Functions of Nonfinite Clauses
The grammatical functions of nonfinite clauses are the same as those we identified for finite
clauses (nominal, adjectival, and adverbial), but not allforms of clauses can serve allfunctions.
Subject and subject complement. Both to-infinitives (including wh-infinitives) and -ing
participles (gerunds) can function as subject of the sentence. Like finite clauses, nonfinite
subject clauses freely extrapose to the end of the sentence. Examples are as follows:
– Su S¯[PRO To run a small business] is diYcult.
eSu It is diYcult S¯[PRO to run a small business].
– Su S¯[For him to be well prepared] is important.
eSu It is important S¯[for him to be well prepared].
– Su S¯[PRO Running five miles] is exhausting.
eSu It is exhausting S¯[PRO running five miles].
– Su S¯[Jane(’s) running five miles] is impressive.
eSu *It is impressive S¯[Jane’s running five miles].
– Su S¯[What PRO to do [t] with her money] preoccupied her.
eSu It preoccupied her S¯[what PRO to do [t] with her money].
Extraposition is not always possible when the gerund has an explicit subject (as in the fourth
example above). The same forms may also function as subject complements:
Her first job was S¯[PRO selling computers].
What you must do is S¯[PRO rewrite the last paragraph].
Your first task is S¯[PRO to wash the windows].
The question is S¯[where PRO to eat in this town [t]].
-en participles may also function as subject complements:
The cat stayed S¯[PRO hidden under the bed].Complement of A. Both to-infinitives and -ing participles can serve as the complement of an
adjective:
He is happy S¯[PRO attending school].
He is determined S¯[PRO to do well].
We are anxious S¯[for the term to end].
This dessert is easy S¯[PRO to make PRO].
This game is enjoyable S¯[for children to play PRO].
There are two classes of adjectives which take such a complement. With the first class, the
nonfinite clause has a subject PRO controlled by the subject of the upper clause; included in
this class are adjectives like determined, anxious, eager, hesitant, unwilling, furious, happy,
liable, quick, reluctant, likely, bound, afraid, delighted, and able. With the second class, the
nonfinite clause has an object PRO controlled by the subject of the upper clause. Included in
this class are adjectives like diYcult, impossible, easy, hard, tough, tiresome, boring, enjoyable,
and delicious.
17 Note that a to-infinitive clause or -ing participle may serve as subject of a
sentence with one of these adjectives in the predicate; both may also be extraposed:
– Su S¯[PRO {Answering, To answer} all these questions]is tiresome.
eSu It is tiresome S¯[PRO {answering, to answer} all these questions].
Object of P. Only -ing participles (gerunds) can serve as objects of prepositions. Nonfinites can
occur as OPs no matter what the function of the PP as a whole:
– We talked [about S¯[PRO going to a movie]].
PP is complement of V
– You will find the answer [by S¯[PRO turning the page]].
PP is adjunct adverbial (expressing manner)
– The results [of S¯[PRO investing in that stock]] were very good.
PP is modifier of N¯
– He was close [to S¯[PRO finding the answer]].
PP is complement of A
– He was happy [about S¯[Mary(’s) being chosen]].
PP is complement of A
– [With S¯[his parents visiting]], he is too busy to attend class.
PP is adjunct adverbial (expressing reason)
Adverbial. To-infinitives may function as adjunct adverbials (1)–(3), disjunct adverbials
(4)–(5), and conjunct adverbials (6):
1. S¯[PRO To get ahead], you need to work hard.
2. The lecturer used slides S¯[PRO to make the talk more interesting].
3. S¯[For him to win the election], his campaign workers will need to work very hard.
4. S¯[PRO To judge by her reaction], she must be angry.
5. S¯[PRO To tell you the truth], I haven’t completed my assignment.
6. S¯[PRO To change the subject], what are you doing tomorrow night?Both -ing and -en participles may also serve an adverbial function as adjunct adverbials
(7–12), disjunct adverbials (13), and conjunct adverbials (14):
7. S¯[PRO Arriving late], we were not seated until the intermission.
8. S¯[PRO Disappointed by the results], the scientist gave up the project.
9. S¯[The plane arriving late], we missed our connection.
10. S¯[Her fingers being numb], she couldn’t button her coat.
11. S¯[Their home ruined by fire], they had to seek shelter with relatives.
12. S¯[The plot discovered], the conspirators fled.
13. S¯[PRO Generally speaking], I don’t watch television.
14. S¯[PRO Putting it briefly], your computer cannot be repaired.
The nonfinite clauses in (9)–(12), as well as With his parent visiting in the previous section,
have the special name of absolute constructions. They consist of a participle and an explicit
subject (not PRO) and sometimes a preposition. Absolute constructions are thought to have
no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence (hence the term “absolute”).
