What are the statistical population, effect sizes, and other important measures or other important data of this study?:

Speed reading courses and their effect on reading authentic texts:
A preliminary investigation
John Macalister
Victoria University of Wellington
New Zealand
Abstract
Fluent reading is essential for successful comprehension. One dimension of reading
fluency is reading rate, or reading speed. Because of the importance of reading fluency,
fluency development activities should be incorporated into classroom practice. One
activity that meets the fluency development conditions proposed by Nation (2007) is
speed reading. An important question is whether reading speed gains measured in words
per minute on controlled speed reading texts transfer to other types of texts. This paper
reports on a preliminary, small-scale investigation of this question. The findings suggest
that a speed reading course may contribute to faster reading speeds on other types of texts,
but there remains a need for further experimental research into the impact of speed
reading courses.
Keywords: reading speed, reading rate, reading fluency, speed reading, reading fluency
development
The importance of reading speed to successful reading is neatly portrayed in the two contrasting
circles of the weak reader and the good reader (Nuttall, 1996, p. 127). In “the virtuous circle of
the good reader” reading faster is linked to greater quantity of reading, better understanding, and
greater enjoyment, whereas in “the vicious circle of the weak reader” lack of understanding, lack
of enjoyment, lack of reading, and slow reading feed off each other. It is the teacher’s role,
therefore, to help learners move from this “cycle of frustration and enter instead the cycle of
growth” that the virtuous circle represents. One way of achieving this is through attention to
reading fluency. Fluency skills in reading, Hudson (2007, p. 80) pointed out, “are directed at
allowing the reader to see larger sentences and phrases as wholes, a process which assists in
reading more quickly.” While, as Grabe (2009, p. 292) pointed out, reading fluency is an underresearched area in second language settings, its various dimensions have been receiving
increasing attention; Grabe (2009, pp. 291–292) discussed four dimensions: automaticity,
accuracy, reading rate, and prosodic structuring, with automaticity and accuracy of word
recognition being considered prerequisites for a rapid reading rate. Reading rate, or reading
speed, is then a component of fluency, which may be loosely described as the ability to produce
and process the target language with native speaker-like ease, and attention to fluency
development should form part of any balanced language course. Nation (2007) described fluency
Macalister: Speed reading courses and their effect on reading authentic texts 105
Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1)
development as one of the four strands of a language course, and advised devoting roughly equal
time to it and to the other three: meaning focused input, language focused learning, and meaning
focused output. In order to be regarded as fluency development, Nation argued, activities need to
meet a number of conditions, which are (a) all that the learners are listening to, reading, speaking
or writing is largely familiar to them; (b) the learners’ focus is on receiving or conveying
meaning; (c) there is some pressure or encouragement to perform at a faster than usual speed;
and (d) there is a large amount of input or output.
In the classroom, the three principal approaches to increase reading speed—easy extensive
reading, repeated reading, and speed reading—all meet these conditions for fluency development
to a considerable extent.
1. Extensive reading can be undertaken for either language development or fluency
development goals (Hu & Nation, 2000, p. 423; Nation & Wang, 1999, p. 375). In easy
extensive reading (Nation, 2009, p. 69) learners read materials that contain only known
vocabulary; they are reading for pleasure, so receiving meaning is the focus; and they are
reading a lot. The condition relating to faster performance is usually met by establishing
targets or goals, such as reading for a set amount of time each day, or reading a book a
week. A number of research studies have established a link between extensive reading
and reading speed (e.g., Bell, 2001; Iwahori, 2008).
2. Repeated reading requires the learners to read the same text repeatedly, either silently
or aloud. Nation (2009, p. 66) explained how this activity meets all his conditions for
fluency development. There are several possible ways in which repeated reading can be
implemented, with one variation being the amount of support provided to the learners.
For example, in assisted repeated reading learners read and simultaneously listen to the
text during some of the re-reading stages. In foreign language teaching, assisted repeated
reading has been found to be effective in developing fluency as measured in words per
minute (wpm), but with no significant difference between the impact of repeated reading
and extensive reading (Taguchi, Takayasu-Maass, & Gorsuch, 2004).
