"109
Purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses provide critical information to readers about the direction of a research study. They also raise questions that the
research will answer through the data collection process. As such, they deserve special
attention. In this chapter you will learn about purpose statements, research questions,
and hypotheses and how to write them for both quantitative and qualitative research.
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
◆ Distinguish among purpose statements, research questions, hypotheses, and
objectives.
◆ Describe why these statements and questions are important.
◆ Write quantitative purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses.
◆ Write qualitative purpose statements and research questions.
Maria completes her literature review on school violence and writes down a statement
that represents the central direction of her study: “I would like to study the reasons why
students carry weapons in high schools.” This is an example of a quantitative research
statement. Alternatively, she could write a qualitative statement: “I would like to study
students’ experiences with weapons in high school.” For her research study at the university, Maria needs to write a statement that advances the overall intent of her study, a
purpose statement, as well as research questions. The form of her purpose statement and
her questions will refl ect her decision to engage in quantitative or qualitative research.
WHAT ARE PURPOSE STATEMENTS, RESEARCH QUESTIONS,
HYPOTHESES, AND OBJECTIVES?
Let’s begin by defi ning four terms used in research to convey the intent of a study: purpose statements, research questions, research hypotheses, and research objectives. These
Specifying a Purpose
and Research Questions
4
or Hypotheses
C H A P T E R
110 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
forms differ in intent (their role in research), form (their appearance in studies), use
(their application in quantitative and qualitative approaches), and placement (their location) in research reports. Knowing these differences can help you design, write, and
evaluate them. Figure 4.1 illustrates the differences among these forms.
The Purpose Statement
The purpose statement is a statement that advances the overall direction or focus for
the study. Researchers describe the purpose of a study in one or more succinctly formed
sentences. It is used both in quantitative and qualitative research and is typically found
in the “statement of the problem” section. It often appears as the last sentence of an
introduction. You can recognize it because researchers typically state it beginning with
the phrase “The purpose of this study is . . .” A quantitative version of this purpose statement addressing teacher–parent communications and student achievement follows:
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between use of Internet
communication between teachers and parents in a Midwestern school district and
student achievement on tests in high school social studies.
A qualitative version might be:
The purpose of this study is to explore parent stories regarding Internet communications with teachers about their students in one Midwestern school district.
Research Questions
Research questions are questions in quantitative or qualitative research that narrow
the purpose statement to specifi c questions that researchers seek to answer. Researchers
FIGURE 4.1
Distinguishing among Various Forms of Direction in Research
Use Quantitative
and
qualitative
research
Quantitative
and
qualitative
research
Quantitative
research
Typically
quantitative
research
Form One or
more sentences
One or
more questions
One or
more statements
One or
more objectives
Intent Overall
direction
Raise
questions to
be answered
Make prediction
about expectations
State goals to
be accomplished
Purpose
Statement
Research
Questions
Research
Hypotheses
Research
Objectives
Placement End of
introduction
End of introduction, after literature review, or in
a separate section of the study
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 111
typically develop them before identifying the methods of the study (i.e., the types of data
to be collected, analyzed, and interpreted in a study). Unlike the single statement found
in a purpose statement, researchers typically state multiple research questions so that they
can fully explore a topic. Research questions are found in both quantitative and qualitative
research, but their elements differ depending on the type of research you are conducting.
In quantitative research, the questions relate attributes or characteristics of individuals or organizations. Later in the chapter you will learn that these are called variables.
In qualitative research, the questions include the central concept being explored. You
will learn that this central concept is called a central phenomenon. In some studies, both
research questions and purpose statements appear—a good presentation style to clarify
both the general and specifi c directions of a study. The research questions are typically
at the end of the introduction of the “statement of the problem” section or immediately
following the review of the literature. To locate research questions, you might look for
opening passages in which authors identify the research questions they are addressing
(e.g., Paragraph 02, Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005). For example, a quantitative research
question would be:
Do parent–teacher Internet communications affect student performance in the
classroom?
A qualitative research question is:
What types of Internet experiences do parents have with teachers about the
performance of the parents’ children?
Hypotheses
Hypotheses are statements in quantitative research in which the investigator makes a
prediction or a conjecture about the outcome of a relationship among attributes or characteristics. Traditionally used in experiments, they serve, like research questions, to narrow
the purpose statement to specifi c predictions. These predictions are not simply an “educated guess.” Rather, researchers base them on results from past research and literature
where investigators have found certain results and can now offer predictions as to what
other investigators will fi nd when they repeat the study with new people or at new sites.
You will fi nd these hypotheses stated at the beginning of a study, typically at the end of
the introduction. Investigators also place them immediately after the review of the literature or in a separate section titled “Hypotheses.” Usually researchers advance several
hypotheses, such as three or four. An illustration of a hypothesis is:
Students in high schools in the school district in which parents and teachers communicate through the Internet will have higher grades than students whose parents
and teachers do not communicate through the Internet.
Research Objectives
A research objective is a statement of intent used in quantitative research that specifi es
goals that the investigator plans to achieve in a study. Researchers often subdivide objectives into major and minor objectives. They appear frequently in survey or questionnaire
studies or in evaluation research in which investigators have clearly identifi ed objectives.
Like hypotheses and research questions, objectives are found at the end of the “statement
of the problem” section, after the literature review, or in a separate section of the study.
112 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
You can identify objectives by looking for phrases such as “The objectives in this study
are . . .” For instance, the following represent objectives for a study:
 1. To describe the frequency of Internet communication between parents and teachers
regarding the parents’ children in high school social studies classes
 2. To describe the types (or categories) of Internet communication between parents
and teachers
 3. To relate (a) frequency and (b) types of communication to student achievement in
the class as measured by performance on tests
Because of the limited use of research objectives in educational research today, our
focus in this chapter is on hypotheses and research questions as a means of narrowing
and focusing purpose statements.
WHY ARE THESE STATEMENTS AND
QUESTIONS IMPORTANT?
These statements are signposts similar to a thesis statement or objectives in term papers
you may have written. Without clear signposts, the readers will be lost throughout your
study. They simply will not know the central ideas addressed in your study. You can
also identify the most appropriate methods for collecting data from the purpose and the
questions. They also provide key components for understanding the results of a project.
Good research links the purpose statement and questions to major results. To write good
purpose statements and research questions, we will begin with some concepts that you
need to know, and then establish the building blocks for writing these statements and
questions into a study.
HOW DO YOU DESIGN QUANTITATIVE PURPOSE
STATEMENTS, RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND HYPOTHESES?
To write quantitative purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses, you need
to understand the importance and use of variables. We start with their defi nition, talk
about the various types used in quantitative research, and then discuss their use in broad
theories or explanations.
Specify Variables
A variable is a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that
(a) researchers can measure or observe and (b) varies among individuals or organizations studied (see Figure 4.2). They are key ideas that researchers seek to collect information on to address the purpose of their study.
Consider the following examples of variables typically studied in educational
research:
◆ Leadership style (by administrators)
◆ Achievement in science (by students)
◆ Interpersonal communication skills (of counselors)
Let’s break this defi nition down for close inspection.
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 113
Characteristics of individuals refer to personal aspects about them, such as their
grade level, age, or income level. An attribute, however, represents how an individual
or individuals in an organization feel, behave, or think. For example, individuals have
self-esteem, engage in smoking, or display the leadership behavior of being well organized. You can measure these attributes in a study. To practice, you might take out a sheet
of paper and write down three personal characteristics and three attributes about your
favorite teacher.
Next, consider what it means to “measure” these attributes or characteristics. Measurement means that the researcher records information from individuals in one of two
ways:
◆ Asking them to answer questions on a questionnaire (e.g., a student completes
questions on a survey asking about self-esteem)
◆ Observing an individual and recording scores on a log or checklist (e.g., a
researcher watches a student playing basketball and records scores on dribbling
techniques)
In either case, student scores will probably vary (hence the name variable). When variables vary, it means that scores will assume different values depending on the type of
variable being measured. For example,
◆ Gender varies by two possible scores: female  2 and male  1.
