please explain all this in hemmingway 5th grade

LACTATE THRESHOLD
Another means for calculating the efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system is the lactate
threshold. Lactate is a by-product of metabolism that is produced by blood cells, the brain,
and muscle tissue. It is used to supply the cells with energy when there is a lack of oxygen
or when normal cellular metabolism is disrupted. Lactate is a fuel, not a waste product.
However, the threshold where lactate builds up in the tissues faster than it can be cleared is
an important indicator of cardiorespiratory endurance performance and can be improved with
cardiorespiratory training.
The measure of the lactate threshold measures the maximum effort or intensity a person
can maintain for an extended time with minimal effect on blood lactate levels. This requires
a blood draw to measure blood lactate levels, which makes it accurate but not necessarily
practical in a fitness setting. Lactate threshold is often expressed as approximately 75
percent of VO2 max or 85 percent of the maximum heart rate for the average person and can
vary based on fitness level.
VENTILATORY THRESHOLD
Closely related to the lactate threshold is the ventilatory threshold (VT). This measure tracks
changes in carbon dioxide extraction, oxygen consumption, and breathing rate and volume.
Ventilatory threshold represents the lactate threshold—the level of intensity where blood
lactate accumulates faster than it can be cleared from the body—and it causes a person to
breathe faster (increase their breathing rate) to consume more oxygen and expel more carbon
LACTATE THRESHOLD:
The maximum effort or
intensity an individual can
maintain for an extended
time with minimal effect on
blood lactate levels.
VENTILATORY
THRESHOLD (VT):
The threshold where
ventilation increases faster
than the volume of oxygen.
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CHAPTER 11 | Concepts of Cardiovascular Exercise
dioxide. It is measured with a breathing mask or based on observable breathing rates as
opposed to the blood draw needed to accurately measure lactate thresholds.
For the average adult, the ventilatory threshold is at exercise intensities between 50 and 75
percent of maximum. An unconditioned client will reach their ventilatory thresholds at lower
physical intensities than a trained one. For example, walking may elevate an unconditioned
client’s breathing rate, while someone who has been training for a while may need to be
running at a seven-mile-per-hour pace to elevate their breathing rate.
It is also related to VO2 max in that ventilatory thresholds occur before maximum oxygen
uptake. Ventilatory threshold 1 (VT1) occurs when the breathing rate begins to increase
during activity, and ventilatory threshold 2 (VT2) is at a relatively high-intensity effort when the
person is out of breath. When someone achieves their VO2 max, they will no longer be able
to continue their exercise or activity.
rest
VT1
VT2
VO2 Max
exercise needs to
conclude due to
exhaustion
breathing increased to
point where person is
out of breath
breathing begins to
increase
Maxiumum
Figure 11.2 Ventilatory Thresholds and VO2 Max
MAXIMUM HEART RATE
Maximum heart rate is the maximum beats per minute someone’s heart can achieve during
activity, and it is a measure that is estimated to help determine exercise intensity for
cardiorespiratory training. Testing to determine a client’s actual maximum heart rate requires
the client to work at maximum capacity, which is not practical for a fitness setting. However,
an estimation of maximum heart rate is commonly found using the following formula:
Maximum heart rate (HRmax) = 220 – age
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where age is in whole years. While commonly used to estimate maximum heart rate, this
formula has a margin of error of +/– 10 to 15 beats.
There is great variability by client and age on actual heart rate maximums. For example,
a well-conditioned client will likely have a higher maximum heart rate and a lower resting
heart rate because their cardiorespiratory system is more conditioned and efficient and can
handle more work than an unconditioned client. With that in mind, a fitness professional can
estimate a client’s heart rate and corresponding heart rate zones, but this formula should
not be used as an absolute.
HEART RATE ZONES
The heart rate is a key indicator for exercise intensity and is used by fitness professionals to
prescribe intensity and evaluate fitness levels. There are five heart rate zones that generally
correspond with exercise intensities. Each zone represents a range of the percentage of
maximum heart rate and an RPE. As with the maximum heart rate estimation, heart rate
zones are also estimations and can vary based on the training status, health condition, age,
and body size of the client.
Zone 1 is a very light intensity and equates to 50 to 60 percent of maximum heart rate and
an RPE of 1 to 2. Examples of zone 1 activities include a warm-up, a cooldown, and a slow
walking pace. This zone can be used to slightly elevate the heart rate, promote physical
recovery, and promote optimal metabolism. Activities in zone 1 can be sustained for extended
periods.