3. Speed reading courses usually consist of a set number of texts of a fixed length, written
within a restricted lexicon, followed by several multi-choice questions. The presence of
the questions encourages learners to read the texts for understanding, rather than focus on
skimming the text as quickly as possible. Such courses meet all Nation’s conditions for
fluency development. Because the texts are written with a restricted, known vocabulary
all that the learners are reading is expected to be familiar to them, and as comprehension
questions follow each text the learners’ focus is on receiving meaning. At the same time,
as learners are recording both their speed and their comprehension scores for each text
there is some encouragement to perform at a faster than usual speed. The condition
requiring a large amount of input is met by the number of texts.
The use of speed reading courses has received sporadic attention in the literature, but their use in
language learning programmes as a means of developing reading fluency has its advocates,
among whom a leading figure is Professor Paul Nation. Chung and Nation (2006, p. 198), for
example, recommended that “a speed reading course should be included in every reading class,”
Macalister: Speed reading courses and their effect on reading authentic texts 106
Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1)
a view echoed by Nation and Macalister (2010, p. 93), who suggested that “reading fluency
activities should involve a speed reading course within a controlled vocabulary.” While the target
reading speeds for different forms of reading vary, “a good careful silent reading speed is around
250 words per minute,” and this is a “reasonable [goal] for foreign and second language learners
who are reading material that contains no unknown vocabulary and grammar” (Nation, 2009, p.
72, italics added). Speed reading courses, their advocates claim, can assist learners achieve target
reading speeds. It is important to note, however, that Nation’s 250 wpm target is for materials
where vocabulary and grammar are known, such as the texts in a speed reading course. When
there are unknown elements in the text, or the reading purpose is other than general
comprehension, the reading speed will be considerably lower (Cobb, 2008; Fraser, 2007).
Despite the claims of speed reading advocates, it is my experience that teachers and researchers
sometimes express scepticism about the benefits of speed reading. One of the reasons for this
scepticism may be because relatively little research on its effect in a foreign language learning
environment has been published (Bismoko & Nation, 1974; Chung & Nation, 2006; Cramer,
1975; West, 1941), and I am aware of only one study on the effect of a speed reading course in a
second language learning as opposed to a foreign language learning environment (Macalister,
2008a). The existing research may be limited, but it does, however, support the use of speed
reading programmes. Early studies investigated whether such programmes are best conducted in
the first or the target language. West (1941) found a transfer effect from training in reading in
English to first language (Bengali) reading speed and promoted the desirability of conducting
speed reading courses in the first language. Bismoko and Nation (1974) and Cramer (1975) came
to the same conclusion after experimental research in Indonesia and Malaysia respectively.
Despite this, it is speed reading courses in the target language, English, rather than in multiple
first languages that appear to have been developed (e.g., Nation & Malarcher, 2007; Quinn &
Nation, 1974). Very little research has focussed on the use of such courses, although recently
Chung and Nation (2006) reported on the effect of an English language speed reading course on
the English language reading speed of 40 first-year university students in Korea. This course was
delivered over a 9-week period, and almost all students gradually increased their reading speed,
with most of the increase occurring over the first 10 texts.
A substantial question arising from Chung and Nation (2006) was whether the increase claimed
at the end of the course was a result of a practice effect; the students read from two to four speed
reading texts a week for 9 weeks, at the end of which period they would have become
“practiced” at reading and responding to the type of texts. There was no evidence that any
increases were maintained, which is an important consideration if learners are to enjoy ongoing
benefits from following a speed reading course. West (1941) compared reading to physical
activities such as swimming, and the analogy holds for this concern about a practice effect. Just
as an athlete aims to reach peak performance through a training programme, the learner may
reach peak reading speed after repeated practice with a series of controlled texts but fall away
from that peak when the programme ceases. It seems reasonable to suggest therefore that if
apparent gains in reading speed at the end of a speed reading course are the result of a practice
effect, these gains may not be maintained when reading speed is re-assessed at a later date.
The hypothesis that apparent gains in reading speed will not be maintained when reading speed
is re-assessed at a later date if the gains are a result of a practice effect was addressed in a study
Macalister: Speed reading courses and their effect on reading authentic texts 107
Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1)
in an English as a second language (ESL) context (Macalister, 2008a). Learners on a university
preparation programme read the first 17 texts in a speed reading course as usual, with the
remaining three texts being used as a delayed post-test several weeks after the end of the speed
reading course. While most of the 29 students, as in the Chung and Nation (2006) study,
increased their reading speed from the beginning to the end of the speed reading course, around
one-half recorded no change or a decrease in reading speed from the end of the speed reading
course to the end of the language programme, when the delayed post-test readings were
delivered. While this may suggest that, at least for those students who decreased in reading speed,
a practice effect was operating it was also the case that almost all the students in the study
recorded an increase in reading speed from the beginning to the end of the language programme.
