this is my short notes for making proper study material for ssc make sure it all correct and will not miss any imp part that would imp for ssc exam so prepare proper study material with tricks flowcharts  mind maps to visually organize historical events, people, and concepts etc that would easy to learn and if you are not capable to give at once full content so ask me to continue and so on till end "Introduction to Ancient India
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Ancient Indian history encompasses a vast period, from the Stone Age to the early medieval period.
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The study of ancient India relies on both history (written records) and archaeology (excavations and artifacts).
Stone Age in India
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The Stone Age is characterized by the use of stone tools and is divided into three phases:
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Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age): 500,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE
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Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age): 9,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE
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Neolithic Age (New Stone Age): Starting from 7,000 BCE
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Each phase is marked by specific types of tools and technological advancements.
Palaeolithic Age:
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Further divided into Lower, Middle, and Upper Palaeolithic periods.
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Coincided with the Ice Age.
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Sites: Sohan Valley, Belan Valley, Didwana, Nevasa, Hunsagi.
Mesolithic Age:
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Introduction of microliths (small, refined stone tools).
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Early evidence of animal domestication.
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Sites: Adamgarh, Bagor.
Neolithic Age:
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Shift from hunting and gathering to food production (agriculture).
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Mehergarh (Pakistan) is the earliest Neolithic site.
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Other sites: Burzahom, Chirand.
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Cultural practices: pit dwellings, domestication, pottery.
Copper Age (Chalcolithic Age)
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Marked by the use of copper alongside stone tools.
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Known as Tamrapashan Yuga in India.
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Copper mines: Khetri Mines, Malajkhand.
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Chalcolithic cultures are classified regionally.
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Important sites: Ahar, Gilund, Chirand, Nevasa, Daimabad.
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Daimabad is the largest Chalcolithic site.
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Introduction of urn burials.
Bronze Age (Indus Valley Civilization)
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Characterized by the use of bronze.
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Also known as Harappan Civilization.
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Timeline: 2500 BCE to 1750 BCE.
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Spread across northwestern India, Pakistan, and parts of Afghanistan.
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Key Features:
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Urban civilization with planned cities.
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Harappa was the first site discovered.
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Citadel and Lower Town in most cities.
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Chanhu-daro lacked a citadel.
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Dholavira had three parts.
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Grid system of streets and roads.
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Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro.
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Granaries for food storage.
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Sophisticated drainage system.
Agriculture:
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Crops: wheat, barley, rice, cotton.
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Tools: wooden plows.
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Domesticated animals: buffalo, sheep, goats.
Religious Practices:
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Proto-Shiva seal.
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Animal worship: bull, unicorn.
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Tree worship (Peepal tree).
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Mother Goddess worship.
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Fire altars.
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No large temples.
Economic Practices:
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Primarily agrarian economy.
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Trade:
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Extensive domestic and international trade.
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Exports: cotton, beads, ornaments.
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Imports: precious stones, metals.
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Trade with Mesopotamia.
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Standardized weights and measures.
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Industries: bead-making, pottery, metalwork.
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Dockyard at Lothal.
Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization:
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Timeline: Around 1750 BCE.
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Possible Causes:
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Climate change.
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Floods and natural disasters.
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Decline in trade.
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Aryan invasion theory (debated).
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Post-Harappan cultures emerged.
Vedic Age (1500 BCE to 600 BCE)
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Divided into:
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Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period)
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Later Vedic Period
Early Vedic Period:
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Tribal and pastoral society.
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Economy based on cattle rearing and barter.
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Religion: worship of natural forces (Agni, Indra, Varuna).
Later Vedic Period:
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Transition to agriculture and a hierarchical society.
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Emergence of varnas (social classes).
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Development of large kingdoms (mahajanapadas) and rituals.
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Political organization: monarchies and republics.
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Economic changes: plow-based agriculture, iron tools.
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Religious changes: elaborate rituals, Upanishads.
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Cultural contributions: Vedas, Sanskrit language.
Mahajanapadas and Magadha Kingdom (600 BCE to 321 BCE)
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Mahajanapadas were the first territorial states in India.
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16 Mahajanapadas mentioned in Buddhist and Jain texts.
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Key Mahajanapadas: Magadha, Kosala, Vajji, Avanti, Kuru, Panchala.
