIN PER
100 GRAMS OF SOURCE
Hamburger 14 g
Hardboiled egg 12 g
Honey 0.4 g
Human milk (breast milk) 1 g
Jelly 0.6 g
Lettuce 1 g
Mango 0 g
Margarine 0.4 g
Mayonnaise 2 g
Mustard 29 g
Onion 0.9 g
Orange 0 g
Oysters (raw) 11 g
Peanut butter 23 g
Peanuts 17 g
Pickles 0 g
Pineapple 0.5 g
Pistachios 19 g
Plain yogurt 4 g
Pork chop 22 g
Potato 2 g
Prawns/shrimp 23 g
Table 14.7 Food Sources of Protein (CONT)
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
PROTEIN SOURCE
GRAMS OF PROTEIN PER
100 GRAMS OF SOURCE
Raisins 1 g
Red wine 0.2 g
Rice 2 g
Salami (sliced) 19 g
Salmon 20 g
Scallops 23 g
Skim milk 10 g
Spinach 5 g
Sponge cake 6 g
Swiss cheese 29 g
Tuna 23 g
Turkey (roasted) 28 g
Vegetable oil Trace
Vinegar 0.4 g
Walnuts 11 g
Whole milk 3 g
WATER
Water makes up around 60 percent of total body weight in adults and about 75 percent in
children. Water is critical to life and plays many important roles in the body. It keeps tissues
in the mouth, eyes, and nose lubricated and lubricates the joints. Water also protects vital
organs and tissues and prevents constipation and dehydration. It dissolves certain minerals
and carries nutrients and oxygen to the cells. It also plays a critical role in regulating body
temperature and helps the kidneys and liver by flushing out waste products from the body.
DEHYDRATION:
A harmful loss or removal
of water in the body.
Table 14.7 Food Sources of Protein (CONT)
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TEST TIP!
It is important to remember the 3-3-3 rule:
The body can go:
3 minutes without air,
3 days without water,
and 3 weeks without food.
Many factors influence how much water the body needs to function properly. Hot climates,
physical activity, fever, and diarrhea or vomiting increase the body’s need for water. Body
composition and size, age, and medical conditions also influence fluid intake needs. Without
adequate water intake, the body becomes dehydrated. When dehydrated the body cannot
maintain proper temperature, electrolytes become unbalanced, joints may not work properly,
and blood pressure may increase or decrease. Water in the body can be divided into
intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). ICF is water found within the cells of the
body, while ECF is water found outside the cells and between tissues. Approximately twothirds of the body’s total water is found within the cells, and one-third of the body’s total water
is found outside the cells.
Table 14.8 Intracellular and Extracellular Fluid Table
INTRACELLULAR
FLUID (ICF)
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID (ECF)
Found
Enclosed within cell
membranes
Outside of cell membranes:
• 25% within vascular system, makes
up plasma portion of blood volume
• 75% known as interstitial fluid, which
surrounds cells and connective tissues
Makes up About 2/3 of the
body’s water About 1/3 of the body’s water
Higher In
Potassium and
magnesium
Sodium and chloride
Lower In Sodium and chloride Potassium and magnesium
ELECTROLYTES:
Minerals in the body that
have an electric charge.
INTRACELLULAR FLUID
(ICF):
Water found within the cells
of the body.
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID (ECF):
Water found outside the
cells and between tissues.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
Signs and symptoms of dehydration include increased thirst, dry mouth, very yellow or
dark urine, very dry skin, dizziness, rapid heart rate, headache, lack of energy, tiredness,
confusion, fainting, heat cramps, heat stroke, brain swelling, seizures, fluid loss resulting in a
reduction of blood volume and insufficient blood pumping by the heart (hypovolemic shock),
organ failure, and death.
INTAKE RECOMMENDATIONS: WATER
In general, between 91 and 125 fluid ounces or 2.7 to 3.7 liters of water per day is
recommended for adults. About 20 percent of that intake comes from food. The human body
relies on water to function properly. Cells and skin need water to function, which is why it is
important to stay hydrated.
Drinking fluids is not the only way to maintain water levels, however. Fruits and vegetables
are an effective source of water as well. Vegetables consisting of mostly water include
cucumbers, cabbage, lettuce, and celery. Fruits made up of mainly water include tomatoes,
watermelon, apples, and oranges. Other foods high in water content are yogurt, soup, tea,
cottage cheese, and shrimp.
MICRONUTRIENTS
Macronutrients such as carbohydrate, fiber, fat, protein, and water are those nutrients that are
needed in large amounts in the diet. The body also requires micronutrients. Micronutrients
(vitamins and minerals) are chemical elements or other substances needed in only trace
amounts to support normal growth and development. Although they are only needed in small
amounts, micronutrients play critical roles within the body.
MINERALS
The body needs several minerals to support bone development and growth as well as muscle,
heart, and brain function. For example, calcium helps maintain teeth and bones, helps blood
to clot, and aids in nerve and muscle function. Iron forms blood cells and transports oxygen,
and potassium works to regulate water balance in the cells, helps with nerve function, and
regulates heart rate. Sodium is known as an electrolyte and helps balance water levels in
the cells and stimulates nerves. Zinc helps with carbon dioxide removal, helps heal wounds,
and forms enzymes.
Some minerals are required in large quantities (macrominerals), while others are only required
in trace amounts (trace minerals).
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Table 14.9 Macrominerals and Microminerals
MACROMINERALS TRACE MINERALS
Calcium Cobalt
Chloride Copper
Magnesium Fluoride
Phosphate Iodine
Potassium Iron
Sodium Manganese
Selenium
Zinc
Minerals are not a direct source of energy, meaning they do not provide Calories in the diet.
They enter the body in the simplest form, and the body does not need to break them down
before they can be absorbed. Minerals are also resistant to damage from heat. This means
that storing and cooking minerals do not affect their functions.
Minerals found in foods come from the environment, such as the soil and water a plant takes
up while growing. They are then incorporated into the animals that consume those plants. So,
regardless of whether a human consumes the plant directly or an animal product, all minerals
come from nature.
VITAMINS
Vitamins are also micronutrients, and each plays a specific role in the body like promote cell
function, growth, and development. These organic compounds are needed in small amounts
and are required to live. The human body does not produce enough on its own and therefore
vitamins must be obtained from food. Vitamins are broken down into categories: fat-soluble
and water-soluble.
Oftentimes, people struggle with how they look and feel because their physiology doesn’t
work the way it should. This can be a hormonal imbalance, but it’s more often dietary
deficiency—not getting the right nutrients in the right amounts to get the best results. When
the body is deficient in key nutrients, normal physiology doesn’t work properly. And when the
body doesn’t work as it should, oftentimes people feel ill, perform poorly, and will fail to see
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
physical adaptations as expected. Energy levels, appetite, strength, endurance, and mood
all rely on getting enough of these essential nutrients.
Dietary deficiencies, therefore, are the first red flag that indicates something’s wrong. And they
are more common than one may think. Chances are clients have at least one deficiency, no
matter how good they think their eating habits are. Some of the most common micronutrient
deficiencies are:
• Vitamin B7
• Vitamin D
• Vitamin E
• Chromium
• Iodine
• Molybdenum
Vitamins
% of Americans NOT meeting RDA
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Selenium
Phosphorus
Riboavin
Niacin
Thiamin
Vitamin B12
Copper
Iron
Vitamin B6
Zinc
Vitamin C
Vitamin A
Magnesium
Calcium
Folate
Vitamin E
15%
21%
22%
24%
28%
30%
31%
34%
35%
42%
48%
55%
68%
73%
75%
86%
Figure 14.4 Percentage of the US Population Not Meeting the RDA
Source: US Department of Agriculture (2009).