However, it is perhaps worth noting here that the control groups in both Bismoko and Nation’s
(1974) and Cramer’s (1975) studies recorded mean increases of 12% and 18% respectively in
their English language reading speeds; in other words, increased reading speed may occur in the
context of a language programme without the use of speed reading courses, although the gains
are greater if speed reading is used.
All five studies reported here support the use of speed reading programmes but questions—and,
as noted above, scepticism—about their use and effectiveness remain. A critical question is
whether any gains in reading speed transfer to other forms of reading. The claims for increased
reading speed in Chung and Nation (2006) and Macalister (2008a) are based on changes in
reading speed on the speed reading course texts, which are carefully controlled for length and
lexis. Whether there is a relationship between increased reading speed on speed reading course
texts and reading speed on authentic texts (i.e., texts not written for language learning purposes)
is the focus of the current study. The remainder of this article, then, addresses the following
question: do students who make reading speed gains as measured in words per minute over a
speed reading course also make reading speed gains on another type of text?
Method
This study was conducted with four intact classes on a university preparation course at a New
Zealand university. Most teachers within this programme were familiar with and used speed
readings (particularly Millett, 2005a, 2005b), usually in the manner discussed by Millett (2008)
where they form the third part of a daily fluency programme that begins with 5 minutes of
writing, followed by a 2- or 3-minute speaking activity based on the writing. For this study, one
teacher agreed not to use a speed reading course with her class, while the other three did. The
teacher who did not use a speed reading course chose instead to incorporate extensive reading
into the programme (using class sets as described in Macalister, 2008b). At the beginning of the
course, all students sat a form of the Vocabulary Levels Test or VLT (Nation, 1990, 2001); this
test samples various vocabulary frequency levels and provides information to guide future
vocabulary learning. Information provided to students on a course document advises them that
“If you get 20–24 on [a] level, you know most of these words. If you get less than this, these are
the words you should learn first.” On the basis of this interpretation of their class’ results (Table
1 shows the VLT results at the 2,000, 3,000, and Academic Word List (AWL) levels for students
included in the study), teachers chose to use New Zealand Speed Readings for ESL Learners,
Book Two (Millett, 2005b) with their classes. As mentioned earlier, the texts in a speed reading
Macalister: Speed reading courses and their effect on reading authentic texts 108
Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1)
course are written within a restricted lexicon. The texts in this teacher-selected book are written
with the 2,000 most frequent word families plus the AWL, word families that occur frequently
across a range of texts in a corpus of written academic English (Coxhead, 2000); while the texts
in the speed reading course book may have been more difficult than ideal for a few students, they
were chosen because they fitted the class profile. As Table 1 suggests, strictly speaking the
groups were not quite comparable, and this caveat needs to be borne in mind when considering
the results.
Table 1. Vocabulary Levels Test results
Score (max = 24) No speed reading (n = 12) With speed reading (n = 24)
 2,000-level 3,000-level AWL-level 2,000-level 3,000-level AWL-level
20–24 12 (100%) 11 (92%) 8 (67%) 21 (87.5%) 17 (71%) 10 (41%)
≤ 19 - 1 (8%) 4 (33%) 3 (12.5%) 7 (29%) 14 (59%)
The three authentic texts were all taken from a long essay written by George Orwell ([1952]
2008) about his school days (see Appendix 2). As he was writing about public boys’ school life
around the time of the First World War, it was likely that the topic would be unfamiliar to all the
learners, and as they were written by the same person would be of comparable lexical and
syntactic difficulty (cf. Gardner, 2008). The extracts were selected and, when necessary, slightly
edited. Table 2 compares them in terms of length and lexical coverage offered by the 2,000 most
frequent word families in the General Service List (West, 1953) and the AWL as analysed by
Range (Heatley, Nation, & Coxhead, 2002).