Zone 2 is a light intensity and equates to 61 to 70 percent of maximum heart rate and an
RPE of 3 to 4 (easy). Lightweight resistance training, a light jog, or walking up a flight of
stairs would fall into zone 2 cardiorespiratory intensity. Breathing at this intensity is light,
and the client may begin to sweat. Training in this zone can improve both muscular and
cardiorespiratory endurance and can be sustained for extended periods.
Zone 3 is a moderate training intensity and equates to 71 to 80 percent of maximum heart rate
and an RPE of 5 to 6 (moderate). Breathing may begin to deepen with moderate sweating in this
zone. Based on the percentage of maximum heart rate, training in zone 3 is generally still aerobic,
and aerobic fitness can be improved. Hiking, a moderate jog, and moderate-paced resistance
training are generally zone 3 activities that can elicit this level of heart rate response.
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CHAPTER 11 | Concepts of Cardiovascular Exercise
Zone 4 is generally moving into anaerobic exercise and is a challenging intensity. Training in
this zone equates to 81 to 90 percent of maximum heart rate and an RPE of 7 to 8 (hard).
Training in zone 4 can only persist for moderate amounts of time and elicits feelings of
physical fatigue and heavy breathing to the point that the client cannot carry on a conversation.
For example, running at a five-kilometer run pace, cardiorespiratory interval training, or
resistance training intervals would fall into zone 4. Training in this heart rate zone can promote
anaerobic fitness improvements and improve performance capacity.
The final heart rate zone is zone 5. Zone 5 is maximum effort and equates to 91 to 100
percent of maximum heart rate with an RPE of 9 to 10 (very hard). This intensity can only be
maintained for short durations, and it will feel like an all-out effort. Training in this zone can
improve athletic performance, fast-twitch muscle fiber development, and sprint speeds. Not
all clients will need to reach this heart rate zone. However, unconditioned clients may reach
this zone and RPE at lower heart rates than estimated, while more conditioned clients will
see the opposite effect.
ZONE 1 • 50-60% Max HR
Very light activity, such as warm-up/cooldown
ZONE 2 • 61--70% Max HR
Light activity, such as slow-paced jogging, walking
up a flight of stairs, lightweight low resistance
ZONE 3 • 71--80% Max HR
Moderate activity that increases aerobic endurance,
such as moderate jogging, cycling, or rowing
ZONE 4 • 81--90% Max HR
Hard anaerobic activity, such as high rep ball slams,
boxing, or heavy weight lifting
ZONE 5 • 91--100% Max HR
Extreme hard maximum exertion activity, such as
sprinting. All out effort!
Figure 11.3 Heart Rate Zones
To calculate the beats per minute that equate to each heart rate zone during cardiorespiratory
fitness prescription, a client’s maximum heart rate will be multiplied by the high and low
ranges of each zone. For example, consider a 35-year-old client.
ANAEROBIC EXERCISE:
Short-duration muscle
contractions that break
down glucose without using
oxygen.
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HRmax = 220 – 35 = 185 beats per minute
Zone 1: 185 bpm × 0.50 = 92 bpm
185 bpm × 0.60 = 111 bpm
Zone 1 = 92 to 111 beats per minute
Zone 2: 185 bpm × 0.61 = 113 bpm
185 bpm × 0.70 = 129 bpm
Zone 2 = 113 to 129 beats per minute
Zone 3: 185 bpm × 0.71 = 131 bpm
185 bpm × 0.80 = 148 bpm
Zone 3 = 131 to 148 beats per minute
Zone 4: 185 bpm × 0.81 = 149 bpm
185 bpm × 0.90 = 166 bpm
Zone 4 = 149 to 166 beats per minute
Zone 5: 185 bpm × 0.91 = 168 bpm
185 bpm × 1.0 = 185 bpm
Zone 5 = 168 to 185 beats per minute
Again, these heart rate beats per minute are not absolute but can provide general guidance
as to where the client’s heart rate needs to be to achieve the desired cardiorespiratory
training effect.
HEART RATE RESERVE AND TARGET HEART RATE (THR)
Heart rate reserve (HRR) calculates the difference between a person’s estimated maximum
heart rate and their resting heart rate. It is a metric that can be tracked and improved as the
resting heart rate decreases with cardiorespiratory conditioning. A fitness professional can
use this formula to calculate HRR:
HRR = HRmax – HRrest
HEART RATE RESERVE
(HRR):
Maximum heart rate minus
resting heart rate.
