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### The Solar System  
#### The Sun  
1. **Q:** What is the photosphere of the Sun?  
**A:** The luminous surface layer of the Sun or a star that Earthlings see.  
  
2. **Q:** Where do photochemical reactions primarily occur in the Sun?  
**A:** In the chromosphere, a stratum of the Sun’s upper atmosphere.  
  
3. **Q:** What is the corona?  
**A:** It is a colored circle around the Sun and the outermost part of its atmosphere.  
  
4. **Q:** What are solar flares?  
**A:** Sudden temporary outbursts of energy from a small area of the Sun’s surface.  
  
5. **Q:** What are sunspots and how do they appear?  
**A:** Dark spots on the Sun’s surface that are relatively colder than surrounding areas.  
  
6. **Q:** What is a solar prominence?  
**A:** A mass of gas resembling a cloud that arises from the Sun’s chromosphere.  
  
7. **Q:** What is the solar wind?  
**A:** Plasma continuously ejected from the Sun’s surface into and through interplanetary space.  
  
8. **Q:** What causes the aurora borealis and aurora australis, and where do they occur?  
**A:** They are caused by interactions between the solar wind and Earth’s magnetosphere, occurring in the northern and southern hemispheres, respectively.  
  
#### The Terrestrial Planets  
9. **Q:** Which planet is known as “The Morning Star”?  
**A:** Venus.  
  
10. **Q:** How is Venus’s rotation unique compared to other planets?  
**A:** It rotates opposite to most planets, with the Sun rising in the west and setting in the east.  
  
11. **Q:** Which terrestrial planet has a day longer than its year?  
**A:** Venus.  
  
#### The Jovian Planets/The Gas Giants  
12. **Q:** What are the names of Jupiter’s four main moons?  
**A:** Io, Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa.  
  
13. **Q:** What is the Big Red Spot on Jupiter?  
**A:** A massive storm on the planet’s surface.  
  
14. **Q:** What nickname is given to Saturn, and why?  
**A:** The Ringed Planet, due to its prominent rings.  
  
#### The Ice Giants  
15. **Q:** What is the axial tilt of Uranus and how does it affect the planet?  
**A:** Uranus has an axial tilt of 98°, causing it to spin on its side.  
  
16. **Q:** Why does Neptune appear blue?  
**A:** Because of the presence of methane in its atmosphere.  
  
#### The Kuiper Belt and Beyond  
17. **Q:** What celestial body was reclassified and is no longer considered a planet?  
**A:** Pluto.  
  
#### The Asteroid Belt  
18. **Q:** What is the largest object in the asteroid belt?  
**A:** Ceres.

### Heavenly Bodies  
#### Stars  
1. **Q:** What is Polaris, and where is it located?  
**A:** Polaris is the Northern Star, part of the Little Dipper’s handle, and it is where Earth’s axis points.  
  
2. **Q:** Which star is known as the Dog Star and is the brightest in the night sky?  
**A:** Sirius.  
  
3. **Q:** What is the nearest star system to the Solar System and what does it consist of?  
**A:** The Alpha Centauri star system, consisting of a triple star system (Alpha Centauri A, B, and Proxima Centauri).  
  
4. **Q:** Describe Alpha Centauri A and B.  
**A:** They are a binary star pair.  
  
5. **Q:** What is Proxima Centauri, and why is it significant?  
**A:** Proxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun and is an invisible red dwarf.  
  
#### Constellations  
6. **Q:** What is Ursa Major, and what significant asterism does it contain?  
**A:** Ursa Major is the constellation known as the Great Bear and it contains the Big Dipper.  
  
7. **Q:** Which constellation contains Polaris?  
**A:** Ursa Minor, which contains the Little Dipper.  
  
8. **Q:** What is Canis Major known for, and what does it contain?  
**A:** Canis Major is known as the Great Dog and contains Sirius.  
  
9. **Q:** What does the constellation Canis Minor symbolize?  
**A:** The puppy.  
  
10. **Q:** Which constellation is known as “The Hunter”?  
**A:** Orion.  
  
#### The Zodiac Signs  
11. **Q:** What symbol is associated with Aries?  
**A:** The Ram.  
  
12. **Q:** Which zodiac sign is represented by ‘The Bull’?  
**A:** Taurus.  
  
13. **Q:** Gemini is symbolized by which figure?  
**A:** The Twins.  
  
14. **Q:** What creature symbolizes Cancer in the zodiac?  
**A:** The Crab.  
  
15. **Q:** Which zodiac sign is represented by ‘The Lion’?  
**A:** Leo.  
  
16. **Q:** What is the symbol for Virgo in the zodiac?  
**A:** The Virgin.  
  
17. **Q:** What does Libra symbolize in the zodiac?  
**A:** The Scales.  
  
18. **Q:** Which zodiac sign is represented by ‘The Scorpion’?  
**A:** Scorpio.  
  
19. **Q:** Sagittarius is symbolized by which figure?  
**A:** The Archer.  
  
20. **Q:** How is Capricorn represented in the zodiac?  
**A:** The Sea Goat.  
  
