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Linfoma no Hodgkin
Autores
Sumina Sapkota 1 ; Hira Shaikh 2 .
Afiliaciones
1 Facultad de Medicina de Gandaki, Pokhara
2 Centro Médico de la Universidad de Cincinnati
Última actualización: 24 de febrero de 2023 .

Actividad de Educación Continua
El linfoma no Hodgkin es un grupo de neoplasias malignas que se originan en los tejidos linfoides, principalmente los ganglios linfáticos. Estos tumores pueden ser resultado de translocación cromosómica, diversas toxinas, infecciones e inflamación crónica. Esta actividad describe la evaluación y el tratamiento del linfoma no Hodgkin y explica el papel del equipo interprofesional en la evaluación y el tratamiento de los pacientes con esta afección.

Objetivos:

Identificar la etiología del linfoma no Hodgkin.
Evaluar la evaluación del linfoma no Hodgkin.
Evaluar las opciones de tratamiento disponibles para el linfoma no Hodgkin.
Acceda gratuitamente a preguntas de opción múltiple sobre este tema.
Introducción
El linfoma no Hodgkin (LNH) es una neoplasia de los tejidos linfoides que se origina a partir de precursores de células B, células B maduras, precursores de células T y células T maduras. El LNH comprende varios subtipos, cada uno con diferentes epidemiologías, etiologías, características inmunofenotípicas, genéticas, clínicas y respuesta al tratamiento. Se puede dividir en 2 grupos, "indolente" y "agresivo", según el pronóstico de la enfermedad. Las neoplasias de células B maduras más comunes son el linfoma folicular, el linfoma de Burkitt, el linfoma difuso de células B grandes, el linfoma de células del manto, el linfoma de la zona marginal y el linfoma primario del sistema nervioso central (consulte la imagen. Linfoma de células del manto). El linfoma de células T del adulto y la micosis fungoide son los linfomas de células T maduras más comunes. [1]  El tratamiento del LNH varía mucho, dependiendo del estadio del tumor, el grado, el tipo de linfoma y varios factores del paciente (p. ej., síntomas, edad, estado funcional). 

La historia natural de estos tumores muestra una variación significativa. Los linfomas indolentes se presentan con linfadenopatías que aumentan y disminuyen durante muchos años, mientras que los linfomas agresivos tienen síntomas B específicos, como pérdida de peso, sudores nocturnos y fiebre, y pueden provocar la muerte en pocas semanas si no se tratan. Los linfomas suelen tener presentaciones indolentes, como el linfoma folicular, la leucemia linfocítica crónica/linfoma linfocítico de células pequeñas y el linfoma de la zona marginal esplénica. Los linfomas agresivos incluyen el linfoma difuso de células B grandes, el linfoma de Burkitt, la leucemia/linfoma linfoblástico de células precursoras B y T, la leucemia/linfoma de células T del adulto y otros linfomas periféricos de células T. 

Hasta dos tercios de los pacientes presentan linfadenopatía periférica. Las erupciones en la piel, el aumento de las reacciones de hipersensibilidad a las picaduras de insectos, la fatiga generalizada, el prurito, el malestar, la fiebre de origen desconocido, la ascitis y los derrames son características de presentación menos comunes. Aproximadamente la mitad de los pacientes desarrollan enfermedad extranodal (enfermedad extranodal secundaria) durante su enfermedad, mientras que entre el 10 y el 35 por ciento de los pacientes tienen linfoma extranodal primario en el momento del diagnóstico. El linfoma primario del tracto gastrointestinal puede presentarse con náuseas y vómitos, aversión a la comida, pérdida de peso, sensación de plenitud en el abdomen, saciedad temprana y síntomas relacionados con la obstrucción visceral. Los pacientes pueden incluso presentar características de perforación aguda y hemorragia gastrointestinal y, a veces, características del síndrome de malabsorción. El linfoma primario del sistema nervioso central (SNC) puede presentarse con dolores de cabeza, características de compresión de la médula espinal, letargo, déficits neurológicos focales, convulsiones y parálisis (ver Imagen. Linfoma del sistema nervioso central, RMN).

Etiología
El linfoma no Hodgkin puede estar asociado a diversos factores, entre ellos infecciones, factores ambientales, estados de inmunodeficiencia e inflamación crónica. Se han atribuido diversos agentes infecciosos a diferentes tipos de linfoma no Hodgkin.