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CHAPTER 11 | Concepts of Cardiovascular Exercise
HRR can also be used to calculate a client’s THR. THR is the desired heart rate to be
achieved based on the desired exercise intensity, and this measure also considers the
person’s maximum and resting heart rates. THR can be calculated with the Karvonen formula
as follows:
THR = ([HRmax – HRrest] × desired intensity) + HRrest
Consider the 35-year-old client again with a resting heart rate of 55 beats per minute. If the
trainer would like them to work at 80 percent training intensity, their THR would be calculated
as follows:
HRmax = 220 – 35 (age) = 185 bpm
HRR = 185 bpm – 55 bpm (resting) = 130
THR = ([HRR] × 0.80 [intensity]) + 55 (resting)
 = (130 × 0.80) + 55
 = 104 + 55
THR = 159 bpm for 80 percent exercise intensity
WEARABLE FITNESS TECHNOLOGIES
Wearable fitness technologies track physical activity, such as heart rate, steps taken, and
Calories burned. Most come with a three-axis accelerometer to track movement in every
direction. Physical activity has numerous benefits to health, wellness, and fitness. Tracking
physical activity is an effective way to monitor activity. Most people tend to overestimate time
spent in vigorous intensities and underestimate sitting and low-intensity activities unless they
have objective data. Wearables are a great way for clients to get a feel for how hard or long
they are working and how active they are. Objective data can help a fitness professional set
and monitor realistic goals for clients.
WARM-UP AND COOLDOWN
A general warm-up should be conducted before a cardiorespiratory training bout to increase
heart rate, breathing, and body temperature and to psychologically prepare the client for
exercise. A general warm-up should include 5–10 minutes of low- to moderate-intensity
activity. Examples of general warm-up exercises include walking, jogging in place, walking
lunges, jumping jacks, or a few slow laps in the pool.
KARVONEN FORMULA:
The formula to estimate
a target heart rate with
consideration of heart rate
reserve and resting heart
rate.
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Self-myofascial release and targeted stretching for movement preparation should also be
conducted during the warm-up period. This is especially true for clients with a history of injury,
muscle imbalance, or tightness in certain muscles.
Specific warm-ups are done to further enhance performance of the exercise activity to follow and
should come after the general warm-up. A specific warm-up should include dynamic movements
that mimic the exercises that follow. Warm-up exercises should target the joints and muscles that
will be used in the workout. This may include lower-intensity intervals of the activity such as leg
swings before running stadium stairs or high-knee marching before sprint intervals.
A fitness professional should allow at least 30 seconds to 3 minutes of rest before beginning
the training session.
After the exercise bout, a client should perform a cooldown. A proper cooldown routine will
allow the heart rate and body temperature to return to normal. The cooldown period may last
from 5 to 10 minutes but should ideally last until the heart rate is back to normal. Elements
of flexibility may be added to the cooldown after heart rate has returned to resting.
During exercise, the heart must pump a greater volume of blood to support working muscles.
The muscles aid in this process by contracting with more force against the blood vessels. With
this force helping the blood resist gravity, it quickly returns to the heart to be reoxygenated and
sent back out to the body. If intense exercise is stopped abruptly without allowing the body to
cool down, blood may pool in the lower extremities and cause dizziness or loss of consciousness.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO AEROBIC EXERCISE
Aerobic exercise burns stored fat from adipose tissue, improves cardiovascular health and
fitness, and improves the body’s ability to recover after intense exercise. Aerobic exercise is
typically longer duration and relies on slow-twitch muscle fibers, which contract slower and
at a lower intensity. One major training adaptation of aerobic exercises is the increase in the
size and number of type I muscle fibers to improve endurance performance.
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CHAPTER 11 | Concepts of Cardiovascular Exercise
Aerobic exercise cannot change type II muscle fibers into type I fibers contrary to popular
belief. These fiber types are too inherently different. However, some muscle fibers can begin
to favor and take on similar characteristics as another type of fiber based on the activity of
the person. This can occur, for example, if a sedentary person becomes more active and
begins to train for an athletic event such as powerlifting. While the adaptations surely do not
come overnight, this person, with proper training, will start to generate larger type II muscle
fibers and train a relatively low number of type I fibers to support their activity.
In the same respect, type II fibers are more prone to atrophy with nonuse. This means there
are physiological mechanisms in the fast-twitch fibers that make them more likely to
degenerate than the more readily activated type I fibers.
Aerobic training also increases the number and size of blood vessels because of the need
for higher levels of oxygen. Capillary networks surround the muscle fibers in a process called
angiogenesis. Increased amounts of nutrients and oxygen supply the muscles with fuel, and
waste is removed faster. This, in turn, supports muscular endurance, resistance to fatigue,
and recovery.