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Governance: monarchies and republics.
Magadha Kingdom:
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Rose to prominence due to:
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Fertile land and resources.
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Strong military and alliances.
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Key rulers: Bimbisara, Ajatashatru.
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Dynasties: Haryanka, Shishunaga, Nanda.
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Pataliputra became the capital.
Religious Developments (6th Century BCE):
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Emergence of new religions:
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Buddhism founded by Gautama Buddha.
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Jainism revived by Mahavira.
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Upanishadic Philosophy focusing on spiritual knowledge.
Persian and Greek Invasions:
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Darius I (Persian) invaded northwestern India.
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Alexander the Great invaded in 326 BCE.
Mauryan Empire (321 BCE to 185 BCE)
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First large-scale empire in India.
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Founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya.
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Key rulers: Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, Ashoka the Great.
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Ashoka embraced Buddhism after the Kalinga War.
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Centralized administration.
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Ashokan Edicts spread messages of dhamma.
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Decline: weak successors, administrative inefficiencies.
Post-Mauryan Period (185 BCE to 320 CE)
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Rise of regional powers and foreign invasions.
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Key dynasties and rulers:
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Shunga Dynasty: Pushyamitra Shunga.
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Kanva Dynasty.
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Satavahana Dynasty: Gautamiputra Satakarni.
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Indo-Greek Kings: Menander.
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Kushan Empire: Kanishka the Great.
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Saka Satraps: Rudradaman I.
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Extensive foreign trade and cultural exchange.
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The Silk Road facilitated trade.
Gupta Empire (320 CE to 550 CE)
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Considered the Golden Age of India.
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Key rulers: Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).
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Decentralized administration.
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Economic prosperity: agriculture, trade, crafts.
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Social structure: Hindu society, Buddhism and Jainism coexisted.
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Education: Nalanda and Taxila Universities.
Cultural Achievements:
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Literature: Kalidasa's works.
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Art and Architecture: Hindu temples, Ajanta caves.
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Science and Mathematics: Aryabhata, Sushruta.
Decline:
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Huna invasions.
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Internal fragmentation.
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Rise of regional powers.
Post-Gupta Period (550 CE to 750 CE)
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Dominated by regional kingdoms.
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Key Kingdoms:
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Harsha Empire: Harshavardhana.
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Pallavas: Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I.
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Chalukyas: Pulakesin II.
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Rashtrakutas.
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Southern Dynasties:
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Sangam Period: Sangam Literature.
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Pandya, Chera, and Chola Dynasties.
Cultural Developments:
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Dravidian temple architecture.
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Trade with Southeast Asia.
Transition to Early Medieval India
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Emergence of feudalism.
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Spread of Bhakti Movement.
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Advancements in science and culture.
Conclusion
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Ancient India was a period of significant achievements in various fields.
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Its legacy continues to shape India and the world.
Please note that this is a comprehensive summary based on the provided text. For a detailed understanding and preparation for the SSC exam, referring to standard history textbooks and additional resources is recommended.
prepare notes and dont leave any part its important for ssc exams

Here are some notes on ancient Indian history, based on the provided source:
Complete Ancient History for SSC IB UPPCS RO-ARO
This section compiles information from the source, seemingly a transcript from a lecture or class about ancient Indian history. The speaker outlines the main topics and concepts crucial for competitive exams like SSC, IB, UPPCS, and RO-ARO.
Understanding History: Prehistory, Protohistory, and History
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The speaker explains different historical periods: prehistory, protohistory, and history.
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Prehistory: Refers to the period before written records existed.
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Protohistory: A period where some written evidence is available but not deciphered yet.
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History: Begins with the Iron Age due to available and understandable written sources.
Chronological Understanding
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The speaker clarifies how time is understood in BC: Higher BC numbers represent earlier periods, just as 2020 came before 2022.
Stone Age (Pashan Yug)
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Stone Age is the earliest phase where humans used stones to fulfil their needs.
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Palaeolithic (Purana Pashan Yug), Mesolithic (Madhya Pashan Yug), and Neolithic (Nav Pashan Yug) are the three divisions.
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Microliths are small stone tools used in the Mesolithic period.
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Megaliths are large stones used later in South India.