◆ Self-esteem varies by three possible scores: positive  3, neither positive nor negative  2, and negative  1.
In the quantitative parent involvement study (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005), the
authors, for example, measured parents’ role construction (see Paragraph 18), the extent
to which parents believed that it was their responsibility to help the school educate their
adolescent. The authors asked parents to rate on a 6-point scale from “disagree very
strongly” to “agree very strongly” statements such as “It’s important that I let someone at
school know about things that concern my teenager” (p. 167).
Distinguish between Variables Measured as Categories
and as Continuous Scores
When participants in a study complete a question, the researcher assigns a score to
their response (e.g., 5 for strongly agree). This score is a value for the variable being
FIGURE 4.2
A Variable Can Be Measured, and It Varies among Individuals
A Variable
(A characteristic or attribute)
Measured Varies
Can be and
(Can be assessed on an instrument or
observed and recorded on an instrument)
(Can assume different values
or scores for different individuals)
114 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
measured, and investigators measure variables using continuous and categorical scores.
Knowing this classifi cation will help you understand the different types of variables and
their use in purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses.
Researchers score variables by grouping them into a limited number of categories or
by using them to represent a value of some degree on a continuum, ranging from low to
high levels (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996; Vogt, 2005). A variable measured in categories
is a variable measured by the researcher as a small number of groups or categories. In
research, authors sometimes call this type of measure a discrete or nominal score, and it
is illustrated by these examples:
◆ Groups of students: males (1) and females (2), or low ability (1) and high ability (2)
◆ Types of instruction: groups of students who experience lectures (1), groups of
students who experience discussion (2), and groups of students who experience
classroom activities (3)
A second type of score is based on measuring scores along a continuum. A variable
measured as continuous is a variable measured by the researcher on a point along a
continuum of scores, from low to high scores. Sometimes authors call this type of scoring
an interval, a rating, or a scaled score. The most typical example of a continuous score
would be age (e.g., from 25 years old to 65 years old) or height (e.g., from 5 feet to 6 feet
tall). Often, continuous scores indicate the extent to which individuals agree or disagree
with an idea or rate the level of importance of an issue.
Distinguish Variables from Constructs
Some attributes, such as “socialization,” cannot be measured because they are too
abstract. Some characteristics, such as “whether the children engage in thinking in the
classroom,” do not vary among people. Certainly all children think; what varies is how
they think differently, such as when they engage in the activity of writing. A construct
is an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract, general way; a variable is an
attribute or characteristic stated in a specifi c, applied way. For example, student achievement is a construct, while the more specifi c term grade point average is a variable. The
trend in educational research is to use variables rather than constructs in purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses. In this text we will use variables.
The Family of Variables
With these defi nitions in mind, we can now discuss the different types of variables incorporated into quantitative purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses. Understanding the “family of variables” requires learning the defi nition of each type of variable
and understanding its role in providing direction for a study.
This “family” is shown in Figure 4.3. In this discussion you will learn about each type
of variable listed in this fi gure, starting with the most important variables: the dependent,
independent, and intervening variables. As shown in this fi gure, a useful way to think
about organizing these variables is to consider them in a cause-and-effect relationship
(Tuckman, 1999). What variables infl uence outcomes? Ask yourself:
 1. What outcomes in my study am I trying to explain? (the dependent variables)
 2. What variables or factors infl uence the outcomes? (the independent variables)
 3. What variables do I need to also measure (i.e., control) so that I can make sure that
my major factors infl uence outcomes and not other factors? (the control variables
and the mediating variables)
 4. What variables might infl uence the outcomes but cannot or will not be measured?
(the confounding variables)
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 115
Consider a fender bender car accident as an example. The outcome (dependent variable) was that you hit another car at a stop sign—rammed right into the back of it. You
caused this fender bender because you were talking on your cell phone (independent
variable). The cause might have been the slick pavement (control variable), but the skies
were sunny and it had not rained for days. The fact that you had daydreamed might have
caused the accident (confounding variable), but this fact would be diffi cult to measure
after the accident. See how this works? Now take another situation in your life this last
week, and list the dependent, independent, control, and confounding variables in your
own cause-and-effect situation.
Dependent Variables
Now we will go into variables in some more depth. Look at Figure 4.3. On the righthand side are the dependent variables. A dependent variable is an attribute or characteristic that is dependent on or infl uenced by the independent variable. You may fi nd
them labeled in the literature as the outcome, effect, criterion, or consequence variables.
Researchers typically investigate multiple dependent variables in a single study (e.g., you
hit another car, the other car hit the car in front of it, and so forth), although in many
studies, one of the dependent variables is typically of central interest. Dependent variables can be measured using continuous or categorical scores.
Examples of dependent variables in education are achievement scores on a test,
the organizational climate of a junior high school, the leadership skills of principals, or
the cost effectiveness of student affairs programs in colleges. To locate dependent variables in a study, examine purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses for
outcomes that the researcher wishes to predict or explain. Ask yourself, “What is the outcome in this study?”
FIGURE 4.3
The Family of Variables in Quantitative Studies
Probable
Cause Effect
Independent
Variables
• Treatment
• Measured
Control
Variables
Intervening
Variables
Confounding
Variables
Dependent
Variables
Moderating
Variables
116 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
Independent Variables
On the left side of Figure 4.3 are the independent variables. An independent variable is an attribute or characteristic that infl uences or affects an outcome or dependent
variable. In Figure 4.3, the arrows show how the independent variable infl uences the
dependent variable through the intervening variable. Sometimes an intervening variable
exists in a research study, and sometimes it does not. In research studies, you will fi nd
the independent variables called factors, treatments, predictors, determinants, or antecedent variables. Regardless of name, researchers measure this type of variable distinctly (or
independently) from the dependent variable, and they identify these variables as worthy
of study because they expect them to infl uence the outcomes.
Researchers study independent variables to see what effect or infl uence they have on
the outcome. For instance, consider this research question:
Do students who spend more instructional time in class on math have higher math
scores than students who spend less time?
Independent variable: Time on math instruction
Dependent variable: Math scores
As shown in Table 4.1, there are four types of independent variables, and each
serves a slightly different purpose.
TABLE 4.1
Four Types of Independent Variables
 Measured Variable Control Variable Treatment Variable Moderating Variable
Defi nition An independent
variable that is
measured in a study
A special type of
independent
variable that is of
secondary interest
and is neutralized
through statistical or
design procedures
An independent
variable manipulated
by the researcher
A special type of
independent variable
that is of secondary
interest and combines
with another
independent variable
to infl uence the
dependent variable
Type of Variable
Measurement
A categorical or
continuous variable
that is measured or
observed in the study
A variable not directly
measured but
controlled through
statistical or research
design procedures
A categorical variable
actively manipulated
by the researcher
and composed of two
or more groups
A categorical or
continuous variable
measured or observed
as it interacts with other
variables
Use in Experiments, surveys Experiments,
correlational studies
Experiments Experiments
Examples Age of a child;
performance on a test;
attitudes assessed on
a survey
Often demographic
variables such as
age, gender, race,
socioeconomic level
Classroom learning:
one group receives
standard lecture
and one group
receives discussion;
researcher assigns
students to groups
and thus manipulates
group membership
Demographic variables
such as age, gender,
race, or socioeconomic
level, a measured
variable such as
performance or
attitude, or a
manipulated variable
such as classroom
instruction
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 117
Measured Variables The standard independent variable infl uences the outcome and is
measured by the researcher. A measured variable is an independent variable that is
measured or observed by the researcher and consists of a range of continuous or categorical scores. For example, consider the following research question:
How does math ability infl uence achievement on the fi nal quiz in the classroom?
The independent variable is a measured variable indicating math ability scores assessed
by results on an ability test.