Aerobic exercise also triggers important metabolic changes in muscle tissue, including an
increase in mitochondria and myoglobin. Mitochondria are necessary for energy production,
and myoglobin stores the oxygen needed for that process. These changes improve aerobic
capacity, a measure of the ability of the heart and lungs to get oxygen to the muscles. Many
of these adaptations contribute to the body’s increased ability to store muscle glycogen and
ATROPHY:
The wasting away or loss of
muscle tissue.
ANGIOGENESIS:
The development of new
blood vessels.
MYOGLOBIN:
A protein in muscle cells
that carries and stores
oxygen.
AEROBIC CAPACITY:
A measure of the ability of
the heart and lungs to get
oxygen to the muscles.
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use fat for energy with aerobic training as well. Since fatty acids are a more efficient source
of ATP, assuming adequate nutrition, the body will increase its ability to release fatty acids into
the bloodstream during aerobic exercise.
CARDIAC MUSCLE ADAPTATIONS
Aerobic exercise is ideal for strengthening the heart muscle, lungs, and blood vessels.
A strong, healthy heart efficiently supplies working muscles, organs, and tissues with
oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood and removes metabolic waste.
As the body is conditioned through aerobic exercise, the cardiac muscle strengthens, delivery
of blood and oxygen to the heart itself is improved, and the heart chambers empty and fill
more efficiently. All these adaptations improve the pumping capacity of the heart. The heart
can then pump more blood with fewer heartbeats, reducing the resting and maximum heart
rates of trained people.
MODES OF CARDIOVASCULAR EXERCISE
Along with the various cardiovascular machines available, there are several basic modes of
cardiovascular exercise. Walking and running serve as the foundation for most cardiovascular
training sessions. Proper form, movement mechanics, and ranges of motion contribute to
the efficacy of any cardiovascular activity and will prevent overuse injuries. Choosing an
appropriate mode of exercise for clients involves client goals, convenience, preference, and
client ability. The mode a client will consistently use may be the best option, at least initially.
WALKING
Walking is a low-impact workout suitable for most clients. A fitness professional should coach
clients on posture, foot motion, stride, and arm swing to get the most from this exercise.
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CHAPTER 11 | Concepts of Cardiovascular Exercise
Posture
• Stand straight with feet about hip width apart, toes pointed forward, shoulders
relaxed and pulled back, and chin parallel to the ground.
• Engage the core muscles by pulling the belly button back toward the spine.
• Do not lean forward or arch the back.
Foot Motion
• Follow a heel-toe motion with the heel striking the ground first.
• Roll through the step from heel to toes, and push off with the toes.
Stride
• Keep a natural stride distance; do not overextend the front leg. The heel should
strike the ground close to the front of the body.
• The back leg is what propels the body forward. Keep the rear foot on the ground for as
long as possible, then push off with the toes as the hip and knee reach full extension.
• Hips should move front to back, not side to side.
Arm Swing
• Close the hands into loose fists, but do not clench the fists because this can raise
blood pressure.
• The arms should swing naturally from relaxed shoulders. The forward hand should
not cross the midline of the body.
• Keep the elbows close to the body.
RUNNING
The basic mechanics of running are similar to those of walking. However, the foot strike differs.
Here are some additional tips a fitness professional should share to cue proper running form:
• Shoulders should trace an “X” pattern. As the right foot comes forward, the left
shoulder moves forward. While the left foot is back, the right shoulder should be
forward. Shoulders should stay relaxed and over the hips.
• Lean slightly into the run by hinging at the hips and bracing the core. This helps engage
the gluteus maximus for more power through the stride as the hip and knee extend.
• Knees should fall in line with hips and midfoot. Measure by imagining a line from
the front of the hip joint through the knee joint and through roughly the second and
third toe.
• The most efficient running stride is one in which the shin is perpendicular to the
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ground, directly underneath the hips, torso, and head when the foot strikes the
ground and is bearing the weight of the body. However, for running fast, an anterior
or positive shin angle means increased force application in the direction desired.
• The ideal foot strike when running occurs at the forefoot versus the heel (when
walking).
TREADMILL
Treadmills are commonly used for walking or running, as part of a warm-up or cooldown, or
for cardiovascular endurance assessments. Here is how a client can safely use a treadmill:
• With the treadmill off, grab the handrails and place feet on the sides of the belt.
Attach the safety clip to the clothing, and press the “Start” button.
• The belt will move slowly. Place one foot at a time onto the moving belt. Start
walking.
• Remove hands from the handrails.
• Walk or run with proper form without holding on to the handrails.
• To get off the treadmill, allow the belt to stop completely. Place feet on the sides of
the belt. Hold on to the handrails. Remove the safety clip. Step off, one foot at a time.