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Sites: Burzahom and Gufkral in Kashmir known for polished stones but no microliths.
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Domesticated dogs buried with humans found in Burzahom and Chirand (Bihar).
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Pottery emerged in the Neolithic Age for storage and decoration.
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Sites: Guſkral (71 km southwest of Srinagar) with simple pottery.
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Bhimbetka (45 km south of Bhopal) with rock paintings depicting humans, animals, and birds.
Copper Age (Tamrapashan Yug)
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Copper started being used alongside stone.
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Important sites: Ganeshwar Jodhpura culture (Rajasthan), Ahar culture (Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan), Kayatha and Malwa culture (Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat), Jorwe culture (Maharashtra).
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Ahar and Gilund (southeast Rajasthan) are significant sites.
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Chirand, Burdwan, Midnapur (eastern India) showed evidence of copper use.
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Jorwe Culture: named after the first site where copper was found.
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Sites in Jorwe culture: Nivasa, Daimabad, Inamgaon, Nasik, Navdatoli.
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Daimabad is the largest site in Jorwe culture.
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Urn burial practices were prominent in Chalcolithic sites.
Bronze Age (Indus Valley Civilization/Sindhu Ghati Sabhyata)
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Bronze became a prominent tool material.
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Also known as the Harappan Civilization as Harappa was the first discovered site.
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Timeline: Northwest India and parts of Pakistan.
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Discovery:
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Harappa by Daya Ram Sahni.
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Mohenjo-daro by Rakhal Das Banerji.
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John Marshall led the excavation at Harappa.
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Alexander Cunningham is the Father of Archaeological Survey of India.
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Spread: Northwest India, extending to Pakistan's Sindh and Baluchistan provinces.
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Key sites:
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Manda (J&K) - Northernmost site.
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Alamgirpur (UP).
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Daimabad (Maharashtra) - Southernmost site.
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Sotka Gendor (Baluchistan) - Westernmost site.
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Chanhu-daro had no citadel, unlike other cities.
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Dholavira was divided into three parts.
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Grid system for town planning, with roads intersecting at 90 degrees.
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Largest building: The Great Granary in Mohenjo-daro.
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Granaries were also found in Harappa (6 on each side, totalling 12).
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Extensive and well-planned drainage system connected to individual houses.
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Seals with Indus script found in Mesopotamia, indicating trade links.
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Mesopotamian texts refer to Harappa as Meluha.
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Lothal (Gujarat):
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Dockyard, a significant trading hub.
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Fire altars.
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Kalibanga (Rajasthan):
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Ploughed fields and evidence of wooden ploughs.
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Banawali (Haryana):
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Barley grains.
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Lacked the typical grid pattern.
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Dholavira (Gujarat):
○
Divided into three parts.
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Water conservation systems.
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Decline:
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Possible causes: earthquakes, floods, famine.
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Aryan invasion theory less likely.
Vedic Age
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Started with the arrival of the Indo-Aryan tribes, possibly from Central Asia.
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The bearded man statue might depict an Indo-Aryan priest.
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Indo-Aryan migration is supported by linguistic similarities between Indian and European languages.
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Boghazkoi inscription in Turkey mentions Vedic gods like Indra, Mitra, Varuna, and Nasatya.
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Sources of information: Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads.
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Vedas are collections of hymns, prayers, and rituals.
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Brahmanas explain rituals and sacrifices.
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Aranyakas focus on forest hermitages and rituals.
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Upanishads are philosophical texts discussing concepts like Brahman and Atman.
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Upanishads were added later (around 600 BC) and are known as Vedanta (end of the Vedas).
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Total Upanishads: Over 108, with 10 main ones.
Vedic Literature: The Vedas
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Rig Veda:
○
Oldest and largest Veda divided into 10 books called Mandala.
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Contains hymns praising gods, especially Indra.
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Mentions the Battle of Ten Kings (Dasharajna Yuddha).
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Purusha Sukta describes the origin of the four varnas: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra.
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Sama Veda:
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Oldest text on music, containing melodies for rituals.
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Two Upanishads.
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Yajur Veda:
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Focuses on prose and rituals.
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Divided into Krishna Yajurveda (Black) and Shukla Yajurveda (White).