Control Variables A control variable is another type of independent variable that
researchers measure for the purposes of eliminating it as a possibility, but it is not a central variable of concern in explaining the dependent variables or outcomes. A control
variable is a variable that is important to consider and “neutralize” (Tuckman, 1999,
p. 100) because it potentially infl uences the dependent variable. Typically, control variables are personal demographic attributes or characteristics (Tuckman, 1999) such as:
◆ Gender
◆ Socioeconomic status
◆ Intelligence
◆ Race
These variables are typically controlled through statistical procedures. Later we will learn
that these variables are called covariates and they are statistically adjusted for their effects.
Treatment Variables
Two other specifi c types of independent variables can be introduced here because they
will be used in educational experiments. In an experiment, a researcher treats one group
of participants to specifi c activities and withholds them from another group. The question is whether the group that receives the activities scores differently on the dependent
variable than the group without the activities. Because researchers assign individuals to
these two groups, the groups are “treated” or “manipulated” by the researcher. A treatment variable is measured in categories (received or denied activities) to determine its
effect on an outcome. In the literature you will fi nd these variables labeled as manipulated variables or variables with levels. Experimental researchers refer to these groups as
levels (i.e., Group 1, Group 2).
In the following example, the treatment variable is the type of instruction used by
the teacher in an elementary math classroom:
In a study of student achievement outcomes in an elementary math classroom, the
researcher gives one group small group discussion (Level 1) and another traditional
group lecture (Level 2) to assess the independent variable, type of instruction.
Independent treatment variable: Type of instruction is considered a treatment
variable because the researcher intervenes with one group, Level 1.
Moderating Variables Moderating variables deserve our attention because they, too, are
often used in educational experiments. Moderating variables are new variables constructed by the researcher by taking one variable times another to determine the joint
impact of both variables together. This impact is called an interaction effect. For now,
recognize that interaction effects are a special form of independent variable. A moderating variable can be illustrated in this quantitative hypothesis:
Small-group discussion for students with high prior test scores contributes to
higher math quiz results than lecture discussion for students with low prior test
scores.
118 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
To test this statement, the researcher takes prior test scores (independent variable) times
type of discussion (small group or lecture) to determine the joint effects of both variables
on math quiz results.
Locating Independent Variables Independent variables are located in purpose statements,
research questions, and hypotheses. To fi nd them, look for the variable that exercises infl uence or predicts an outcome. They may be described in categories or on a continuous
scale of scores. They may also be of primary interest (measured variables), controlled in a
study (control variables), or have specifi c application to experiments (treatment variables
and moderating variables).
Intervening Variables
Intervening variables are different from dependent variables or any of the types of independent variables. Look at Figure 4.3 one more time. Using cause-and-effect thinking,
factors sometimes intervene between the independent variable and the dependent one
to infl uence the outcomes. An intervening variable is an attribute or characteristic that
“stands between” the independent and dependent variables and exercises an infl uence
on the dependent variable apart from the independent variable. Intervening variables
transmit (or mediate) the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
Thus, they are also called mediating variables. In some quantitative studies, intervening
variables are controlled using statistical procedures.
To demonstrate how intervening variables work, consider the logic of the sequence
of variables shown in Figure 4.4. In this illustration, we fi rst see that convenient offi ce
hours for students infl uences whether students will seek help from faculty (Step 1). However, this situation on most college campuses is too basic. Many factors besides offi ce
hours infl uence student visits with faculty. Convenient offi ce hours convey an open
FIGURE 4.4
Intervening Variables “Stand Between” Independent and Dependent Variables
Step 1. Independent
Variable
Dependent
Variable
Example: Convenient
office hours for students
Student seeks
help from faculty
Example: Convenient
office hours for students
Step 2. Independent
Variable
Intervening
Variable
Student becomes
willing to take risks
Student seeks
help from faculty
Example: Convenient
office hours for students
Student becomes
willing to take risks
Step 3. Independent
Variable
Intervening
Variable
Dependent
Variable
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 119
attitude toward students, and they show that faculty members care about their students.
They also encourage shy and reserved students who are unable to speak up in class to
visit privately with faculty. Students are willing to take risks by visiting with faculty privately in their offi ces (Step 2). What began as a single factor explaining the help students
seek from faculty has now become more complex. When faculty members offer convenient offi ce hours, students become willing to take risks, and they seek help from faculty
(Step 3). As an intervening variable, a willingness to take risks is infl uenced by convenient offi ce hours, and this, in turn, infl uences whether that student will seek help from a
faculty member.
To locate mediating variables in purpose statements, research hypotheses, or
questions:
◆ Ask yourself if any variables “stand” between the independent and dependent
variables in a left-to-right sequence of events.
◆ In these statements or questions, look for the words mediate or intervene. These
words provide a cue that the researcher intends to consider them as important infl uences on the dependent variable.
◆ Go into the “Results” section and look at the statistical analysis of the data to determine if the researcher statistically controls for variables that may “stand” between
the independent and dependent variables.
Confounding Variables
The fi nal variable listed in Figure 4.3 is the confounding variable. In this illustration,
confounding variables are not directly in the probable cause-and-effect sequence but are
extraneous or uncontrolled variables. Confounding variables (sometimes called spurious variables) are attributes or characteristics that the researcher cannot directly measure because their effects cannot be easily separated from those of other variables, even
though they may infl uence the relation between the independent and the depen dent
variable. For example, for a high school student it may be impossible to separate an
individual’s race and prior discriminatory experiences as predictors of attitudes toward
school. Thus, researchers measure the variables they can easily identify (e.g., race) and
explain a limitation on their results (e.g., race was so interconnected with discriminatory
experiences that it could not be easily separated as an independent measure).
Think-Aloud About Identifying Variables
It is not always easy to identify variables in published studies, even with knowledge
about the different types of variables and their roles. Here is a procedure I recommend to help you identify and organize variables to best understand a research report
or to plan your own study.
 1. Take a piece of paper and write from left to right the words independent, intervening, and dependent variables. Draw straight vertical lines between these words
down the page.
 2. Begin with the dependent variable. Examine a study (or consider your own project)
and ask yourself: What are the outcomes the author seeks to explain in the study?
Look at the title, purpose statement, questions, or hypotheses for this variable. Place
the dependent variable(s) under that particular column on the sheet.
 3. Next identify the independent variable(s) in the study. What factors infl uence this outcome? Does more than one factor infl uence this outcome? If so, what types of factors
120 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
are they? Is the independent variable assessed as two or more groups? Is it a variable
where the author plans to intervene with one group and withhold an intervention
with another group? Is some trait or characteristic of the participants being studied
that infl uences the outcome? Does the author use language about controlling for a
specifi c variable? List the independent variables on the sheet and write the type of
independent variable in parentheses after each one (e.g., treatment, measured, or
controlled).
 4. Locate any intervening variables that may be used by the author. Are there any factors that mediate the infl uence between the independent and dependent variables in
a cause-and-effect sequence? List these variables on your sheet.
With this process, you have compiled a list of major variables in the study. As a
picture, this rendering will help reduce a complex study into a simple, understandable
model of the research. It can help you identify and plan the variables for your own study,
and it provides a useful visual for conveying the major direction of a research report to
audiences such as faculty committees and conference attendees.
Theories and Testing of Variables
We need to learn one more idea that is important before we proceed directly into quantitative purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses. Look at Figure 4.3 again
and see that arrows connect the independent variable to the dependent variable. In quantitative research we seek to test whether the independent variable infl uences the outcome or dependent variable. We make this test because we have found past research that
suggests that this relationship exists. Some researchers in education go one step further.
They have found a theory that predicts the likely impact of the independent variable
on the dependent variable. They seek to test a theory. But because this theory deals
with humans in unpredictable situations, we say that the independent variable “probably causes” the dependent variable. The idea of probable causation is that researchers
attempt to establish a likely cause-and-effect relationship between variables, rather than
prove the relationship.
