Use of Commercial Swine Live Attenuated Vaccine to Control an Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Outbreak in Commercial Cage\-Free Layer Chickens\nThis website uses cookies to provide you with a variety of services and to improve the usability of our website.\n\nBy using the website, you agree to the use of cookies in accordance with our [Privacy Policy.\n\n](/privacy-policy)\nClose\n[!\n\n[About BioOne Publishing](/images/Bio%20One%20Images/Header_sm_BioOne.png)](http://www.bioonepublishing.org/)\n[!\n\n[BioOne Complete Homepage](/images/Bio%20One%20Images/Header_sm_Complete_Logo.png)](/browse/title)\n[!\n\n[](/images/Bio%20One%20Images/BioOne_EBOOKS_ColorLogomark_WhiteText.png)](/browse/ebooks)\nSign In\n[View Cart](/shoppingcart)\n[Help](/help "Help")\nEmail\nPassword\n[Forgot your 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tools](/help/tools-and-features)\n29 April 2019\nUse of Commercial Swine Live Attenuated Vaccine to Control an *Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae* Outbreak in Commercial Cage\-Free Layer Chickens\nRocio Crespo\n,\nMark Bland\n,\nTanja Opriessnig\nAuthor Affiliations \+\nRocio Crespo,\n1,\\nMark Bland,\n2\nTanja Opriessnig\n3,4**\n1 AAvian Health and Food Safety Laboratory, Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Washingto\n2 BCutler and Associates, 3562 Jomar Drive, Napa, CA 94558\n3 CThe Roslin Institute and The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Mi\n4 DDepartment of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine,\n\* Corresponding author.\n\nPresent address: Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, NC 27607\.\n\nE\-mail: <PRESIDIO_ANONYMIZED_EMAIL_ADDRESS>\n[Avian Diseases, 63(3\)](/journals/avian\ndiseases/volume\n63/issue\n3)\n:520\\n524 (2019\).\n\n[https://doi.org/10\.1637/12004\\n112118\\nCase.1](https://doi.org/10.1637/12004\n112118\nCase.1)\nPERSONAL SIGN IN\nFull access may be available with your subscription\nEmail\nPassword\nForgot your password?\n\nShow\nRemember Email on this computer\nRemember Password\nNo BioOne Digital Library account?\n\n[Create an account](#)\nor [Access Institutional Sign In via Shibboleth or OpenAthens](/Account/institutionalsignin?redirect=https%3a%2f%2fbioone.org%2fjournals%2favian-diseases%2fvolume-63%2fissue-3%2f12004-112118-Case.1%2fUse-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an%2f10.1637%2f12004-112118-Case.1.full)\nPURCHASE THIS CONTENT\nPURCHASE SINGLE ARTICLE\nPrice:\n$20\.00\n[ADD TO CART](/shoppingcart?urlId=10.1637/12004\n112118\nCase.1)\nIncludes PDF \& HTML, when available\nThis article is only available to [**subscribers**](/subscribe) .\n\nIt is not available for individual sale.\n\nAccess to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to this BioOne eBook Collection.\n\nYou are receiving this notice because your organization may not have this eBook access.\*\n\*Shibboleth/Open Athens users\-please [sign in](/Account/institutionalsignin) to access your institution's subscriptions.\n\n**Additional information about institution subscriptions can be found** [**here**](/subscribe)\nThis will count as one of your downloads.\n\nYou will have access to both the presentation and article (if available).\n\n[DOWNLOAD NOW](.)\n\nThis content is available for download via your institution's subscription.\n\nTo access this item, please sign in to your personal account.\n\nEmail\nPassword\nForgot your password?\n\nShow\nRemember Email on this computer\nRemember Password\nNo BioOne Digital Library account?\n\n[Create an account](#)\nMy Library\nYou currently do not have any folders to save your paper to!\n\nCreate a new folder below.\n\nCreate New Folder\nSAVE \>\nAbstract\nVaccination is one way to prevent erysipelas in animals at risk.\n\nInactivated vaccines have been developed for use in swine, sheep, and turkeys.\n\nIn turkeys, these vaccines are administered into the subcutaneous tissue.\n\nThe procedure requires training and is labor intensive because it involves subcutaneous injection in the thigh fold.\n\nFurthermore, the manufacturer recommends a 2\-dose regimen for birds, because single\-dose vaccination with an inactivated bacterin may not provide full protection.