now again continue detailed study material proceed to the Early Medieval Period, focusing on regional kingdoms like the Cholas, Pallavas, and others! use this also The Delhi Sultanate
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Major Dynasties:
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Slave Dynasty (Mamluk Dynasty) (1206-1290 AD): They contributed to Mamluk architecture and were known as early Turkish rulers because the founders, like Qutubuddin Aibak, were slaves of Muhammad Ghori.
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Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD)
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Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD)
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Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 AD)
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Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD): The last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
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Prominent Rulers and their contributions:
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Qutubuddin Aibak (Slave Dynasty): Founder of the Slave Dynasty; initiated the construction of the Qutub Minar in Delhi in memory of the Sufi saint Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki; died playing polo.
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Iltutmish (Slave Dynasty): Consolidated the sultanate; shifted the capital from Lahore to Delhi; introduced the silver tanka and copper jital coins; implemented the chalisa system, a group of 40 powerful Turkish nobles.
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Razia Sultan (Slave Dynasty): The first and only female Muslim ruler of the Delhi Sultanate; faced resistance from Turkish nobles; murdered in 1240 AD.
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Ghiyasuddin Balban (Slave Dynasty): Established a strong central authority; introduced the sijda (prostration) and paibos (kissing the feet) system of courtly etiquette to enhance the king's authority; suppressed rebellions; claimed descent from Afrasiyab, a legendary king, to legitimize his rule.
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Jalaluddin Khilji (Khilji Dynasty): Founder of the Khilji dynasty.
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Alauddin Khilji (Khilji Dynasty): Known for military conquests and ambitious administrative and market reforms; conquered parts of South India with the help of his general Malik Kafur; built the Alai Darwaza, a gateway at the Qutub Minar complex; established the second city of Delhi, Siri, as a garrison town; implemented a system of price control; introduced three types of taxes: kharaj (land revenue), gharai (house tax), and charai (grazing tax).
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Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (Tughlaq Dynasty): Founder of the Tughlaq dynasty; his original name was Ghazi Malik.
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Mohammad bin Tughlaq (Tughlaq Dynasty): Known for his ambitious but often unsuccessful administrative experiments: introduced token currency; shifted the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri), and back; established the Diwan-i-Kohi department to promote agriculture. He also appointed people from low backgrounds to higher positions, earning him the title of "wisest fool."
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Firoz Shah Tughlaq (Tughlaq Dynasty): Known for his public works, including canals, hospitals, and mosques; patronized learning; established Firozabad, Fatehabad, and Jaunpur cities; made the Iqtadari system hereditary.
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Key Administrative Systems and Terms:
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Jaziya: A tax levied on non-Muslims.
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Iqtadari System: A system of land grants given to officials (iqtadars or muqtis) in return for military service. They were responsible for collecting revenue and maintaining a military force. This system was later modified and adopted by the Mughals.
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Daag and Hulia: A system implemented by Alauddin Khilji that involved branding horses and maintaining records of soldiers to prevent fraud and ensure accurate payment.
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Sijda and Paibos: A system of courtly etiquette introduced by Ghiyasuddin Balban, requiring individuals to prostrate (sijda) and kiss the ruler's feet (paibos) as a sign of submission.
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Turk-i-Chahalgani: A group of 40 powerful Turkish nobles formed by Iltutmish to advise the Sultan. This group often wielded considerable power and influence.
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Important Chronicles and Historians:
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Minhaj-i-Siraj: Chronicler during the reign of Iltutmish; wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, which provides information about Razia Sultan's reign.
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Ziauddin Barani: Wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, a chronicle about the reigns of Firoz Shah Tughlaq and Mohammad bin Tughlaq.
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Amir Khusrau: A poet, musician, and scholar; known as the "Parrot of India"; served under several rulers, including Alauddin Khilji.
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Architecture:
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Qutub Minar: Construction started by Qutubuddin Aibak and completed by Iltutmish. Later, Firoz Shah Tughlaq repaired the top floor after it was damaged by lightning. It has five storeys.