Table 2. Lexical coverage of authentic texts (% of tokens)
 Text 1 Text 2 Text 3
Tokens (N) 902 799 887
 1,000-level 84.26 83.35 84.55
 2,000-level 7.21 6.51 4.96
 AWL-level 1.88 2.38 2.48
 93.35 92.24 92.00
Table 3. Lexical coverage of language programme texts (% of tokens)
 Text 1 Text 2 Text 3 Text 4
Tokens (N) 342 944 1,228 1,254
 1,000-level 73.10 70.02 75.16 75.92
 2,000-level 5.85 9.96 8.96 6.94
 AWL-level 11.11 2.97 3.09 12.28
 90.06 82.94 87.21 95.14
By way of comparison, four texts from the six study themes used in the language programme
were randomly selected and similarly analysed. These results are shown in Table 3, and suggest
that the authentic texts chosen for use in this study were no less challenging, and in some cases
much less so, than those included as course materials. The authentic texts were to be used for
independent reading with a general comprehension goal, and to some extent sit between the
speed reading texts used for independent reading with a fluency goal and the course materials
Macalister: Speed reading courses and their effect on reading authentic texts 109
Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1)
which would typically be used in-class for teacher-directed intensive reading with a language
focused learning goal.
Teachers were asked to use the authentic text reading in a particular way (see Appendix 1).
There was a small amount of pre-reading activity to prepare the students for the reading; this was
designed to orient the learners to the text and to introduce them to any potentially problematic
proper nouns. There was also an explicit focus on a meaning-related activity after reading, to
encourage reading for general understanding. The instructions also prepared the learners to start
reading at the same time, and to be interrupted at a certain point during their reading. They were
asked to mark on their text the point they had reached after 90 seconds, and then to continue
reading to the end.
The implementation of the study is summarised in Table 4. It is worth clarifying that the term
“speed reading course” refers to the systematic use of texts from the selected speed reading
course book over the first half of the 12-week language programme; the speed reading course is
embedded in the language programme.
Table 4. Research design summary
Timing Measure Description of activity
Week 1 Vocabulary
Levels Test
The students take this test at the beginning of the course. It is used
for diagnostic purposes. Teachers decide which speed reading
course book to use with their class on the basis of this test.
Week 1 Speed reading
course texts 1–3,
and first Orwell
text
All students read the first of the three Orwell texts (O1).
All students do the first three speed reading texts; the average of the
three scores establishes each student’s initial reading speed.
Weeks 2–6 Speed reading
course
The treatment classes continue to work through the first 17 of the
20 texts in the course book at a rate of approximately three per
week. The average of the final three texts read establishes each
student’s reading speed at the end of the speed reading course.
Week 6 Second Orwell
text
All students do the second of the three Orwell texts (O2).
Week 12 Speed reading
course texts 18–
20, and third
Orwell text
All students do the final three speed reading texts; the average of
these scores establishes a student’s final reading speed.
All students do the last of the three Orwell texts (O3).
Results
Thirty-six students in the four classes completed all three authentic text readings and missed no
more than one of the speed reading texts used for measurement purposes; in fact, all but six of
these students completed all. Twenty-four students were from the treatment classes that used the
speed reading course; all 24 recorded increases in reading speed (as measured in words per
Macalister: Speed reading courses and their effect on reading authentic texts 110
Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1)
minute over three speed reading texts) from the beginning to the end of the speed reading course,
and (using the same measure) all showed an increase from the beginning to the end of the
language programme, although just under 50% recorded no change or a decrease in reading
speed from the end of the speed reading course to the end of the language programme. This was
in line with the results reported by Macalister (2008a), where a similar proportion of students did
not maintain their gains in reading speed.
The 12 students from the comparison class that did not use a speed reading course did not show
the same pattern. These students read three speed reading texts at the start of the language
programme and a further three at the end. While 7 of the 12 recorded an increase in reading
speed from the beginning to the end of the language programme, 5 did not. Furthermore, the size
of the recorded increases for this class was smaller than those for the others.
The real interest, however, lies not in the results for the speed reading texts but for the reading
speeds on the three authentic texts. The immediate impression was one of a great deal of
individual variation over the three texts. Seven different patterns were identified, with three
being judged to be positive, three negative, and one neutral. The three positive patterns were (a)
a steady increase from one reading to the next; (b) a drop from the first to the second reading, but
a rise on the third reading to a faster reading rate than on the first; (c) a rise from the first to the
second reading, followed by a drop on the third reading but to a faster reading rate than on the
first. The three negative patterns were (a) a steady decrease from one reading to the next; (b) a
drop from the first to the second reading, followed by a rise on the third reading but to a slower
reading rate than on the first; (c) a rise from the first to the second reading, followed by a drop on
the third reading to a slower reading rate than on the first. The neutral pattern was one where
results for all three readings fell in a 10 word band. As can be seen in Table 5, only students in
the comparison class showed a neutral pattern.