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STAIR-CLIMBER AND STEP MILL
A stair-climber has pedals that move up and down to mimic walking up steps. A step mill is a
revolving staircase that simulates walking or running up a flight of stairs. Here is how a client
can safely mount and dismount these machines:
• With the machine off, grasp the handrails. Step up, one foot at a time, and place
feet on the pedals or step. If on a step mill, climb to the highest step.
• Attach the safety clip to the clothing. Press the “Start” button.
• To dismount, make sure the pedals are immobile or the steps have come to a
complete stop. Grasp the handrails. Unclip the safety clip from the clothing. Step
off, one foot at a time.
Form and Posture on a Stair-Climber
The handrails on the stair-climber should only be used for getting onto and off the machine
or for balance as necessary.
• Stand upright. Hinge slightly forward from the hips.
• Keep the entire foot on the pedal.
• Steps should be moderately deep, not short or choppy.
Form and Posture on a Step Mill
• Use the handrails for getting onto and off the step mill or for balance as necessary.
• Stand upright. Keep a neutral spine. Relax the shoulders and look straight ahead.
• Do not hunch over or lean on the handrails.
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SWIMMING
Swimming is a very low-impact aerobic activity and is often used as a recovery technique
because of its minimal impact on the body. In addition to the benefits realized by aerobic
exercise, swimming offers the following:
• Reduced exercise-induced asthma symptoms from exercise in moist air
• Increased lung volume, which helps further reduce asthma symptoms
• Improved bone strength, especially in postmenopausal women
• Relief from arthritis symptoms such as joint stiffness and pain
To safely coach clients in the pool, it is best for a fitness professional to become a certified
swim instructor or water safety instructor through the Red Cross or to refer a client to one.
CYCLING
Cycling is a versatile, low-impact sport that can be done outdoors or indoors, in urban or rural
areas. Variables in cycling that affect intensity include the following:
• Tires: Road bikes have thinner tires that reduce resistance on the street, while
mountain bikes have thicker, rugged tires to grip the terrain for better traction.
• Cycle frame: In outdoor cycling, the lighter the frame, the lower the resistance.
• Cadence: The rhythm at which pedals affect muscle activation. One study showed
that higher speeds increased hamstring activation, while slower speeds engaged
the quadriceps.
• Environment: Weather affects cycling performance in outdoor cycling.
• Terrain: The condition of streets or trails affects overall performance as do incline
and decline (hills).
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The muscles engaged in cycling include the gluteus maximus, semitendinosus,
semimembranosus, biceps femoris, adductor magnus, vastus lateralis (externus), vastus
intermedius, vastus medialis (internus), gastrocnemius, soleus, plantaris, tibialis posterior,
flexor hallucis, and flexor digitorum longus.
Here’s how a fitness professional can properly adjust a cycle for comfort, ergonomics, and
performance:
Table 11.8 Upright and Recumbent Bike Setup Procedures
UPRIGHT CYCLES RECUMBENT CYCLES
Adjust the saddle (seat) to hip height. Lift the
knee to a 90-degree angle from the hip, and
adjust the saddle to the height of the thigh.
Adjust the seat so that the extended leg has a slight
bend in the knee.
When seated, the extended leg—with the
pedal at the bottom of its rotation—should
have a slight bend in the knee.
Clients with lower back issues may benefit from
riding a recumbent rather than an upright cycle.
However, clients with knee pain or injury may benefit
more from upright cycles because recumbent cycles
put much more strain on the legs and knees.
With the pedals parallel to the floor, the knee
of the forward leg should be over the ball of
the foot.
Handlebars should be far enough away to
allow a slight bend in the elbows. For clients
with lower back issues, raise the handlebars
until they are comfortable.
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ROWING
Rowing is a low-impact aerobic activity that engages the legs, core, back, and arms. It is ideal for
including in cross-training. To mount the rowing machine, a client should sit on the seat and bring
the seat to the front of the machine, nearest the flywheel. Then the client should place feet into
the stirrups and secure the straps across the toes at the base of the great toe joint. Grasping the
oar with the thumbs under the handle, the client should maintain a light grip.
Each rowing movement has four parts:
• The catch: This is the starting position. The shins should be vertical, lats engaged,
shoulders relaxed, and core engaged. The client should lean slightly forward with
shoulders just in front of hips. A fitness professional should coach the client to
not allow the shoulders to round forward. Some of the muscles engaged in this
position are the deltoids, triceps, trapezius, serratus anterior, erector spinae, rectus
abdominus, hamstrings, tibialis anterior, and gastrocnemius.