21. **Q:** What figure represents Aquarius in the zodiac?  
**A:** The Water Bearer.  
  
22. **Q:** Which zodiac sign is symbolized by ‘The Fishes’?  
**A:** Pisces. 
  
### The Earth  
  
#### Earth’s Characteristics  
1. **Q:** What is the axial tilt of Earth?  
**A:** 23.5 degrees.  
  
2. **Q:** How long is Earth’s axial precession cycle?  
**A:** Approximately 25,772 years, or roughly 26,000 years.  
  
3. **Q:** How many days are there in an Earth year (revolution)?  
**A:** 365.2422 days, or approximately 365.25 days.  
  
4. **Q:** What causes Earth’s seasons?  
**A:** The axial tilt of Earth.  
  
#### Eclipses  
5. **Q:** Describe the alignment during a solar eclipse.  
**A:** The sun, moon, and Earth align, with the moon covering the sun.  
  
6. **Q:** What is the alignment during a lunar eclipse, and how does the moon appear?  
**A:** The sun, Earth, and moon align, and the moon appears red.  
  
#### Tides  
7. **Q:** What is a neap tide, and what is the alignment of the sun, Earth, and moon?  
**A:** A neap tide is weak, occurring when the sun, Earth, and moon form a 90-degree angle.  
  
8. **Q:** Describe a spring tide and the alignment associated with it.  
**A:** A spring tide is strong, occurring when the sun, Earth, and moon are in a straight line.  
  
#### Solstices & Equinoxes  
9. **Q:** When is the summer solstice, and what occurs in the northern hemisphere?  
**A:** June 21, with the longest daylight and the overhead sun at the Tropic of Cancer (23.5º N).  
  
10. **Q:** When does the fall equinox occur?  
**A:** September 23.  
  
11. **Q:** What happens during the winter solstice in the northern hemisphere, and when does it occur?  
**A:** December 22, with the longest nighttime and the overhead sun at the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5º S).  
  
12. **Q:** When is the spring or vernal equinox?  
**A:** March 21.

### planetary motions:

**Front:** Rotation  
**Back:** Movement of a planet or celestial body around its own axis.

**Front:** Revolution  
**Back:** Movement of a planet or celestial body around a star.

**Front:** Precession  
**Back:** Wobbling or gradual shift in the orientation of a planet's axis.

### The Moon
  
**Q:** What is the Latin name for the Moon?  
**A:** “Luna”  
  
**Q:** Does the Moon have an atmosphere?  
**A:** No, the Moon does not have an atmosphere.  
  
**Q:** How long does it take for the Moon to complete one revolution with respect to the stars?  
**A:** 27.32 days  
  
**Q:** Why does the Moon only show one side to the Earth?  
**A:** Because it is in synchronous rotation with the Earth; its rotation period is approximately equal to its revolution period.  
  
**Q:** What was the first unmanned mission to the Moon and when did it occur?  
**A:** The first unmanned mission to the Moon was part of the Soviet Lunar Program in 1959.  
  
**Q:** What was the name of the first manned mission to land on the Moon and who was the astronaut that first stepped on it?  
**A:** Apollo 11 was the first manned mission to land on the Moon, and Neil Armstrong was the first astronaut to step on it in 1969.

Phases of the moon
![[Screenshot 2024-09-04 151721.png]]
#### Types of Shadows  
  
1. **Q:** What is an Umbra, and what solar phenomenon is observed within it?  
**A:** An Umbra is the central cone of darkness that tapers away from the Earth or Moon, and a total solar eclipse is observed within it.  
  
2. **Q:** What does the Penumbra symbolize, and what type of eclipse occurs there?  
**A:** The Penumbra is the outer cone of partial shadow that diverges instead of tapering, where a partial solar eclipse occurs.  
  
3. **Q:** What is the meaning of “Umbra” in Latin, and how does it relate to its appearance?  
**A:** “Umbra” means “shadow” in Latin, which relates to its appearance as the darkest part of the shadow.  
  
4. **Q:** What is an Antumbra, and what visual phenomenon does it cause during an eclipse?  
**A:** An Antumbra is where a thin disk of light surrounds the Moon, causing an annular solar eclipse.  
  
5. **Q:** How does the Latin root of “Penumbra” describe its appearance?  
**A:** “Penumbra” comes from the Latin “paena,” meaning “almost,” describing its lighter, partial shadow appearance.  
  
6. **Q:** In which shadow region does an annular solar eclipse occur?  
**A:** An annular solar eclipse occurs in the Antumbra.

7. Q: What is an annular solar eclipse
   A: A thin disk of light around the moon

#### Composition of the Earth  
  
1. **Q:** What percentage of the Earth’s surface is covered by water?  
**A:** 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water.  
  
2. **Q:** In geology, what is a discontinuity?  
**A:** A discontinuity is a surface at which seismic waves change velocity.  
  
#### Earth’s Layers  
  
3. **Q:** List the Earth’s layers from innermost to outermost.  
**A:** Inner core, Outer core, Gutenberg discontinuity, Mantle (which includes the Lower mantle, Upper mantle, and mohorovicic), Crust.  
  