A theory in quantitative research explains and predicts the probable relationship between independent and dependent variables. For example, researchers test the
relationship between peer groups’ infl uence and adolescents. This relationship is tested
over and over, such as with the Boy Scouts, in church groups, in middle schools, in
high schools, and in other settings. Repeatedly the relationship of a positive effect holds
true. Then someone comes along, calls this relationship a theory, and assigns a name
to it. Smith’s theory of peer infl uence is born, reported in the literature, and tested by
other researchers. Thus, as shown in Figure 4.5, you might think about a theory as a
bridge that connects the independent and dependent variables. Theories are no more
than broad explanations for what we would expect to fi nd when we relate variables.
In quantitative research, investigators locate a theory in the literature, examine the
predicted relationship among variables in the theory, and then test the relationships with
new participants or at new sites. To test the theory, researchers write purpose statements,
research questions, and hypotheses that advance the predicted relationships. For example, a theory of leadership might predict that when principals use consensus-building
decision styles, their teachers feel more supported.
Examples of theories include a theory about how students learn, a theory about what
motivates people, a theory about how adults learn, a theory about leadership styles, and
a theory about personality.
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 121
Not all quantitative studies employ a theory to test, but doing so represents the most
rigorous form of quantitative research. It is certainly better than basing variables on your
own personal hunches that are subject to challenge by other students and professors.
You might think about the test of a theory as the top of a list of reasons for studying
the relationship among your variables. Look at Figure 4.6. Assume that several researchers explore the relationship between teacher respect for cultural values (the independent
variable) and student performance (the dependent variable) in elementary school. In
working from the bottom of the fi gure to the top, notice how each situation involves an
increasing number of tests of studies, from a personal hunch to a sophisticated theory.
 1. Some researchers have hunches or educated guesses as to why two variables might
be related. For example, from personal experience, one researcher might feel that
Hispanic children succeed in elementary school because the teacher is sensitive to
cultural issues (e.g., the recognition and celebration of Hispanic holidays). Researchers have not tested this hunch, and it represents an unsophisticated approach based
on the experiences of the researcher.
 2. At a more rigorous level, educators can draw on a theoretical rationale—a logical
statement for relating the variables—mentioned by authors in other studies. Assume
that Jones, for example, found that Hispanic students learned best when teachers
celebrated Hispanic holidays in class. With this theoretical rationale, we probably
have more confi dence in understanding the relationship between cultural sensitivity
and performance in class (e.g., learning best).
 3. Moving to an even more sophisticated level, assume that fi ve different authors
have studied this relationship and found cultural sensitivity to relate to performance. Smith, for instance, developed a conceptual framework (e.g., see Figure 4.6)
predicting this relationship to hold true. Fox, Davis, Abel, and Sandoz tested this
relationship. All found the relationship to hold true for different groups of Hispanic
children. Now we have more confi dence in the relationship because researchers
have tested it multiple times with different Hispanic children.
 4. Finally, assume that the relationship between cultural sensitivity and student performance is tested with many groups of different cultural orientations (e.g., Asian
FIGURE 4.5
Theories as Bridges between Independent and Dependent Variables
A theory can be seen as a bridge explaining the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Independent
Variables
Dependent
Variables
122 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
Americans, Native Americans, African Americans). In all of these situations, a positive relationship exists between teacher sensitivity and student performance. We
now have a theory, a broad explanation of student performance based on cultural
orientations.
What would a theory discussion look like? Here is an example, using “if . . . then”
logic. If certain conditions are true, then the variables will be related. For example,
Smith’s (2000) theory of gender achievement predicts that if achievement in math is
gender related, and girls are socialized to be better at math than boys, then girls will
perform better in math than boys.
Where are theories located in a quantitative research report? Typically they are located
in the literature review section or in the section on research questions or hypotheses. They
may be called the theoretical rationale or a theory-base for the study. A good example of
a theoretically driven study is the study of parent involvement by Deslandes and Bertrand
(2005). In the opening paragraph of the study (Paragraph 02), they report how they will
use the psychological constructs found in the Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler model as
independent variables expected to infl uence the dependent variable, parent involvement.
Writing Quantitative Purpose Statements
With this background about variables and theory, you are ready to design and write a
quantitative purpose statement, research questions, and hypotheses. To do this, fi rst specify
the elements that go into a good purpose statement, display a script that you can complete
to help you design this statement, and illustrate the use of this script using examples.
FIGURE 4.6
Different Types of Explanations in Quantitative Research
Extensive Tests
by Other Researchers
No Test
Broad
Abstractions
Narrow
Application
As a formal theory that is expressed by connected
hypotheses and variables identified by authors
As a conceptual framework often expressed
as a visual model by other authors for relationship
As a theoretical rationale posed by other
authors based on studies for relationship
An explanation posed by the author as a hunch
for why independent variable relates to
dependent variable
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 123
Guidelines
A quantitative purpose statement identifi es the variables, their relationship, and the
participants and site for research. Several guidelines can help you prepare good purpose
statements:
◆ Write the purpose statement in a single sentence.
◆ Begin the statement with key identifi er words, such as “The purpose of this study,”
to clearly signal readers.
◆ If you plan to use a theory, introduce it in this statement by stating that you plan to
“test a theory.”
◆ Three options exist for using variables in this statement: You seek to relate two or
more variables, to compare a variable composed of two or more groups in terms
of the dependent variable, or to describe one variable. Use the words relate or
compare or describe to indicate whether variables will be related, groups will be
compared, or variables will be described.
◆ If variables are related or groups compared, specify the independent and dependent variables and any control or intervening variables.
◆ State the independent variable fi rst (fi rst position in the sentence), followed by the
dependent variable (second position in the sentence). If control or mediating variables are used, state them last (in the third position in the sentence). The placement
of these variables in this sentence is important because quantitative researchers
often view variables as related from left to right, as shown in Figure 4.3.
◆ Identify the participants to be studied and the research site at which they will be
studied.
Sample Scripts
To apply these guidelines, consider completing the following script by fi lling in the
blanks:
The purpose of this study is to test ( the theory ) by relating ( the independent variable) to ( the dependent variable ) for ( participants) at ( the research site ).
or
by comparing ( independent variable ) with ( group 1 ) and ( group 2 ) in terms of
(dependent variable ) for ( participants) at ( the research site ).
To apply this script, examine the following example for the case in which the researcher
relates variables:
The purpose of this study is to test Fines’ theory (1996) by relating leadership style
(independent variable) to autonomy (dependent variable) for teachers (participants)
in high schools in State X (research site).
The next example illustrates the use of the script in which the researcher compares
two groups (on an independent variable) in terms of one dependent variable:
The purpose of this study is to test Smart’s theory (1999) by comparing autocratic
leaders (group 1) with consensus-building leaders (group 2) in terms of the satisfaction of teachers (dependent variable) in colleges in State X (research site).
Both examples begin with the phrase “The purpose of” to signal the reader. The independent variables precede the dependent variables in the statements. Also in both illustrations, the authors found theories to test, and they mentioned them at the beginning of the
124 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
sentence. In other studies, a researcher may have only a hunch or a rationale and may not
formally include a theory.
Maria, the high school teacher interested in studying weapon possession among high
school students, might write the purpose statement with control variables in the third
position:
The purpose of this study is to relate student misbehavior factors (i.e., fi ghting)
(independent variable— position 1) to attitudes toward weapon possession
(dependent variable— position 2) for students in the district’s high schools
(participants—site), controlling for gender, grade level, and race ( position 3).
In this example, the variables gender, grade level, and race will be eliminated as fac tors
infl uencing weapon possession using statistical procedures.
Writing Quantitative Research Questions
Because research questions narrow and focus the purpose statement, they serve to restate
the purpose in specifi c questions that the researcher seeks to answer. Research questions
describe the participants’ reactions to a single variable, compare groups on an outcome,
or relate to variables. Research questions are found in all designs in quantitative research,
such as in experiments, correlational studies, and surveys.