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Alai Darwaza: A gateway at the Qutub Minar complex, built by Alauddin Khilji.
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Tughlaqabad: A fortified city built by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
The Chola Empire (c. 9th - 13th centuries)
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Important Rulers:
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Vijayalaya: Established the Chola empire by capturing the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar, who were subordinates of the Pallavas.
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Aditya I: Expanded the Chola territory.
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Raja Raja I: A powerful ruler known for his military conquests and the construction of the Brihadeshwara Temple (also known as Rajarajeswara Temple) at Thanjavur, a magnificent example of Chola architecture.
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Rajendra I: Expanded the empire to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia; earned the title "Gangai Konda Chola" (Chola who conquered the Ganges) after a successful campaign in North India; built the Gangai Konda Cholapuram temple, another masterpiece of Chola architecture.
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Administration and Society:
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Vetti: A tax levied in the form of forced labor.
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Land Revenue: The main source of income for the state. Kadmai was a tax collected as land revenue.
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Settlements: Peasant settlements were known as ur. A collection of urs formed a nadu.
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Land Grants: Land granted to temples was called devadana; land donated to Brahmins was brahmadeya.
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Village Assemblies: Villages had assemblies to manage local affairs. Sabha was the assembly of Brahmins to administer brahmadeya lands. Ur was the assembly in villages without Brahmins.
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Art and Architecture:
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Known for their magnificent temple architecture, exemplified by the Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur and the Gangai Konda Cholapuram temple.
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The Chola bronze sculptures are also highly acclaimed for their artistry and craftsmanship.
The Rashtrakutas (c. 8th - 10th centuries)
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Notable for:
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Kailasa Temple at Ellora: A remarkable monolithic (carved from a single rock) temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, built by Krishna I. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646 AD)
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Founding:
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Founded in 1336 AD by Harihara and Bukka, former feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal.
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Dynasties:
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Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485 AD)
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Saluva Dynasty (1485-1505 AD)
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Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570 AD)
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Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1646 AD)
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Key Rulers:
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Deva Raya I (Sangama Dynasty): Defeated Firoz Shah Bahmani of the Bahmani Sultanate.
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Deva Raya II (Sangama Dynasty): The Italian traveler Niccolò de' Conti visited Vijayanagara during his reign.
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Krishna Deva Raya (Tuluva Dynasty): The most powerful and celebrated ruler of the empire; known for his military conquests, administrative reforms, and patronage of art and literature; earned titles like "Andhra Bhoja" and "Yavana Raja Sthapana Acharya"; wrote Amuktamalyada (a treatise on statecraft) in Telugu and Jambavati Kalyanam (a drama) in Sanskrit. The Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Duarte Barbosa visited Vijayanagara during his reign.
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Administration and Society:
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Rulers: Vijayanagara rulers were known as raya, meaning king.
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Amar Nayak System: Military commanders, known as Amar Nayaks, were granted land in return for maintaining troops and providing military service to the empire. This system later contributed to the rise of powerful regional chiefs.
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Temples:
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Virupaksha Temple at Hampi: Dedicated to Lord Shiva, built during the Vijayanagara period.
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Vitthala Temple: Dedicated to an aspect of Lord Vishnu.
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Architecture and Water Management:
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Vijayanagara is renowned for its impressive architecture, particularly its temples, palaces, and fortifications.
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Mahanavami Dibba: A massive platform used for royal ceremonies and celebrations.
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Lotus Mahal: An elegant palace structure.
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Elephant Stables: Large structures to house elephants.
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Step Tanks: A sophisticated system of interconnected tanks and canals used for irrigation and water supply.
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Hampi: The capital city, situated on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, a tributary of the Krishna River. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Bahmani Sultanate (1347-c. 1527)
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Founding:
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Established in 1347 by Alauddin Bahman Shah, also known as Hasan Gangu or Zafar Khan.