El virus de Epstein-Barr, un virus de ADN, está asociado con la causa de ciertos tipos de LNH, incluida una variante endémica del linfoma de Burkitt.
El virus de la leucemia de células T humanas tipo 1 (HTLV-1) causa linfoma de células T en adultos. Induce una estimulación antigénica crónica y una desregulación de las citocinas, lo que da lugar a una estimulación y proliferación descontroladas de células B o T.
El virus de la hepatitis C (VHC) produce expansiones clonales de células B. El linfoma esplénico de la zona marginal y el linfoma difuso de células B grandes son algunos subtipos de LNH causados ​​por el VHC.
El virus del herpes humano 8 está asociado con el linfoma de derrame primario (PEL) y es un LNH de células B de alto grado poco frecuente asociado con el sarcoma de Kaposi.
La infección por Helicobacter pylori se asocia con un mayor riesgo de linfomas de tejido linfoide asociados a la mucosa gástrica, un linfoma gastrointestinal primario.
Los fármacos como la fenitoína, la digoxina y los antagonistas del TNF también se asocian con el desarrollo del LNH. Además, los productos químicos orgánicos, los pesticidas, los herbicidas fenoxi, los conservantes de la madera, el polvo, los tintes para el cabello, los disolventes, la quimioterapia y la exposición a la radiación también se asocian con el desarrollo del LNH. [2] [3] 

Los estados de inmunodeficiencia congénita asociados con un mayor riesgo de linfoma no Hodgkin son el síndrome de Wiskott-Aldrich, la enfermedad de inmunodeficiencia combinada grave y los estados de inmunodeficiencia inducida, como los medicamentos inmunosupresores. Los pacientes con SIDA (síndrome de inmunodeficiencia adquirida) pueden tener linfoma primario del sistema nervioso central.

Autoimmune disorders like Sjögren syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, and Hashimoto thyroiditis are associated with an increased risk of NHL. Hashimoto's thyroiditis is associated with primary thyroid lymphomas.[4] Celiac disease is also associated with an increased risk of NHL.

Epidemiology
There are geographical variations in the incidence of individual subtypes, with follicular lymphoma being more common in Western countries and T cell lymphoma more common in Asia. Overall, NHL is common in ages 65 to 74, with the median age being 67 years. Epstein-Barr virus-related (endemic) Burkitt lymphoma is more common in Africa. The endemic variant of Burkitt lymphoma is found in equatorial Africa and New Guinea. The incidence of Burkitt Lymphoma in Africa is approximately 50 times higher than in the United States.[5] The peak incidence in children is between the ages of 4 and 7 years, and the male-to-female ratio is approximately 2 to 1. The sporadic variant of Burkitt lymphoma is seen in the United States and Western Europe. Burkitt lymphoma comprises 30 percent of pediatric lymphomas and <1 percent of adult NHLs in the United States. Sporadic Burkitt lymphoma is more common among White race individuals than in African or Asian Americans, and the majority of patients are male with a 3 or 4 to 1 male: female ratio. 

Mantle Cell Lymphoma consists of about 7 percent of adult NHLs in the United States and Europe, with an incidence of approximately 4 to 8 cases per million persons per year. Incidence increases with age and appears to increase overall in the United States. Approximately three-quarters of patients are male, and people of the White race are affected almost twice as frequently as African Americans. The median age at diagnosis is 68 years.[6][7]

NHL is the fifth most common diagnosis of pediatric cancer in children under the age of 15 years, and it accounts for approximately 7 percent of childhood cancers in the developed world. In the United States, approximately 800 new pediatric NHL cases are diagnosed annually, with an incidence of 10 to 20 cases per million people per year. High-grade lymphomas, such as lymphoblastic and small noncleaved lymphomas, are the most common types of NHL observed in children and young adults. Lymphomas are rare in infants (≤1 percent) and account for approximately 4, 14, 22, and 25 percent of neoplasms in children aged 1 to 4, 5 to 9, 10 to 14, and 15 to 19 years, respectively. There is a male predominance, and whites are more commonly affected than African Americans.