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Contains the Shatapatha Brahmana, one of the largest Brahmanas, with rituals and an Upanishad.
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Atharva Veda:
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Contains magical formulas, hymns, and spells for everyday problems.
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Vedangas:
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Six auxiliary texts related to the Vedas.
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Include Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), V grammar (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chanda (prosody), and Jyotisha (astronomy).
Early Vedic Period (1500 BC - 1000 BC)
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Location: Initially around the Hindu Kush mountains, later in the Sapta Sindhu region.
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Sapta Sindhu: the land of seven rivers: Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, and Saraswati.
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Battle of Ten Kings: A conflict between Indo-Aryan tribes.
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Society: Patriarchal (male-dominated).
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Cows (Aghnya): highly revered and considered sacred, wealth was measured by the number of cows.
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Political structure: Tribal with chiefs (Rajan).
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Key officials: Purohit (priest), Senani (military leader), Gramini (village head).
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Assemblies:
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Sabha: Religious gatherings.
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Samiti: Political assemblies.
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Vidatha: General assemblies.
Later Vedic Period (1000 BC - 600 BC)
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Expansion: From Punjab to eastern UP and Bihar, including Kosala and Videha.
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Factors aiding expansion:
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Iron technology for stronger weapons and tools.
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Horse-drawn chariots for better warfare.
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Social changes:
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Emergence of Varna system: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras.
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Patriarchal family system.
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Ashramas (stages of life): Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sanyasa.
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Religious changes:
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Decline in the importance of Indra, possibly due to changes in climate and agricultural practices.
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Rise of abstract gods like Prajapati (creator).
Rise of Jainism and Buddhism (6th Century BC)
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Causes:
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Brahmanical dominance: Challenges to rituals and social hierarchy.
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Agricultural economy: Rise of Vaishyas, desire for social mobility.
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Use of coins: Further economic changes.
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Growing social unrest.
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Both Mahavira (Jainism) and Buddha (Buddhism) were from Kshatriya backgrounds.
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Appeal of non-violence and rejection of animal sacrifices.
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Jainism and Buddhism did not emphasize the existing varna system.
Jainism
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Tirthankaras: 24 spiritual teachers who achieved liberation.
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Rishabhdeva (1st) and Aristanemi (22nd) are mentioned in the Vedas.
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Parshvanatha (23rd) was born in Varanasi and is represented by a serpent.
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Vardhamana Mahavira (24th) is considered the most significant teacher, represented by a lion.
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Mahavira is seen as the actual founder as he revived and spread Jainism.
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Mahavira's Life:
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Born in Kundagrama (Bihar).
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Father: Siddhartha, chief of the Jnatrika clan.
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Mother: Trishala.
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Wife: Yashoda.
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Daughter: Priyadarshana (Anojja).
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Achieved Kaivalya (enlightenment) at Jambhika grama.
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First sermon delivered at Pava.
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Jain Philosophy:
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Three Jewels (Triratnas): Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana), Right Faith (Samyak Darshana), Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra).
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Five Vows (Mahavrata): Non-violence (Ahimsa), Truthfulness (Satya), Non-stealing (Asteya), Celibacy (Brahmacharya), and Non-attachment (Aparigraha).
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Two Sects:
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Digambaras: Believe in complete nudity and strict asceticism.
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Svetambaras: Wear white clothes and follow a slightly relaxed path.
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Division: Occurred at the First Jain Council in Pataliputra (297 BC).
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Leader: Sthulabhadra.
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Resulted in the compilation of the 12 Angas (scriptures) and the split into Digambaras and Svetambaras.
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Second Jain Council: Held in Vallabhi (Gujarat).
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Literature: Compiled in Prakrit, the language of the masses.
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Art and Architecture:
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Famous for cave temples, such as the Ellora Caves (Maharashtra).
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Statue of Gomateshwara (Bahubali) in Shravanabelagola (Karnataka), built by Chamundaraya, a minister of the Ganga Dynasty.
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Gomateshwara is considered the son of Rishabhdeva, the first Tirthankara.
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Mahamastakabhisheka is a festival celebrated by Jains in Karnataka, involving the anointing of the statue.
Buddhism
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Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha).
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Buddha's Life:
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Born in Lumbini (Nepal) in 563 BC.