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For this reason, a fitness professional should help clients identify what they feel physically
and mentally during training while monitoring their eating habits to ensure overall nutrient
intake is adequate and supports their fitness goals. It is important to note that fitness
professionals should refer clients to a dietician or their physician for deficiency testing and
dietary modifications to specifically address micronutrient deficiencies.
Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble Vitamins
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with fat in the diet. They can be stored in fatty tissue
in the body. Water-soluble vitamins are broken down and absorbed with water but are not
stored in the body.
Table 14.10 Vitamins and Minerals Overview
VITAMIN NECESSARY FOR: FOOD SOURCES:
FAT SOLUBLE
Vitamin A Eyes, bones, immunity, reproductive function
Liver, carrots, pumpkin, sweet potatoes,
spinach, collards, kale, egg yolks, beets,
mustard greens, winter squash
Vitamin D Bone health, blood calcium levels, cell growth,
immunity, teeth integrity
Rainbow trout, salmon, swordfish, tuna,
halibut, sardines, rockfish, egg yolks,
mushrooms, shrimp, beef liver
Vitamin E
Protecting cell membranes and other fatty
acids from oxidation, protecting white blood
cells, immunity, overall antioxidant function
Almonds, sunflower seeds, spinach, Swiss
chard, avocado, peanuts, turnip greens,
hazelnuts
Vitamin K1 Blood coagulation and bone metabolism
Kale, collards, spinach, turnip greens, beet
greens, dandelion greens, Swiss chard,
brussels sprouts, broccoli, asparagus
Vitamin K2
Bone metabolism, appropriate calcium
deposition, supporting growth and
development
Cheese, egg yolks, grass-fed butter, chicken
liver, chicken breast, beef, dairy
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
VITAMIN NECESSARY FOR: FOOD SOURCES:
WATER SOLUBLE
Vitamin B1
(Thiamin)
Acting as an enzyme cofactor for
carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism
Sunflower seeds, pork, peas, barley,
navy beans, black beans, lentils, oats,
asparagus, beef liver, tahini, pinto beans
Vitamin B2
(Riboflavin)
Acting as an enzyme cofactor for
carbohydrate and fat metabolism
Beef liver, cottage cheese, yogurt,
soybeans, white mushrooms, milk,
spinach, whole wheat, almonds, eggs,
shrimp
Vitamin B3
(Niacin)
Carbohydrate and fat metabolism, DNA
replication and repair
Beef liver, yellowfin tuna, chicken breast,
pork loin, salmon, swordfish, whole
wheat, buckwheat, mushrooms, canned
tomato products
Vitamin B5
(Pantothenic
Acid)
Assisting with fat and carbohydrate
metabolism, cholesterol production, and
supporting hair, skin, eyes, liver, nervous
system, reproductive function, red blood
cell production, adrenal gland function, and
digestion
Shiitake mushrooms, avocado, trout,
yogurt, chicken, lobster, peas, crab,
crimini mushrooms, sweet potatoes,
potatoes, lentils, egg yolk, beef liver,
turkey
Vitamin B6
(Pyridoxine)
Acting as an enzyme cofactor for
carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism,
synthesis of blood cells
Tuna, turkey, beef, chicken, salmon,
sweet potatoes, sunflower seeds,
chickpeas, potatoes, pork loin, bananas,
swordfish, spinach, plantains
Vitamin B7
(Biotin)
Acting as an enzyme cofactor in
carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism
Nuts, egg yolks, sweet potatoes, onions,
liver, salmon, peanuts, mushrooms, pork,
chocolate, oats, tomatoes
Vitamin B9
(Folate)
Acting as an enzyme cofactor for amino acid
metabolism, DNA synthesis, metabolism of
homocysteine
Spinach, lentils, pinto beans, chickpeas,
asparagus, broccoli, romaine lettuce,
cowpeas, black beans, kidney beans,
chicken liver
Vitamin B12
(Cobalamin)
Formation of blood, nervous system
function, enzyme cofactor in metabolism of
homocysteine
Shellfish, beef liver, beef, sardines,
salmon, tuna, cod, dairy
Vitamin C
(Ascorbic
Acid)
Collagen synthesis, immune function,
synthesis of hormones, synthesis of
neurotransmitters, synthesis of DNA,
enhancement of iron absorption, anti-oxidation
Sweet peppers, citrus fruits, broccoli,
strawberries, kiwi, guava, kohlrabi,
papaya, brussels sprouts
Table 14.10 Vitamins and Minerals Overview (CONT)
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MINERAL NECESSARY FOR: FOOD SOURCES:
Calcium
Bone/tooth health, acidbase balance, nerve impulse
transmission, muscle
contraction
Green vegetables, soybeans, nuts/
seeds, fish, dairy
Chloride
Fluid balance, nerve impulse
transmission, digestive health,
antibacteria
Table salt
Choline
Cell membranes and
neurotransmitters, liver
metabolism, transportation of
nutrients, controls homocysteine
levels in fetus during pregnancy
Shellfish, beef and beef liver, eggs,
salmon, pork, chicken, tomato
products
Chromium Glucose transport, metabolism
of DNA/RNA, immune function
Broccoli, barley, oats, onions,
green beans, tomatoes, potatoes,
prunes, nuts, brewer’s yeast
Copper Assisting many enzyme systems,
iron transport, immune function
Sesame seeds, cashews,
mushrooms, barley, soybeans,
tempeh, sunflower seeds, navy
beans, garbanzo beans, lentils,
walnuts, liver, seafood
Fluoride Teeth and bone health
Seafood, legumes, whole grains,
drinking water (check local levels),
green tea
Iodine
Synthesis of thyroid hormones,
temperature regulation,
reproductive health, nervous
system health
Sea vegetables, saltwater seafood,
dairy, eggs, strawberries
Iron
Oxygen transport, hemoglobin,
myoglobin, assists in enzyme
systems
Soybeans, lentils, spinach, beans,
olives, raisins, brown rice, broccoli,
pumpkin seeds, tuna, flounder,
chicken, pork, beef
Table 14.10 Vitamins and Minerals Overview (CONT)
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
MINERAL NECESSARY FOR: FOOD SOURCES:
Magnesium
Assisting more than 300 enzyme
systems, bone health, muscle
contraction, immunity, regulate
blood sugar and blood pressure
Legumes, spinach, Swiss chard,
nuts, seeds, whole grains, fruits,
avocado, poultry
Manganese Assisting various enzyme systems,
bone/cartilage health
Whole grains, nuts, legumes,
seeds, tea, leafy green vegetables
Molybdenum
Acting as an enzyme cofactor
involved in carbon, nitrogen,
and sulfur cycles, metabolism
of drugs/toxins (e.g., purines,
nitrosamines)
Legumes, nuts, whole grains
Phosphorus Fluid balance, bone health, part
of ATP
Dairy, soybeans, sardines, beef
liver, lentils, pumpkin seeds, eggs,
almonds, peanuts, peanut butter
Potassium Fluid balance, nerve impulse
transmission muscle contraction Vegetables, fruit, dairy, fish
Selenium Carbohydrate and fat metabolism,
antioxidant, immune function
Tuna, shrimp, sardines, salmon,
poultry, cod, chicken, Brazil nuts,
mushrooms, barley, whole grains,
walnuts, eggs
Sodium
Fluid balance, acid-base balance,
nerve impulse transmission,
muscle contraction
Salt, greens, most foods contain
some sodium
Sulfur
Certain B-vitamins and amino
acids, acid-base balance,
detoxification of liver
Protein dense foods
Zinc
Assisting more than 100 enzyme
systems, immune health, growth/
sexual maturation, gene regulation
Beef, sesame seeds, pumpkin
seeds, lentils, chickpeas, cashews,
whole grains, oats, oysters, turkey,
shrimp
Table 14.10 Vitamins and Minerals Overview (CONT)
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Antioxidants
Free radicals are molecules with unpaired electrons, and they are created in the body during
cellular metabolism. People are also exposed to free radicals in the environment, such as
tobacco, alcohol, pollution, ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun or artificial UV rays from tanning
beds, or from substances found in food.