Pathophysiology
NHL arises from B, T, or natural killer cells due to chromosomal translocation or mutation/deletion. Proto-oncogenes are activated by chromosomal translocation and tumor suppressor genes are inactivated by chromosomal deletion or mutation. The t (14;18) translocation is NHL's most common chromosomal abnormality. This translocation is most common in follicular lymphoma. The t (11;14) translocation is associated with mantle cell lymphoma. This results in the overexpression of cyclin D1, a cell cycle regulator. The t (8;14) translocation of c-myc (8) and heavy chain Ig (14) is associated with Burkitt lymphoma. Alteration in BCL-2 and BCL-6 is associated with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Primary CNS lymphoma is mostly associated with HIV/AIDS.[8]

Histopathology
The common histological finding of NHL includes follicular pattern and diffuse pattern. Follicular lymphoma shows a follicular pattern where uniform nodularity is seen throughout the lymph node and little variation in the size and shape of the follicle. The diffuse pattern shows the normal lymph node architecture effaced by the infiltration of small lymphocytes. In Burkitt lymphoma, the lymph node is completely effaced with a monomorphic infiltrate of lymphocytes. There are clear spaces interspersed with reactive histiocytes containing phagocytic debris. Mantle Cell lymphoma can have a histologic pattern of diffuse, nodular, mantle zone, or a combination. Most cases are composed exclusively of small to medium-sized lymphoid cells with slightly irregular or "notched" nuclei. On histologic review, tumor cells are usually monomorphous small to medium-sized B lymphocytes with irregular nuclei. The degree of irregularity is usually, but not always, less than that of the centrocytes found in germinal centers and follicular lymphoma.[9]

History and Physical
Patients present with complaints of fever, weight loss, or night sweats, also known as B symptoms. Systemic B symptoms are more common in patients with a high-grade variant of NHL. More than two-thirds of the patients present with painless peripheral lymphadenopathy. Waxing and waning episodes of lymphadenopathy, along with other symptoms, can be seen in low-grade lymphoma. Patients have different presentations and vary according to the site involved. Clinical features of the patients, according to the subtypes, are:

Burkitt Lymphoma: Patients often have rapidly increasing tumor masses. This type of lymphoma may present with tumor lysis syndrome.

Endemic (African) forms may have jaw or facial bone tumors in 50 to 60 percent of cases. The primary involvement of the abdomen is less common. The primary tumor can spread to extranodal sites like the mesentery, ovary, testis, kidney, breast, and meninges.

The non-endemic (sporadic) form involves the abdomen and presents most often with massive ascites involving the distal ileum, stomach cecum, mesentery, and bone marrow. Symptoms related to bowel obstruction or gastrointestinal bleeding, often having features of acute appendicitis or intussusception, can be seen. Approximately 25 percent of cases involve the jaw or facial bones. If Lymphadenopathy is present, it is usually localized. Bone marrow and CNS involvement are seen in 30 and 15 percent of cases at the time of initial presentation but are more common in recurrent or treatment-resistant diseases.[10] The kidney, testis, ovary, and breast can also be involved.

Patients with immunodeficiency-related Burkitt Lymphoma present according to the signs or symptoms related to the underlying immunodeficiency (eg, AIDS, congenital immunodeficiency, acquired immunodeficiency due to hematopoietic or solid organ transplantation). Immunodeficiency-related cases most often involve lymph nodes, bone marrow, and CNS.

Mantle cell Lymphoma: Most patients with mantle cell lymphoma have advanced-stage disease at diagnosis (70 percent). Approximately 75 percent of patients initially present with lymphadenopathy; the extranodal disease is the primary presentation in the remaining 25 percent.[11] Common sites of involvement include the lymph nodes, spleen (45 to 60 percent), Waldeyer's ring, bone marrow (>60 percent), blood (13 to 77 percent), and extranodal sites, such as the gastrointestinal tract, breast, pleura, and orbit. At presentation, up to one-third of patients have systemic B symptoms, such as fever, night sweats, and unintentional weight loss. 

Gastrointestinal Lymphoma: Usually presents with nonspecific symptoms such as epigastric pain or discomfort, anorexia, weight loss, nausea or vomiting, occult gastrointestinal bleeding, or early satiety.

Primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma: Patients with primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma may present with headache, lethargy, focal neurologic deficits, seizures, paralysis, spinal cord compression, or lymphomatous meningitis.

Involved lymphoid sites should be carefully examined. These include Waldeyer's ring (tonsils, the base of the tongue, nasopharynx), cervical, supraclavicular, axillary, inguinal, femoral, mesenteric, and retroperitoneal nodal sites should be examined. The liver and spleen should be examined. A head and neck examination should be done. Enlargement of preauricular nodes and tonsillar asymmetry suggests nodal and extranodal involvement of the head and neck, including Waldeyer's ring. Orbital structures like the eyelid, extraocular muscles, lacrimal apparatus, and conjunctivae can be involved in the marginal zone, mantle cell lymphoma, and primary central nervous lymphoma (primary CNS lymphoma). Therefore, these structures should be examined.