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Father: Suddhodana, ruler of the Shakya clan.
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Mother: Maya.
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Wife: Yashodhara.
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Son: Rahul.
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Left his palace at age 29 (Great Renunciation).
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Achieved Nirvana (enlightenment) at Bodh Gaya (Bihar) under the Bodhi Tree.
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First sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana) at Sarnath (UP), represented by a wheel.
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Death (Mahaparinirvana) at Kushinagar (UP) in 483 BC, represented by a stupa.
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Four Noble Truths:
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Life is full of suffering (Dukkha).
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Suffering arises from craving and attachment (Tanha).
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Suffering can be overcome by ending craving.
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There is a path to end suffering (Eightfold Path).
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Eightfold Path (Ashtanga Marga): Right view, Right intention, Right speech, Right action, Right livelihood, Right effort, Right mindfulness, Right concentration.
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Buddhist Councils:
○
First Council (483 BC): Held in Rajgriha under Mahakashyapa.
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Second Council (383 BC): Held in Vaishali.
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Third Council (250 BC): Held in Pataliputra under Moggaliputta Tissa.
■
Patronized by Ashoka.
○
Fourth Council (72 AD): Held in Kundalvana (Kashmir) under Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha.
■
Patronized by Kanishka.
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Sects:
○
Hinayana:
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Did not believe in idol worship.
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Emphasized individual enlightenment.
■
Spread to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Southeast Asia.
○
Mahayana:
■
Accepted idol worship.
■
Emphasized the concept of Bodhisattvas (enlightened beings who help others).
■
Spread to China, Japan, and Korea.
●
Buddhist Texts: Written in Pali, the language of the people.
○
Tripitaka (Three Baskets): Sutta Pitaka (teachings), Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules), Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy).
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Three Jewels in Buddhism (Triratna): Buddha, Dhamma (teachings), Sangha (community).
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Stupas: Dome-shaped structures containing relics of Buddha or other important figures.
○
Parts of a Stupa:
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Anda: Hemispherical dome.
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Harmika: Square railing on top of the anda.
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Chatra: Umbrella-like structure crowning the harmika.
■
Medhi: Circular pathway for circumambulation.
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Torana: Gateways leading to the medhi.
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Famous Stupas:
○
Kesariya Stupa (Bihar) - Largest stupa in India.
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Dhamek Stupa (Sarnath).
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Rama Bhar Stupa (Kushinagar).
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Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh).
○
Borobudur Stupa (Indonesia).
●
Buddhist Universities:
○
Nalanda (Bihar): Founded by Kumaragupta I (Gupta Dynasty).
○
Vikramshila (Bihar): Founded by Dharmapala (Pala Dynasty).
○
Odantapuri (Bihar): Founded by Gopala (Pala Dynasty).
Mahajanapadas and the Rise of the Magadha Empire
●
Mahajanapadas: 16 powerful kingdoms that emerged in the 6th century BC.
●
Information about them comes from Buddhist and Jain texts.
●
Sources:
○
Buddhist: Anguttara Nikaya, Digha Nikaya.
○
Jain: Bhagavati Sutra.
●
Important Mahajanapadas: Kambhoja, Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Malla, Kashi, Magadha, Anga, Vajji, Avanti, Matsya, Chedi, Shurasena, and Assaka.
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Assaka (southernmost) later became the capital of the Satavahana Dynasty.
●
Magadha emerged as the most powerful Mahajanapada.
●
Reasons for Magadha's rise:
○
Strategic location: Situated between the Ganga and Son rivers, fertile land.
○
Strong military: Large army with elephants.
○
Able rulers: Implemented effective policies and expanded the empire.
○
Iron resources: Availability of iron ore for weapons and tools.
Dynasties of Magadha
1.
Haryanka Dynasty (6th-5th Century BC):
○
Founder: Bimbisara.
○
Notable ruler: Ajatashatru, who captured Kosala and Kashi.
2.
Shishunaga Dynasty (5th-4th Century BC):
○
Founder: Shishunaga.
○
Defeated Avanti and merged it with Magadha.
○
Kalashoka patronized the Second Buddhist Council.
3.
Nanda Dynasty (4th Century BC):
○
Founder: Mahapadmananda, who took the title Ekrat (Empire Builder).
