THE ADVERB
The adverb is a word denoting circumstances or characteristics which attend or
modify an action, state, or quality. It may also intensify a quality or characteristics.
From this definition it is difficult to define adverbs as a class, because they
comprise a most heterogeneous group of words, and there is considerable overlap
between the class and other word classes. They have many kinds of form, meaning
and function. Alongside such undoubtful adverbs as here, now, often, seldom,
always, there are many others which also function as words of other classes. Thus,
adverbs like dead (dead tired), clear (to get clear away), clean (I&#39;ve clean
forgotten), slow, easy (he would say that slow and easy) coincide with
corresponding adjectives (a dead body, clear waters, clean hands). Adverbs like
past, above are homonymous with prepositions. There is also a special group of
pronominal adverbs when, where, how, why used either as interrogative words or as
connectives to introduce subordinate clauses.
Where shall we go? (an interrogative pronominal adverb)
We’ll go where you want (a conjunctive pronominal adverb).
Some adverbs may be used rather like a verb, as in “Up. Jenkins! Down, Peter!”,
where the first word is like an imperative.
In many cases the border-line between adverbs and words of the other classes is
defined syntactically.
He walked past. (adverb)
He walked past the house. (preposition)
They took the dog in. (adverb)
They left the dog in the house, (preposition)
He did everything slowly but surely. (adverb)
Surely you know him. (modal word)
There are three adverbs connected with numerals: once, twice, and thrice (the
latter being archaic). They denote measure or frequency.
She went there once a week.
I saw him twice last month.
Morphological composition
Adverbs vary in their structure. There are simple, derived, compound, and
composite adverbs.
Simple adverbs are after, here, well, now, soon, etc.

In derived adverbs the most common suffix is -ly, by means of which new
adverbs are coined from adjectives and participles: occasionally, lately,
immediately, constantly, purely, slowly, charmingly.
The less common snffixes are the following:
-wise
-ward(s)
-fold
-like
-most
-way(s)

clockwise, crabwise, corkscrew -wise, education- wise
onward(s), backward(s), homeward(s), eastward(s)
twofold, manifold
warlike
innermost, outermost
longways, sideways

Of these suffixes the first two are more ptoductive than the rest.
Compound adverbs are formed of two stems:
sometimes, somewhere, everywhere, downstairs, etc.
Composite phrasal adverbs consist of two or more word-forms, as
a great deal, a little bit, far enough, now and then, from time to time, sort of,
kind of, a hell of, a lot of, a great deal of.
Morphological characteristics
The only pattern of morphological change for adverbs is the same as for
adjectives, the degrees of comparison. The three grades are called positive,
comparative, and superlative degrees.
Adverbs that are identical in form with adjectives take inflections following the
same spelling and phonetic rules as for adjectives:
early
late
hard
slow

- earlier
- later
- harder
- slower

- earliest
- latest
- hardest
- slowest

Several adverbs ending in -ly (quickly, loudly) form comparatives according to
the same pattern, dropping their adverb-forming suffix. These adverbs acquired the
form in -ly only recently and retained the older forms of the comparative and
superlative:
Quickl

quicker - quickest

loudl - louder - loudest

However most disyllabic adverbs in -ly and all polysyllabic ones form the
comparative and superlative analytically, by means of more and most:
wisely
softly
deeply

-more wisely
-more softly
-more deeply

- most wisely
- most softly
- most deeply

The adverb often occurs with both types of comparison:
often oftener
more often

As with adjectives, there is a small group of adverbs with comparatives and
superlatives formed from different stems (suppletive forms). These comparatives
and superlatives are identical with those for the corresponding adjectives and can
be differentiated from the latter only syntactically.
well
badly
little
much
far
- better
- worse
- less
- more
further
farther

- best
- worst
- least
- most
- furthest
- farthest

Either farther (farthest) or further (furthest) are used when speaking of places,
directions, or distance:
He is too tired to walk any farther (further).
But only further (furthest) is used with the meaning more, later:

Don’t try my patience any further.
Most of the adverbs, however, stand outside the degrees of comparison:
pronominal adverbs denoting place and time
(here, somewhere, there, sometimes, when),
denoting manner
(somehow, thus), and
adverbs of manner denoting gradation
(minimally, optimally, proximally - ближе к центру).
Semantic characteristics
According to their meaning adverbs fall into many groups. Here are the main
ones:
Adverbs of place: outside, there, in front, etc.
Adverbs of time include those denoting duration (long, continually), interval
(all day), timing (yesterday, today, recently, lately, immediately, once, at once,
now), frequency (often, now and then, occasionally). Several of them denote an
indefinite time - soon, yet, always, already, never, ever.
Adverbs of manner: well, carefully, intentionally, silently, clearly, etc.
Adverbs of degree: thoroughly, very, much, completely, quite, rather, a lot, a
little, a great deal, badly, greatly, hardly, barely, scarcely, narrowly, just, almost,
mostly, enormously, largely, tremendously, keenly, somewhat, too, so, most, all but.
Among these some are synonymous (much, very), but their combinability is
different. Thus much is used to modify verbs, nouns, statives and adjectives, and
very is used with adjectives and adverbs in the positive and superlative degrees,
whereas with comparatives only much is used:
to travel much
to be much improved
much better
much slower
very much in love
very much alive
very much alike
very much afraid

very nice
very glad
very slow
very quickly

With participles, however, both much and very may be used, often they go
together:

much admired, very surprised, very much amused.
Among adverbs of degree there are many the meaning of which has become
weakened and which are used as intensifiers, adding emotional colouring to the
content of what is said. This group of adverbs is very difficult to define because
adverbs of other semantic groups can occasionally function as intensifiers:
awfully painful,
very quiet,
rather calm,
most expensive,

terribly unjust,
faintly uneasy,
really pretty,
positively wonderful,

extremely beautiful,
too frightful,
so nice,
etc.