However, since they generally express the adverbial notion of “circumstance” (cause or time)
or provide added detail to the sentence, we will analyze them as adverbial. In certain cases, a
being participle has been deleted, leaving a predicate PP, AP, or NP: Her head (being) to one
side, she looked at him curiously; Her eyes (being) wide with astonishment, the child watched the
clown; We pitied the victims, many of them (being) children. These are called “small” (or
verbless) clauses. It would seem that the causal meaning in not as strong when being is
omitted (compare His cap being in his hand, he couldn’t hold the box and His cap in his hand,
he left the room), nor is it as strong when the absolute is in mid or final position rather than
initial position (e.g., The participants, some elderly, were very eager; The report is divided into
sections, each devoted to a diVerent aspect of the problem). It might be possible to analyze
absolute constructions with -en participles as having an elliptical being, as in His house now
(being) ruined, he reflected on his future.
18
Modifier of N¯ or of NP. Both -ing and -en participles and to-infinitives can function as
modifiers of N¯ ; that is, they can have a restricted adjectival function. These nonfinite clauses
have at least one element missing; in the case of the -en and -ing participles, the element
missing is always the subject, which is controlled by the immediately preceding noun; for
infinitives, there may be an object PRO:
The letters S¯[for you to mail PRO] are on the counter.
There are lots of mouths S¯[PRO to feed PRO] in that house.
The letters S¯[PRO lying on the counter] are for you to mail.
The book S¯[PRO written by Chomsky] is on the table.
The function of these nonfinite clauses is identical to that of adjectives (including participles)
which precede the noun and of PPs or finite relative clauses which follow the noun. This
equivalency can be seen in the following finite relative clause paraphrases of the above
nonfinite clauses:which you have to feed
which are lying on the counter
which was written by Chomsky
The only diVerence between participial relative clauses and the finite relative clauses is the
presence of the relative pronoun subject which and a form of be.
19 Note that the diVerence
between participial clauses which follow the noun and participles functioning as adjectives which
precede the noun (as discussed in Chapter 7) is the presence of a complement PP. A simple
participle cannot follow the noun, as a complemented participle cannot precede the noun:
the ripped flag *the flag ripped
the flag ripped by the wind *the ripped by the wind flag
Nonfinite clauses may also serve as nonrestrictive adjectives, that is, as modifiers of the NP,
as in the following examples:
Chomsky’s book, S¯[PRO lying on the table over there], is diYcult to read.
Chomsky’s book, S¯[PRO written just last year], is diYcult to read.
He described his one goal in life, S¯[PRO to be a bus driver].
It is sometimes diYcult to distinguish adverbial from nonrestrictive adjectival participial
clauses since both can be moved to the beginning of the sentence:
– Adverbial: Disgusted by the movie, we left. < We left, disgusted by the movie.
– Adjectival: Discussed by everyone in the class, the movie seemed to generate lots of interest.
< The movie, discussed by everyone in the class, seemed to generate lots of interest.
But note that the adverbial clause answers the question “why?” while the adjectival one does
not; the adverbial clause can be replaced by a because clause (“because we were disgusted by
the movie”, but not “because the movie was discussed by everyone”). On the other hand, it
is possible to replace the adjectival participial clause with a relative clause, but the adverbial
clause lends itself less naturally to such a replacement (“the movie, which was discussed by
everyone”, but not “we, who were disgusted by the movie”).
There appears to be a rule — in writing at least — that the PRO of the fronted participial
clause must be controlled by the subject of the matrix clause. If this is not the case, then one
has the error known as a dangling participle,
20 which may sometimes be (unintentionally)
funny, as in:
Being completely untamed, George warned us that the animals were dangerous.
Having worked in the capital, the methods of lobbyists are very familiar to me.
From talking to others, the prevalent opinion favors our cause.
Complement of N¯ . To-infinitives, like that-clauses, may function as complement of N¯
following an abstract noun:– The suggestion [PRO to go home] wasn’t well received.
cf. The suggestion that he go home wasn’t well received.
– We thought it was a good suggestion [for him to leave].
The relationship of the clause to the abstract noun is comparable to that of a direct object to
a verb: We suggested [that he go home]. Just as it was important to distinguish that-clauses
functioning as complement of N¯ from relative clauses (see above), it is important to make the
same distinction here. If the nonfinite clause is functioning as complement of N¯ , it cannot be
replaced by a relative clause: *the suggestion which he go home. Furthermore, the PRO is not
controlled by the head noun: the suggestion [he (*the suggestion) go home]. 한글로 번역해줘