Mediastinal involvement can be seen in primary mediastinal large B cell lymphoma or due to secondary spread. Patients with mediastinal involvement can present with a persistent cough, chest discomfort, or without any clinical symptoms, but patients usually have an abnormal chest X-ray. Superior vena cava syndrome can be part of the clinical presentation. The involvement of retroperitoneal, mesenteric, and pelvic nodes is common in most histologic subtypes of NHL. Ascites may be present due to lymphatic obstruction, which is usually chylous. About 50 percent of patients may develop extranodal disease (secondary extranodal disease), while 10 and 35 percent of patients have primary extranodal lymphoma at diagnosis.[12] The most common site of primary extranodal disease is the gastrointestinal tract, followed by the skin. Other sites involved with aggressive NHLs at presentation include the testis, bone, and kidney. Rare sites include the ovary, bladder, heart, adrenal glands, salivary glands, prostate, and thyroid. Extra lymphatic disease symptoms are usually associated with aggressive NHL and are uncommon in indolent lymphomas.

Testicular NHL is the most common malignancy involving the testis in men over age 60. It usually presents as a mass and comprises 1 percent of all NHL and 2 percent of all extranodal lymphomas.[13] Epidural spinal cord compression (ESCC) can cause irreversible loss of motor, sensory, or autonomic function. NHL is thought first to involve the paraspinal soft tissues and then invade the cord via the vertebral foramen without causing bony destruction.[14]

Evaluation
Workup in NHL should include the following:

Complete blood count: May show anemia, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, pancytopenia, lymphocytosis, and thrombocytosis. These changes in peripheral blood counts can be due to extensive bone marrow infiltration, hypersplenism from splenic involvement, or blood loss from gastrointestinal tract involvement.
Serum chemistry tests Can help rule out tumor lysis syndrome, commonly found in rapidly proliferative NHL such as Burkitt or lymphoblastic lymphoma (see Image. Burkitt Lymphoma, Lymphoblasts). Lactate dehydrogenase levels can also be elevated due to a high tumor burden or extensive liver infiltration.
Imaging: usually a CT scan of the neck, chest, abdomen, and pelvis or a PET scan. Dedicated imaging might be needed, such as an MRI of the brain and spinal cord or testicular ultrasound. 
Lymph node or tissue biopsy: A lymph node should be considered for a biopsy if 1 or more of the following characteristics are present: significant enlargement, persistence for more than 4 to 6 weeks, and progressive increase in size. Generally, lymph nodes greater than 2.25 cm (ie, a node with biperpendicular diameters of 1.5 x 1.5 cm) or 2 cm in a single diameter provide the best diagnostic yields. Excisional lymph node biopsy is the gold standard for diagnosis. Fine needle aspiration of the lymph node is avoided. An excisional biopsy of an intact node allows sufficient tissue for histologic, immunologic, and molecular biologic assessment and classification by hematopathologists.[15][16] Specific yields of peripheral lymph nodes in patients who are subsequently proven to have NHL are as follows: supraclavicular nodes are 75 to 90 percent, cervical and axillary nodes are 60 to 70 percent, and inguinal nodes are 30 to 40 percent. 
Lumbar puncture: usually reserved in those with a high risk of CNS involvement, ie, highly aggressive NHL (Burkitt lymphoma, diffuse large B cell lymphoma, peripheral T cell lymphoma, grade 3b FL, mantle cell lymphoma, precursor T or B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive NHL), who have epidural, bone marrow, testicular, or paranasal sinus involvement, or at least 2 extranodal disease sites. CSF should be sent for both cytology and flow cytometry.
Immunophenotypic analysis of lymph node: peripheral blood, and bone marrow. The tumor cells in Burkitt lymphoma express surface immunoglobulin (Ig) of the IgM type and immunoglobulin light chains (kappa more often than lambda), B cell-associated antigens (CD19, CD20, CD22, CD79a), germinal center-associated markers (CD10 and BCL6), as well as HLA-DR and CD43Expression of CD21, the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)/C3d receptor, is dependent on EBV status of the tumors. All endemic Burkitt lymphoma cases are EBV positive and express CD21, whereas most non-endemic Burkitt lymphoma in non-immunosuppressed patients are EBV negative and lack CD21 expression. Mantle cell tumor cells express high levels of surface membrane immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgD (sIgM±IgD), more often of lambda light chain type. They also demonstrate pan-B cell antigens (eg, CD19, CD20), CD5, and FMC7. Nuclear staining for cyclin D1 (BCL1) is present in >90 percent of cases, including those that are CD5 negative.
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy are sometimes needed to stage the NHL. However, their utility is decreasing with the widespread use of PET scans.
Treatment / Management
Treatment of NHL is based on the type, stage, histopathological features, and symptoms. The most common treatments include chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, stem cell transplant, and, in rare cases, surgery. Chemoimmunotherapy, i.e., rituximab, is most commonly used in combination with chemotherapy. Radiation is the main treatment for early-stage (I, II). Stage II with bulky disease, stage III, and IV are treated with chemotherapy along with immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and, in some cases, radiation therapy. Treatments, according to the type of lymphoma, are listed below:

