Objectives:
• Know about the growth of education through different ages.
• Understand the limitations and strengths of the past systems of education.
• Appreciate the growth of education in terms of its ability to reach the masses; and
• Develop awareness about the recent trends that have led to the educational scenario.

Introduction:
In this unit, we will look at how education in India has grown and expanded. Growth means an increase
in quality, while expansion refers to the increase in the number of people and subjects in education.
However, these two processes—growth and expansion—are closely connected, so it can be hard to
separate them clearly.

In the first part of this unit, we will focus on the growth of education. We will start from the Vedic
period and see how education developed through the Buddhist, Mughal, and British periods, finally
reaching the time after India gained independence. We will learn how formal education began and the
major changes it went through to become what it is today.

When we talk about the expansion of education, we will look at how our education system has grown
to include millions of students. We will also talk about the increase in schools and colleges, as well as

the introduction of new subjects and courses. This expansion has mainly happened because of the fast-
changing social and economic conditions in modern India, especially after independence.

Growth of Education: A Historical Overview
Education has been a part of human life since the beginning of human history. From the early days of
human evolution, people started learning in different ways. Skills related to basic needs, like gathering
food, hunting, making clothes, creating tools, and protecting themselves, were passed down from one
generation to the next. This type of education was informal, but it still had specific goals. These goals
were to meet immediate needs, such as satisfying hunger, and to improve the quality of life. As
civilizations grew, people realized the importance of formal education for personal and social
development. Over time, education became organized and formalized.
Education has not stayed the same over time; it has gone through many changes. We can say that
education has developed throughout history. In India, education dates back to ancient times, starting
with the Indus Valley Civilization. After that, it evolved through different periods, such as the Vedic
period, the medieval era, and the Mughal period. During British rule, education was held back for about

200 years. However, after India gained independence, education expanded rapidly, much faster than in
the past. This fast growth of education, especially after independence, is something we are deeply

concerned with today. Therefore, the development of education has been discussed from the pre-
independence to post-independence periods.

The period after independence, which has seen the rapid growth of education, covers only 58 years. In
contrast, the time before independence stretches back thousands of years. The growth of education
throughout history will be studied across different periods, including the Vedic period, medieval period,
Mughal period, and finally, the British period.

Let’s first look at the education system during the Vedic period. There is some disagreement about the
exact dates of this period, but it is believed to have lasted from around 1500 to 500 BC. The Vedic
period made significant contributions to the growth of knowledge and placed great importance on
learning. In the early part of this period, education was not limited to men—women also had equal
opportunities to learn. Female scholars like Vishvarava, Atreyi, Maitreyi, Gargi, Lopamudra, and others
are proof of this. However, later in the period, education for women became less common.
During this period, education began to take on a formal structure. Learning was provided at centers
called gurukuls, ashrams, and parishads. Young students would leave their homes to live with their guru
(teacher) and his family in these residential schools. Education lasted for many years, and it started with
a special initiation ceremony called upanayan. The goal of education at this time was to achieve
salvation and to develop students in a balanced way—focusing on their moral, intellectual, social, and
cultural growth (Singh, 1992). Places like Taxila, Patliputra, and Varanasi became famous centers of
learning. Teachers were highly respected for their knowledge and skills, both in theory and practice,
and were admired for their integrity.
Teachers were experts in both theory and practice and were highly respected for their knowledge and
integrity. They were seen as role models of learning, character, morality, righteousness, and nobility,
and were even considered representatives of God. Teachers were fully responsible for their students’
education and overall well-being. Although the concept of gurudakshina (fees) existed, teachers did not
teach for money but saw it as their sacred duty. Teaching was not considered a profession but a
responsibility toward society.
Students were expected to work hard, avoid luxuries, live a simple and disciplined life, and be obedient
to their teachers. They also helped with work at the teacher’s home as part of their learning experience
during this period. This helped students become not only educated but also skilled in handling everyday
tasks.
The curriculum during this period was broad and varied, including subjects like mathematics,
languages, grammar, literature, warfare for warriors (Kshatriyas), administration, scriptures, astrology,
astronomy, and more. There was a strong focus on character development. As noted by Singh (1992),
education aimed at moral development, spiritual awareness, and humanity, with salvation as the ultimate
goal. Strict rules were in place to guide the behavior of students, covering hygiene, morality, and
religious duties. After the initiation ceremony, students would wear a sacred thread and spend fourteen
years away from home, living in seclusion at an ashram or gurukul (James and Mayhew, 1988).
Teaching and learning were mainly done through oral activities. Listening, thinking, internalizing, and
reciting were emphasized over reading and writing (Sharma, 1992). Even Sanskrit, the popular language
at the time, has its roots in an oral tradition, which led to the creation of the holy texts of the Vedic era.