○
Possibly from a Vaishya or Brahmana background, challenging the Kshatriya dominance.
○
Dhanananda, the last ruler, was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya, marking the beginning of the Mauryan Empire.
○
Alexander the Great invaded India during Dhanananda's reign.
○
Important official: Shulkaadhyaksha (customs officer).
Mauryan Empire (321-185 BC)
●
Largest and most powerful empire of ancient India.
●
Founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya or Vishnugupta).
●
Defeated Dhanananda and established the empire.
●
Also defeated Seleucus Nicator, a general of Alexander the Great, and gained control over vast territories.
●
Sources of information:
○
Arthashastra: Written by Kautilya, provides insights into Mauryan administration.
○
Indika: Written by Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador in Chandragupta Maurya's court.
○
Mudrarakshasa: A play by Vishakhadatta, offering information about the Nanda-Mauryan transition.
○
Buddhist sources: Jataka Tales, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Divyavadana.
●
Origin of the Mauryas: Debate exists about their caste, with different sources suggesting Shudra, Kshatriya, or Vaishya origins.
●
Major Rulers:
1.
Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 BC):
■
Founded the empire by defeating Dhanananda.
■
Defeated Seleucus Nicator and established a vast empire.
2.
Bindusara (297-272 BC):
■
Known as Amitrochates in Greek sources.
■
Patronized the Ajivika sect.
■
Expanded the empire to include the land between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
3.
Ashoka the Great (272-232 BC):
■
Considered the greatest Mauryan ruler.
■
Conquered Kalinga in a brutal war in 261 BC.
■
The war's bloodshed led to his conversion to Buddhism.
■
Replaced Bheri Ghosh (physical conquest) with Dhamma Ghosh (moral conquest).
■
Promoted Buddhism through his Dhamma policy and Ashokan Edicts.
■
Ashokan Edicts: inscribed on rocks and pillars across the empire, spreading messages of peace, non-violence, and good governance.
■
Major Rock Edicts:
●
1st Rock Edict: Prohibits festive gatherings and animal sacrifices.
●
13th Rock Edict: Describes the Kalinga War and Ashoka's remorse.
■
Ashoka's name is mentioned in the Maski, Brahmagiri, Gujjara, and Jaura edicts.
■
Kandahar Edict: The first known bilingual inscription of Ashoka.
■
Languages used: Prakrit, Greek, and Aramaic.
■
Scripts used: Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Greek, and Aramaic.
■
Most inscriptions were in Prakrit using the Brahmi script.
■
Sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism.
■
Delhi-Topra Pillar Edict: Contains the seventh line mentioning Ashoka's conversion.
■
Sarnath Lion Capital: The national emblem of India, erected to commemorate the Dharmachakra Pravartana (First Sermon).
●
Mauryan Administration:
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Centralized administration with the king at the head.
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Empire was divided into provinces (Janapadas) ruled by governors.
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Key officials:
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Mantriparishad: Council of ministers.
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Samaharta: Revenue collector.
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Sannidhata: Treasury officer.
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Pulisapathy: Chief of police.
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Durgapala: Fort commander.
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Antapala: Border security officer.
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Rajjukas: District officials.
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Yuktas: Revenue officers.
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Panyadhyaksha: Market superintendent.
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Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships.
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Guptachara (spies) or Gudhapurusha (detectives) played a crucial role in maintaining order and gathering information.
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Taxes: Land tax was the primary source of revenue, ranging from 1/6th to 1/4th of the produce.
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Megasthenes described a seven-fold division of society in his Indika, which might not be entirely accurate.
Post-Mauryan Period (185 BC - 320 AD)
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Characterized by the decline of the Mauryan Empire and the rise of regional powers and foreign invasions.
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Major Dynasties and Rulers:
1.
Shunga Dynasty (185-73 BC):
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Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga, a Brahmin general who overthrew the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha.
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Revived Hinduism and patronized Brahmanical rituals.
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Built the Bharhut Stupa.
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Agnimitra, Pushyamitra's son, is the hero of Kalidasa's play Malavikagnimitram.
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Patanjali, author of the Mahabhashya, performed two Ashvamedha Yajnas for Pushyamitra Shunga.