B Cell Lymphoma

Diffuse Large B cell lymphoma: In Stage I or II, the R-CHOP regimen is often given for 3 to 6 cycles, with/without radiation therapy to the lymph node that is affected. In stage III or IV, 6 cycles of R-CHOP is the preferred treatment. Imaging tests such as PET/CT scans are done to evaluate treatment response after 2-4 cycles. Intrathecal chemotherapy or high doses of methotrexate intravenously is given to patients in the presence or at high risk of central nervous system involvement. For "Double-hit" lymphomas, that is, with translocations of MYC and BCL2 or BCL6 as detected by FISH or standard cytogenetics, DA-EPOCH-R is preferred. Refractory or relapsed diffuse large B cell lymphoma can be treated with a salvage regimen followed by bone marrow transplant for eligible patients or Chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T) cell therapy.[17] CAR-T therapy is a form of immunotherapy in which the patient's T lymphocytes are genetically modified with a gene that encodes a CAR that targets the patient's cancer. CAR-T therapy has shown effectiveness against refractory CD19-expressing B lymphoid malignancies.[18]

Follicular lymphoma: This type of lymphoma has an indolent nature, and it shows a good response to treatment but is quite difficult to cure. Relapse is usually common after several years. Patients with low-burden disease can be observed, and treatment deferred unless symptomatic. The preferred treatment in stage I and stage II in the early stage is radiotherapy. Chemotherapy, along with a monoclonal antibody, is another option. Treatment in stage III, IV, and bulky stage II lymphoma includes a monoclonal antibody (rituximab or obinutuzumab) and chemotherapy. Among the chemotherapy options, bendamustine or a combination regimen such as CHOP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone) or CVP (cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone) are commonly used. After the response to initial treatment, the role of maintenance therapy is conflicting.

Mantle cell lymphoma: Mantle cell lymphoma with multiple areas of involvement is commonly treated with aggressive chemotherapy plus rituximab in eligible patients. Intense chemotherapy regimens such as R-Hyper-CVAD regimen (cyclophosphamide, vincristine, doxorubicin (Adriamycin), and dexamethasone, alternately given with high-dose methotrexate plus cytarabine) + rituximab, alternating RCHOP/RDHAP (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone)/(rituximab, dexamethasone, cytarabine, cisplatin), NORDIC regimen (dose-intensified induction immunochemotherapy with rituximab + cyclophosphamide, vincristine, doxorubicin, prednisone [maxi-CHOP]) alternating with rituximab + high-dose cytarabine, or RDHAP (Rituximab, dexamethasone, cytarabine, cisplatin). After the response to initial chemotherapy, high-dose therapy followed by autologous stem cell transplantation is undertaken in eligible patients. This is typically followed by maintenance of rituximab for 3 years. 

Burkitt lymphoma: This is a very fast-growing lymphoma. Some examples of chemo regimens used for this lymphoma include Hyper-CVAD (cyclophosphamide, vincristine, doxorubicin [Adriamycin], and dexamethasone) alternating with high dose methotrexate and cytarabine (ara-C) + rituximab, CODOX-M (cyclophosphamide, vincristine [Oncovin], doxorubicin, and high-dose methotrexate) alternating with IVAC (ifosfamide, etoposide [VP-16], and cytarabine [ara-C]) + rituximab, or Dose adjusted EPOCH (etoposide, prednisone, vincristine [Oncovin], cyclophosphamide, and doxorubicin) + rituximab.[19] Intrathecal methotrexate is given when there is evidence of brain and spinal cord involvement. Tumor lysis syndrome is common in Burkitt lymphoma. Therefore, tumor lysis syndrome prophylaxis and monitoring are required. 