• The drive: With back straight, core tight, and feet secured, the client should push
back with the lower body. Some of the muscles engaged in this position are the
biceps, brachialis, brachioradialis, erector spinae, hamstrings, gastrocnemius,
soleus, quadriceps, and gluteus maximus.
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CHAPTER 11 | Concepts of Cardiovascular Exercise
• The finish: When the legs are almost fully extended, the client should hinge
backward at the hips and use the upper back to pull the oar toward the chest. The
oar should touch just below the chest. A fitness professional should cue the client
to engage the lats, not the shoulders or biceps. The drive and finish should be
one continuous movement. Some of the muscles engaged in this position are the
biceps, brachialis, brachioradialis, forearm extensors, latissimus dorsi, trapezius,
quadriceps, posterior deltoid, and gluteus maximus.
• The recovery: This is the return to the catch. The client should extend the arms
before leaning forward at the hips. Once the hands pass over the knees, the client
should allow the knees to bend. Then the client should slide the seat forward and
assume the catch position. Some of the muscles engaged in this position are the
trapezius, rectus abdominus, hamstrings, anterior deltoid, triceps, wrist extensors,
and gastrocnemius.
Figure 11.1 Rowing Movement Pattern
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JUMP ROPE
Skipping rope offers an intense aerobic workout and may improve balance, coordination, and
motor control. In addition, studies have shown that regular rope skipping can increase bone
density for young females.
Beginners and novices may find it easier to jump with a beaded rope rather than a cloth or
vinyl rope. To find the right length rope, a client should grasp the handles and step on the
middle of the rope. The handles should reach the armpits.
A fitness professional should find an area at least four-by-six feet large with enough overhead
clearance for the rope to pass. The jumping surface should be a wood floor, a plywood floor,
or an impact mat. Fitness professionals should be cautious of having clients jumping on hard
or uneven surfaces such as concrete or grass. If a client is not conditioned for jumping, a
high volume of jumping is not warranted and does not follow the principles of progression.
A client should practice upper and lower body movements separately. Fitness professionals
should coach clients to stay on the forefoot to better absorb impact.
BATTLE ROPES
A battle rope is a heavy rope used for intense metabolic conditioning. Some research
suggests that a 10-minute workout with battle ropes meets heart rate and energy expenditure
thresholds to increase cardiorespiratory fitness. HIIT with battle ropes may improve aerobic
and anaerobic capacity after just one month.
Battle ropes vary by length, thickness, and material.
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CHAPTER 11 | Concepts of Cardiovascular Exercise
Table 11.9 Battle Rope Variants
LENGTH THICKNESS MATERIAL
From 30 feet to 100 feet 1.0 inches to 2.0 inches
Natural fibers: manila
Synthetic fibers: polypropylene,
Dacron, or nylon
A large space with a solid anchor on which to affix the rope is needed for battle rope
workouts. The most popular use of battle ropes is wave exercises. Pulling exercises are done
by wrapping the rope around the anchor.
Here are some guidelines for varying muscle activation and intensity:
• Thickness: Thicker ropes increase intensity by activating the forearm and hand
muscles to challenge (and develop) grip strength. They also add resistance to the
workout because they are heavier.
• Length: Longer ropes require more space than shorter ropes but provide more
challenge while doing wave exercises.
• Distance from the anchor: Waves should reach all the way to the anchor. The
further a client stands from the anchor, the more challenging the workout.
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• Wave size/pace: Wave size is subjective, but the larger the upper body motion,
the larger the wave and the greater the intensity. Likewise, pace can increase or
decrease intensity. The faster the pace (the smaller the wave), the more intense
the workout.
• Body position: To vary muscle activation, vary body position. A client should try
kneeling, squatting, lunging, sitting, and doing a plank position to target different
muscle groups.
• Wraps: To perform pulling exercises, a fitness professional can wrap the rope
around an anchor, and the client can pull the rope through the anchor, hand over
hand, and repeat. Intensity can be added by increasing the number of wraps around
the anchor.
KETTLEBELLS
Kettlebells were originally used for recreation and competitive strength athletics. They
continue to be used as such and have added functionality in circuit training as a cardiovascular
challenge. The benefits of kettlebell training include reduced pain in the neck, shoulders,
and low back and stronger overall musculature. Some studies report increased aerobic
conditioning for intercollegiate athletes, while other studies report no change in aerobic
capacity for sedentary adults. Kettlebell swings are complex movements that should be
progressively trained using first no or little weight and then increasing weight as form and
fitness improve.