\n\nHowever, administering the vaccine twice to cage\-free pullets or laying hens is not practical and stressful for the birds.\n\nOnly one company in the United States has an approved live vaccine for prevention of *E. rhusiopathiae* in turkeys.\n\nHowever, there is limited information of the effectiveness of this vaccine.\n\nThis report summarizes detection of *Erysipelothrix* spp.\n\nusing the established Food and Drug Administration (FDA) protocol for collection of environmental samples for *Salmonella* detection ( [6](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr06) ).\n\nFurthermore, off\-label use of an attenuated pig vaccine delivered in the drinking water to control an erysipelas outbreak in chicken is also described.\n\n## CASE REPORT\n**Flock history.\n\n** On a commercial layer operation with a total of 38 houses, three separate cage\-free commercial layer flocks from two unrelated houses on the same complex experienced a sudden increase in mortality and drop in egg production.\n\nThe first outbreak occurred in 2016 when the flock (OB2016\) was 75 wk of age.\n\nDue to the threat of avian influenza (AI) virus from wild birds, OB2016 did not have access to the outdoors.\n\nThe second outbreak occurred a year later, in 2017, in a different house (OB2017\), when the birds were 40 wk of age, and this flock had outdoor access ( [Fig.\n\n1](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#f01) ).\n\nThe third outbreak occurred in 2018, in the same house as the first outbreak (OB2016\).\n\nThis third flock (OB2018\) was 75 wk old and had access to the outdoors.\n\nThe three flocks were vaccinated using the standard program for the company ( [Table 1](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#t01) ).\n\n## Fig.\n\n1\.\n\nMortality and egg production for flock OB2017\.\n\nBirds were submitted for necropsy in late October 2017\.\n\nThe black line represents the mortality, and the dotted line represents the egg production of the flock.\n\nThe flock was treated with bacitracin three times (arrows with dashed lines) and vaccinated with an swine live attenuated *Erysipelothrix* vaccine via the drinking water (arrows with continuous line).\n\nMortality decreased after vaccination and stayed below 1% (less than 80 birds a day) until the flock was depopulated at 78 wk of age.\n\n[!\n\n[img\nz2\n1_520.jpg](ContentImages/Journals/avdi/63/3/12004\n112118\nCase.1/graphic/WebImages/img\nz2\n1_520.jpg)](ContentImages/Journals/avdi/63/3/12004\n112118\nCase.1/graphic/img\nz2\n1_520.jpg)\n## Table 1\.\n\nVaccination program used on the farm.\n\n[!\n\n[img\nz2\n11_520.gif](ContentImages/Journals/avdi/63/3/12004\n112118\nCase.1/graphic/WebImages/img\nz2\n11_520.gif)](ContentImages/Journals/avdi/63/3/12004\n112118\nCase.1/graphic/img\nz2\n11_520.gif)\n**Necropsy and gross lesions.\n\n** Six carcasses were submitted from OB2016, 16 were submitted from OB2017, and six carcasses were submitted from OB2018 to the Avian Health and Food Safety Laboratory (Puyallup, WA).\n\nThe most common gross lesions in OB2016 and OB2017 cases were hepatomegaly (5 and 15 birds, respectively), splenomegaly (2 and 8 birds), and free yolk in the coelomic cavity (in 5 and 15 birds).\n\nIn flock OB2018, cannibalism was the major finding (5 birds).\n\nThese birds had missing small and large intestine, and oviduct.\n\nIn addition, excess mucus in the trachea without hemorrhage was observed in three birds from flock OB2016\.\n\nIn flock OB2017, mild northern fowl mite ( *Ornithonyssus sylviarum* ) infestation was observed in all the submitted birds, and swollen kidneys were noted in most birds.\n\n**Histopathology.\n\n** From all these outbreaks, samples of trachea, lung, heart, liver, spleen, kidney, esophagus, crop, proventriculus, gizzard, small and large intestines, pancreas, ovary, and brain were collected and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for a minimum of 24 hr.\n\nAll tissues were dehydrated in graded alcohols to xylene, embedded in paraffin, sectioned at 4 µm, stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H\&E), and examined by light microscopy.\n\nIn addition, selected sections of liver and spleen were Gram\-stained using modified Brown\-Hopps stain ( [7](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr07) ).