Guidelines
The basic steps in forming a research question are:
◆ Pose a question
◆ Begin with “how,” “what,” or “why”
◆ Specify the independent, dependent, and mediating or control variables
◆ Use the words describe, compare, or relate to indicate the action or connection
among the variables
◆ Indicate the participants and the research site for the study
Three popular forms are available in quantitative research: descriptive questions,
relationship questions, and comparison questions.
Descriptive Questions
Researchers use a descriptive question to identify participants’ responses to a single
variable or question. This single variable may be an independent, a dependent, or an
intervening variable. The following is a script for writing a descriptive question:
How frequently do ( participants) ( variable) at ( research site )?
An application of this script might be:
How frequently do African Americans feel isolated on college campuses?
Relationship Questions
In most research studies, investigators seek to learn more than responses to single variables. They may examine the relationship between two or more variables. Relationship
questions seek to answer the degree and magnitude of the relationship between two
or more variables. These questions often relate different types of variables in a study,
such as independent variables to dependent variables or dependent variables to control
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 125
variables. The most common case occurs when researchers relate the independent variable to the dependent variable. The following is a script for writing a relationship question:
How does ( independent variable ) relate to ( dependent variable ) for ( participants)
at ( research site )?
As applied to the relationship between isolation and ethnic identity, the script suggests:
How do feelings of isolation relate to (or infl uence) the ethnic identity of African
Americans in the United States?
Comparison Questions
Researchers might ask a comparison question to fi nd out how two or more groups
on an independent variable differ in terms of one or more outcome variables. Experiments employ comparison questions, and, in these studies, the researcher provides some
intervention to one group and withholds it from the second group. A script for writing a
comparison question would be:
How does ( group 1 ) differ from ( group 2 ) in terms of ( dependent variable ) for
(participants) at ( research site )?
When this script is applied in a comparison of African Americans and Euro Americans,
we get:
How do African Americans and Euro Americans compare in their perceptions of
ethnic identity?
Writing Quantitative Hypotheses
Similar to research questions, hypotheses narrow the purpose statement in quantitative
research, but hypotheses advance a prediction about what the researcher expects to fi nd.
The researcher can make these predictions because of past studies in the literature that
suggest certain outcomes. Also, hypotheses are not used to describe a single variable as
found in the case of research questions. They also are not used as frequently as research
questions because they represent a formal statement of relationships and the prediction
of the relationship may not be known.
Researchers narrow the focus of the study to at least one hypothesis that provides a
prediction about the outcome of the study. A prediction that Maria might make would be:
The more students feel alienated, the more likely they are to carry weapons to
school.
Can you think of other predictions about school violence that Maria might make?
Guidelines
Hypotheses need to include specifi c components. Guidelines for writing them are:
◆ State the variables in this order: independent (fi rst position), dependent (second
position), and control (third position).
◆ If you compare groups in your hypothesis, explicitly state the groups; if variables
are related, specify the relationship among the variables.
◆ Make a prediction about changes you expect in your groups, such as less or more
favorable or no changes (e.g., no difference). You will then test this prediction
using statistical procedures.
126 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
◆ You may state information about the participants and the site of the study, but this
information may not be necessary if it repeats information stated in your purpose
statement.
There are two types of hypotheses: the null and the alternative to the null. You need
both types in a research study, but authors generally write only one or the other into
their reports. The basic characteristics of these two forms are shown in Table 4.2.
Null Hypotheses
The null hypothesis is the most traditional form of writing a hypothesis. Null hypotheses
make predictions that of all possible people whom researchers might study (i.e., called
the general population), there is no relationship between independent and dependent
variables or no difference between groups of an independent variable or a dependent
variable. To study this hypothesis, you would select a sample of all possible people and
draw conclusions from the statistical analysis of this sample for the population. A null
hypothesis might begin with the phrase “There is no difference between” groups or
“There is no relationship between (or among)” variables.
To write a hypothesis, you can complete the following script, which employs the
language “no difference”:
There is no difference between ( independent variable, group 1 ) and ( independent
variable, group 2 ) in terms of ( dependent variable ) for ( participants) at ( research
site).
An example of the application of this script might be:
There is no difference between at-risk and non-at-risk students in terms of student achievement on math test scores for third-grade students in a Midwest school
district.
Independent variable: at-risk students (members and nonmembers)
Dependent variable: student achievement test scores
Participants: third-grade students
Site: X school district
Form and language: null indicating no difference
TABLE 4.2
The Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Type of Hypothesis Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
Purpose To test in the general population that
there is no change, no relationship,
no difference
The hypothesis that may be true if the
null is rejected, it suggests a change,
a relationship, or a difference
Specifi c Language Found
in the Hypothesis
There is no difference (or
relationship) between . . .
Magnitude statements such as higher,
lower, more positive, more favorable
How Researchers Test the
Hypothesis
A test of the hypothesis A test of the hypothesis
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 127
Alternative Hypotheses
In contrast to the null hypothesis, you may write an alternative hypothesis. You will use
an alternative hypothesis if you think there will be a difference based on results from
past research or an explanation or theory reported in the literature.
The two types of alternative hypotheses are directional and nondirectional. In a
directional alternative hypothesis, the researcher predicts the direction of a change, a
difference, or a relationship for variables in the total population of people. A researcher
selects a sample of people from a population and predicts that the scores will be higher,
better, or changed in some way. This typical form for writing hypotheses is encountered
in the literature more than any other type of hypothesis.
A script for a directional alternative hypothesis is:
(group 1, independent variable ) at ( research site ) will have ( some difference,
such as higher, lower, greater, lesser ) on ( dependent variable ) than ( group 2 of
independent variable ).
An example of this script is:
Students who participate in direct learning in four elementary schools will have
higher achievement scores than students who participate in whole-language
learning.
Independent variable: learning (direct and whole language)
Dependent variable: achievement test scores
Participants: third-grade students
Research site: four elementary schools
Key indicator: directional, a prediction is implied
A variation on the directional hypothesis is the nondirectional hypothesis. In a nondirectional alternative hypothesis the researcher predicts a change, a difference, or a
relationship for variables in a population but does not indicate whether the direction of
this prediction will be positive or negative, or greater or less. The nondirectional alternative is not as popular as the directional alternative because the researcher does not take a
stand about the direction of the relationship of the variables. A script for a nondirectional
alternative hypothesis is:
There is a difference between ( group 1, independent variable ) and ( group 2, independent variable ) in terms of ( dependent variable ).
An illustration of this script would be:
There is a difference between varsity athletes in high school who smoke and those
who do not smoke in terms of athletic accomplishments.
In this example, the author does not state whether the difference will be positive or
negative. An analysis of the variables in this statement shows:
Independent variable: use of tobacco (smokers and nonsmokers)
Dependent variable: athletic accomplishments
Participants: varsity athletes
Sites: high schools
Key indicator: the words “a difference,” but the direction is not specifi ed
128 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
HOW DO YOU DESIGN QUALITATIVE PURPOSE
STATEMENTS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS?
The components of good purpose statements and research questions differ for quantitative and qualitative research. Before we learn how to write qualitative purpose statements and research questions, we need to understand how qualitative research is both
similar and different from quantitative research.
Differentiating between Quantitative and Qualitative
Purpose Statements and Research Questions
In both forms of research, inquirers use purpose statements and research questions.
These statements become major signposts to alert readers to the major direction of the
study. You need to write them carefully and incorporate the major elements of design
into the statements of intent in your research.
However, the application differs depending on whether you conduct quantitative or
qualitative research:
 1. In quantitative research, hypotheses are used. In qualitative research, hypotheses
are not used; instead, inquirers use only research questions. Because researchers
test hypotheses using statistics, and statistics are not used in qualitative research,
hypotheses in qualitative research are not appropriate.
 2. In quantitative research, the investigator identifi es multiple variables and seeks to
measure them. In qualitative research, the term variable is not used, and instead the
inquirer seeks to gather information on a single concept—a central phenomenon—a
concept we discuss later in this chapter.