These imbalanced molecules travel around the body looking for another electron to pick up to
balance the electrical charge of the atom. This causes damage to cells, proteins, and DNA.
Damage from free radicals may contribute to chronic diseases from cancer to heart disease,
Alzheimer’s disease, and vision loss. Antioxidants work to prevent or delay damage caused
by free radicals. Antioxidants donate electrons to free radicals to neutralize the charge and
prevent damage.
The following substances are known for their antioxidant properties:
• Beta-carotene
• Coenzyme Q10
• Glutathione
• Flavonoids
• Lipoic acid
• Manganese
• Phenols
• Phytoestrogens
• Polyphenols
• Selenium
• Vitamin C
• Vitamin E
ALZHEIMER’S
DISEASE:
Progressive mental
deterioration that can occur
in middle or old age, due to
generalized degeneration of
the brain.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
DIETARY GUIDELINES AND MYPLATE
The US Department of Health and Human Services and US Department of Agriculture
(USDA) create and update the Dietary Guidelines for Americans to promote sustainable,
healthy food choices for lifelong health and good nutrition. With the aim of preventing chronic
diseases such as cancer, hypertension, stroke, heart disease, and other chronic conditions,
the guidelines address what to eat and what to avoid eating for optimal health.
Foods available to American consumers today include fresh, packaged, and processed
products. To make the best choices, it is important for consumers to read and understand
food labels. Even the simplest food packaging includes a nutrition label, a list of ingredients,
and often nutrition and health benefit claims. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
regulates each of these elements for accuracy and effectiveness.
The current dietary guidelines are useful for making healthy food choices and crafting a wellrounded eating pattern. Nutrition coaches and fitness professionals can use these guidelines
as the basis for helping clients develop healthier eating habits to support their goals.
The first half of the 164-page
Dietary Guidelines contains
chapters related to various
nutrition topics.
The second half of the
Dietary Guidelines contains
the Dietary Guidelines
Appendix with helpful tables
of foods, nutrient sources,
calorie intake, and more.
In addition to nutrition,
the Dietary Guidelines
also contains information
about physical activity
recommendations.
Figure 14.5 The Dietary Guidelines for Americans
US DEPARTMENT OF
HEALTH AND HUMAN
SERVICES:
A US federal department
that oversees public health,
welfare, and civil rights
issues.
DIETARY GUIDELINES
FOR AMERICANS:
Guidelines for healthy,
lifelong eating habits for
Americans two years of age
and older.
FOOD AND DRUG
ADMINISTRATION
(FDA):
A US federal department
that regulates the
production and distribution
of food, pharmaceuticals,
tobacco, and other
consumer products.
EATING PATTERN:
The types of food and
beverages an individual
consumes.
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THE DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR AMERICANS
The Dietary Guidelines are organized progressively, starting with five core concepts, which are
followed up with more detailed guidelines for food choices.
Concept one: following a healthy eating pattern across the lifespan.
All food and beverage choices matter. Choosing a healthy eating pattern at an appropriate
calorie level will help achieve and maintain a healthy body weight, support nutrient adequacy,
and reduce the risk of chronic disease.
Concept two: focusing on variety, nutrient density, and food amounts.
To meet nutrient needs within calorie limits, it is important to choose a variety of nutrientdense foods across and within all food groups in recommended amounts.
Concept three: limiting calories from added sugars and saturated fats and reducing
sodium intake.
A healthy eating pattern should be low in added sugars, saturated fats, and sodium.
Concept four: shifting to healthier food and beverage choices.
It is important to choose nutrient-dense foods and beverages across and within all food
groups in place of less healthy choices and consider cultural and personal preferences to
make these shifts easier to accomplish and maintain.
Concept five: supporting healthy eating patterns for all.
Everyone has a role in helping to create and support healthy eating patterns in multiple
settings nationwide, from home to school, at work, and in communities.
The Dietary Guidelines’ key recommendations for healthy eating patterns should be applied in
their entirety. There are complex, interconnected relationships between dietary components
that can be missed if only a few recommendations are followed.
Limiting Added Sugars
It is equally important to consider what to limit in a diet for a healthy eating pattern. These
include added sugars, certain fats, and sodium. These are of concern for public health in the
United States. Specified limits can help individuals achieve healthy eating patterns within
Calorie limits.
NUTRIENT DENSITY:
The amount of nutrients
in a food relative to the
number of calories it
provides, usually measured
per 100 kilocalories.
ADDED SUGARS:
Any type of sugar that is
added to a food or beverage
when it is processed. This
is compared to natural
sugars found in whole
foods, such as fruit or milk.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
The recommendation for added sugars, those sugars not found naturally in whole foods, is
to limit consumption to less than 10 percent of daily Calories. This is based on modeling of
food patterns and national data on calorie intake. Once all the recommended food groups are
consumed for a typical individual, there is no room for added sugars.
Limiting Unhealthy Fats
Calories from saturated and trans fats should be limited to less than 10 percent of Calories
per day. This recommendation is based on research that shows replacing saturated fats
with unsaturated fats is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. As with
added sugars, once food recommendations are met within a day, there is little room for extra
calories from saturated fats.
Limiting Sodium
Sodium intake is recommended in quantities less than 2,300 milligrams per day. This is the
tolerable upper intake level set by the National Academy of Medicine for people ages 14 and
older. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans provides a recommendation for younger children.
Limiting Alcohol
The current recommendation for alcohol consumption is to limit beverages to one drink per
day for women and two per day for men, which is considered moderate drinking. Consuming
more than the recommendation is considered heavy drinking and carries health risks. The
Dietary Guidelines for Americans provides more information about who should abstain
completely.
THE FOOD PYRAMID TO MYPLATE
A previous representation for the Dietary Guidelines, and one that most consumers still
recognize, is the Food Pyramid. It acted as a visual tool to help individuals make better
choices about food and create a healthy eating pattern.
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 Figure 14.6 The Food Pyramid (Retired)
The Food Pyramid used the number of servings per day of each food type to represent how
much the average American should consume. It included servings for grains, vegetables,
fruits, meats and other protein sources, dairy, and fats. The gradual thinning of the categories
up the pyramid was intended to demonstrate that grains should be the focus of the diet, with
each subsequent food group making up a smaller and smaller portion. Left out, however,
was a distinction between healthier whole grains and processed, sugary foods such as white
pasta and cereals that are now known to have contributed to the US obesity epidemic.