Panini developed Sanskrit grammar, and since then, many literary works were created, including the
shastras, epics, lyric poetry, and stylized drama (Academic American Encyclopedia, 1983).
During this period, education was not available to everyone, but only to the elites of society. Only
members of the upper castes, like the Kshatriyas and Brahmins, had access to education. Women's
education also did not get enough attention. The entire education system was controlled by the
Brahmins. For other classes, education was informal, unorganized, and often ignored. This was a
weakness of the education system at the time. However, the scholarly work produced during this period
was so valuable that it became recognized as classic. Another key feature was that students were treated
like part of the teacher's family. Although the concept of gurudakshina (fees) existed, knowledge was
considered too sacred to be bought or sold for profit.

Buddhist Period:
Around the 6th century BC, the strict Vedic rituals and sacrifices, along with the dominance of Brahmins
over lower castes, led to dissatisfaction among the masses (Encyclopaedia Britannica Online). Gautam
Buddha, the great religious leader and social reformer, preached non-violence and social equality. He
advocated for a casteless society. As a result, the social discrimination in education from the Vedic
period was challenged, marking the first attempt to provide education to the masses.
During the Buddhist period, education became more organized, with famous institutions like
Takshashila and Nalanda flourishing. These institutions attracted students from different countries.
Young children were admitted for a set period, similar to modern-day schooling.
At this time, sanghs emerged as centers of religious instruction. Eventually, these sanghs became
educational centers, replacing the gurukuls and ashrams of the Vedic period with organized monasteries.
These institutions were similar to modern universities. Entrance tests were common, and only those
who passed were allowed to study. The number of students was large, with thousands of students and
teachers in attendance. This was a significant improvement from the individual and exclusive education
system of the Vedic period. Buddhist educational institutions were open to all sections of society,
making them more inclusive and promoting collective participation.
To make education more accessible to common people, who struggled with the complexities of Sanskrit,
the commonly used languages Pali and Prakrit were introduced. Although there were differences
between the education systems of the Vedic and Buddhist periods, the curriculum in the Buddhist period
still followed many aspects of the Vedic system. Religion was a major focus in monasteries, but the
curriculum also included subjects like theology, philosophy, literature, astronomy, and administration.
Professional studies, such as medicine and surgery, were also offered (Sharma, 1992).
Education started to become a paid service, with students required to pay fees. Like in the Vedic period,
students were expected to remain celibate and show full respect and obedience to their teachers. In the
Buddhist period, monks at the monasteries were responsible for teaching. These monks were celibate
and dedicated their time to prayer, meditation, and studies (Academic American Encyclopedia, 1983).
Huen Tsang, as quoted by Sharma (1992), noted that thousands of talented and respected priests
followed moral laws and spent their time discussing important topics. Teachers were highly respected
in society, just as they were in the Vedic period.
During the Buddhist period, there were initial efforts to make education available to the masses, with a
focus on social equality. However, women's education was still neglected, and men continued to
dominate the educational scene. Buddhism eventually became more popular abroad, while in India, the
period of significant advancement in various fields occurred during the Gupta dynasty and its
successors, from the 4th century AD to the late 8th century. This era saw great progress in science,

mathematics, astronomy, art, literature, and more, supported by royal patronage (Encyclopaedia
Britannica Online).