Table 5. Patterns of change in reading speed on authentic texts (number of students and %)
Pattern No speed reading
(n = 12)
With speed reading
(n = 24)
Total
(n = 36)
Positive
 Steady increase - 7 (29%) 7
 Drop then rise to above start 4 (33%) - 4
 Rise then drop to above start 2 (17%) 8 (33.5%) 10
Negative
 Steady decrease 1 (8%) 3 (12.5%) 4
 Drop then rise to below start 3 (25% 3 (12.5%) 6
 Rise then drop to below start - 3 (12.5%) 3
Neutral
 No change 2 (17%) - 2
A slightly more nuanced picture emerges by examining differences in reading speed at different
points in the course (Table 6). As shown in Table 4, the first authentic text (O1) was read by
students at the start of the language programme and before the speed reading course. The second
authentic text (O2) was read at the end of the speed reading course. At this stage of the
programme only two students (17%) in the comparison class showed an increase, whereas 16
Macalister: Speed reading courses and their effect on reading authentic texts 111
Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1)
students (67%) who had completed the speed reading course showed an increase. The final
authentic text (O3) was read at the end of the language programme; the column O1–O3 in Table
6 shows the recorded difference in reading speed between the first and third authentic texts.
Table 6. Change in reading speed on authentic texts at different points in the language programme
(number of students and %)
No speed reading (n = 12) With speed reading (n = 24)
 O1–O2 O1–O3 O1–O2 O1–O3
Increase 2 (17%) 4 (33%) 16 (67%) 15 (62.5%)
Decrease 9 (75%) 4 (33%) 8 (33%) 9 (37.5%)
No change 1 (8%) 4 (33%) - -
Table 7. Group mean reading speeds on authentic texts (in wpm)
Measure Group N M SD t p
(2-tailed)
Mean wpm
change O1–O2
Mean wpm
change O1–O3
Comparison 12 161.67 38.19 3.43 .002
O1 Treatment 24 113.36 42.93

Comparison 12 147.44 22.92 .50 .620 -14.2 (-8.8%)
O2 Treatment 24 141.00 54.14 +27.6 (24.3%)
Comparison 12 156.61 21.38 2.05 .048 -5.1 (-3.2%) O3 Treatment 24 133.50 46.27 +20.1 (17.7%)
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
O1 O2 O3
Authentic Text
Mean Words per Minute
 —— No Speed Reading
 – – – With Speed Reading
Figure 1. Group mean reading speeds on authentic texts (in wpm).
Macalister: Speed reading courses and their effect on reading authentic texts 112
Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1)
As a final way of considering the findings, other studies on the effect of speed reading courses on
reading speed have made claims for the effect based on group means (Bismoko & Nation, 1974;
Cramer, 1975; Nation, 2009, p. 64, discussing Chung & Nation, 2006). Table 7 shows the mean
reading speeds for the two groups of students in the current study at each authentic text reading.
The changes in mean reading speeds are also shown in Figure 1. As can be seen, the two groups
were reading at dramatically different rates at O1, but after the speed reading treatment there was
no significant difference on reading speed. At O3, however, the two groups again diverged. This
may be related to the practice effect of the speed reading course wearing off (Macalister, 2008a).
Also of interest is the fact that only the students who did a speed reading course recorded mean
wpm increases on the authentic texts. They appear to have reached realistic reading speeds for
English language learners reading texts which contain unknown elements (Cobb, 2008; Fraser,
2007).
Discussion
This study showed gains for students doing a speed reading course in reading speed as measured
in wpm on speed reading texts and on authentic texts. When considered alongside the results of
earlier studies, a number of conclusions can be drawn.
1. Students who do a speed reading course are very likely to increase their reading speed
(as measured in wpm on speed reading course texts) from the beginning to the end of the
speed reading course (cf. Chung & Nation, 2006; Macalister, 2008a).