 3. In quantitative research, researchers often test theories, broad explanations that predict the results from relating variables. In qualitative research, theories are typically
not tested. Instead, the inquirer asks participants in a study to share ideas and build
general themes based on those ideas.
 4. In quantitative research, the investigator employs a close-ended stance by identifying variables and selecting instruments to collect data before the study begins.
Quantitative research questions and hypotheses do not change during the study.
In qualitative research, the inquirer uses more of an open-ended stance and often
changes the phenomenon being studied or at least allows it to emerge during the
study. The research questions may change based on the responses of the participants. This makes quantitative research more deductive and qualitative more
inductive.
 5. In quantitative research, the investigator seeks to measure differences and the magnitude of those differences among two or more groups or measure changes over
time in individuals. In qualitative research, inquirers do not compare groups or
relate variables. Instead, the researcher seeks a deep understanding of the views of
one group or single individuals.
These factors all infl uence how we write qualitative purpose statements and research
questions. Before we proceed, however, we need to understand two concepts in qualitative research in more detail: the central phenomenon and the emerging process.
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 129
THE CENTRAL PHENOMENON IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
A central component of both the purpose statement and the research questions in qualitative research is the central phenomenon. The central phenomenon is the concept or
a process explored in qualitative research. For example, as a concept, it could be:
◆ The ethnic identity of Chinese American immigrants
As a process it might be:
◆ The process of negotiation by a female superintendent with her principals
These examples illustrate the expression of the central phenomenon in a few words.
They also show a focus on a single concept or process rather than relating two or more
ideas as found in quantitative research (e.g., “How do alienation and isolation relate
for the female superintendent?”) or comparing groups (e.g., “How do female principals
and superintendents compare in their alienation?”). This comment is not to suggest that
researchers may not explore comparisons or relationships in qualitative inquiry. Comparisons and relationships may emerge as the data analysis proceeds as in grounded
theory, the relating of categories of information to form propositions or hypotheses, but
the qualitative inquirer begins with a single idea, focus, or concept to explore before
gathering data.
A picture might best express the differences between explaining and predicting
variables in quantitative research and exploring a central phenomenon in qualitative
research. As shown in Figure 4.7, one way to visualize this difference is by contrasting
the explanation of an outcome (or dependent variable) by an independent variable (on
FIGURE 4.7
How Researchers Explain or Predict Variables versus Exploring or Understanding
a Central Phenomenon
Explaining or Predicting Variables
X Y
The independent variable (X )
influences a dependent
variable (Y )
Y
In-depth understanding of Y;
external forces shape and
are shaped by Y
Understanding or Exploring a Central Phenomenon
Quantitative Qualitative
130 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
the left of the fi gure) with the different image for a central phenomenon (on the right
side of the fi gure). Rather than using cause-and-effect logic as in quantitative research,
the qualitative researcher seeks to explore and understand one single phenomenon, and
to do so requires considering all of the multiple external forces that shape this phenomenon. At the beginning of a study, the qualitative researcher cannot predict the nature of
external forces (i.e., Which ones will be important? How will they exercise infl uence?).
The arrows about forces shaping the central phenomenon are multidirectional. If it is
helpful for you to understand the differences better from a quantitative perspective,
consider the central phenomenon in qualitative research to be a single variable that you
would like to explore.
Emerging Processes in Qualitative Research
Another central component about purpose statements and research questions in qualitative inquiry is that these statements and questions may change during the research process. Qualitative research is an emerging design. An emerging process indicates that the
intent or purpose of a study and the questions asked by the researcher may change during the process of inquiry based on feedback or responses from participants. Questions
and purposes may change because the qualitative inquirer allows the participants to set
the direction, and in doing so, the researcher learns the participants’ views rather than
imposing his or her own view on the research situation. One question often asked is if
this means that you will be asking different questions of different people in your study.
This may well be the case in qualitative research. Remember that the intent of qualitative
research is to understand and explore the central phenomenon, not to develop a consensus of opinion from the people you study.
An illustration of the emerging process is shown in Figure 4.8. As you can see, the
process of asking questions is a dynamic process. Researchers may start with initial questions, shape them during initial data collection, and further change them because of
multiple visits to the fi eld to gather data. Revisions may continue throughout both data
collection and analysis in a qualitative project. During this process, the overall direction
FIGURE 4.8
Emerging Questions in Qualitative Research
Example
Initial,
organizing
questions
Start of Project
What are high
school students’
experiences with
smoking tobacco?
Initial Data Collection
Shaped questions
Where do they
smoke at or near
the high school?
Continued Data Collection
Further
shaped
questions
When they try
to quit smoking,
where does this
occur at or near
the school?
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 131
of the study will change, and authors will rewrite their purpose statement and research
questions.
In the example illustrated by Figure 4.8, the researcher may begin with the general
question about the experiences high school students have with smoking tobacco. During the initial interviews, the students may discuss locations where they often smoke,
such as in front of the apartment complex across the street from the school or in the
neighborhood park adjacent to the school. The researcher then focuses direction by asking questions that are more detailed about where students smoke. Then through more
in-depth questioning, some students begin discussing their attempts to quit smoking and
how friends aide or thwart these attempts in the neighborhood park near the school.
The questions change as the researcher delves deeper into the central phenomenon of
high school students and smoking. Remember that the intent of qualitative research is to
establish the detailed meaning of information rather than to generalize the results and
standardize the responses from all participants in research.
Writing Qualitative Purpose Statements
Inquirers refl ect both the nature of an emerging process and the central phenomenon in
qualitative purpose statements and research questions. As a major signpost in a study,
care needs to be given to writing a good purpose statement that refl ects the direction of
the study.
A purpose statement in qualitative research indicates the intent to explore or
understand the central phenomenon with specifi c individuals at a certain research site.
In quantitative research, inquirers write this purpose statement as a single sentence and
typically include it in a study at the end of the introduction.
Guidelines
As you design this statement, be sure to:
◆ Use key identifi er words to signal the reader, such as “The purpose of this
study is . . .”
◆ Consider mentioning that the study is “qualitative” since audiences may not be
familiar with qualitative research.
◆ Become familiar with qualitative research designs, and indicate the type of research
design you plan to use in your study.
◆ State the central phenomenon you plan to explore.
◆ Use words that convey intent about the exploration, such as explore, discover,
understand, and describe.
◆ Mention the participants in the study.
◆ Refer to the research site where you will study the participants.
Sample Script
You can use these elements in a script for writing a qualitative purpose statement. A script
for a qualitative purpose statement is:
The purpose of this qualitative study will be to ( explore/discover/understand/
describe) ( the central phenomenon ) for (participants) at ( research site ).
If we apply this script in the study of Internet classroom learning, we get:
The purpose of this qualitative study is to describe classroom learning using the
Internet for fi ve high-school students participating in a sign language class.
132 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
If we analyze this example, we fi nd:
The central phenomenon: classroom learning using the Internet
The participants: fi ve high-school students
The research site: a class in sign language at X high school
What would be the purpose statement for Maria’s study? It might be:
The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore the experiences with weapons of
fi ve high school students in the school district.
Look at this statement carefully. Can you identify the central phenomenon, the participants, and the research site? Write these down on a sheet of paper and share them
with others.
Writing Qualitative Research Questions
Research questions in qualitative research help narrow the purpose of a study into specifi c questions. Qualitative research questions are open-ended, general questions that
the researcher would like answered during the study.
Guidelines
The following general guidelines can help you design and write these questions [also,
see Creswell (1998; 2009)]:
◆ Expect your qualitative questions to change and to emerge during a study to refl ect
the participants’ views of the central phenomenon and your growing (and deeper)
understanding of it.
◆ Ask only a few, general questions. Five to seven questions are enough to permit
the participants to share information. Using only a few questions places emphasis
on learning information from participants, rather than learning what the researcher
seeks to know.
