Summarize the following text to main points and sub-points and make detailed explain for them:

rough duct into 
duodenum 
 
- Endocrine sections of the pancreas 
 
- Islets of Langerhans → produce insulin and glucagon 
- Insulin (produced by β-cells) 
✓ Stimulates glucose 
uptake from 
bloodstream by cells 
✓ Lowers blood sugar level 
✓ Occurs after eating a meal and 
absorbing 
carbohydrates 
- Glucagon (produced by α-cells) 
✓ Stimulates liver to release 
stored glucose 
into 
bloodstream 
✓ Raises blood sugar levels 
✓ Occurs when body needs more glucose 
 
- Also, secrets somatostatin 
secreted by delta cells and 
pancreatic polypeptide 
by γ cells 
 
 
 
 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
➢ Adrenal Glands 
 
 
- Two glands, one located above each kidney 
- Each gland is composed of two sections: 
- Adrenal cortex 
- Adrenal medulla 
 
▪ Adrenal cortex secrets corticosteroids 
- Three different families of corticosteroids 
- Mineralocorticoids 
- Glucocorticoids 
- Steroid sex hormones 
 
- Mineralocorticoid 
✓ Example: aldosterone: Regulates sodium (Na+) 
and potassium (K+) levels 
- Glucocorticoid 
✓ Example: cortisol :Regulates carbohydrates 
- Steroid sex hormones 
✓ Androgens, estrogen, and 
progesterone: Regulate 
secondary sexual characteristics 
 
▪ Adrenal Medulla secretes 
epinephrine 
(adrenaline) and 
norepinephrine (noradrenaline) 
(stress hormones) 
 
- Critical during emergency situations 
- Increases blood pressure 
- Increases heart rate 
Increases respiration rate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
❖ 
Glands located in the pelvis: 
 
➢ Testis 
 
- Two oval glands located in scrotum 
 
- Secrete testosterone 
 
- Testosterone: 
 
• Produces male 
secondary sexual 
characteristics 
• Regulates sperm production 
 
 
 
➢ Ovaries 
 
- Two ovaries located in pelvic cavity of females 
 
- Secrete female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone 
 
- Estrogen is responsible for: 
 
✓ Female sexual characteristics 
✓ Regulation of menstrual cycle 
 
- Progesterone: 
 
Maintains suitable uterine environment for 
pregnancy. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
▪ Endocrine Functions of Other Organs 
 
 
▪ Skin: keratinocytes make cholecalciferol using UV from sun 
 
▪ Liver: involved in the production of at least five hormones 
 
1- Converts cholecalciferol into calcidiol 
 
2- Secretes angiotensinogen (precursor for BP regulation) 
 
3- Secretes 15% of erythropoietin (stimulates bone marrow) 
4- Hepcidin – promotes intestinal absorption of iron 
5- Source of IGF-I that controls action of growth hormone 
 
 
 
▪ Kidneys : Play role in production of three hormones 
 
1
-
 Converts calcidiol to calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D 
2- Secrete renin that converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I 
                                                                ( for regulate blood pressure) 
         3- Produce 85% of  erythropoietin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
 
▪ Heart: Cardiac muscle secretes atrial natriuretic peptides in 
response to an 
increase in blood pressure → ↓ blood pressure 
 
 
 
 
▪ Stomach and small intestine: At least ten enteric hormones that 
coordinate 
digestive motility and glandular secretion 
 
 
 
▪ Adipose tissue secretes: secrets adipocytokines (as leptin) to slow appetite 
 
▪ Osseous tissue: Osteocalcin secreted by 
osteoblasts increases insulin sensitivity of 
body tissues inhibits 
weight gain and 
onset of type II diabetes mellitus 
 
 
 
 
▪ Placenta: Secretes estrogen, progesterone, HCG and  others 
                          regulate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
pregnancy, development of fetus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
 
 
❖ 
Paracrine Secretions 
 
-Paracrines are chemical messengers that diffuse short distances and stimulate 
nearby 
cells (local glands) 
 
- Unlike neurotransmitters, not produced in neurons 
 
- Unlike hormones, not transported in blood 
 
- A single chemical can act as a hormone, 
paracrine, or 
even neurotransmitter in 
different locations 
 
▪ Histamine: From mast cells in connective tissue: 
causes relaxation of blood vessels 
 
▪ Nitric oxide: From endothelium of 
blood vessels, 
causes vasodilatation 
 
 
▪ Somatostatin: From delta cells of islets of 
Langerhans  
                       to inhibits α and cells β cells 
secretions 
 