\n\nPolyclonal antibody\-based immunoperoxidase ( [8](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr08) ) was used to demonstrate *E. rhusiopathiae* in formalin\-fixed and paraffin\-embedded sections of liver, spleen, heart, kidney, and lung.\n\n**Bacteriology.\n\n** Aseptically collected swabs from liver, spleen, ovary, and peritoneum samples from each flock were inoculated on Columbia blood and Levine EMB agar plates (Hardy Diagnostics, Santa Maria, CA) and incubated aerobically at 37 C for a minimum of up to 48 hr.\n\nCultures were examined for bacterial growth at approximately 24 and 48 hr postinoculation.\n\nBacteria identification was achieved by the API Coryne 2\.0 system (bioMérieux, VWR International, Radnor, PA) according to the manufacturer's instructions and confirmed by MALDI\-TOF mass spectrophotometry (MALDI\-Biotyper, Bruker Daltonics, Billerica, MA; [Table 2](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#t02) ).\n\nThe *Erysipelothrix* spp.\n\nisolates from OB2017 were further characterized by serotyping using an agar gel precipitation test with polyclonal rabbit antisera ( [8](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr08) ) against all 26 known *Erysipelothrix* spp.\n\nserotypes, as described previously ( [9](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr09) , [10](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr10) .\n\n[11](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr11) ).\n\n## Table 2\.\n\nIsolation of *E. rhusiopathiae* from different tissues from affected birds and environmental samples.\n\nBird tissues were plated directly onto blood and EMB agar.\n\nEnvironmental samples were placed into *Erysipelothrix* species\-selective broth overnight and then plated onto blood agar.\n\n[!\n\n[img\nA80_520.gif](ContentImages/Journals/avdi/63/3/12004\n112118\nCase.1/graphic/WebImages/img\nA80_520.gif)](ContentImages/Journals/avdi/63/3/12004\n112118\nCase.1/graphic/img\nA80_520.gif)\nSixteen weeks after the initial isolation of *E. rhusiopathiae* from the OB2017 birds and again 2 wk prior to flock vaccination, environmental samples were collected.\n\nSpecifically, litter and slat samples were collected using 10 × 10\-cm, 12\-ply sterile gauze pads on a string that had been moistened with canned evaporated milk ( [6](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr06) ).\n\nSterile hydra\-sponges with 10 ml of neutralizing buffer (3M, St. Paul, MN) were used to sample manure belts and nests.\n\nNipple drinkers were sampled with swabs moistened in Stuart medium (BD CultureSwab™, Franklin Lakes, NJ).\n\nSamples were placed into *Erysipelothrix* species\-selective broth ( [12](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr12) ) and incubated overnight at 37 C. The selective broth was prepared as follows: 25 g of heart infusion broth (Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ) was dissolved in 1 liter of 0\.1 M phosphate buffer solution (12\.02 g of Na 2 HPO 4 and 2\.09 g of KH 2 PO 4 per liter of distilled water) and autoclaved.\n\nSterile fetal bovine serum (5%; Sigma\-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), kanamycin (400 mg/ml; Sigma\-Aldrich), and neomycin (50 mg/ml; Sigma\-Aldrich) were added to the broth.\n\nAfter the initial incubation, a loopful of each sample was streaked onto Columbia blood agar (Hardy Diagnostics) and incubated at 37 C for 24 hr.\n\nSuspect colonies were confirmed by biochemistry (API Coryne 2\.0 system) and MALDI\-TOF.\n\nIn July 2018, litter and slat samples from previously affected houses as described above were tested on two separate occasions for *E. rhusiopathiae* .\n\nAt the time of testing, replacement flocks were 28 and 30 wk old (houses affected by the OB2016 and OB2018 outbreaks) or 17 and 19 wk old (in house OB2017\).\n\n**Virology.\n\n** Five choanal swabs from each house were pooled into beef heart infusion broth and tested for AI virus and infectious bronchitis (IB) virus by reverse\-transcriptase real\-time PCR ( [13](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr13) , [14](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr14) ) and for infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) virus by real\-time PCR ( [15](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr15) ).