Medieval Period:
The medieval period in India began around the 12th century AD. During this time, repeated invasions
by Muslim forces led to the establishment of Islam in India. The constant invasions and political
instability negatively impacted the existing education system, causing significant changes.
New educational institutions called Madrasas and Makhtabs were established. Madrasas (meaning
'schools' in Arabic) were centers for higher learning that focused on studying the Quran, hadith
(teachings of the Prophet Muhammad), Arabic grammar, logic, and languages. They also emphasized
the study of Islamic law. Makhtabs were elementary schools that taught children to read religious texts
and provided basic education in writing and grammar (Srivastava, 1989). Teaching in both madrasas
and Makhtabs was mainly oral, with a strong focus on memorizing Islamic texts. Wealthy individuals
funded these institutions.
Education during this period was heavily influenced by religious considerations. The curriculum had a
strong theological focus, reflecting the interests of the rulers and the religious scholars (ulema) who
controlled the educational system. Although the aim was to reduce illiteracy and advance knowledge,
the education system became centered on theology, producing many experts in Islamic law and
administration (Srivastava, 1989).
In medieval India, poets, scholars, and philosophers were highly respected and supported by rulers, and
some even came from abroad. During the reigns of Firoz Shah Tughlaq and Sikandar Lodi, there was a
special emphasis on education, and well-known madrasas were established as centers of higher learning.
The Mughal period began in the early 16th century with Babur as the first Mughal emperor and lasted
until the mid-19th century. Mughal emperors were also interested in education and supported scholars
and educational institutions.
Akbar, in particular, is credited with organizing education systematically. He opened many schools and
higher learning institutions for both Hindus and Muslims, introducing curricular reforms. The
curriculum included theology, science, history, geometry, and mathematics. Akbar also established
schools for Hindu subjects where Sanskrit, its grammar, Vedanta, and literature were taught. He
emphasized moral education as well. Many Hindus attended Islamic educational centers to learn
Persian, which was used for legal matters. Aurangzeb also supported education by opening madrasas
and makhtabs and providing scholarships to deserving students (Singh, 1992).

Expansion of Education during the Mughal Period:
During the Mughal period, art and architecture thrived, and calligraphy was an important part of the
curriculum. Education was provided for free, so people from all classes of society could benefit from
it. Respect for teachers and learned individuals continued, just as it had in earlier periods.
Educational institutions for Hindus continued to exist and even grew. They taught subjects like Sanskrit,
literature, and mathematics. Cities like Varanasi, Mithila, and Mathura became important centers of
higher learning for Hindus.
However, education for women was still limited and mostly available only to those from higher social
classes. Women from wealthy Hindu and Muslim families received education at home through tutors
hired by their families.

During the Mughal period, even though education flourished and reached its peak, it was not seen as a
tool for national development. When the Mughal Empire fell, the education system also declined.
Advances in science and literature among both Hindus and Muslims slowed down. The period became
marked by chaos and conflict, especially after the British took control of Bengal and turned India into
a colony. The end of the Mughal Empire saw treachery and power struggles, starting with the death of
Aurangzeb. By the late 18th century, education lost its strength (James and Mayhew, 1988).
What remained were local educational systems with tols (Hindu schools) and madrasas (Islamic
schools), but these institutions were often poorly equipped and usually held in open areas. A significant
change was that teaching was no longer exclusively done by Brahmins. In places like Bengal, members
of other upper castes also taught Hindu children. However, in higher education institutions, Brahmins
still dominated as teachers. Education mainly focused on studying texts rather than scientific research
or experimentation. Since Persian was the language of the court, many Hindu boys also learned it.
Subjects taught included mathematics, grammar, literature, religious texts, and languages, while
illiteracy remained widespread among lower castes (Basu, 1982).**

