Smart Sensing Practical Report, Radius -1
	Blank	5	10	20	30	40	UK1	UK2	UK3
Red	174	143	125	131	122	127	120	098	134
Green	173	152	130	141	136	132	125	117	136
Blue	153	133	116	131	129	118	111	113	123



Smart Sensing Practical Report, Radius 50
	Blank	5	10	20	30	40	UK1	UK2	UK3
Red	160.4	146.5	123.5	128.3	123.0	131.7	122.4	101.6	131.2
Green	162.4	155.8	128.4	138.3	135.8	136.7	127.4	120.2	133.2
Blue	139.4	135.9	114.9	128.3	128.5	122.1	113.9	116.1	120.2



I have an assignment and the details are below

INTRODUCTION

The balance between paracetamol therapy and poisoning.

Background

Paracetamol is a drug which has been around since the 1950s and is widely available, frequently prescribed and available over the counter. However, in recent years there have been restrictions on the amount of paracetamol that can be bought in one purchase, due to the ease with which it is possible to overdose either intentionally or otherwise. Paracetamol is a useful analgesic and antipyretic.

In the UK it is the commonest agent used in self-harm and it has been suggested that it’s responsible for about 70,000 such cases per annum. Restrictions on purchases initially drastically reduced poisoning events, but this initial success has waned and Paracetamol related overdoses are on the rise again.

It is important to remember that paracetamol is very safe when used at therapeutic doses and that accidental overdoses generally occur due to concomitant use with paracetamol-combination products that are available over the counter.


Toxicity

Because paracetamol is metabolised by the liver, it is the commonest cause of acute liver failure. Serious or fatal adverse effects can occur at around 150 mg/kg for the average adult. This value is higher for children who are more susceptible, and similarly alcoholics who have a lower threshold for toxicity at around 75 mg/kg. Susceptible adults/patients may show severe effects with as few as 20 tablets (about 10 g) and toxicity can be increased with any factor that impairs liver metabolism, such as ethanol excess, malnutrition or metabolic enzyme inducing drugs. One of the main routes for excretion of paracetamol is via conjugate with glucuronic acid (oxidised glucose) with paracetamol to make it more water soluble that will be removed in the urine.



What you have to do:


Imagine the scenario;
You are a member of the staff at the National Poisons Unit at New Cross Hospital in London. Your role in the laboratory is to aid clinicians in the diagnosis of accidental poisonings as well as monitor therapeutic medication for chronic drug users (e.g. antidepressants, immunosuppressive drugs).

Today you have been sent samples from three patients, who are suspected paracetamol poisonings and in order to inform treatment you have to identify which individuals actually are overdosed. The key tests you will need to perform are to determine the serum paracetamol levels.

Once you have made the measurements for the serum paracetamol you should plot your graphs, and answer the questions in the booklet as indicated, which will then be used to write up your laboratory report.

You are also charged with developing a method so that it could be used at the point-of-need, that could be used by relatively untrained staff at Accident and Emergency based on a the RGB function of a Smartphone of similar device.


DETERMINATION OF SERUM PARACETAMOL

Create standard solutions to concentrations already described from 10 mM paracetamol stock into 10 ml volumetric flasks.

Concentration of standard solution (mM) 0.25 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
volume of 10 mM stock standard (ml) 0.25 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00

Add 2 ml of each standard solution/blank(water)/patient sample to a test tube.
Add 0.4 ml of 0.02 M iron(III) chloride solution
Add 0.8 ml of 0.002 M potassium ferricyanide solution
Wait for 10 minutes
Add 0.2 ml of 3 M HCl and 6.6 ml of water (to make 10 ml total volume)
Wait for 20 minutes
Read samples at 700 nm on the spectrometer after zeroing with the blank (first time only).
Read the RGB reading for your blank, standards and samples.

Prepare a standard curve by plotting absorbance against paracetamol concentration in your write up. Use this to determine the concentration of paracetamol in each of the sample solution. Record your RGB results for each in the table below.

Paracetamol Results

Solution (mM) 0(blank) 0.25 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 Pt1 Pt2 Pt3
Spectrometry Absorbance
RGB values


Smart Sensors: paracetamol toxicity practical CW


This assessed practical write up is to be submitted 2pm, 02/05/2023 ONLINE.

Please attach your graphs of paracetamol (RGB and absorbance spectrometry) concentrations to the report. These can be in cut and pasted into or report, scanned or photographs, but in all cases, please ensure that are readable.

1. Please write a brief abstract summarising the practical, the results and conclusion. (15 marks)

2. From your results plot a graph of absorbance results obtained by spectrometry against paracetamol concentration (the standard curve). (5 marks)

3. Use this to determine the paracetamol concentrations for the patient sera supplied. Mark and label these on your graph and complete the table below (3 marks)

Patient Paracetamol conc (mM) via absorbance spectrometry Paracetamol conc (mM) via RGB analysis
1
2
3








Please include your standard curve for the RGB paracetamol measurements to your practical report.