\n\nTwo livers from each OB2016 and OB2017 flock were tested for avian hepatitis E virus (aHEV) by reverse\-transcriptase PCR ( [16](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr16) ) at the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory in Iowa State University, Ames, IA.\n\n## RESULTS AND DISCUSSION\nAfter a sudden increase in morbidity and mortality in three different layer houses, part of a larger operation, *E. rhusiopathiae* was isolated from multiple organs of several birds in all three houses ( [Table 2](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#t02) ) and from the environment in flock OB2017\.\n\nHistologic examination of the liver and spleen revealed multifocal random areas of acute, coagulative necrosis ( [Fig.\n\n2a](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#f02) ) with intralesional rod\-shaped Gram\-positive bacteria.\n\nAdditionally, there was accumulation of fibrin and infiltration of heterophils and macrophages in the lungs and kidneys.\n\nIntralesional, rod\-shaped, Gram\-positive bacteria were seen occasionally in these tissues also.\n\nFurthermore, immunohistochemistry revealed *E. rhusiopathiae* organisms in the cytoplasm of macrophages and endothelial cells of the vessels ( [Fig.\n\n2b](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#f02) ).\n\nBacteria aggregates were also found extracellularly in the lumen of the vessels.\n\nAll samples were negative for AI virus and aHEV.\n\nFlock OB2016 was weakly positive for ILT virus, and flock OB2017 was weakly positive for IB virus.\n\n## Fig.\n\n2\.\n\nPhotomicrograph of liver infected with *E. rhusiopathiae* organisms.\n\n(A) H\&E section.\n\nNote the free bacteria in the thrombi.\n\n(B) Immunoperoxidase\-stained section of liver against *E. rhusiopathiae* .\n\nThe bacteria are stained dark\-brown in the cytoplasm of macrophages and endothelial cells of the vessels (black arrows).\n\nThere are also extracellular bacteria aggregates in the lumen of blood vessels (white arrows).\n\n[!\n\n[img\nAYLp_520.jpg](ContentImages/Journals/avdi/63/3/12004\n112118\nCase.1/graphic/WebImages/img\nAYLp_520.jpg)](ContentImages/Journals/avdi/63/3/12004\n112118\nCase.1/graphic/img\nAYLp_520.jpg)\nIt is still unknown how the bacterium was first introduced to the farm.\n\nIt has been suggested that *E. rhusiopathiae* can survive for more than 1 mo outside the host, especially in soil contaminated by previous livestock ( [17](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr17) ).\n\nErysipelas has been known to recur on certain sites that had not been used for livestock for several years ( [18](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr18) ).\n\nHowever, no pigs or sheep have ever been on the premises in this case.\n\nIn fact, only poultry have been raised on the farm for more than 10 yr.\n\nThe *E. rhusiopathiae* strain involved in the OB2017 outbreak was characterized as serotype 1b.\n\nBrisgaard *et al* .\n\n( [19](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr19) ) found serotypes 1, 5, 6, and 9 to be the most prevalent in poultry, but no differentiation between serotype 1a or 1b was made.\n\nSerotype 1b is reported to be one of the most common serotypes found in clinically affected pigs in the United States and United Kingdom ( [20](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr20) , [21](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr21) ).\n\nOnce *E. rhusiopathiae* is introduced, it may spread between poultry houses by contaminated manure, dust, and vermin ( [5](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr05) , [22](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr22) ).\n\nExperimentally, chickens have been infected both intramuscularly and orally ( [23](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr23) ); however, it is still not fully understood how the infection spreads between birds within a laying hen flock.\n\nIt has been suggested that the bacteria pass through broken skin and mucous membranes, and that feather pecking and cannibalism may favor transmission ( [1](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr01) ).