British Period:
The British period began in the mid-18th century as the Mughal Empire declined. European
missionaries arrived in India to spread Christianity, and they, along with the British, played a key role
in shaping education during this time.
Warren Hastings, the first Governor General of India, was the first to recognize that the government
should provide education. He founded the Calcutta Madrasa, which was the first educational institution
set up by the British. Jonathan Duncan later established a Sanskrit College in Benaras, and Mountstuart
Elphinstone opened a Hindu College in Poona. The British showed new interest in Indian literature,
sacred texts, and history, leading to the revival of Hindu and Arabic educational institutions (James and
Mayhew, 1988).
This support for traditional education continued until the early 19th century when different groups
began questioning the emphasis on Oriental education. They believed that Indian society needed reform
(Basu, 1982). Christian missionaries became more active in education, seeing it as a way to spread
Christianity and improve Indian society. Despite their missionary goals, their efforts also advanced
education. Schools and colleges were opened in places like Kolkata, Serampore, Chennai, and Mumbai.
During this time, many people from upper and middle classes in Bengal and elsewhere began to prefer
Western education. They saw it as more useful and modern compared to traditional schools. Social
reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy also supported Western education, especially in science, to
modernize India. He, along with others, established the Hindu College in Calcutta in 1817. In 1823,
when the first Committee on Public Instructions was formed, Roy argued against setting up a Sanskrit
school and instead called for a modern curriculum including subjects like mathematics and science.

Expansion and Growth:
In 1835, Macaulay's minutes laid the foundation for the modern education system in India, modeled
after the British system. Some criticize Macaulay for imposing a Western model and ignoring Indian
knowledge, accusing him of preparing Indians to be clerks for the British and dismissing Indian science
and literature as outdated. However, before Macaulay's reforms, missionaries had already established
schools and colleges offering modern education, and the Hindu College was already in place. Many
Indians, including Raja Ram Mohan Roy, were eager for Western education. Macaulay argued that
advancements from the West should be shared with Indians who wanted it (James and Mayhew, 1988).

Early 20th Century Education Reforms:
In 1910, Gopal Krishna Gokhale proposed the idea of free and compulsory primary education for all
children in India. Although this plan was not implemented at that time, its importance and relevance are
still recognized today. During this period, there was also a growing need for teacher training and adult
education.
In 1917, the Sadler Commission recommended increasing the number of trained teachers. The Central
Advisory Board of Education (CABE) was established in 1920 to advise the government on education
matters but was later dissolved and re-established in 1935. The CABE committee emphasized the need
for adult education and suggested involving voluntary organizations in this effort.
The Sargent Commission in 1944 stated that the government should take responsibility for adult
education. Indian leaders like Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi, Gijubhai Badheka, and Rabindranath
Tagore were actively involved in education. They founded schools based on philosophies that were
relevant to Indian needs and culture, while also updating the curriculum to meet modern demands.
During British rule, education was quite different from earlier times. Despite two hundred years of
British rule, literacy rates remained very low, especially among socially and economically
disadvantaged groups. Many students dropped out, and progression from one educational level to the
next was limited. Education was often disconnected from social and cultural needs and was seen as
serving the British regime's interests rather than the local population.
Raza (1991) noted that higher education was mainly concentrated in cities like Kolkata, Mumbai, and
Chennai, where the British had established ports, leaving other areas neglected. It is also argued that
promoting English education was more about benefiting the British government than genuinely
improving Indian education. English education was seen as a way to create a workforce familiar with
English and make Indians feel connected to the British.
Despite these issues, there were some positive changes. The goal of education and the curriculum
became more practical and aligned with modern times. There were changes in school curriculums,
expansion of education types, and new concepts like teacher education, mass education, and adult
education emerged. The foundations of modern education were laid during this period, and there was
an effort to integrate Western advancements into the Indian education system.