◆ Ask questions that use neutral, exploratory language and refrain from conveying an expected direction (or nondirectional outcome if you are thinking like a
quantitative researcher). For example, use action verbs such as generate, discover,
understand, describe, and explore instead of words conveying cause-and-effect
relationships, such as affect, relate, compare, determine, cause, and infl uence.
◆ Design and write two types of qualitative research questions: the central question
and subquestions.
The Central Question
The central question is the overarching question you explore in a research study. To
arrive at this question, consider stating the most general question you can ask. The intent
of this approach is to open up the research for participants to provide their perspectives
and not to narrow the study to your perspective. When you write this question, place it
at the end of the introduction to your study, and state it as a brief question. If you are
more comfortable thinking about this question from a quantitative perspective, consider
it as a single, descriptive question, such as a single dependent variable.
When designing and writing this central question, several strategies may be helpful:
◆ Begin with the word how or what rather than why so that you do not suggest probable cause-and-effect relationships as in quantitative research (i.e., “why” something infl uences something) but instead suggest exploration in qualitative research.
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 133
◆ Specify the central phenomenon you plan to explore.
◆ Identify the participants in the study.
◆ Mention the research site for the study.
Because the participants may have already been mentioned in your purpose statement,
you do not need to repeat this information for your central question when you include
both a purpose statement and a central question in a study.
A Sample Script
A script for a central research question that combines these elements is:
What is ( the central phenomenon ) for ( participants) at ( research site )?
The following example illustrates the application of this script to the study of creativity:
What is creativity for fi ve students at Roosevelt High School?
Beginning word: “What”
Central phenomenon: creativity
Participants: fi ve students
Research site: Roosevelt High School
Now consider Maria’s research study. Write down the central question she might use
in her study incorporating the three major elements: a central phenomenon, participants,
and the research site.
Let’s visit some of the challenges inherent in writing the central question. You may
need to educate others about this question, especially if they are quantitative researchers
and trained to “narrow down” questions and not to think in the exact opposite direction of stating the most general question possible. Also, you need to write the central
question in such a way that it provides some direction for the study but does not leave
the direction wide open. When a central question is too open, readers and audiences
for a study will not have enough information to understand the project. Alternatively,
when the central question is too specifi c or too laden with assumptions, it does not offer
enough latitude for participants to express themselves, and it can shape too dramatically
the views of participants in one direction or another.
In Table 4.3, several specifi c examples illustrate central questions stated in terms
that are too general, too focused, or too laden with assumptions. First a poor example
is given, followed by a better, improved version. In the fi rst example, the author states
a central question so broadly that readers and audiences do not understand the central
TABLE 4.3
Problems Typically Found in Central Questions in Qualitative Research
Problems Poor Example of a Central Question Better Example of a Central Question
Too general What is going on here? What is the process being used by the general
education committee at the liberal arts school?
Too focused How did the committee make a curriculum
decision about a course on the environment?
What is the process of the curriculum
committee in making decisions about courses?
Too laden with
assumptions
How did the curriculum committee address its
alienation from the college administration?
What was the role of the college administration
in the curriculum committee’s deliberations?
134 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
phenomenon under study. This situation often occurs when qualitative researchers take
too literally the concept of open-ended questions to mean “anything goes.”
In the second example, the author focuses the question too much. By asking about
specifi c activities on a committee, the researcher may miss the larger process at work in
the committee and lose important information for the research report. In the fi nal example, the researcher starts with the assumption that the committee is “alienated” from the
college administration. Although this may be the case, the specifi cation of a direction
may limit too much what the inquirer can learn from a situation. To open the situation by
asking about the “role of the college administration” includes the possibility that the role
may be alienating, supportive, or may serve some in-between role.
Subquestions
In addition to a central question, qualitative researchers pose subquestions. These subquestions refi ne the central question into subquestions to be addressed in the research.
These subquestions possess the same qualities as central questions (i.e., open ended,
emerging, neutral in language, and few in number), but they provide greater specifi city to
the questions in the study. Preliminary conversations or interviews with your participants
can provide useful leads for these subquestions. Writers refer to these subquestions as
issue and procedural subquestions (Creswell, 2007; Stake, 1995), as shown in Table 4.4.
Issue Subquestions Issue subquestions are questions that narrow the focus of the central question into specifi c questions (or issues) the researcher seeks to learn from participants in a study. A script for an issue subquestion is:
What is ( the subquestion issue ) for ( participants—optional information) at
(research site —optional information).
If you state the participants and research site in the central question or purpose statement, you do not need to repeat them in the subquestions. You would state the subquestions immediately after the central question as follows:
What is self-esteem for high school students? (central question)
What is self-esteem as seen through friends? (subquestion)
TABLE 4.4
Types of Subquestions in Qualitative Research
 Issue Subquestions Procedural Subquestions
Intent To subdivide the central question into detailed
questions
To subdivide the central question into steps for
data collection during the study
Example Central Question: Central Question:
What does it mean to be a professional teacher?
Issue Subquestions:
What do professional teachers do?
What is diffi cult/easy about being a professional
educator?
When did the teacher fi rst become aware of being
a professional?
What is the change process in the revision of
a general education curriculum on a college
campus?
Procedural Subquestions:
How did the process unfold?
Who were the people involved?
What events occurred?
What was the outcome?
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 135
What is self-esteem for the participant’s family? (subquestion)
What is self-esteem as experienced in extracurricular activities in school?
(subquestion)
As these examples illustrate, the central phenomenon, self-esteem, is divided into three
topical areas that the researcher explores.
Procedural Subquestions As an alternative form of writing subquestions, procedural
subquestions indicate the steps to be used in analyzing the data in a qualitative study.
Researchers use this form of writing subquestions less frequently than issue questions
because the procedures for a qualitative study will evolve during a study. To write them,
the researcher needs to know what these steps of analysis will be.
However, if the researcher knows the general steps to be taken later in the analysis,
procedural subquestions can be written. They provide those reviewing a study with a
more precise understanding of the steps than do issue subquestions. A script for writing
procedural subquestions is:
To study this central question, the following questions will be addressed in order
in this study:
(What question will be answered fi rst? )
(What question will be answered second? )
(What question will be answered third? )
To illustrate this script, assume for a moment that the steps in the process of data analysis
will consist of fi rst developing a description of events, followed by the specifi cation of
themes and broad dimensions for understanding the phenomenon. Let’s use the familiar
example of Maria. Maria’s research questions might be:
What are students’ experiences with weapons in high schools? (central question)
What are the categories of experiences of students? (subquestion)
What process occurs that refl ects these experiences? (subquestion)
What propositions or hypotheses refl ect the relationship among the categories?
(subquestion)
These three subquestions trace a procedure for analyzing the data, from identifying categories to tracing a process that students experience to advancing some hypotheses that
test this process. Procedural subquestions help readers visualize the steps to be taken
in data analysis, but they do not provide specifi c material for interview or observation
questions.
Distinguishing Qualitative Research Questions from
Data Collection Questions
Are the types of questions asked during data collection (e.g., conducting interviews or
when observing) the same questions as the subquestions? Yes, the core questions you
ask might be the issue subquestions in your study. You would not ask your central question because that is the overall question you seek to answer with your research. Also,
you would not limit your data collection questions to only issue subquestions. There are
two additional sets of questions that you need to ask, especially in qualitative interviews.
Ask the participants about themselves as your opening question. In this way you break
the ice and encourage them to answer your questions. Also, when you conclude the
interview, you might ask them to suggest individuals that you might visit with to gather
additional data.