Newer resources take fats, oils, and sweets out of the graphics completely. Processed foods,
desserts, and sugary beverages are now treated as foods to avoid as much as possible. The
food pyramid is also now thought to have put too little focus on fruits, vegetables, and protein
sources. The research that led to the transition from the Food Pyramid to MyPlate puts a
greater focus on the Dietary Guidelines and choosing larger quantities of healthy whole foods.
While the Food Pyramid was a popular resource, it is now considered dated. It has been
replaced with the simplified, updated MyPlate representation. The official reason for the
change is to simplify the visual tool and to promote healthy eating for a new generation of
Americans. The guidelines presented are the same as those from the Dietary Guidelines, but
MYPLATE:
The current visual nutrition
guide published by the
USDA Center for Nutrition
Policy and Promotion.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
the MyPlate tools and graphics are intended for use by the general population. They provide
resources that fitness professionals can use to communicate effectively with clients.
MyPlate is shaped like a plate with colorful fractions dedicated to dairy, vegetables, fruits,
protein, and grains. This helps people visualize filling their plates at each meal with appropriate
amounts of each food type. It is easy enough for a child to understand. Fats and sugars
previously at the top of the Food Pyramid are left off the MyPlate graphic because of how they
contribute to obesity in the overall population. Fitness professionals can use the MyPlate
graphic as a teaching tool to explain healthy food choices and proportions to their clients.
Figure 14.7 MyPlate
FRUITS AND VEGGIES
According to the USDA, half of a healthy plate should be fruits and vegetables. The focus
should be on choosing whole fruits and vegetables, which may include fresh, frozen, dried,
or canned products with no additives. One can enjoy fruits as a sweet snack or dessert or
with meals to increase daily intake. Vegetables should be varied in type and color. There are
several healthful ways to prepare vegetables: sautéed, roasted, raw, or steamed.
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GRAINS
Whole grains should fill up a quarter of a well-rounded plate. At least half the grains consumed
daily should be whole grains. Any processed product is considered whole grain if the first or
second item on the ingredients list is whole grains. Whole grain foods include brown rice,
oatmeal, popcorn, whole wheat pasta, and whole grain breads.
PROTEIN
Lean proteins make up the final quarter of MyPlate. Seafood, beans, unsalted nuts and
seeds, eggs, poultry, and lean meats are great choices for protein. It is important to choose
a variety of protein sources for building muscle tissue; for bone, blood, and skin health; and
to produce hormones. Consuming protein from several different sources provides a variety of
amino acids for the body to use.
DAIRY
For dairy products, MyPlate encourages a switch to low-fat or fat-free products to reduce
saturated fat intake. Foods such as sour cream, heavy cream, and regular cheese can be
replaced with lower-fat varieties.
Simple changes such as choosing vegetable oils instead of butter and choosing water over sugary
drinks can have a big effect over time. Nutrition coaches and trainers can encourage change by
focusing their clients on small steps. A client should choose one thing to change at a time, such
as adding a fruit to every meal for a week or increasing the serving of vegetables in each meal.
Habits generally take two to four weeks to form, and consistency is key. When it comes to eating,
overhaul diets that change everything about one’s diet at once are impossible to maintain. The
guidelines are a great way to inform and promote small, sustainable lifestyle changes.
UNDERSTANDING FOOD LABELS
Being able to read and comprehend the nutritional content of the food an individual consumes
is an important component of success. Personal trainers should have a strong understanding
of how to read nutrition labels, which foods are good sources of certain nutrients, and
understand the dietary guidelines so they can easily relay it to their clients. While most foods
have a list of ingredients and some also have Calorie and nutrients-per-serving information
listed on the package, most fresh and whole foods do not have a package to list this information
on. So, this information comes from reading the nutrition labels of products that have nutrition
facts and using the many credible online resources available for those that do not.
NUTRITION FACTS:
A label required by the
FDA on most food and
beverages that details the
food’s nutrient content.
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Under the FDA nutrition labeling regulations, certain ingredients and nutrition information
must be listed on most packaged foods and supplements. Food labels will have ingredient
listings and other nutritional information, such as the amount of fat, protein, carbohydrates,
and certain vitamins and minerals. The only vitamins and minerals required to be listed on a
food label are vitamin D, calcium, potassium, and iron. If a vitamin or mineral claim is made
or it is added to the product, then it must also be listed on the nutrition panel. An ingredient
list will name each ingredient in descending order of amount, with the first ingredient being
the most prominent. If water is the first ingredient on the list, then water is the most
prominent ingredient. However, the exact amount of each ingredient will not be provided in
the ingredient list.
NUTRITION FACTS LABELS
The nutrition facts label is designed to provide information that can help consumers make
informed choices about the food they purchase and consume. The FDA seeks to protect and
inform the consumer by making the label conveniently located on the packaging, easy to read,
and precise in its details.
Easy to Read
Current nutrition facts labels have been updated to make them easier to read. The original
look of the label remains, but there are important updates including the bolding and increase
in text size for details like serving size (the amount of food in one serving), Calories per
serving (number of Calories in one serving), and servings per container (the total number of
servings in the entire package).
Manufacturers must declare the amount, in addition to percent daily value (DV), of vitamin D,
calcium, iron, and potassium in each serving of a product. Daily values are reference amounts
of nutrients to consume or not to exceed and are used to calculate the percent daily value
that manufacturers include on the label. They can voluntarily declare the gram amount for
other vitamins and minerals if they are present or added to the product as well.
The footnote has been updated to better explain what percent daily value means. It will read:
“*The % daily value indicates how much a nutrient in a serving of food contributes to a daily
diet. 2,000 Calories a day is used for general nutrition advice.” The percent daily value helps
consumers understand the nutrition information in the context of a total daily diet of 2,000
Calories, unless otherwise specified on the label.
INGREDIENT LIST:
A list provided on a food
label of each ingredient in a
product in descending order
of prominence.
DAILY VALUE (DV):
Reference amounts
expressed in grams,
milligrams, or micrograms
of nutrients to consume or
not to exceed each day.
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Note: The images above are meant for illustrative purposes to show how the revised nutrition facts label might look. All labels represent
fictional products.
Figure 14.8 Sample Food Labels
Added sugars, in grams and as the percent daily value, are now included on the nutrition
facts label. Scientific data shows that it is difficult to meet nutrient needs while staying within
Calorie limits if more than 10 percent of total daily Calories are consumed through added
sugar, and this is consistent with the 2021–2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans.
Also required are the amounts of vitamin D, potassium, iron, and calcium. Any other listed
vitamins and minerals are optional. While continuing to require “total fat,” “saturated fat,”
and “trans fat” on the label, “Calories from fat” is no longer listed. The importance lies in the
type of fats consumed versus the Calories from fat.
Serving Sizes and Labeling Requirements
By law, serving sizes must be based on the amounts of foods and beverages that people are
actually eating, not what they should be eating. The amounts people consume for a serving
have changed over time, and a reference amount is a standard used to determine serving
sizes by the FDA. For example, the reference amount for a serving of ice cream was previously
half of a cup but is now two-thirds of a cup, and the reference amount for a yogurt cup has
decreased from eight ounces to six ounces.
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 Figure 14.9 How Serving Sizes Have Changed- Then (right) versus now (left)
Package size affects what people eat, so for packages that are between one and two servings,
such as a 20-ounce soda or a 15-ounce can of soup, the Calories and other nutrients will be
required to be labeled as one serving. If the package is larger, the addition of another column
with the words “per package” details the nutritional values if the entire package is consumed
at once, as well as the reference amount for a single serving.