Growth of Education After Independence:
When India gained independence, the education system it inherited from the British had serious
problems. Literacy rates were very low, retention was poor, and educational opportunities were limited,
especially for marginalized groups and women. To transform the nation and improve education, several
key actions were needed: expanding access to education, tackling illiteracy, introducing vocational
training, and reforming the curriculum.
To address these challenges, various commissions and committees were set up. In 1948, the first
Education Commission of independent India, known as the University Education Commission, was
established to suggest reforms in higher education. This was followed by the Secondary Education
Commission in 1952, which aimed to improve secondary education.

In 1966, the Indian Education Commission, chaired by D.S. Kothari, produced a comprehensive report
covering all levels of education. This report laid out a plan for a unified national education system.
Based on these recommendations, the National Policy on Education (NPE) was created in 1968. By
1975, a uniform education pattern known as the 10+2+3 system was introduced across the country.
In 1977, under Dr. M.S. Adisheshaia, the National Review Committee examined the curriculum for the
+2 stage of school education and emphasized the need for vocational education. Later, in 1986, the NPE
was updated, and the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) developed a Programme of
Action to implement these changes. Operation Black Board was launched in 1985 to improve basic
facilities in primary schools.
In 1990, the Acharya Ramamurthy Committee reviewed and made further recommendations to
implement the updated NPE. Since independence, various other commissions and committees have also
worked to strengthen the education system and introduce effective reforms.

Growth of Education Through Constitutional Provisions:
When India became a republic in 1950, the Indian Constitution included several provisions for
education. Initially, education was managed by individual states. However, after the 42nd Amendment
in 1976, education became a shared responsibility between the central government and the states. This
means both levels of government can make laws about education, but the central government primarily
coordinates and oversees state education systems through the Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD).
The Constitution includes the right to education as a fundamental right. It initially required the state to
provide free and compulsory elementary education. This was later expanded to include early childhood
care and education. The Constitution also mandates that the state should support the educational needs
of disadvantaged groups, promote women's education, and protect the rights of linguistic and religious
minorities. Additionally, it requires that the primary education medium be the mother tongue.
To meet the goal of universal elementary education (UEE), various programs have been introduced.
The District Primary Education Programme was an early initiative, and the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan,
launched in 2000, is a significant effort to ensure universal education. Other programs like Janshala and
Shiksha Apke Dwaar, run by local governments and non-governmental organizations, also aim to
achieve this goal.

Growth of Literacy Rates:
Being able to read, write, and understand is crucial for personal empowerment and finding good jobs.
Illiteracy, or the inability to read and write, is a major barrier to social and economic progress. During
the British rule, there was some recognition of the need for mass education, but not much was achieved.
After India gained independence, the literacy rate was very low. In 1951, only 18.33% of people could
read and write, and just 8.86% of women were literate. It was clear that improving literacy was essential
for raising awareness about rights and duties and controlling population growth.
To tackle this, a campaign was launched to provide education to all, especially the underprivileged.
Given India's large population, remote areas, and years of neglect, improving literacy was a huge
challenge. The National Literacy Mission was established in 1988 to focus on adult education.
By 1991, the literacy rate had increased to just over 52%. By 2001, it had risen to 65.38%, showing a
13% improvement over the decade. Female literacy also improved significantly, from 39.42% in 1991

to 53.7% in 2001. Additionally, the gap in literacy rates between rural and urban areas narrowed from
31% in 1991 to 21.7% in 2001.
Since India gained independence, education has grown significantly compared to the British period.
However, literacy, which means being able to read, write, and understand, is just the first step. While
it's an important achievement, it's only a small part of the broader goal of education. To make progress,
we must first eliminate illiteracy.
Despite efforts to improve literacy, achieving Universal Elementary Education (UEE) remains a
challenge. Deadlines for reaching UEE have been missed, largely due to the high dropout rates in
primary schools. Even though many children are enrolled in school, many drop out before completing
their education. For example, while about 97% of children are enrolled in grades I-V, 36.3% drop out.
The dropout rate is even higher, at 53%, for grades V-VIII.
The situation is worse for children from backward communities and for girls. These factors contribute
to the slow progress in education, making it difficult to reach UEE goals.