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Capital:
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Initially Gulbarga, later shifted to Bidar by Ahmad Shah Wali.
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Key Rulers:
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Firoz Shah Bahmani: Known for his cruelty, earning him the title "Zalim" (cruel).
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Ahmad Shah Wali: Shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar; defeated Deva Raya I of Vijayanagara but later lost to him and was forced to give his daughter in marriage.
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Humayun Shah Bahmani: Notorious for his cruelty and violence, known as "Humayun the Cruel."
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Disintegration:
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Broke up into five independent Deccan sultanates around the early 16th century:
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Ahmadnagar: Ruled by the Nizam Shahi dynasty.
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Bijapur: Ruled by the Adil Shahi dynasty.
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Golconda: Ruled by the Qutb Shahi dynasty.
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Bidar: Ruled by the Barid Shahi dynasty.
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Berar: Ruled by the Imad Shahi dynasty.
Mughal Empire (1526-1857)
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Founders and Early Rulers:
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Babur (Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur): Founder of the Mughal empire; defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526), marking the beginning of Mughal rule in India; wrote his autobiography, Baburnama, in Turki.
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Humayun: Babur's son; faced challenges and was briefly driven out of India by Sher Shah Suri; regained the throne in 1555 but died in 1556.
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Sher Shah Suri: Founder of the Sur dynasty; defeated Humayun and ruled Delhi from 1540 to 1555; known for his administrative reforms, including the introduction of a new currency and the construction of the Grand Trunk Road (GT Road); built numerous sarais (rest houses) along the GT Road.
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Akbar (Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar):
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Considered the greatest Mughal ruler; consolidated and expanded the empire; implemented a policy of religious tolerance (sulh-i-kul) and attempted to create a syncretic religion, Din-i-Ilahi; introduced the mansabdari system, a system of ranking officials based on their military responsibilities; commissioned the translation of Hindu texts into Persian, including the Mahabharata, which was translated as the Razmnama.
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Jahangir: Akbar's son; known for his love of art and justice; introduced the "Chain of Justice."
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Shah Jahan: Jahangir's son; known for his patronage of architecture, particularly the Taj Mahal, built in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal; constructed the Red Fort in Delhi, which houses the Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience) and Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience).
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Aurangzeb: Shah Jahan's son; known for his religious orthodoxy and expansionist policies; engaged in prolonged conflicts in the Deccan, including wars against the Marathas led by Shivaji; executed his brother Dara Shikoh and imprisoned his father Shah Jahan.
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Key Battles:
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First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi, establishing Mughal rule.
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Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Akbar's forces, led by Bairam Khan, defeat Hemu, solidifying Mughal control.
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Third Battle of Panipat (1761): A decisive battle between the Marathas and the Afghans led by Ahmad Shah Durrani. The Marathas were defeated, weakening their power.
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Key Terms and Concepts:
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Mansabdari System: Introduced by Akbar, it was a system of ranking officials based on their military responsibilities and the number of troops they maintained. Officials were assigned a mansab (rank) based on the number of cavalrymen ( sawar) and infantrymen ( j ut) they commanded.
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Zabt System: A land revenue system implemented by Akbar, also known as the Dahsala system, where land was assessed and revenue was fixed based on the average produce of the past ten years.
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Jagirdari System: A system where officials were granted land (jagirs) in return for service to the state.
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Sufism: A mystical branch of Islam that emphasized a personal experience of the divine. Sufi saints, known as pirs, played an important role in society, spreading their teachings and attracting followers.
Bhakti and Sufi Movements
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Bhakti Movement: A devotional movement that emphasized a personal relationship with God.
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Key Features:
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Emphasis on personal devotion ( bhakti) to a chosen deity.
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Rejection of rituals and caste hierarchy.
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Use of vernacular languages to spread teachings.
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Singing of devotional songs (bhajans and kirtans).
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Main Branches:
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Saguna Bhakti: Belief in God with form and attributes.