COMMON DIET TRENDS
The word “diet” originates from the Greek word diaita, meaning “way of life.” The initial
meaning included everything that encompasses a lifestyle. Today the term has a more limited
meaning. It describes the foods that a person habitually eats, whether it be to lose weight,
maintain or improve health, or for medical reasons.
Many people use the term “diet” to refer to a pattern of eating with the goal of rapid weight
loss, extreme physical transformation, or prevention of chronic disease. A well-balanced diet
and consistent, healthy eating habits provide more stable health and weight benefits over time.
There are many different diet plans targeted to consumers. They promise a range of benefits:
• Rapid weight loss
• Long-term weight loss
• Improved gut health
• Lower risk of diabetes
• Improved cardiovascular health
• Lower blood pressure
DIET:
The foods that a person or
community eats most often
and habitually; a choice of
regular foods consumed
for the purpose of losing
weight or for medical
reasons.
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Some diets have delivered everything they promise. The World Health Organization (WHO)
has even recognized some popular diets as sustainable and healthy lifestyle choices.
However, other diets fall by the wayside because they don’t deliver results or are harmful.
To help guide clients, a fitness professional must be aware of popular trending diets and
their risks and benefits.
DETOX DIET
A detox diet is based on the idea that the body benefits from periodic detoxification. There
is a lot of variety in detox diets, but they generally begin with a period of fasting followed by
a strict diet of raw fruits and vegetables, water, or juices. The initial fast can range from two
days to a week, followed by two to seven days of liquid or decreased calorie intake.
Also known as cleanses, detox diets claim to cleanse the body of toxins, refresh the digestive
tract, and reset metabolism. Weight loss may be significant on a detox, but it is largely a
result of water loss. Some individuals report a boost in energy during and after a detox.
Science suggests this is a result of removing processed foods and sugars from the diet while
reducing calorie intake. Short term, this can be beneficial, but detoxing for extended periods
of time is contraindicated. There is no solid research to prove a cleanse or detox is necessary
or beneficial unless ordered by a licensed health professional.
There are several popular cleanses, including the colon cleanse, juice cleanse, and the
liver detox.
LOW- AND NO-FAT DIETS
The American Heart Association recommends that no more than 30 percent of daily Calories
come from fat. However, the safe lower limit for fat consumption has never been established.
During the low-fat food trend, many manufacturers reduced fat in products like yogurt, cheese,
milk, cereals, salad dressing, nut butters, pastries, frozen desserts, and butter substitutes.
They replaced the fat with fillers, sugars, and chemicals for better taste, texture, and
consistency. These artificial additives can cause gastrointestinal distress, digestion issues,
and skin problems.
A very low-fat diet can initially lead to weight loss if calorie guidelines are followed. However,
critics warn that the benefits are negated by decreases in plasma cholesterol levels and health
issues for special populations like pregnant or lactating women, children, and the elderly.
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It is also important to note that dietary fat is important for hormone production and
regulation. A low-fat diet can upset hormone balance and cause health problems in both
men and women.
EATING BY BLOOD TYPE
A popular diet in the early 2000s was the genotype or blood type diet. A naturopathic
physician named Peter D’Adamo developed the diet after theorizing that a person’s blood
type determines how they respond to certain foods.
D’Adamo created a guide to eating by blood type:
• Blood Type A: People with this blood type should consume fruit, vegetables, tofu,
seafood, soy, and whole grains, and avoid most meats. Ideally, their diet is mostly
vegetarian, with some fish, and largely organic and fresh because of a sensitive immune
system.
• Blood Type B: People with this blood type should choose green, non-starchy vegetables
(spinach, asparagus, green beans, artichokes), lean meats (except chicken), and low-fat
dairy while avoiding corn, wheat, lentils, tomatoes, and peanuts. Because of digestive
sensitivity, this diet is supposed to be largely gluten-free.
• Blood Type AB: AB types should focus on tofu, seafood, dairy, and green leafy vegetables
while avoiding caffeine, alcohol, and cured meats. These individuals supposedly have
low stomach acid.
• Blood Type O: Type Os should eat a diet of lean meats, poultry, fish, and vegetables
while avoiding grains, beans, and dairy.
A study with more than 1,400 subjects found some interesting results. Regardless of their
blood type, the participants were given a list of foods to choose from for a one-month period.
Based on their natural food choices, researchers determined which of the blood type diets
they most closely followed. Researchers also assessed the participants’ cardiovascular
health and made other physical health measurements.
Those who followed the Type A pescatarian diet (plant-based diet that allows dairy, eggs,
fish, and other types of seafood) had reductions in their BMI, waist circumference, blood
pressure, cholesterol levels, and insulin resistance. The AB diet protocol showed reductions
in blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and insulin resistance but no change in BMI or waist
circumference. Type O meat-eating dieters had a reduction only in blood triglycerides, and
Type B eaters showed no significant changes.
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None of the research completed on genotype or blood type dieting supported the claims that
a certain blood type responded more to a certain diet or that there were better results than
an average calorie-restricted diet.
RAW FOOD DIET
Proponents of the raw food diet believe that cooking foods to certain temperatures leaches
nutrients and destroys proteins and enzymes. The diet is rich in foods like pressed fruit
and vegetable juices, raw or dehydrated fruits and vegetables, raw nuts and seeds, raw and
sprouted grains and legumes, and fermented items like sauerkraut and kimchi. Dieters may
also eat raw eggs, fish, and some types of meat.
The raw diet is not marketed as a weight loss diet but a disease prevention plan. The
main claim of proponents is that the diet improves enzyme activity and digestion, but this
remains unproven.
Critics of the raw food diet have a lot of concerns, including the risks of eating raw and
undercooked meat and animal products. Raw meats and animal products can carry pathogens
like salmonella, E. coli, staphylococcus, and listeria. They can cause serious infections that
may be fatal. For vegan raw dieters, deficits in some micronutrients, like B12, may be an
issue. Vitamin B12 is found in meat, chicken, dairy, and eggs and is a vital component for
maintenance of the body’s blood and nerve cells.
LOW-ENERGY DIET (LED) AND VERY LOW-ENERGY DIET (VLED)
Low- and very low-energy diets are physician-supervised. A low-calorie diet is considered
800–1,200 Calories daily while a very low-Calorie diet is less than 800 Calories daily. These
diets can be successful for weight loss because of the drastic Calorie restriction conducted
in a clinical setting. Without guidance, it is very difficult to adhere to these restrictions.
Clinical studies following individuals on LEDs and VLEDs found body weight reductions of
10–15 percent. These diets help with weight loss, weight maintenance, management of
conditions like obesity, type 2 diabetes, sleep apnea, and cardiovascular disease.
Exercise is generally not recommended on low- and very low-calorie diets. Research has shown
that weight loss and maintenance on these diets are most successful with higher protein
levels and lower glycemic index foods. This allows blood sugar to stay relatively consistent,
reduces blood insulin spikes for those with diabetes or prediabetes, and decreases hunger.
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After the initial weight loss on LEDs and VLEDs, weight gain is typical without ongoing support.
This is driven by downregulation of hunger hormones and the tendency to exceed the maximum
Calorie recommendations. Individuals are hungrier and feel less satisfied after eating and,
without guidance, tend to overeat. The addition of reduced-Calorie meal replacements and
fortified formulas for the maintenance phase promotes satiety and prevents binging.