Syntactic functions and patterns of combinability
Adverbs may perform different functions, modifying different types of words,
phrases, sentences. Some adverbs are restricted in their combinability whereas
others may modify different words, for instance enough, which may be used in to
work enough, not quickly enough, quick enough. The most typical function of the
adverb is that of adverbial modifier.
The combinability and functions of the adverbs are as follows:
1. Adverbs may function as adverbial modifiers of manner, place, time, degree
to a finite or non-finite form of the verb:
He spoke aloud; I quite forgot about it; he spoke well.
Some adverbs of time though synonymous, are used in different syntactical
patterns. Thus, already is used in affirmative sentences, and yet - in interrogative
and negative sentences:
They have already finished.
They haven’t finished yet.
Have they finished yet?
However, already may occur in interrogative and negative sentences when there
is an element of surprise or the question is suggestive, that is the speaker expects
an affirmative answer.
Have they finished already? (The speaker is surprised at their having already
finished.)

In the same way still, meaning “continuously, up to this moment”, is used in
affirmative sentences and any more in negative sentences. If any more is used in a
question, it implies that the speaker expects a negative answer.
He still works at the library.
He does not work there any more.
Does he take music lessons any more? - No, he doesn’t.
2. Adverbs may function as adverbial modifiers to an adjective or another
adverb. Usually the modifying adverb is an intensifier:
very, rather, awfully, so, terribly, extremely, most, utterly, unusually,
delightfully, unbelievably,
amazingly, strikingly, highly, that, etc.
The same applies to composite adverbs, such as
kind of, sort of, a good bit of, a lot of, a hell of, a great deal of, etc.
She is terribly awkward; they are very happy: Meg is clever enough; you speak
so slowly; they settled in a rather quiet street; the boy is unbelievably fat; she was
strikingly handsome; we did it sort of proudly; quite definitely, too much, right
there, a great deal too much.
Some adverbs - still, yet, far, much, any combine with comparative adjectives:
much worse, not any better, still greater, etc.
He could not speak any plainer.
You could do it far more neatly.
She is much wittier than her friend.
3. There are some adverbs which may modify nouns or words of nominal
character, functioning as attribute, as in:
the way ahead, the trip abroad, the journey home, his return home, the
sentence above (below), my friend
here, the house opposite, the day before, etc.
A few adverbs can premodify nouns without losing their adverbial character:
the then president, in after years, the above sentence, the now generation.
Their combinability with prepositional phrases can be illustrated by the
following:
right up to the ceiling.
Positional characteristics

As adverbs modify words of different classes, they accordingly occupy different
positions in the sentence. In comparison with other words, adverbs may be
considered as the most movable words. However, adverbs are not identical in their
ability to be moved to another position in the structure. Thus, adverbs of manner
and degree are very closely attached to the word they modify and cannot be moved
away from it. He sings well – is the only possible arrangement of the three words,
unless the change of position is caused by inversion and a general shift of the
communicative focus: Only well does he sing (он поет только хорошо). If such an
adverb is put in other positions this may result in a change of meaning in which
case it is no longer an adverb (it has already been mentioned that adverbs are often
defined by position rather than form): well, he sings when nobody is in.
If the predicate is an analytical form adverbs of frequency and indefinite time
are usually placed between its parts:
Have you ever seen him?
You are always laughing at me.
Adverbs of degree usually premodify adjectives or verbs:
awfully painful, terribly unjust, really pretty, so nice, to thoroughly
understand, etc.
The most mobile are adverbs of time and place, which can occupy several
positions without any change in their meaning, as in:
Usually he sings well.
He usually sings well.
He sings well usually.
The initial position of the adverb of manner always makes it emphatic.
Proudly he showed his diploma to his parents.
Carefully he signed his name.
In these sentences, despite the detachment of the adverbial modifier, its
connection with the verb is evident (showed proudly, signed carefully).

Note:
Care should be taken not to confuse adverbs of manner and modal words, which
may have the same word-form and occur in the same position. The only guide in
these cases is punctuation and the relation between the words:
Naturally I wanted him to answer - modal word.
I wanted him to answer naturally - adverb.
They wanted to live naturally - adverb.
They wanted to live, naturally - modal word
Based on this text, answer, in details, to following questions:
1. General characteristics of the adverb.

2. Morphological characteristics of the adverb.

3. Semantic characteristics of the adverb.

4. Syntactic functions of the adverb and its patterns of combinability.

5. Positional characteristics of the adverb.