\n\nFlocks in free\-range systems appeared to be at a higher risk than flocks in indoor litter\-based systems, while flocks in cages appeared to be at the lowest risk ( [24](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr24) ).\n\nThis could be due to transmission of *E. rhusiopathiae* via wild birds or different disinfection protocols for outdoor *vs* .\n\nindoor operations.\n\nEconomic losses due to *E. rhusiopathiae* septicemia will continue to occur and even increase as more laying chicken flocks are kept cage free.\n\nBecause OB2016 and OB2018 birds were 75 wk of age at the time the *E. rhusiopathiae* was detected, no attempt to treat the birds was pursued, and both houses were depopulated soon after the diagnosis.\n\nAfter the OB2017 birds showed clinical signs and *E. rhusiopathiae* was isolated, the flock was kept under enhanced biosecurity to avoid infecting nearby houses.\n\nThe house was checked at least three times daily, and dead birds were removed promptly.\n\nThe flock was treated several times with bacitracin methylene disalicylate (BMD soluble; Alpharma Inc., Fort Lee, NJ) via drinking water administration.\n\nAfter the first BMD treatment, the mortality decreased slightly for a short period of time.\n\nMortality did not decrease after the second or third course of antibiotics.\n\nUnfortunately, the susceptibility of *E. rhusiopathiae* to BMD could not be determined because this particular antibiotic is not used in routine resistance tests in diagnostic laboratories, and standard values required for interpretation do not exist at this point in time.\n\nThe egg production in the flock continued to be below expectations.\n\nThree months after the initial diagnosis, flock OB2017 was vaccinated with a commercial swine live attenuated vaccine (Ingelvac® ERY\-ALC; Boehringer Ingelheim Vetmedica, Inc., St. Joseph, MO) administered via the drinking water at 1:10 as recommended for swine.\n\nThe vaccine was given twice, 2 wk apart.\n\nOne month after the second vaccination, the mortality dropped to 0\.5% (45 birds) per day.\n\nThe OB2017 flock was depopulated at 78 wk of age.\n\nResults from this investigation indicate that during a clinical outbreak of erysipelas, *Erysipelothrix* spp.\n\ncan be isolated, not only from the birds, but also from a variety of environmental samples.\n\nSimilar results have been demonstrated in other poultry and swine outbreaks ( [12](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr12) , [5](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr05) ).\n\nLitter and slat samples (drag swab samples) were collected using the FDA protocol for detection of *Salmonella* in poultry houses ( [6](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr06) ).\n\nIn our case, *E. rhusiopathiae* was isolated readily from drinker samples.\n\nFrom other environmental samples, although the success rate of isolation was analogous, *E. rhusiopathiae* grew slower, and colonies were mixed with other bacteria.\n\nDrinking water has been proposed as the source of contamination between birds from the same flock ( [5](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr05) ).\n\nAttempts to recover *E. rhusiopathiae* from the environment where clinically healthy poultry were housed were unsuccessful ( [5](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr05) ).\n\nEnvironmental samples collected after the house was cleaned and disinfected, and after replacement flocks were present for several weeks, were all negative for *E. rhusiopathiae* .\n\nNorthern fowl mites were observed in flock OB2017\.\n\n*Dermanyssus gallinae* (red mite) collected from affected flocks has been shown to carry *E. rhusiopathiae* externally and internally, but the reservoir potential of the mite could not be proven ( [25](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr25) , [22](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr22) ).\n\nOn the other hand, *E. rhusiopathiae* has never been isolated from northern fowl mites.\n\nNo mites were collected or tested for this study.\n\nVaccination is one way to prevent erysipelas in animals at risk.\n\nInactivated vaccines have been developed for use in swine, lambs, and turkeys.