Common kettlebell exercises include the following:
• Deadlift
• Halo
• Lunge
• Overhead press
• Row
• Goblet squat
• Swing
• Turkish getup
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CHAPTER 11 | Concepts of Cardiovascular Exercise
Figure 11.2 Kettlebell Exercises: Halo, Overhead Press, and Goblet Squat
CIRCUIT TRAINING
Circuit training includes strength training and cardiovascular training. A circuit is a group of
exercises performed in succession. Each exercise is done for a predetermined number of
repetitions or amount of time before moving on to the next exercise with little to no rest
between exercises.
The benefits of circuit training are constant among many populations, including healthy
adults, youth, seniors, obese adults, and adults with cardiometabolic syndrome and risk
factors for cardiovascular disease. Some proven benefits are as follows:
• Improved body composition
• Increased strength
• Improved cardiovascular performance
• High adherence rate to training
CIRCUIT TRAINING:
Body training that combines
endurance, resistance,
high-intensity interval, and
aerobic training.
HALO
OVERHEAD
PRESS
GOBLET
SQUAT
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Even the following greater results are realized when circuit training is manipulated to create HIIT:
• Improved peak oxygen uptake
• Increased perception of general health
• Decreased RPEs
• Improved quality of life
• Decreased systolic and diastolic blood pressures
• Increased stroke volume
• Improved emotional well-being
To implement circuit training, a fitness professional should measure the one-repetition
maximum (1RM) for each exercise to be performed and determine the training intensity for
each. Between 40 and 70 percent of 1RM is recommended. Since measuring 1RM can
be problematic, the use of a time frame, such as “should reach fatigue in 30 seconds” or
“completes 15 to 20 reps in 30 seconds,” is recommended. This will at least provide the
fitness professional with a rough guideline concerning what weight to use depending on what
the circuit training is targeting.
CROSS-TRAINING
Cross-training is a method of training outside one’s chosen sport. For athletes, it helps avoid
overuse injuries and can help maintain training adaptations during seasonal training cycles.
For general fitness clients, it is a way to improve and maintain overall fitness while increasing
engagement and exercise compliance.
Research has shown that cross-training:
• improves muscular endurance better than weight training alone,
• produces similar cardiovascular endurance benefits to running alone, and
• reduces the risk of injury from lifting heavy objects compared with weight training alone.
For strength-based athletes, cross-training should include cardiovascular endurance training.
For aerobic endurance athletes, cross-training should include lower-impact aerobic activities and
resistance training. Flexibility training is also a sound addition to any cross-training program.
Too much cross-training violates the fitness principle of specificity. Therefore, if a client has
sport-specific goals, a fitness professional should include cross-training in the off-season or
during a taper.
CROSS-TRAINING:
The action of training or
practice in two or more
sports or types of exercise
to improve fitness or
performance in one’s main
sport.
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CHAPTER 11 | Concepts of Cardiovascular Exercise
OTHER SPORTS APPLICATIONS
Sports that require constant movement are considered aerobic. These include basketball,
cross-country skiing, dancing, fencing, gymnastics, hiking, hockey, ice-skating, kayaking,
lacrosse, martial arts, racquetball, in-line skating, skateboarding, snowboarding, soccer, and
tennis—to name a few. Many of these are cyclic activities in which the same movement is
repeated, but some are considered acyclic activities in which different movements are
involved. Nearly every sport’s performance can be improved with the use of intervals, but the
dominating energy system should be the focus of an effective cardiovascular training program.
Table 11.10 Energy System Guidelines
ENERGY
SYSTEM
WHEN
SYSTEM IS
DOMINANT
TYPICAL
ACTIVITIES
TIME REQUIRED
FOR FULL
RECOVERY
ATP/CP 0-10 seconds
Resistance training
<200 Msprints
Plyometrics and
ballistics
3–5 min.
Glycolytic
10-120
seconds
Badminton
Soccer
Gymnastics
Hockey
100–400 M sprints
20–60 min.
Aerobic
2 min. and
longer
Long-distance running
Swimming
Rowing
Cycling
24–72 hr.
CYCLIC ACTIVITIES:
Activities that use the same
movement in repetition.
ACYCLIC ACTIVITIES:
Activities that incorporate
different movement
patterns throughout.
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ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON ACTIVITY
Many sports have seasons that endure extreme weather conditions. Exercise in extreme heat
or extreme cold places additional stress on the body beyond exercise-induced stress. A fitness
professional is responsible for making choices about training variables, and environment,
including how long and how often a client can train in a given location safely and effectively,
is one of those variables.
EXTREME HEAT
Each person’s acclimatization state, fitness level, and hydration status affect the body’s
ability to dissipate heat to the environment. When temperatures are high, the body depends
on evaporative heat loss—perspiration or sweating—to maintain body temperature.