In some clinical settings, dieters may be able to maintain weight loss with one to three meal
replacements (or formulas) daily to keep the Calorie count as low as possible. Depending on
the macronutrient makeup of the diet, some individuals achieved and sustained ketosis as
a by-product of the diet.
PLANT-BASED DIETS
A plant-based diet minimizes, restricts, or completely leaves out meat and animal products.
Research has shown that adopting a plant-based diet is not only cost-effective but can help
lower body mass index (BMI), blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and heart disease risk factors.
There are several variations of a plant-based diet.
Vegan
Vegans do not consume or use any animal products or by-products. This includes meat,
poultry, game, fish, eggs, dairy, honey, and animal-derived food ingredients like gelatin. A
vegan diet may be limited in omega fatty acids, vitamin B12, and folate. Vegans may need to
supplement these nutrients.
PLANT-BASED DIET:
Eating mostly or entirely
foods that are plants or
derived from plants.
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Lacto-Vegetarian
This diet does not allow for any meat, poultry, fish, or eggs but does include dairy. Again,
folate, vitamin B12, and omega fatty acids may be limited for lacto-vegetarians. Including
dairy increases calcium intake, protects bones, and aids in muscle tissue functioning and
metabolic processes.
Ovo-Vegetarian
An ovo-vegetarian eats eggs and foods with eggs as ingredients but not any dairy or meat. The
inclusion of eggs makes up for the loss of some B vitamins. Eggs provide high-quality protein.
Lacto-Ovo Vegetarian
This is the most common type of vegetarianism and what most people mean when using the
term. Lacto-ovo vegetarians eat dairy and eggs but no meat, poultry, or fish.
Pescatarian
A diet that allows for dairy, eggs, fish, and other types of seafood is pescatarian. The name
derives from the Spanish word for fish, pescado. Frequent fish consumption poses a risk
of mercury exposure, but it is possible to choose types of seafood with less mercury. And
there are benefits too: fish is a lean protein source, and fatty fish provides essential omega
fatty acids.
Pollotarian
Derived from the Spanish word for chicken, a pollotarian diet includes dairy, eggs, and chicken
as well as other poultry. Individuals on this diet must be careful to get enough iron, zinc, and
vitamin B12 from foods or supplements.
Flexitarian
A flexitarian enjoys a mostly vegetarian diet but may occasionally consume any type of fish,
poultry, or seafood. The diet is mostly plant-based but leaves room for animal products. Between
2 and 5 percent of the US population is vegetarian or vegan. Plant-based diets are generally
beneficial for overall health but do not necessarily improve weight loss. These diets are supported
by researchers and health professionals and have no real adverse health effects.
Studies have shown that vegans have a decreased risk for diabetes, hypertension, and
cardiovascular disease as compared to those who eat plant-based diets with some eggs,
dairy, or meat.
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Table 14.11 Plant-Based Eating Styles
PLANTBASED
TYPE
MEAT GAME POULTRY FISH EGGS DAIRY
NOTHING
ANIMALDERIVED
Vegan       
Lactovegetarian
      
Ovo-vegetarian       
Lacto-ovovegetarian
      
Pescatarian       
Pollotarian       
Flexitarian   Some Some   
KETOGENIC (KETO) DIET
The keto diet is also based on restricted carbohydrate intake. On the keto diet, only about
20 percent of daily Calories come from carbs. This amounts to about 50 grams based on a
2,000-Calorie diet.
The remaining Calories are divided between fats (55–60 percent) and protein (30–35
percent). This is approximately 275–300 grams of protein and 66–77 grams of fats daily.
If executed correctly, the keto diet will lead to a state of ketosis in the first week. Ketones
are naturally produced as an energy source by the liver when insulin and glucose are low.
They are a product of fat metabolism and can act to suppress appetite and fuel the body.
Once ketosis is achieved, the goal is to consistently remain in this state.
Studies have shown that the benefits of keto include an increase in HDL cholesterol, a
decrease in LDL cholesterol, lower blood glucose levels, and significant BMI reduction and
weight loss. If carbohydrates are reintroduced in the diet, the results reverse.
Ketoacidosis is a dangerously high level of ketones in the blood. It requires immediate
medical care. This extreme condition is usually caused by starvation, but it may be triggered
by following a ketogenic diet.
KETO DIET:
A popular diet that reduces
carbohydrate intake to
deliberately increase fat
metabolism and ketones in
the blood.
KETOSIS:
A metabolic process that
occurs when the body
does not have enough
carbohydrates for energy;
the liver metabolizes fatty
acids to produce ketones
as a replacement energy
source.
KETOACIDOSIS:
An increase in blood acidity
caused by excess ketones
in the bloodstream.
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The keto diet can also cause side effects similar to those of any low-carb diet: headache,
fatigue, bad breath, constipation, and dehydration. A study done by the Harvard School of
Public Health also connected carb-restrictive diets to an increased risk of kidney stones,
osteoporosis, and increased blood levels of uric acid.
ATKINS DIET
The Atkins Diet is both a brand and a diet that has been popular for years. Food products
made and packaged specifically for Atkins dieters are widely available and easy to find,
making it a convenient choice.
The diet is very low in carbohydrates, with 90–95 percent of Calories from protein and fats.
For an average 2,000-Calorie diet, this amounts to 1,800 calories a day from fat and protein
and 200 Calories daily from carbohydrates (50 grams or less).
Research has shown that low-carb diets such as this can increase metabolic output (basal
metabolic rate) by 50–90 Calories a day. But eating this way may also reduce the hormones
leptin and ghrelin, which in turn increases appetite. These effects can be counteracted by
reducing fat intake and increasing calories from protein sources to about 30 percent.
Critics of the Atkins diet say it causes low energy, impairs cognitive function, and increases
gastrointestinal distress because of the high levels of fat. The first two weeks of the diet,
the induction phase, limits carbohydrates to just 20–25 grams per day. This is intended to
induce ketosis.
Phases two, three, and four slowly reintroduce carbohydrates back into the diet starting at 25–50
grams per day, finally going up to 100 grams per day for the long-term maintenance phase.
Despite the restrictions with Atkins, research has shown that adherence to the diet can
improve metabolic syndrome and diabetes, reduce high blood pressure, and lower
cardiovascular disease risk. Weight loss depends on the total calories consumed in the diet.
The risks of the Atkins diet have been studied, but the long-term health effects are still
relatively unknown. It is too new to have enough data to make this determination. Health
professionals generally have several concerns about a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet:
• Deficiencies in trace minerals and vitamins
• Inadequate fiber
• No better long-term weight loss results than low-calorie diets
Additionally, there are side effects of a low-carb diet, including bad breath, headaches, fatigue,
dizziness, constipation, and dehydration.
METABOLIC
SYNDROME:
A cluster of at least
three biochemical
and physiological
abnormalities associated
with the development of
cardiovascular disease and
type 2 diabetes.
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CARNIVORE DIET
The carnivore diet consists of eating meat and animal products exclusively. Beef, lamb, pork,
veal, chicken, and eggs are staples of the diet. Carnivore dieters avoid vegetables, lowlactose dairy, fruits, legumes, nuts, seeds, and grains. Carb restriction on the carnivore diet
triggers ketosis. It is the ketogenic state that produces weight loss on this diet.
Supporters of the diet cite human evolution as support for the carnivore diet. They believe
that because humans evolved as hunters, they are designed to eat and process meat and
animal products. Weight loss and ketosis are often considered the main benefits of the diet.