Examination of RGB results
4. Examining your results, can you use the RGB data to plot a standard curve against paracetamol concentration? Explain how you have achieved this. (15 marks)

5. Is it possible to use this to calculate the concentrations of paracetamol in the patient samples? (6 marks)

6. How do these concentrations compare to those found by absorbance spectrometry (above)? (4 marks)

7. References must be in the UWE Harvard style (https://www.uwe.ac.uk/study/study-support/study-skills/referencing/uwe-bristol-harvard) (2 marks)

Please include your RGB and spectrometry standard curves for the paracetamol measurements to your practical report.


 Below are the values resulting from the experiments:

Paracetamol, mM Absorbance (700nm)
0 0
0.25 0.022
0.5 0.056
1 0.125
1.5 0.239
2 0.27
Pt 1 0.07
Pt 2 0.185
Pt 3 0.079


Smartphone RGB values

Paracetamol, mM R G B
0 160 157 140
0.25 129 131 117
0.5 110 121 110
1 83 112 106
1.5 70 111 108
2 58 112 113
Pt 1 101 118 108
Pt 2 80 122 119
Pt 3 111 129 119


Smart sensing practical report

Smart Sensing Practical Report, Radius -1
Blank 5 10 20 30 40 UK1 UK2 UK3
Red 174 143 125 131 122 127 120 098 134
Green 173 152 130 141 136 132 125 117 136
Blue 153 133 116 131 129 118 111 113 123



Smart Sensing Practical Report, Radius 50
Blank 5 10 20 30 40 UK1 UK2 UK3
Red 160.4 146.5 123.5 128.3 123.0 131.7 122.4 101.6 131.2
Green 162.4 155.8 128.4 138.3 135.8 136.7 127.4 120.2 133.2
Blue 139.4 135.9 114.9 128.3 128.5 122.1 113.9 116.1 120.2


Below is the lab report

Abstract

This laboratory report investigates the determination of acetaminophen concentrations in unknown solutions, comparing traditional UV-Vis spectrometry against smartphone-based RGB colorimetric analysis. Utilizing a series of acetaminophen standards and unknown samples, absorbance was measured at 700 nm, and RGB values were converted into percentage color metrics. The study delineated a linear correlation between acetaminophen concentration and both analytical methods’ outputs, enabling the estimation of unknown samples’ concentrations. UV-Vis spectrometry affirmed its accuracy and reliability, while smartphone RGB analysis demonstrated significant feasibility as a rapid, cost-effective alternative. The slight variances observed between the methods suggest areas for refinement in smartphone analysis, underscoring its potential for broader diagnostic and field applications. This investigation highlights the innovative use of ubiquitous technology in chemical analysis, encouraging future advancements in non-traditional analytical approaches.

Introduction

Acetaminophen, commonly known as paracetamol, plays a pivotal role in the pharmacological treatment of various conditions including headaches, fevers, and mild to moderate pain (Ennis et al., 2016). Recognized for its analgesic and antipyretic properties, acetaminophen is deemed safe for consumption during pregnancy and breastfeeding at recommended dosages. Despite its widespread acceptance, the risk of overdose remains significant, primarily due to its availability in multiple over-the-counter formulations. An overdose of acetaminophen is a concerning cause of acute liver failure and can result from both accidental and intentional ingestion, highlighting the necessity for rapid and accurate detection methods (Hodgman & Garrard, 2021). The objectives of this practical work are twofold: firstly, to determine the concentration of acetaminophen in unknown solutions and secondly, to compare results derived from traditional Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) spectrometry against those obtained using a novel smartphone colorimetric analysis. This comparison aims to explore the feasibility and reliability of utilizing smartphone technology as a potentially more accessible and convenient method for the at-the-point-of-need detection of acetaminophen, offering significant implications for both clinical and emergency settings.

Materials and Methods

This laboratory exercise utilized an array of materials including a 10 mM stock solution of acetaminophen, 20 mM iron (III) chloride solution, 2.0 mM potassium hexacyanoferrate (III), and 3 M hydrochloric acid solution, all diluted with deionized water. Experimental groups, consisting of pairs of participants, were tasked with preparing a series of acetaminophen standard solutions by diluting the 10 mM stock solution to predefined concentrations (0, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 40 µM) as per the protocol outlined in Table S1.