Primary CNS lymphoma: The most effective treatment is a high-dose methotrexate-based chemotherapy regimen. If the patient achieves a complete response to initial chemotherapy, high-dose therapy followed by autologous stem cell transplantation should be considered for eligible patients.

T Cell Lymphoma

Anaplastic large cell lymphoma: This rapidly growing lymphoma mainly affects the lymph nodes. Brentuximab vedotin + CHP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone) is preferred. Other regimens include CHOP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone) or CHOEP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, etoposide, and prednisone).

Adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma: It is linked to infection with the HTLV-1 virus. There are 4 subtypes, and treatment varies depending on the subtype. Smoldering and chronic subtypes grow slowly. These often do not require treatment. If treatment is needed, interferon and the antiviral drug zidovudine to treat HTLV-1 infection, or skin-directed therapy if the skin is involved. The acute subtype is treated with either antiviral treatment or chemotherapy (typically the CHOP regimen). If it responds to chemotherapy, consider an allogeneic stem cell transplant. This lymphoma subtype is often treated with chemotherapy; antiviral therapy is not helpful for this subtype. It may involve the brain and spinal cord; therefore, intrathecal chemotherapy is given.

Enteropathy-associated T cell lymphoma: This is highly associated with celiac disease. Combination chemotherapy is preferred. Patients should be evaluated for surgery at the diagnosis, before chemotherapy or radiation, because they are at high risk of perforation or intestinal blockage (obstruction). A stem cell transplant may be an option if the lymphoma responds to chemotherapy.

Other

HIV-associated lymphoma: Patients with HIV tend to have more aggressive forms of lymphoma, such as diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, primary CNS lymphoma, or Burkitt lymphoma. The use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) to treat HIV in addition to chemotherapy±immunotherapy is usually employed. 

Some exceptions in the treatment of lymphomas can be found here:

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma of the stomach: If infection with Helicobacter pylori is present and the lymphoma is confined to the stomach and peri-gastric lymph nodes, treatment with antibiotics and Histaminic (H2) blockers can eliminate the organism-related antigenic stimulus, and the lymphoma may regress permanently.

Mycosis fungoides: This type of T-cell lymphoma of the skin usually has a very indolent course and is best treated with skin-directed treatments, including topical steroids, topical retinoids, skin irradiation, psoralen-associated ultraviolet exposure, topical chemotherapy. If the patient experiences failure with skin-directed therapies, they can use systemic biologic therapies.

Differential Diagnosis
Medical conditions mimicking symptoms similar to NHL are:

Hodgkin lymphoma
Epstein Barr virus infection
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Intussusception
Appendicitis
Toxoplasmosis
Metastasis from the primary tumor (eg, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, soft tissue sarcoma)
Malignancies or lymphoproliferative disorders like granulocytic sarcoma and multicentric Castleman disease.
Mycobacterial and other bacterial infections cause benign lymph node infiltration and reactive follicular hyperplasia.
Diseases mentioned above may have localized or generalized lymphadenopathy and should be differentiated from NHL. Whenever the diagnosis is confusing and unclear, a second opinion from expert hematopathologists should be considered before treatment. Flow cytometry and cytogenetics can help differentiate various conditions.

Radiation Oncology
Radiation therapy is recommended in the following situations: 

Early-stage (stage I or II): Radiation therapy is given alone or in combination with chemotherapy. 
Advanced and aggressive lymphomas: Usually, chemotherapy is the mainstay of treatment. However, radiation can be employed for palliation purposes, eg, pain and lymphadenopathy causing urinary/gastrointestinal tract obstruction.
Radiation therapies are given for several weeks and are mostly given 5 days a week if given for treatment. Palliative radiation is usually shorter.

Toxicity and Adverse Effect Management
Complications following treatment vary depending on the type of chemotherapy used and if radiation or surgery were used as adjunctive measures. Common adverse events of chemotherapy include myelosuppression, neutropenic fever, and immunosuppression. Myelosuppression is treated with transfusions (red cells and platelets) or colony-stimulating factors (eg, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor). Neutropenia increases the risk of infections from bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Management is dependent on the degree of neutropenia and whether it is febrile. Patients are also susceptible to infections like Varicella and herpes zoster. Post-exposure prophylaxis is given against varicella-zoster infection.