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Vaishnavism: Devotion to Lord Vishnu.
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Shaivism: Devotion to Lord Shiva.
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Nirguna Bhakti: Belief in a formless and transcendent God.
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Prominent Figures in the Bhakti Movement:
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Shankaracharya (8th century): Proponent of Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism), emphasizing the unity of the individual soul ( atman) with the ultimate reality ( brahman).
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Ramanujacharya (11th century): Advocate of Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), recognizing the individual soul's distinct existence while being eternally dependent on God.
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Madhvacharya (13th century): Propounded Dvaita (dualism), emphasizing the eternal distinction between the individual soul and God.
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Kabir (15th century): A mystic poet who rejected religious dogmatism and emphasized the unity of all religions.
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Tulsidas (16th century): A renowned poet who composed the Ramcharitmanas, a retelling of the Ramayana in Hindi.
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Guru Nanak (15th-16th century): Founder of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion that emphasizes devotion to one God and rejects caste distinctions.
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Other Important Bhakti Saints:
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Mirabai (16th century): A Rajput princess known for her passionate devotion to Lord Krishna.
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Surdas (16th century): A blind poet known for his devotional songs dedicated to Lord Krishna.
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Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (15th-16th century): A Bengali saint who popularized the worship of Lord Krishna.
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Sufism: A mystical tradition within Islam that focuses on a direct and personal experience of God.
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Key Features:
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Seeking union with the divine through spiritual practices and love.
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Emphasis on the importance of a spiritual guide (pir or murshid).
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Development of distinct Sufi orders (silsilahs) with their own lineages and practices.
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Key Terms and Concepts:
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Pir: A Sufi master or spiritual guide.
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Murid: A disciple of a Sufi master.
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Khanqah: A Sufi lodge where Sufis gather for spiritual practices, teachings, and community living.
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Sama: A Sufi gathering involving devotional music, poetry, and sometimes ecstatic dancing, aimed at achieving a state of spiritual ecstasy.
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Important Sufi Orders:
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Chishti Order: One of the most prominent Sufi orders in India, known for its emphasis on simple living, service to humanity, and love for all beings.
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Suhrawardi Order:
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Naqshbandi Order:
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Qadiri Order:
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Notable Sufi Saints:
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Nizamuddin Auliya (13th-14th century): A prominent Chishti saint known for his piety and spiritual guidance.
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Moinuddin Chishti (12th-13th century): The founder of the Chishti order in India.
Sikhism
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Origins:
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Founded by Guru Nanak in the late 15th century in Punjab.
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Core Beliefs:
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Belief in one God ( Waheguru).
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Rejection of caste distinctions and idolatry.
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Emphasis on meditation, honest living, and service to humanity.
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Key Figures:
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Ten Gurus: Sikhism is guided by the teachings of ten Gurus, starting with Guru Nanak and culminating in Guru Gobind Singh.
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Guru Angad: Developed the Gurmukhi script.
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<PRESIDIO_ANONYMIZED_PERSON>: Established the city of Amritsar.
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Guru Arjan Dev: Compiled the Adi Granth, the Sikh holy scripture; constructed the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) in Amritsar.
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Guru Teg Bahadur: Executed by Aurangzeb for defending the religious freedom of Hindus.
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Guru Gobind Singh: The tenth Guru; established the Khalsa, a brotherhood of initiated Sikhs; declared the Adi Granth as the eternal Guru.
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Key Terms and Concepts:
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Adi Granth: The Sikh holy scripture, containing hymns and teachings of the Sikh Gurus.
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Khalsa: A brotherhood of initiated Sikhs characterized by their commitment to Sikh principles and their distinct appearance (five Ks: kesh (uncut hair), kangha (comb), kara (steel bracelet), kirpan (ceremonial dagger), kachera (undergarment)).
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Langar: A free community kitchen that serves food to all, regardless of background.
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Akal Takht: The highest temporal seat of Sikh authority, established by Guru Hargobind.