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Devabhuti was the last ruler.
2.
Kanva Dynasty (73-28 BC):
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Founded by Vasudeva, who overthrew the last Shunga ruler.
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Not as powerful as the Shungas.
3.
Satavahana Dynasty (2nd Century BC - 3rd Century AD):
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Ruled in the Deccan region.
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Founder: Simuka.
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Greatest ruler: Gautamiputra Satakarni.
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Patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism.
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Issued coins with the king's portrait.
4.
Indo-Greek Kings (2nd Century BC - 1st Century AD):
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Ruled in northwestern India.
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Menander (Milinda) was a famous ruler who converted to Buddhism after discussions with the monk Nagasena, recorded in the Milinda Panha.
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Introduced the large-scale issuance of coins in India.
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Were the first to issue gold coins in India.
5.
Kushan Empire (1st-3rd Century AD):
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Ruled over a vast territory in Central Asia and northwestern India.
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Called themselves "Kings of Kings" and "Son of God".
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Capitals: Peshawar (Purushapura) and Mathura.
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Most powerful ruler: Kanishka the Great (1st Century AD).
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Patronized Buddhism and convened the Fourth Buddhist Council.
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Issued pure gold coins, contributing to a flourishing trade economy.
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Literature: Buddhacharita (biography of Buddha) by Ashvaghosha was compiled during this period.
6.
Saka Satraps (1st-4th Century AD):
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Ruled in western India.
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Most famous ruler: Rudradaman I, known for the Junagadh Rock Inscription in Gujarat, which mentions his repair of the Sudarshana Lake, originally built during the Mauryan period.
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Other developments:
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Indo-Greeks introduced the Strato system (Strategoi), a form of military governorship, later adopted by the Kushans.
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Science and Technology:
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Charaka Samhita: A medical treatise by Charaka, considered the father of Indian medicine.
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Sushruta Samhita: A surgical treatise by Sushruta, considered the father of Indian surgery.
South India
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Megalithic Culture:
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Characterized by large stone monuments, often associated with burials.
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Prevalent in South India during the pre-historic and proto-historic periods.
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Geography:
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Divided into five geographical regions called "Thinai": Kurinji (mountains), Mullai (forests), Palai (arid lands), Marutham (plains), and Neithal (coastal regions).
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Each region had its unique features and lifestyle.
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Sangam Age:
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A period of flourishing Tamil literature, named after the Sangam academies.
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Three Sangam periods are recognized, spanning several centuries.
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Sangam literature provides insights into the social, political, and cultural life of ancient South India.
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Major Dynasties:
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Chera: Ruled in present-day Kerala.
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Chola: Ruled in present-day Tamil Nadu.
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Pandya: Ruled in southern Tamil Nadu.
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Pallava: Ruled in northern Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, known for their rivalry with the Chalukyas.
Gupta Empire (320-550 AD)
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Considered the Golden Age of India for its significant advancements in various fields.
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Major Rulers:
1.
Chandragupta I (320-335 AD):
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Founded the empire and adopted the title Maharajadhiraja.
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Married a Lichchhavi princess, strengthening his political power.
2.
Samudragupta (335-380 AD):
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Expanded the empire through military conquests and became known as the "Napoleon of India" by historian V.A. Smith.
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His military achievements are recorded in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayag Prashasti) composed by his court poet Harisena.
3.
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (380-415 AD):
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Further expanded the empire, reaching its greatest extent.
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Established a matrimonial alliance with the Vakatakas by marrying his daughter Prabhavati Gupta to Rudrasena II, a Vakataka prince.
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His court was adorned by the Navaratnas (Nine Jewels), a group of nine scholars and artists.
4.
Kumaragupta I (415-455 AD):
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Founded the Nalanda University.
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Faced the threat of the Huna invasions but successfully resisted them.
5.
Skandagupta (455-467 AD):
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Repelled the Huna invasions, protecting the empire.
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Adopted the title Vikramaditya.
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His achievements are recorded in the Bhitari Pillar Inscription.
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Administration:
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Decentralized administration with Bhuktis (provinces) as the largest administrative units.
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Bhuktis were further divided into Vishayas (districts), Grams (villages), and Kula (families).
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Uparika was a high-ranking"