Expansion of education:
Education has grown significantly since independence, and this growth is closely linked to expanding
access to education. In the past, education was mainly for the elite, but now there is a focus on making
it available to everyone. This means creating more opportunities for all sections of society, including
women and backward communities.
Efforts are being made to increase enrollment at all levels of education, and educational facilities are
being expanded. New methods for delivering education are also being explored to reach more people.
Additionally, the range of educational options is broadening to meet changing social needs and the
growing body of knowledge.
In summary, education is becoming more accessible and varied to better serve the entire population.

Expansion of Education in Terms of Enrolment:
Since 1951, education in India has grown significantly. Back then, the population was 36 crores, and
the literacy rate was just 18%, showing limited access to education. Today, with the population more
than tripled, the literacy rate has increased to over 65%, indicating broader access to education.
In 1951, only 27% of males and 8.86% of females were literate. Now, about 75% of males and 53% of
females are literate. Enrollment numbers have also risen dramatically.
Lower Primary Level: Enrollment is about 109 million children.
Upper Primary Level: Enrollment is about 40 million children.
There are around 1.705 million teachers at the lower primary level and 1.082 million at the upper
primary level.
In 1951, there were about 19.2 million children enrolled in primary education. This number has grown
by about 5.75 times since then. For girls, enrollment increased ninefold by 1996-97. At the upper
primary level, enrollment increased about 13 times since 1951, with girls seeing a 32-fold increase. At
secondary and senior secondary levels, enrollment grew 21 times overall and 49 times for girls.
The gross enrollment ratio at the primary level was 42.6% in 1950-51 and rose to 95.4% by 2002-03.
Today, elementary education in India, with 149.4 million children aged 6-14 years and 2.9 million

teachers, is the second largest in the world. These numbers reflect significant progress and inclusiveness
in education.

Development of Women's Education:
As mentioned earlier even during the colonial period women's education was greatly neglected. Since
independence greater attention has been paid to this and enrolment of women at all stages of education
has been increasing steadily through the years. Since 1950-51 enrolment of girls has increased many
fold in Primary, Middle, Sec./Hr.Sec stages and Hr. Education levels frorn 28.1% to 44.1%, froml6.1%
to 41.8%, from 13.30% to 39.5%, and from 10.0% to 39.9% respectively.
Expanding education can't be complete or fair if women's education is overlooked. Today, there are
many women's colleges and some universities dedicated to women. In 1950-51, there were only 14
women enrolled in higher education for every 100 men. Now, this ratio has increased to about 46 women
per 100 men. However, women's participation is still below 50% at all education levels. Women's
literacy rate of 53% is also lower than men's rate of 75%. On average, girls spend fewer years in school
compared to boys, and this situation is even more severe for women from disadvantaged or rural
backgrounds.
Additionally, fewer girls enroll in higher secondary education and above in science and technology
courses, with most opting for humanities. While the female literacy rate has grown from 14% in 1951
to 53% now, it has taken about 50 years. With ongoing efforts like the Mahila Samakhya Project, which
focuses on education for women in rural areas, and other initiatives by the government and NGOs, we
can expect women's literacy to reach 100% in a much shorter time.
Despite the growth of educational institutions at various levels, the expanded system still can't reach
everyone who wants an education. Many people are still left out. To address this, alternative forms of
education have been developed. Distance education and non-formal education are important alternatives
that help expand access to learning. These methods work alongside the traditional education system to
reach more people.

Distance Education:
Distance education has come a long way since the first correspondence courses were offered by Delhi
University. The journey began with the opening of the first Open University in Andhra Pradesh in 1982.
By 1985, the Indira Gandhi National Open University was established, and today there are around a
dozen state open universities across India.
In addition to institutions dedicated to distance education, many universities and academic institutions
now offer both face-to-face and distance learning options. For instance, the National Open School
provides education at the school level.
These distance learning institutions play a crucial role in making education accessible to millions who
might not be able to attend traditional schools or universities. The flexibility of distance education,
including the ability to learn at one's own pace and on one's own schedule, has made it increasingly
popular.
Distance education has grown to include a wide range of subjects, including professional courses in
fields like science, engineering, medicine, and teacher training. The system's ability to accommodate a
large number of students and provide practical training through regional and study centers has been a
significant factor in its success.