Some people also report better digestive health and higher testosterone levels.
Long-term kidney damage from high protein intake is under investigation. Studies have shown
that the carnivore diet can lead to higher blood serum fat levels over time. Critics of the diet
also cite nutrient deficiencies, specifically plant-based vitamins and minerals, as a major
issue. Additionally, high protein intake increases uric acid in the blood, which can lead to
conditions like gout.
PALEO DIET
The Paleo diet has gained momentum in the past 10 years and is relatively popular. Many
people refer to it as “clean eating.” It differs from the carnivore diet by including fruits,
vegetables, nuts, and seeds. Paleo dieters avoid dairy products, legumes, processed foods,
and refined sugars. It is a simple plan based on ancestral hunting and gathering. It is
generally low in carbohydrates and high in protein.
Figure 14.10 The Paleo Diet Pyramid
ANIMAL PRODUCTS:
Any material derived from
the body of an animal,
including dairy products,
eggs, honey, and gelatin.
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People who turn to the Paleo diet are usually looking to lose or maintain weight and to eat
a simple, healthy diet. The simpler diet plan, along with avoidance of sugar and processed
foods, naturally leads to a lower Calorie intake. Paleo has become very popular, and it is
now easier to find related products in grocery stores and restaurants. However, purchasing a
processed product for a diet that promotes unprocessed eating defeats the purpose. People
truly interested in a strict Paleo diet should avoid consuming anything other than whole foods.
Studies show that this well-balanced approach can reduce overall weight without compromising
muscle tissue. It has been shown to reduce bad cholesterol and blood triglycerides, lower
blood pressure, and decrease resting insulin levels.
Critics raise concerns about the nutrition of the Paleo diet for active people and athletes. The
avoidance of grains and carbs reduces energy levels. Studies of athletes have shown that
individuals need between three and six grams of carbohydrates per pound of bodyweight to
support their activity levels.
The diet is also challenging for vegetarians and vegans as eating legumes is discouraged.
Legumes are a major protein source for most plant-based eaters. More research is needed
to study the long-term effects of the Paleo diet.
GLUTEN-FREE
Gluten is a mix of proteins found in grains like wheat, rye, and barley. It gives elasticity to
dough made from these grains. In individuals with celiac disease, gluten triggers an immune
response that damages the lining of the small intestines. This causes discomfort and
disrupts nutrient absorption. Ultimately, it can lead to serious health conditions, including
depression, infertility, headaches, skin rashes, seizures, and neuropathy. Some people are
sensitive to gluten but have less severe reactions.
A gluten-free diet may include:
• Fish, poultry, and meat
• Dairy without added ingredients
• Gluten-free grains like quinoa, rice, and oats
• Starches like potatoes, corn, almond flour, and corn flour
• Nuts and seeds
• Vegetable oils and butter
• Eggs
• Fruits and vegetables
GLUTEN:
A mixture of proteins found
in wheat, rye, and barley
and gives dough its elastic
texture.
CELIAC DISEASE:
An autoimmune disorder
that affects the small
intestines and that is
caused by gluten in
the diet.
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Gluten-free adherents avoid anything with wheat, barley, or rye. This includes ingredients
and foods like malt, beer, and brewer’s yeast. Candy, baked goods, popcorn, pretzels, chips,
crackers, and many condiment sauces like soy sauce and teriyaki sauce include gluten or
gluten-based ingredients.
Avoiding gluten isn’t necessary for anyone without a gluten allergy or celiac disease, but
many healthy people choose this diet. Cutting out wheat and other grains is essentially a
low-carbohydrate approach, which can lead to weight loss. Depending on the foods eaten,
a gluten-free diet may lead to improved cholesterol levels, better digestive health, and the
elimination of many processed foods from the diet.
Without guidance or balanced, healthy food choices, a gluten-free diet may increase calorie
intake. Many processed gluten-free foods include added sugar and calories to replace the
grains removed. Studies have also shown that a gluten-free diet can cause constipation or
diarrhea. To go gluten-free healthfully, individuals should reach for naturally gluten-free foods:
vegetables, fruits, fresh meat, fish, dairy products, and poultry.
Another concern critics have about any diet that cuts out gluten is that wheat products are often
fortified with micronutrients like vitamin B and iron. There is a risk of deficiencies on this diet.
THE DASH DIET
DASH stands for Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension. It was developed based on research
conducted by the National Institutes of Health. The primary audience for the DASH diet is anyone
with high blood pressure, with the goal of reducing hypertension with fewer or no medications.
The diet is simple. There are no special food restrictions, just a weekly plan of a healthy
2,000 Calories per day. The diet focuses on low-fat dairy, fish, poultry, beans, nuts, and
vegetable oils while avoiding fatty meats, full-fat dairy, coconut and palm oil, and sweets. The
DASH diet can be followed with a normal sodium intake of up to 2,300 milligrams daily or
with reduced sodium intake of up to 1,500 milligrams daily.
The DASH diet recommends that 55 percent of daily Calories come from carbohydrates,
approximately 27 percent from unsaturated fats, 6 percent from saturated fats, and 18 percent
from protein. Tips include filling the plate with colorful, whole foods and including two or more
servings of fruits and vegetables per meal, with a particular emphasis on dark, leafy green
vegetables. In addition to lowering blood pressure, the DASH diet has other health benefits:
prevention of bone loss, improved cardiovascular health, and weight loss or maintenance.
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MEDITERRANEAN DIET
Global health and wellness research has shown that people who live in several Mediterranean
countries, including Greece, Spain, and Italy, have lower rates of chronic health issues. This is
widely attributed to the typical diet of the region.
The benefits of the Mediterranean diet are so widely recognized and accepted that the WHO
and the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have
added the diet to its list of intangible cultural heritages. The listing aims to protect the “skills,
harvesting, cooking, and consumption of food” that the diet promotes.
Figure 14.11 The Mediterranean Diet
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The Mediterranean diet consists of moderate portions of fruits, vegetables, whole grains,
legumes, potatoes, nuts, seeds, olive oil, fish, poultry, dairy, and eggs, with minimal red meats.
Olive oil, nuts, and seafood are eaten regularly in this diet. The high levels of heart-healthy
omega-3 fatty acids in them may be a major reason that chronic disease and cardiovascular
risks are lower in the Mediterranean population. The diet is often recommended to people
who have a high risk of heart attack, arterial plaques, and stroke.
The fresh, light foods that make up this diet are filling and satisfying. Over time, this naturally
leads to a decrease in calorie intake and helps promote weight loss. Studies have shown that
the Mediterranean diet can reduce cardiovascular disease risk up to 30 percent and trigger
a significant reduction in the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
INTERMITTENT FASTING
Intermittent fasting is a type of diet that focuses on the timing of food intake in a 24-hour
period or weekly rather than on specific types of food. There are two popular variations of the
fasting diet: 5/2 and 16/8.
The 5/2 Diet
The 5/2 fasting diet involves eating a normal, balanced, and healthy diet five days a week
and fasting for two days. The fasting days are not strictly days with no food. The idea is to
consume 25 percent—or even less—of a normal day’s Calories.
With 2,000 Calories for a normal day, this means eating just 500 Calories or less on fasted
days. The fasted days should not be consecutive, and this eating plan does not restrict types of
food. The simplicity of the diet makes it easy for most people to maintain. Over the course of a
week, it is possible to reduce calorie intake by about 3,000 Calories, or one pound of bodyfat.