The procedure began with the dilution of each unknown patient sample and the previously prepared acetaminophen standard solutions, aiming to achieve a concentration range suitable for colorimetric analysis. To this end, 2 mL of each solution was reacted with 0.4 mL of 0.02 M iron (III) chloride and 0.8 mL of 0.002 M potassium ferricyanide. Following thorough mixing, the mixtures were left to react for 10 minutes before the addition of 0.2 mL of 3 M HCl, followed by dilution to a final volume of 10 mL using deionized water. After a subsequent 20-minute reaction period, the absorbance of each solution was measured at 700 nm using UV-Vis spectrometry, and RGB analysis was conducted using a smartphone to capture the color intensity of each solution. The color data obtained were then converted into percentage values for the RGB components using specified formulas (% R = (R/(R+G+B)) ×100, % G = (G/(R+G+B)) ×100, % B = (B/(R+G+B)) ×100), facilitating the construction of a standard curve to determine the concentration of acetaminophen present in the unknown samples.

This methodical approach underscores the intricate balance between chemical precision and innovative technological application, laying the groundwork for the comparative analysis of traditional and modern analytical techniques in pharmacological evaluations.

Results

The experimental analysis yielded a comprehensive dataset delineating the absorbance values alongside RGB coloration metrics for each acetaminophen standard solution, alongside three unknown samples, designated as UK1, UK2, and UK3. The absorbance readings, measured at 700 nm, consistently increased with the concentration, as evidenced by the standard calibration curve; the values ranged from 0.000 for the blank to 0.299 for the 40 µM standard solution. The unknown samples exhibited absorbance values of 0.062, 0.094, and 0.267 for UK1, UK2, and UK3, respectively. In parallel, the RGB analysis, converted into percentage values for R, G, and B components using designated formulas, revealed discernible shifts in color metrics corresponding to the increasing concentrations of acetaminophen in standard solutions.





Upon plotting these values to generate a standard curve and applying the calibration data, the concentrations of acetaminophen in the unknown samples were deduced. The concentration determined for UK1 was found to be approximately 8 µM, whereas UK2 and UK3 were estimated at 15 µM and 35 µM, respectively. These findings from both UV-Vis and smartphone RGB analyses were compiled into graphs demonstrating a linear relationship between acetaminophen concentration and both absorbance and color intensity metrics, thus facilitating the objective quantification of acetaminophen in unknown samples.

Discussion

The results underscored the efficacy of UV-Vis spectrometry in quantifying acetaminophen concentrations, as anticipated from the established analytical paradigms (Hodgman & Garrard, 2021). The linear relationship between acetaminophen concentration and absorbance affirmed the method’s reliability for precise chemical analysis. Concurrently, smartphone RGB analysis emerged as a promising alternative, revealing comparable sensitivity and specificity to UV-Vis spectrometry; an intriguing finding that aligns with recent explorations into leveraging consumer technology for scientific applications.

The intriguing correlation between the RGB analysis and traditional spectrometric results for unknown samples illustrates not merely the methodological accuracy but also the potential of RGB analysis as a rapid, cost-effective analytical tool. This accessibility could prove invaluable in settings lacking specialized analytical equipment, offering immediate benefits for clinical and emergency scenarios. The minor discrepancies observed between the methods — potentially attributable to intrinsic variations in smartphone sensor sensitivity or environmental lighting conditions — underscore the necessity for standardized calibration and operating procedures when deploying RGB analysis in critical applications (Shogah, Bolshakov, & Amelin, 2023).

Furthermore, the precision of RGB analysis could be influenced by the colorimetric reactions’ completeness and the subsequent digital capture parameters, highlighting the critical intersection of chemistry and digital processing in this naspecificnt methodologies . The prospect of harnessing ubiquitous smartphone technology in chemical analysis, as demonstrated, opens avenues for decentralized diagnostic applications, extending beyond acetaminophen to a wider array of analytes (Kılıç, Horzum, & Solmaz, 2018).

Overall, while UV-Vis spectrometry remains the gold standard for quantifiable analysis due to its unwavering accuracy and reproducibility, the advent of smartphone RGB analysis heralds a paradigm shift towards more accessible, albeit slightly less precise, analytical methodologies. Future studies could focus on refining the RGB analysis technique, possibly through advanced image processing algorithms, to enhance its efficacy and reliability, paving the way for broader applications in both clinical and field settings.

Conclusion

This study successfully demonstrated the employability of both traditional UV-Vis spectrometry and innovative smartphone RGB analysis in the determination of acetaminophen concentrations within unknown samples. The linear relationships established between acetaminophen concentration and both absorbance and RGB metrics validated the accuracy and feasibility of these methods for chemical analysis. While UV-Vis spectrometry confirmed its role as the benchmark for precision and reliability, smartphone RGB analysis unveiled substantial promise as a cost-effective, accessible alternative suitable for rapid field assessment and potentially beneficial in resource-limited settings. Despite the observable minor discrepancies between the two methodologies, largely attributable to intrinsic device limitations and operational variables, the foundational evidence provided herein supports the further exploration and optimization of smartphone-based colorimetric analysis as a viable adjunct or alternative to traditional spectrometry, especially in scenarios necessitating swift, on-site evaluation.

Now, give me a list of Tables, charts, and/or diagrams i can add to augument this report.