Non-Formal Education:
Non-Formal Education (NFE) includes organized educational activities that occur outside the
traditional school system. It is designed for those who can't or didn't attend formal schools, including
school dropouts and people already working who want to improve their skills. NFE also aims to raise
awareness about important social issues, such as AIDS.
NFE uses various methods to reach people, including radio, television, audio and video recordings, and
toll-free phone lines. It has expanded from rural areas to urban slums, hilly regions, deserts, and tribal
areas. The central government supports state governments in running NFE centers.
The National Policy on Education, 1986, highlighted the importance of NFE for school dropouts, girls
who missed school, and others who lack regular educational opportunities. NFE programs often focus

on raising awareness, improving literacy, and enhancing job skills. Both government and non-
government organizations provide NFE, and even formal educational institutions sometimes offer non-
formal education through programs for farmers, teachers, and others.

Diversification of Educational Streams:
Education in our country has grown significantly since before independence. It now includes a larger
percentage of students and offers more educational facilities. Another important aspect of this growth
is the diversification of educational streams, which means branching out into new and specialized areas.
In ancient times, education focused mainly on religious texts, literature, grammar, and mathematics.
During the Muslim rule, the curriculum expanded to include Persian, as it was the court language. With
British rule, Western education introduced subjects like science and social sciences, and English became
widely studied.
After independence, the curriculum included the study of India's freedom struggle. Vocational education
also began to add new areas of study. Over the past few decades, education has continued to evolve to
meet changing socio-economic needs and new technologies. For example, as industries grew, studies in
technology and management became popular. Management education now includes specialized areas
such as education management, hospital management, and hotel management.
The rise of computers and information technology has created new fields of study related to computer
sciences and IT. New areas like space exploration, oceanography, and genetic engineering have also
emerged. Environmental education, peace education, and population education are other examples of
new fields responding to current needs.
Education today covers a wider range of disciplines than ever before, driven by both the growing
knowledge base and rapid technological advancements. This makes the scope of education broader and
more diverse.

Educational Policies:
Educational policies in India are shaped by the Constitution and are created and revised by various
government agencies. The Constitution, which started in 1950, sets the foundation for these policies.
Central and state governments both create educational policies. Central government policies apply
nationwide and take precedence if there are conflicts with state policies. These national policies play a
crucial role in defining the educational system and guiding how education is administered.

As society and global conditions change, educational policies also evolve. The Constitution and policies
are updated to reflect new social, economic, and cultural realities. This means that educational policies
are adaptable and respond to current needs and challenges.
Policies can be made in various forms, such as Resolutions, Schemes, and Guidelines, depending on
specific needs. These policies reflect the government's and society's current views on education and
help address existing educational issues.

Educational Policies:
Educational policies in India come from both the Constitution and various laws. Here are some key
laws related to education:

1. University Grants Commission Act, 1956: This law set up the University Grants Commission
(UGC) to oversee universities and address important issues related to their functioning.

2. All India Council for Technical Education Act, 1987: This law created the All India Council for
Technical Education to improve and coordinate technical education across India.

3. National Council for Teacher Education Act, 1993: This law established the National Council
for Teacher Education to manage teacher training and set standards in teacher education.

4. National Council for Minority Educational Institutions Act, 2004: This law regulates
educational institutions run by minorities in India.

5. Copyright Act, 1957: This law deals with copyright issues related to literary, artistic, and other
works.

6. Apprentices Act, 1961: This law governs the training of apprentices.

7. Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995: This law ensures equal opportunities and full participation
for people with disabilities.

National Policies on Education:
Since India gained independence, there have been two major National Policies on Education:

1. National Policy on Education, 1968 (NPE 1968): This policy aimed to improve education by
implementing the 10+2+3 system and focusing on various aspects like teacher status and equal
educational opportunities.