\n\nIn turkeys, these vaccines are administered subcutaneously.\n\nThe procedure requires training and is labor intensive because it involves subcutaneous injection in the thigh fold.\n\nFurthermore, the manufacturer recommends that birds receive a two\-dose vaccination regime.\n\nSingle vaccination with inactivated vaccines may not provide full protection.\n\nAdministering a vaccine twice to cage\-free pullets or laying hens is not practical.\n\nOnly one U.S. company has an approved live vaccine, to be delivered via the drinking water, for prevention of *E. rhusiopathiae* in turkeys.\n\nHowever, there is no published information on the effectiveness of this vaccine during an outbreak.\n\nIn the current case, mortality was reduced by 30% after the first vaccination with a commercial swine live attenuated erysipelas vaccine and by 90% after the booster vaccination.\n\nFor the remaining flock life span, the mortality, although higher than the expected standard, never went above 1% per day.\n\nHowever, there was an increase in mortality 3 mo after the second vaccination.\n\nIt is possible this increase may have been due to a decrease in protection from the vaccine.\n\nAccording to the manufacturer, the vaccine immunity can last for 4 mo in swine.\n\nFurthermore, the manufacturer of the live turkey *E. rhusiopathiae* vaccine recommends repeating the dosage every 3 wk after initial vaccination.\n\nIn this investigation, the vaccine was used off\-label, and the duration of protection in chickens is unknown.\n\nFurther research is needed to establish whether vaccination timing and/or serotype matching to the field strain may lower mortality further.\n\nSerotype 1a is used in live attenuated swine vaccines ( [21](/journals/avian-diseases/volume-63/issue-3/12004-112118-Case.1/Use-of-Commercial-Swine-Live-Attenuated-Vaccine-to-Control-an/10.1637/12004-112118-Case.1.full#bibr21) ), while the outbreak isolate was characterized as serotype 1b.\n\nIn pigs, it has been demonstrated that serotypes 1a, 1b, and 2 are cross\-protective.\n\nAll three contain the surface protective antigen (Spa) A, which is thought to be most immunogenic target.\n\nIn summary, outbreaks of erysipelas are uncommon in chickens, but because there is an increase in the number of cage\-free flocks, outbreaks are likely to occur more frequently in the future.\n\nThe lack of antibiotics with which to treat the disease requires other prevention methods, such as strict biosecurity and vaccination.\n\nEnvironmental sampling demonstrated that the bacteria were present at every sampled site of the farm, including litter, nests, and drinkers.\n\nMortality was controlled by vaccination.\n\nThorough cleaning and disinfection can reduce or even eliminate *E. rhusiopathiae* from the environment.\n\nThis is the first report of poultry flock vaccination, via drinking water, during an outbreak.\n\nBased on these findings, vaccination with an attenuated *E. rhusiopathiae* vaccine can be used as a treatment to reduce mortality during an outbreak.\n\n#### Abbreviations\nAbbreviations: BMD \= bacitracin methylene disalicylate; FDA \= Food and Drug Administration\n## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS\nThe authors thank the Avian Health and Food Safety Laboratory staff for their technical support.\n\n----------\nAs a professional microbiologist, create a concise and comprehensive Chinese scientific report on Erysipelothrix Spp. research based on the provided text, whether it's an article, post, conversation, or passage. Follow these guidelines:\n\n 1. Produce a detailed and in-depth report that remains clear and concise.\n 2. Focus on main ideas and essential information, removing any extraneous language.\n 3. Strictly rely on the provided text without adding external information.\n 4. Format the report in paragraphs for easy understanding.\n 5. Conclude with “[End of Notes, Message #X],” where “X” represents the total number of messages I’ve sent. Increment the message counter with each new message.\n 6. Use English for technical terms, industry terminology, proper nouns, and species names. After you finish, add the following words: {{{ I_finished_papa!!! }}} to the end of you answer