Multiple chemotherapeutic agents induce nausea and vomiting. Usually, anti-emetic serotonin receptor antagonists or benzodiazepines, among other agents, are used for treatment and prophylaxis. Anthracycline can cause cardiotoxicity, especially doxorubicin. Dexrazoxane has shown significant benefits in anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity. Radiotherapy can also cause heart failure, but the mechanism is different from that of chemotherapy. It causes diffuse fibrosis in the interstitium of the myocardium and progressive fibrosis of pericardial layers, cells in the conduction system, and the cusps or leaflets of the valves. The left ventricular ejection fraction is usually preserved. Vincristine can cause neurotoxicity.

Long-term fatigue is a common symptom present in two-thirds of survivors of NHL. Fatigue usually improves the year after treatment completion, but many patients continue to experience fatigue for months or years after treatment. The risk of developing a second malignancy is increased in long-term survivors of NHL. The risk of developing a second malignancy differs depending upon the subtype of NHL and the treatment received. The risk of developing myelodysplastic syndrome and acute myeloid leukemia is high. The risk of developing lung cancer and cutaneous melanoma was increased among survivors of follicular lymphoma. Depending on the area of radiation, patients can develop squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck and breast cancer. 

Radiation to the neck and mediastinum can result in hypothyroidism. Patients undergoing hematopoietic cell transplantation with total body irradiation conditioning were documented to suffer from growth hormone deficiency, hypogonadism, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia. NHL survivors are at risk for developing endocrine abnormalities such as gonadal dysfunction and hypothyroidism. Cytotoxic agents and radiation therapy can produce gonadal dysfunction in both males and females. Fertility preservation should be offered to all. Options include freezing (cryopreservation) of embryos, oocytes, and spermatozoa.

Cranial irradiation, a history of intrathecal chemotherapy, older age at the time of treatment, and hematopoietic cell transplantation can lead to neurologic and psychiatric complications like post-traumatic stress disorder. Patients treated with an anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody (rituximab) risk developing progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). All patients at increased risk should undergo screening for neurocognitive impairment so that appropriate occupational therapy and social services referrals may be made.

Staging
The Lugano classification is the current staging used for patients with NHL. It is based on the Ann Arbor staging system, originally developed for Hodgkin lymphoma in 1974 and modified in 1988. This staging system is based on the number of tumor sites (nodal and extranodal) and their location.

Stage I refers to NHL involving a single lymph node region (stage I) or a single extra lymphatic organ or site (stage IE) without nodal involvement. A single lymph node region can involve 1 node or a group of adjacent nodes.
Stage II refers to 2 or more involved lymph node regions on the same side of the diaphragm (stage II) or localized involvement of an extra lymphatic organ or site (stage IIE).
Stage III refers to lymph node involvement on both sides of the diaphragm (stage III).
Stage IV refers to the widespread involvement of 1 or more extra lymphatic organs, such as the liver, bone marrow, and lung, with or without associated lymph node involvement.
The subscript "E" is used if the limited extranodal extension is noted; the more extensive extranodal disease is categorized as stage IV. Spleen involvement is considered nodal rather than extranodal. 

Prognosis
The prognosis of NHL mainly depends on histopathology, the extent of involvement, and patient factors. The International Prognostic Index (IPI) and its variants are the main prognostic tools in patients with NHL. It helps to determine overall survival after standard-of-care treatment. IPI is assessed by age>60 years, Serum LDH above normal, Eastern Cooperative oncology group performance status more than or equal to 2, clinical stage III or IV, and >1 extranodal involvement. One point is given for each factor, a total score from (0 to 5), which determines the degree of risk. These are classified as low risk (0-1 adverse factor), Intermediate risk (2 adverse factors), and poor risk (3 or more adverse factors). Congenital or acquired immunodeficiency states are associated with an increased risk of lymphoma, and response to therapy is poor.[20] IPI has been modified for most of the NHL for better assessment of prognosis, eg, FLIPI for follicular lymphoma, MIPI for mantle cell lymphoma, and so on. Patients with aggressive T- or NK cell lymphomas usually have a worse prognosis. Patients with low-grade lymphomas have increased survival, usually 6 to 10 years. However, they can have the transformation into high-grade lymphomas.