136 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
REEXAMINING THE PARENT INVOLVEMENT AND
MOTHERS’ TRUST IN PRINCIPALS STUDIES
In both the parent involvement and the mothers’ trust in principals studies, the authors
use purpose statements and research questions to provide the focus and central direction
for the studies. In the quantitative parent involvement study, Deslandes and Bertrand
(2005) advanced both the purpose statement and the guiding research question in one
succinct paragraph (Paragraph 13). They say:
To examine how the four psychological constructs infl uence parent involvement
decisions across the three secondary grade levels, we posed the following research
question: What are the relative contributions of parents’ role construction, selfeffi cacy, perceptions of teacher invitations, and perceptions of adolescent invitations
to predict parent involvement at home and at school in Grades 7, 8, and 9? (p. 166)
Although the authors implied the site to be studied (i.e., secondary schools), the purpose statement clearly conveys the intent of the study. The research question immediately
follows the purpose statement and it serves to narrow the broad purpose into a narrower
perspective by mentioning the four constructs to be examined. The question also provides more insight about the dependent variable, parent involvement, and the specifi c
grade levels of students to be assessed. We now see in this research question that parent
involvement will be measured in two ways, involvement at home and at school, and that
the authors are interested in learning (and comparing) parent involvement across seventh,
eighth, and ninth grades.
The qualitative mothers’ trust in principals study (Shelden et al., 2010) contains a
purpose statement and research questions (see Paragraphs 14 and 15). It is of note that
they begin with the research question (Paragraph 14) and then pose the purpose under
the Method section (in Paragraph 15). This order is typically reversed in qualitative studies with the logic fl owing from the broad purpose to the narrow research question. Also,
both the purpose statement and the research questions are usually found as the concluding statements in the introduction and not included in the Method section. However their
research question is a good open-ended question:
What are the perspectives of mothers of children with disabilities on trust in
school principals? (p. 161)
Their purpose statement that immediately follows is:
We employed a qualitative research methodology to gain insight into the nature
of trust of mothers of children with disabilities in school principals. (p. 161)
This purpose statement has all of the elements of a good purpose statement: a clear central phenomenon (trust), the participants (mothers), and the research site (the schools in
which principals are located).
KEY IDEAS IN THE CHAPTER
Distinguish among Purpose Statements, Research Questions,
Hypotheses, and Objectives
The primary reason for purpose statements, research hypotheses, and research questions
is to signal the major direction or intent of a study. They are the most important elements
in a study. A purpose statement is a sentence in an educational study that states the
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 137
overall direction or objective of the study. Research questions are questions that focus
the purpose of the study into specifi c areas of inquiry. Hypotheses are statements that
narrow the purpose statement into specifi c predictions about the relationship among
variables.
Know Why These Statements and Questions Are Important
These statements and questions are the major signposts in a research study. They guide
the direction of the data collection and are helpful in understanding the results of the
study. Thus, they need to be stated clearly and concisely. If they are vague, the reader is
lost throughout the study.
Write Quantitative Purpose Statements, Research Questions,
and Hypotheses
To write quantitative purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses, you need
to understand the nature and types of variables. The three primary types of variables are
dependent, independent, and intervening. Types of independent variables are measured,
control, treatment, and moderating variables. In quantitative research, investigators often
test the relationship among variables using theories.
Write Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions
In qualitative research, inquirers seek to explore a central phenomenon and engage in an
emerging process of research. These two elements help inform the writing of qualitative
purpose statements and research questions. A good qualitative purpose statement includes
the central phenomenon, the participants, and the site of the study. Researchers then narrow the purpose statement to two types of qualitative questions: a central question and
subquestions. In the central question the researcher asks the most general question that
can be asked in a study. This central question is then subdivided into subquestions called
issue or procedural subquestions. These questions either subdivide the central question
into topics or they indicate the steps used in analyzing and reporting the data.
USEFUL INFORMATION FOR PRODUCERS OF RESEARCH
◆ Write a purpose statement and either hypotheses or research questions into your
research study.
◆ For a quantitative study, know the differences among the types of variables. Be
able to identify clearly the independent and dependent variables that you plan to
study.
◆ Locate and identify a theory to test that will provide an explanation for the relationship among variables in your research questions and hypotheses.
◆ Write a purpose statement that includes the major elements advanced in this
chapter.
◆ Write either hypotheses or research questions, but not both.
◆ If you write hypotheses, consider whether your statements are directional or nondirectional. Directional hypotheses are more popular today and refl ect a prediction about the expected results of a study resulting from past research.
◆ If you write research questions, use the elements advanced in this chapter.
138 PART II The Steps in the Process of Research
◆ Consider in your questions whether you are trying to describe a single variable, to
relate variables, or to compare groups on a variable.
◆ For a qualitative study, know the signifi cance of a central phenomenon and be
able to identify the phenomenon in your study.
◆ Write one central question and several subquestions using the elements advanced
in this chapter.
◆ Clearly identify your subquestions as either issue or procedural subquestions and
know the difference between the two types.
USEFUL INFORMATION FOR CONSUMERS OF RESEARCH
◆ Look for a purpose statement at the end of an introduction to a study. Phrases
such as “the purpose of” should signal this statement. Alternative phrases might
be “the objective of” or “the intent of.”
◆ In a quantitative purpose statement (or hypotheses or questions), the independent
variable should be stated in the fi rst position, followed by the dependent variable
in the second position. As you examine a study, ask yourself: What outcome is
being predicted in this study? What factors are advanced that might explain this
outcome?
◆ Look for hypotheses or research questions at the end of the introductory section
of a study.
◆ An explanation for how and why the variables are related in hypotheses or
research questions is called a theory or a theoretical rationale. This passage
should advance researchers’ explanations about what they expect to fi nd.
◆ In a qualitative study, look for the central phenomenon that provides a focus for
the inquiry. Authors should state this phenomenon in a few words and it should
represent the focus that the inquirer wants to understand.
◆ Qualitative researchers often pose one central question as the overriding general
issue they wish to explore. Then they advance a small number of subquestions
that either narrow the focus to specifi c topics or advance procedural steps to be
used in their data analysis.
UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS AND EVALUATING RESEARCH STUDIES
 1. You have just learned how to identify independent and dependent variables in
quantitative purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses. For each of
the examples below, specify the independent variable(s) (IV) and the dependent
variable(s) (DV) by writing the initials above the words:
 a. What is the relation between parental involvement in education and student
reading performance?
 b. Our purpose in this study was to isolate the elements of accountability in a learning
program and determine if students’ knowledge of accountability relates to changes
in attitudes toward learning.
 c. Low degrees of mutuality, comprehensiveness, gender sensitivity, and congruence
lead to functional mentoring relationships.
 2. Show that you can identify the central phenomenon in qualitative purpose statements
and research questions. In the following examples, place the initials “CP” over the
words indicating the central phenomenon.
CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 139
 a. How are these conceptions of reading played out, or not played out, in the sixthgrade classroom?
 b. In this article, I rely on critical views of culture and power to highlight aspects of
sorority life that contribute to the marginalization and potential victimization of
women.
 c. What are the major sources of academic change in a community college? What
are the major processes through which change occurs?
 3. Label each of the following hypotheses as “directional,” “nondirectional,” or “null.”
 a. Students in a supportive environment are more likely to express willingness to
seek help from the instructor than are students in a nonsupportive environment.
 b. There is no signifi cant difference between students in a supportive environment
and students in a nonsupportive environment in terms of their willingness to seek
help from an instructor.
CONDUCTING YOUR RESEARCH
For the educational project you have chosen to design in earlier chapters, write a quantitative purpose statement and research hypotheses. Also, turn the study into a qualitative
project and write a qualitative purpose statement and central question.
Go to the Topic “Selecting and Defi ning a Research Topic” in the MyEducationLab
(www.myeducationlab.com) for your course, where you can:
◆ Find learning outcomes for “Selecting and Defi ning a Research Topic.”
◆ Complete Assignments and Activities that can help you more deeply understand the chapter content.
◆ Apply and practice your understanding of the core skills identifi ed in the
chapter with the Building Research Skills exercises.
◆ Check your comprehension of the content covered in the chapter by going to
the Study Plan. Here you will be able to take a pretest, receive feedback on
your answers, and then access Review, Practice, and Enrichment activities to
enhance your understanding. You can then complete a fi nal posttest. " i need a summary of that text on hwo to write purpose statement, research questions and hypotheses.