The 16/8 Diet
The 16/8 method involves abstaining from food entirely for 16 consecutive hours per day and
eating only during an eight-hour window each day. The eight hours should align with the most
active hours of the day to avoid fatigue.
FASTING:
Abstaining from consuming
food for a period of time.
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Figure 14.12 16/8 Fasting
For example, for an adult who gets up at 7:00 a.m., works from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., works
out at 6:00 p.m. and goes to bed at 11:00 p.m., a good time for the eight-hour eating window
is between 10:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. There are no food requirements, but as with the 5/2
plan, the diet should be balanced and healthful.
Both of these popular versions of intermittent fasting work by reducing the overall Calories
consumed and encouraging healthy eating habits. This type of dieting works best for those
clients who are able to eat a normal or recommended amount of Calories most of the time.
Studies have shown that fasting not only helps people consume fewer Calories but also leads
to moderate weight loss, less muscle wasting, decreased serum leptin and blood levels of
triglycerides, and increased LDL cholesterol.
Intermittent fasting isn’t for everyone. For some clients, it may be too difficult to restrict
Calories during fasting periods or to avoid food entirely for 16 hours. The struggle can lead to
an unhealthy relationship with food and eating and even binge eating. For those who are able
to abstain with minimal side effects or distress, intermittent fasting can have positive benefits.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
CARB CYCLING
Carb cycling is another dietary approach that focuses on timing. It involves making targeted
reductions and increases to carb intake on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis.
This style of diet is often used by fitness and bodybuilding competitors. It may also appeal
to people trying to lose fat, bust a weight loss plateau, or maintain a high level of physical
performance while dieting. The frequency and duration of cycling carbohydrates depend
on activity level. In general, carb intake is reduced or cut during low-activity periods and
increased during performance and high-activity periods.
There are several situations in which carb cycling can be useful. It’s possible to drop carbs
for a period of time, for instance, to reach the desired bodyfat percentage. From there, carbs
are slowly reintroduced. Bodybuilders and figure competitors use this strategy. Endurance
and strength athletes often increase carb intake ahead of a competition or race to ensure
adequate and even excess glycogen stores. For general fitness enthusiasts, an easy way to
carb cycle is to keep to a lower carb diet during the work week and increase carbs on off days.
Athletes will cycle according to training and activities, adding more carbs on heavy workout
days and less on low-intensity or rest days.
When carbs are added back into the diet after an extended phase of dieting (for example, a
week or longer), this is called a refeed. This decreases the hormone leptin to help reduce the
feelings of hunger and boost the resting metabolic rate, which can be downregulated with
prolonged low-Calorie intake.
There are few good studies on carb cycling because it is a style of eating with a lot of
individual variety. However, research on low carbohydrate intake suggests it may improve
insulin sensitivity and promote the use of fat as fuel. Much of the feedback on carb cycling is
based on personal experiences and anecdotal evidence. Risks of carb cycling are like those
for low-carbohydrate diets during periods of low or minimal intake. The refeed period may turn
into an unhealthy binge.
CARB CYCLING:
increasing and reducing
carb intake on a daily,
weekly, or monthly basis.
REFEED:
Reintroducing
carbohydrates into the diet
after an extended reduction
of a week or more.
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LIMITING FACTORS FOR NUTRITIONAL CONSISTENCY
There are many choices a client may make that keep them from seeing results or success.
When related to nutrition, these are known as nutritional limiting factors, and they can include:
• Overeating processed foods
• Not eating enough protein
• Not eating enough vegetables
• Eating too much too quickly
• Eating without being hungry
• Not eating when they feel hungry
• Skipping meals
• Consuming too many sugar-sweetened beverages
• Poor sleep and recovery
• Using food to manage emotional stresses
• Lack of basic food preparation skills
Once a client ensures they are making the right nutritional selections, the amount of food and
macronutrient breakdown of their food can be addressed to ensure they are supporting their
health and fitness goals. In a nutritional coaching program that stays within the scope of a
personal trainer, clients may receive resources like handbooks, websites, databases of food
facts, spreadsheets for logging, and help when planning meals. However, optimal nutrition
is more than just counting calories. In fact, Calorie counting is not very accurate since it
depends on the person reporting the intake and can be affected by things like differences in
food preparation and labeling accuracy.
PORTION SIZES
Personal trainers can help clients easily establish how much food they should be consuming
using their own hand as the measuring device.
• Protein portions should be about the size of the palm of the hands
• A portion of vegetables should be about the same size as a fist
• A cupped hand is a serving of carbohydrates
• A fat portion should be about the size of a thumb
NUTRITIONAL
LIMITING FACTORS:
The nutritional choices a
client makes that keep
them from making progress
or seeing results.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
The hand is a helpful portion size tool for several reasons. First, the hands are portable.
Second, they are scaled to the size of the person. Larger people need more food and tend to
have larger hands, while a smaller person likely needs less food and has smaller hands. Third,
someone can control their intake by not counting Calories directly but controlling their portions.
Assuming clients eat about four meals a day, the following details a good starting point for
most clients:
Table 14.12 Approximate Portion Sizes Per Meal By Sex
MALES—FOR EACH MEAL
2 palms of protein-dense food
2 fists of vegetables
2 cupped handfuls of carbohydrates
2 thumbs of fat-dense foods
FEMALES—FOR EACH MEAL
1 palm of protein-dense food
1 fist of vegetables
1 cupped handful of carbohydrates
1 thumb of fat-dense foods
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CALORIE CONTROL: A SIMPLE GUIDE
For Men
Calorie counting is often complicated, tedious, and inaccurate. So here is an easier way to
control Calories. No weight-scales or measuring cups. No calculators or smart phones. Just
the ability to count to two. And your hand. To build your meals:
2 palm portions of protein dense foods
with each meal
2 fists of vegetables with each meal
2 cupped handfuls of carb dense foods
with each meal
2 entire thumbs of fat dense foods with
most meals
Note: Your hand size is related to your body size, making it an excellent portable and
personalized way to measure and track food intake.
Also note: Just like any other form of nutrition planning, this guide serves as a starting point.
Stay flexible and adjust your portions based on hunger, fullness, and other important goals.
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CHAPTER 14 | NUTRITION FOUNDATIONS
CALORIE CONTROL: A SIMPLE GUIDE
For Women
Calorie counting is often complicated, tedious, and inaccurate. So, here is an easier way
to control Calories. No weigh-scales or measuring cups. No calculators or smart phones.
Just the ability to count to one. And your hand. To build your meals:
1 palm portion of protein dense
foods with each meal
1 fist of vegetables with each meal
1 cupped handful of carb dense foods
with each meal
1 entire thumb of fat dense foods
with most meals
Note: Your hand size is related to your body size, making it an excellent portable and
personalized way to measure and track food intake.
Also note: Just like any other form of nutrition planning, this guide serves as a starting
point. Stay flexible and adjust your portions based on hunger, fullness, and other
important goals.
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IDEAL STARTER PLATE
• Eat slowly and stop eating when you’re 80% full.
• Follow hunger cues. Eat more or less based on your apppetite.
• Choose mostly whole foods with minimal processing.
• Choose local or organic foods when possible.
• Use smaller or larger plates based on your own body size.
Note: Just like any other form of nutrition planning, this guide serves as a starting point. Stay
flexible and adjust your portions based on hunger, fullness, and other important goals.