Complications
Life-threatening emergent complications of NHL should be considered during the initial workup and evaluation. Early recognition and prompt therapy are critical for these situations, which may interfere with and delay treatment of the underlying NHL. These can include:

Febrile neutropenia
Hyperuricemia and tumor lysis syndrome - Presents with fatigue, nausea, vomiting, decreased urination, numbness, tingling of legs, and joint pain. Laboratory findings include increased uric acid, potassium, creatinine, and phosphate and decreased calcium levels. This can be prevented with vigorous hydration and allopurinol.
Spinal cord or brain compression
Focal compression depending on the location and type of NHL - airway obstruction (mediastinal lymphoma), intestinal obstruction and intussusception, ureteral obstruction
Superior or inferior vena cava obstruction
Hyperleukocytosis
Adult T-cell leukemia-lymphoma can cause hypercalcemia.
Pericardial tamponade
Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma with Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia can cause hyperviscosity syndrome.
Hepatic dysfunction[21]
Venous thromboembolic disease[22]
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia and thrombocytopenia - can be observed with small lymphocytic lymphoma
Deterrence and Patient Education
The patient should receive detailed information on all the available treatment options, adverse effects of chemotherapy, and their treatment options and prognosis. The patient should be informed about oncologic emergencies requiring an emergency department visit. Patients dealing with anxiety and depression should be referred for psychosocial counseling. Lifestyle modifications, including smoking cessation, healthy diet, exercise, and no more than moderate alcohol consumption, are important for cancer survivors.[23][24] They have been shown to improve patient quality of life, risk of recurrence, and possibly mortality. Therefore, patients should be encouraged to adopt healthy habits. Long-term survivors should be educated on secondary malignancies, cardiovascular complications, etc.

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes
During treatment, NHL patients adjust to working closely with a multidisciplinary team that often includes medical oncologists, radiation oncologists, mid-level practitioners, nurses, and others. Communication among the healthcare team is essential for providing excellent care to the patient. The involvement of the patient's primary care physician (PCP) continues during treatment and after the patient completes the treatment, as the PCP often has a longstanding and important relationship with the patient that predates the patient's lymphoma diagnosis. The follow-up of cancer survivors can be discussed among the PCP, medical oncologist, and other cancer specialists. The type of cancer and treatment exposures, comorbidities, and other factors determine decisions regarding the need for shared care, mostly oncology care or transitioning to primary care. For example, head and neck survivors would best benefit from multi-specialty and multidisciplinary follow-up care. Also, specialty care may be required for some patients. For example, rehabilitation providers may be important in preventing and managing symptoms and late effects while uplifting survivor health and well-being.

The roles and responsibilities for survivorship care should be well-described for patients and their providers, particularly during transitions. For the patients, the survivorship care plan can guide the transition from oncology to primary care settings. The oncology team establishes the survivorship care plan with the completion of treatment, which is meant to be shared with the patient and his or her providers, including the PCP. The survivorship care plans help the patient meet the patient's emotional, social, legal, and financial needs. It includes referrals to specialists and recommendations for a healthy lifestyle, such as changes in diet and exercises and quitting smoking.[25]

The medical oncologist usually follows the patient closely for several years after finishing therapy, and subsequently, the patient transitions back to the PCP. This transition period can be distressing, with miscommunication between even the most well-meaning providers. Establishing a survivorship care plan helps facilitate communication and allocation of responsibility during this period. The patient's attendance at a survivorship clinic can also aid in promoting well-coordinated care. Psychological effects of cancer are common and include depression, anxiety, fatigue, cognitive limitations, sleep problems, sexual dysfunction, pain, and opioid dependence or use disorder. Evaluation of symptoms and management is needed. Financial implications for care must be addressed.

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Disclosure: Sumina Sapkota declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Hira Shaikh declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Figures
Image 800px-Burkitt_lymphomax_touch_prepx_Wright_stain
Burkitt Lymphoma, Lymphoblasts Ed Uthman (Public Domain) via Wikimedia Commons

Mantle Cell Lymphoma
Mantle Cell Lymphoma. High power H&E of mantle cell lymphoma showing monotonous mature lymphocytes with mildly irregular nuclei. A pink histocyte is highlighted by the black arrow. Contributed by D Lynch, MD

Central Nervous System Lymphoma, MRI
Central Nervous System Lymphoma, MRI. A magnetic resonance image of the brain with gadolinium contrast is the recommended first test in the diagnostic workup for patients with suspected primary central nervous lymphoma. Contributed by O Chaigasame, MD

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