Scientific studies regarding skeletal muscle metabolism during exercise in the heat versus
cold have shown the following in heated conditions:
• Increased plasma lactate levels
► Lactic acid levels rise when oxygen levels decrease.
• Increased muscle glycogen use
► Depletion of glycogen will reduce muscle endurance.
• Increased serum glucose concentration
► Body’s response to energy demand. Depletion of liver glycogen storage will
lead to the onset of fatigue.
• Decreased serum triglyceride concentration
► There is less fat in the bloodstream, likely due to both less triglyceride
manufacture and more muscle use during exercise.
• Increased anaerobic metabolism during submaximal exercise
► The body expends energy faster than blood can supply the muscles with
oxygen. To keep muscles fueled in this oxygen-deprived state, the body
increases anaerobic metabolism using glucose.
The causes of these conditions may include reduced muscle blood flow and a redistribution
of blood flow away from internal organs in favor of skeletal muscle.
EVAPORATIVE HEAT
LOSS:
Cooling the body and
releasing heat via
evaporation of water and
electrolytes from the skin.
 ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 409
CHAPTER 11 | Concepts of Cardiovascular Exercise
When body temperature rises, the body produces sweat to release excess heat. Sweating
rates of one liter per hour may result in dehydration, increasing the thickness of blood and
decreasing total blood volume. Both conditions can reduce the amount of heat lost and result
in an elevated core temperature, which can be detrimental to health.
EXTREME COLD
During cold exposure, the body reduces heat loss with peripheral vasoconstriction and
shivering. Peripheral vasoconstriction during exercise constricts smaller arterioles near the
skin to keep blood closer to the core of the body. This protective response also limits blood
flow to the muscles and has been found to contribute to a decrease in muscle function and
exercise capacity. Shivering is a generally involuntary contraction or twitching of muscle
tissue as a physiological means of heat production, and it is only observed in humans and
other mammals. Vasoconstriction occurs first, then shivering if body temperature continues
to drop below a set point.
Temperature balance within the body in extreme cold and the necessity for shivering are
dependent on a few factors:
• Severity of environmental stress
• Effectiveness of peripheral vasoconstriction
• Intensity and mode of exercise
A person’s sex, age, and acclimatization state affect the body’s thermoregulatory responses
to cold. However, the most important factor affecting thermoregulatory tolerance in cold
environments is body composition. Bodyfat provides insulation for the body, so those with
higher body fat mass will have a less severe reaction to extreme cold than those with less
body fat mass.
ALTITUDE
Altitude training includes training at altitudes greater than 2,500 meters above sea level
with the goal of increasing the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity. Specifically, there is an
increase in erythropoietin (EPO) in the event of chronic hypoxia or lack of oxygen, over a
period of weeks. EPO is a hormone produced by the kidneys and liver that plays a large role
in the production of red blood cells. The resulting training adaptation subsequently improves
sea level endurance performance by increasing lung capacity, increasing the lactic acid
threshold, and positively influencing red blood cell volume and hemoglobin mass.
PERIPHERAL
VASOCONSTRICTION:
Constriction of smaller
arterioles near the skin
to keep blood closer to
the core of the body and
preserve heat.
SHIVERING:
Involuntary contraction or
twitching of muscle tissue
as a physiological means of
heat production.
ALTITUDE TRAINING:
Training at altitudes greater
than 2,500 meters above
sea level with the goal
of increasing the blood’s
oxygen carrying capacity.
ERYTHROPOIETIN
(EPO):
A hormone with a role in
the proliferation of red
blood cells.
HYPOXIA:
Lack of oxygen.
 ISSA | Certified Personal Trainer | 410
Acclimatization to altitude occurs between 12 and 14 days at moderate altitudes, up to
2,300 meters, but can take up to several months.
AIR QUALITY AND POLLUTION
Acute exposure to air pollution, including car emissions, ozone, dust, pollen, and mold, has
been found to significantly reduce exercise performance. However, the benefits of habitual
exercise, even in polluted conditions, seem to win out. In a large-scale study, the Danish Diet,
Cancer, and Health study, researchers found that long-term exposure to air pollution while
exercising did not reduce the benefits of physical activity on overall health. Furthermore,
evidence suggested that exercise reduced the risk of overall mortality by 25 percent.
Even though habitual exercise in polluted areas still has positive effects on health, scientists
suggest finding areas with less pollution in which to exercise. There is no sense in taking two
steps forward and one step back. Thinking through the best options possible in a creative way
will only enhance a fitness professional’s value to their clients.