▪ Catecholamines: Diffuse from adrenal medulla to cortex  
▪ Prostaglandins 
 
- Produced by most body tissues , Act near site of production 
 
- Blood vessel constriction and dilation 
 
- Bronchial constriction and dilation 
 
- Intestinal constriction and relaxation (increased and decreased peristalsis) 
 
- Many additional functions that are not fully understood 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
 
Endocrine system combining form 
 
➢ related to endocrine glands : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
➢ Related to substance: 
 
Kal/i 
Pottasium 
Natr/o 
Sodium 
Calc/o 
Calcuim 
Glyc/o 
Sugar 
 
 
 
 
Adrenal/o 
Adrenal gland 
Adren/o 
Gonad/o 
Sex glands 
Pineal/o 
Pineal gland 
Thyroid/o 
Thyroid gland 
Thyr/o 
Pituitar/o 
Pituitary gland 
Ophthalm/o 
Eye 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
 
 
 
➢ 
Various terms 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Estr/o 
Female 
Andr/o 
Male 
-Crine to 
Secrete 
Crin/o 
-tropin 
-Dipsia 
Thirst 
-prandial 
Relating to meal 
Home-o 
Sameness 
Acr/o 
Extremities 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
 
 
 
➢ Adrenal Gland Pathology 
 
 
✓ Addison's disease :hyposecretion of adrenal cortex; symptoms include 
generalized 
weakness and weight loss 
 
✓ Adrenal feminization : hypersecretion of estrogen by adrenal cortex in males; 
develops female secondary sexual characteristics like gynecomastia 
 
 
 
✓ Adrenal virilism : hypersecretion of testosterone by adrenal cortex in females; 
develops male secondary sexual characteristics 
 
✓ Cushing's syndrome : hypersecretion of adrenal cortex; symptoms include 
weakness, 
edema, excess hair growth, and osteoporosis 
 
 
 
✓ Pheochromocytoma : hypersecretion of epinephrine 
by adrenal medulla tumor; 
usually benign; symptoms 
include anxiety, heart palpitations, dyspnea, and headache 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
 
 
 
➢ Pancreas Pathology 
 
 
✓ diabetes mellitus (DM) : Chronic disorder of carbohydrate metabolism - Results 
in hyperglycemia and glycosuria 
o Two very distinct types: 
▪ insulin-dependent (IDDM) 
▪ non-insulin-dependent (NIDDM) 
 
✓ diabetic retinopathy :accumulation of damage to retina; complication of 
diabetes 
mellitus 
 
✓ peripheral neuropathy :damage to nerves in lower legs and hands as a result of 
diabetes mellitus 
 
 
 
✓ ketoacidosis :acidosis due to excess of acidic ketone bodies; serious complication 
of diabetes mellitus 
 
✓ insulinoma : islet of Langerhans tumor; secretes 
excessive amount of insulin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
 
 
➢ Parathyroid Gland Pathology 
 
 
▪ Tetany : nerve irritability and painful muscle cramps due to 
hypocalcemia; may be 
caused by hypoparathyroidism 
 
▪ Recklinghausen disease : hypersecretion of parathyroid 
hormone; causes 
degeneration of bones 
 
 
 
❖ Pituitary Gland Pathology 
 
▪ gigantism :hypersecretion of growth hormone in child; 
results in 
very tall adult. 
 
▪ Acromegaly : chronic hypersecretion of growth 
hormone in 
adults; causes enlargement of bones of head 
and extremities 
 
▪ dwarfism : hyposecretion of growth hormone in 
children; causes 
short stature 
 
▪ panhypopituitarism : hyposecretion of all pituitary 
hormones; 
results in problems with the glands controlled 
by pituitary gland 
 
▪ diabetes insipidus (DI) :hyposecretion of antidiuretic 
hormone; 
symptoms include polyuria and polydipsia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Presented By :  
  Dr. Tareq Abu-Libdeh 
Endocrine System 
1. ر 
 
 
 
 
 
❖ Thyroid Gland Pathology 
▪ Cretinism :congenital hyposecretion of thyroid; results in poor physical and 
mental development 
 
▪ Goiter : enlarged thyroid gland 
 
 
 
▪ Graves’ disease : hypersecretion of thyroid;  
symptoms include 
exophthalmos and goiter 
 
▪ Hashimoto’s disease :autoimmune destruction of thyroid; 
 
results in hyposecretion disorder 
 
 
 
▪ Myxedema :hyposecretion disorder in 

Summary :