2. Students may increase their reading speed (as measured in wpm on speed reading
course texts) from the beginning to the end of a language programme whether or not a
speed reading course forms a component of the language programme (cf. Bismoko &
Nation, 1974; Cramer, 1975). However, students who do a speed reading course tend to
show greater gains in reading speed than those who do not, even if their gains from the
end of the speed reading course to the end of the language programme may not be
maintained at peak levels (cf. Macalister, 2008a).
3. Students who do a speed reading course are significantly more likely than those who
do not do a speed reading course to read an authentic text more quickly at the end of the
speed reading course than they did at the start of the speed reading course. They are also
more likely to read an authentic text more quickly at the end of the language programme
than they did at the start of the language programme.
From a pedagogical perspective, then, these points would seem to add weight to Chung and
Nation’s (2006, p. 198) suggestion that “a speed reading course should be included in every
reading class”. It is likely, however, that a speed reading course may not, of itself, be sufficient
to increase and maintain reading speed. The challenge for teachers is to decide how best to
reinforce the reading speed gains that a speed reading course can deliver. Opportunities to read,
possibly through an extensive reading programme, are needed so that learners can maintain their
gains in reading speed. In other words, as the popular saying has it, “use it or lose it.”
Macalister: Speed reading courses and their effect on reading authentic texts 113
Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1)
Concluding remarks
The study reported here was a preliminary investigation of the effect of speed reading courses on
the reading speed of authentic texts, and has a number of limitations which would need to be
addressed in a future study. These limitations include the small size of the sample, the lack of
comparability between the two groups, and the use of only one measure of reading speed transfer.
In future studies it would also be useful to include a measure for comprehension. Furthermore,
this study was a quasi-experimental one, reflecting the reality of working with intact classes in an
authentic learning context. As a result, not all variables of interest could be controlled and two
questions that arise from this study also deserve to be the focus of further attention. The first
relates to the effect of receptive vocabulary knowledge on changes in reading speed. While
higher VLT scores did not necessarily equate with faster reading speeds on an individual basis, it
was the case that the class without a speed reading course had higher mean VLT scores (see
Table 1) and faster mean reading speeds (see Table 7) at the beginning. The question is whether
the lower gains in reading speed can be attributed to the absence of a speed reading course, or
whether students with this proficiency profile have less room for improvement in reading speed
(although, as shown in Table 7, they have not reached target reading speeds suggested by Nation,
2009, p. 72, for careful silent reading). If it is the latter, then this has pedagogical implications as
it raises the supplementary question of when speed reading courses are most effective as a
teaching intervention.
The second question of interest is triggered by the recognition that six of the nine students who
had a speed reading course and showed a decrease in reading speed on authentic texts (Table 6)
belonged to the same class. This may suggest that teacher variables played a role in the outcome,
and that the identification of optimal delivery conditions for a speed reading course could be
worthwhile. As part of that inquiry, the interplay between speed reading and the opportunities for
reading offered by an extensive reading programme could also be considered.
It would seem, therefore, that there is still more to discover about the contribution of speed
reading courses to reading fluency development, and that future studies will continue to build on
the work of Bismoko and Nation (1974), Chung and Nation (2006), and others.
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Appendix A
Instructions to Teachers for First Orwell Reading
Tell the students they’re going to be reading an extract from an essay George Orwell wrote about his
school days. (Feel free to ask questions along the lines of: Has anyone heard of George Orwell? etc. etc.)
Explain that he was at a boarding school around the time of the First World War and write on the board
the name of the school—St Cyprian’s.
Before giving them the story, explain that they’re going to be asked to do 2 things. At the end, they’re
going to work in pairs to re-construct the story and to consider what happened next. However, while
reading, you’re going to interrupt and ask them to mark on the handout exactly where they are at that
stage by drawing a line after the word they’ve just read. So they’ll need to have a pen or pencil beside
them when they read.
Finally, ask them to read without using dictionaries etc.
Hand out the story. Ask them not to start reading till you say so. Like a test!
After 90 seconds, ask them to mark on the page where they are, and to continue reading.
At end, please collect text back, with names written on.
Thank you!
Appendix B
First Orwell Reading
Extract from Part I of Orwell’s “Such, Such Were the Joys” (1952), reprinted in Orwell’s (2008)
Books v. Cigarettes, Penguin Books.