2. National Policy on Education, 1986 (NPE 1986): Building on NPE 1968, this policy addressed
issues like access and quality of education, especially in rural areas. It emphasized education
as crucial for national development and social equality.

3. Programme of Action (POA), 1992: This was developed to implement NPE 1986 and provided
guidelines for states to follow.

Key Aspects of NPE 1986:
1. Essence and Role of Education: Education is seen as vital for both personal and national
development. It helps build a cohesive and democratic society and supports socialism and
secularism.

2. National System of Education: This policy aimed for equal access to quality education for all
students, regardless of their background.

3. Education for Equality: The policy focused on reducing disparities by providing special support
to women, Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and other marginalized groups. It
also aimed to integrate people with disabilities into the mainstream education system.
Overall, these policies reflect a commitment to improving educational access, quality, and equality in
India.

Reorganization of Education at Different Stages in India:
1. Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE):
2. Focus: Investment in the well-being of young children, especially those from first-generation
learners.
3. Holistic Development: Programs aim to support children's nutrition, health, and overall
development—social, mental, physical, moral, and emotional.
4. Integration: ECCE will be combined with the Integrated Child Development Services program
when possible.
Elementary Education:
• Goals: Ensure every child is enrolled and stays in school until age 14, and improve the quality
of education.
• Approach: Create a welcoming and supportive environment to motivate children to learn.
• Facilities: Provide necessary resources to primary schools, expand Operation Blackboard to
improve infrastructure, and increase the number of teachers.

Secondary Education:
Access: Increase access to secondary education, especially for girls, SCs, and STs, with a focus on
science, commerce, and vocational streams.
Reorganization: Grant more autonomy to Boards of Secondary Education to improve quality.
Computer Literacy: Introduce computer skills at the secondary level to prepare students for the
technological world.
Pacesetting schools:
Purpose: Set up schools for children with special talents to help them reach their potential, including
providing free education if needed.

Vocational Education:
Objective: Implement well-planned vocational education programs to enhance employability and
address the gap between demand and supply of skilled workers. Offer an alternative to those not
pursuing higher education.

Higher Education:
Role: Contribute to national development by providing specialized knowledge and skills, and produce
teachers for the education system. Higher education must adapt to the explosion of knowledge and
prevent degradation.

Open University and Distance Learning:
Expansion: Strengthen open universities and distance learning to increase access to higher education
and make learning a lifelong process.
Flexibility: The open learning system caters to diverse needs, including vocational education. The Indira
Gandhi National Open University, established in 1985, will be enhanced, and more state open
universities and National Open Schools will be set up to extend facilities across the country.

Conclusion:
Education is constantly evolving to meet the needs of different times. It has grown and changed based
on social and economic demands and the prevailing philosophies of each era.
In Vedic times, education was mainly for the elite and took place in ashrams and gurukuls. The focus
was on religious texts, literature, grammar, and mathematics. Students lived with their teachers, forming
close relationships and leading disciplined lives.
During the Buddhist period, education expanded to include students from various social backgrounds
and became more institutionalized in monasteries. However, the curriculum still followed the Vedic
tradition.

In the medieval period, education shifted to madrasas and makhtabs, where students learned religious
texts, jurisprudence, and Persian. The British period introduced Western education with a focus on
science and English, and women's education began to improve.
After India gained independence, efforts were made to strengthen the education system. Enrollment
rates were low, dropout rates were high, and there was a significant need to improve education for
women and marginalized communities. Various commissions and committees were established to
address these issues, and policies were developed to enhance education.
The Indian Constitution also includes provisions to support education, especially for marginalized
groups such as women and backward communities. Since independence, education has expanded in
terms of student enrollment, including women and other marginalized groups, and the number of
educational facilities. The curriculum has diversified to respond to changing socio-economic conditions
and advancements in knowledge.
Overall, education in India has grown significantly, with improvements in access, inclusion, and the
range of subjects offered.  make short and long question answer out of this