Soon after I arrived at St Cyprian’s (not immediately, but after a week or two, just when I seemed to
be settling into the routine of school life) I began wetting my bed. I was now aged eight, so that this was a
reversion to a habit which I must have grown out of at least four years earlier.
Nowadays, I believe, bed-wetting in such circumstances is taken for granted. It is a normal reaction in
children who have been removed from their homes to a strange place. In those days, however, it was
looked on as a disgusting crime which the child committed on purpose and for which the proper cure was
a beating. For my part I did not need to be told it was a crime. Night after night I prayed, with a fervour
never previously attained in my prayers. “Please God, do not let me wet my bed! Oh, please God, do not
let me wet my bed!”, but it made remarkably little difference. Some nights the thing happened, others not.
There was no volition about it, no consciousness. You did not properly speaking do the deed: you merely
woke up in the morning and found that the sheets were wringing wet.
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Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1)
After the second or third offence I was warned that I should be beaten next time, but I received the
warning in a curiously roundabout way. One afternoon, as we were filing out from tea, Mrs W—, the
Headmaster’s wife, was sitting at the head of one of the tables, chatting with a lady of whom I knew
nothing, except that she was on an afternoon’s visit to the school. She was an intimidating, masculinelooking person wearing a riding-habit, or something that I took to be a riding-habit. I was just leaving the
room when Mrs W—called me back, as though to introduce me to the visitor.
Mrs W—was nicknamed Flip, and I shall call her by that name, for I seldom think of her by any other.
(Officially, however, she was addressed as Mum, probably a corruption of the “Ma’am” used by public
schoolboys to their housemasters’ wives.) She was a stocky square-built woman with hard red cheeks, a
flat top to her head, prominent brows and deep-set, suspicious eyes. Although a great deal of the time she
was full of false heartiness, jollying one along with mannish slang (“Buck up, old chap!” and so forth),
and even using one’s Christian name, her eyes never lost their anxious, accusing look. It was very
difficult to look her in the face without feeling guilty, even at moments when one was not guilty of
anything in particular.
 “Here is a little boy,” said Flip, indicating me to the strange lady, “who wets his bed every night. Do
you know what I am going to do if you wet your bed again?” she added, turning to me. “I am going to get
the Sixth Form to beat you.”
The strange lady put on an air of being inexpressibly shocked, and exclaimed “I-should-think-so!”
And here there occurred one of those wild, almost lunatic misunderstandings which are part of the daily
experience of childhood. The Sixth Form were a group of older boys who were selected as having
“character” and were empowered to beat smaller boys. I had not yet learned of their existence, and I misheard the phrase “the Sixth Form” as “Mrs Form.” I took it as referring to the strange lady—I thought,
that is, that her name was Mrs Form. It was an improbable name, but a child has no judgement in such
matters. I imagined, therefore, that it was she who was to be deputed to beat me. It did not strike me as
strange that this job should be turned over to a casual visitor in no way connected with the school. I
merely assumed that “Mrs Form” was a stern disciplinarian who enjoyed beating people (somehow her
appearance seemed to bear this out) and I had an immediate terrifying vision of her arriving for the
occasion in full riding kit and armed with a hunting-whip. To this day I can feel myself almost swooning
with shame as I stood, a very small, round-faced boy in short corduroy knickers, before the two women. I
could not speak. I felt that I should die if “Mrs Form” were to beat me. But my dominant feeling was not
fear or even resentment: it was simply shame because one more person, and that a woman, had been told
of my disgusting offence.
A little later, I forget how, I learned that it was not after all “Mrs Form” who would do the beating. I
cannot remember whether it was that very night that I wetted my bed again, but at any rate I did wet it
again quite soon. Oh, the despair, the feeling of cruel injustice, after all my prayers and resolutions, at
once again waking between the clammy sheets! There was no chance, of hiding what I had done. The
grim statuesque matron, Margaret by name, arrived in the dormitory specially to inspect my bed. She
pulled back the clothes, then drew herself up, and the dreaded words seemed to come rolling out of her
like a peal of thunder:
“REPORT YOURSELF to the Headmaster after breakfast!”
About the Author
John Macalister is Senior Lecturer in the School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies,
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. He and Paul Nation are currently cosupervising a PhD candidate who is investigating some of the questions about the effect of speed
reading that are raised in this paper. Email: <PRESIDIO_ANONYMIZED_EMAIL_ADDRESS>