4. **Q:** What is the Gutenberg discontinuity?  
**A:** The Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the Earth’s mantle and outer core.  
  
5. **Q:** What is the Mohorovičić discontinuity, also known as the Moho?  
**A:** It is the boundary between the Earth’s crust and the mantle.  
  
#### Types of Rocks  
  
6. **Q:** What are igneous rocks, and how do they form?  
**A:** Igneous rocks form through the solidification of magma and are the oldest types of rocks.  
  
7. **Q:** Give examples of igneous rocks.  
**A:** Basalt, granite, rhyolite, obsidian, pumice.  
  
8. **Q:** How are sedimentary rocks formed?  
**A:** Sedimentary rocks are formed through lithification and are often found near water resources.  
  
9. **Q:** What is a characteristic feature of sedimentary rocks?  
**A:** They sometimes contain fossils.  
  
10. **Q:** Give examples of sedimentary rocks.  
**A:** Conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, shale.  
  
11. **Q:** How are metamorphic rocks formed?  
**A:** Metamorphic rocks are formed through recrystallization and often have foliation (parallel lines).  
  
12. **Q:** Give examples of metamorphic rocks.  
**A:** Quartzite, marble, slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss.

#### Composition and Layers of the Atmosphere  
  
1. **Q:** What is the composition of Earth’s atmosphere by major gases?  
**A:** 77% Nitrogen, 22% Oxygen, 1% others.  
  
2. **Q:** Which layer of the atmosphere is the densest and where weather forms?  
**A:** Troposphere.  
  
3. **Q:** In which atmospheric layer do airplanes typically fly, and what important feature does it contain?  
**A:** Stratosphere, which contains the ozone layer.  
  
4. **Q:** What happens in the Mesosphere, and why is it notable?  
**A:** Meteors burn in the Mesosphere, which is the coldest layer.  
  
5. **Q:** Which atmospheric layer contains the Ionosphere and is the hottest?  
**A:** Thermosphere.  
  
6. **Q:** What is the Exosphere known for, and what can be found there?  
**A:** The Exosphere is boundless and where artificial satellites are found.  
  
#### Meteorology  
  
7. **Q:** What does meteorology study?  
**A:** The study of Earth’s atmosphere, weather, and climate.  
  
8. **Q:** What is weather?  
**A:** The daily condition of the atmosphere.  
  
9. **Q:** What is climate?  
**A:** The general condition of temperature and precipitation over a long period.  
  
10. **Q:** What is the ITCZ and its significance?  
**A:** The Intertropical Convergence Zone, where trade winds meet and cyclones often form.  
  
11. **Q:** What is a front in meteorology?  
**A:** A boundary separating masses of air with different densities, usually due to temperature differences.  
  
#### Clouds  
  
12. **Q:** What are Cirrus clouds, and what do they indicate?  
**A:** Cirrus clouds are composed of ice crystals, indicate fair weather, and are found at the highest altitudes.  
  
13. **Q:** Describe Cumulus clouds.  
**A:** Cumulus clouds are fluffy and generally associated with fair weather.  
  
14. **Q:** What are Stratus clouds?  
**A:** Stratus clouds are low-lying and often gray, covering the sky like a blanket.  
  
15. **Q:** What does the prefix “Nimbo-” signify for clouds?  
**A:** It signifies rain.  
  
16. **Q:** What does the prefix “Alto-” indicate about clouds?  
**A:** It indicates that the clouds are at middle altitude.  
  
#### Monsoons in the Philippines  
  
17. **Q:** What is Amihan, and when does it occur?  
**A:** Amihan is the Northeast monsoon occurring from February to March.  
  
18. **Q:** What is Habagat, and when does it occur?  
**A:** Habagat is the Southwest monsoon occurring from June to September/October.  
  
#### Breezes  
  
19. **Q:** How does air move in terms of pressure?  
**A:** Air moves from high pressure to low pressure.  
  
20. **Q:** What is a sea breeze, and when does it occur?  
**A:** A sea breeze occurs during the day, with high pressure over the sea and low pressure over the land.  
  
21. **Q:** What is a land breeze, and when does it occur?  
**A:** A land breeze occurs at night, with high pressure over the land and low pressure over the sea.

### The geological time scale

| Eon         | Era                                               | Period                                                  | Subperiod                             | Epoch                                                                                |
| ----------- | ------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ |
| Phanerozoic | Cenozoic (age of mammals)                         | Quaternary                                              |                                       | Holocene<br>Pleistocene (ice age)                                                    |
|             |                                                   | Tertiary                                                | Neogene                               | Pliocene<br>Miocene (kelp forests and grasslands)                                    |
|             |                                                   |                                                         | Paleogene                             | Oligocene<br>(first elephants with trunks, early horses, & grasses) Eocene Paleocene |
|             | Mesozoic (age of reptiles)                        | Cretaceous<br>                                          |                                       |                                                                                      |
|             |                                                   | Jurassic (land dinosaurs) *Breakup of Pangaea           |                                       |                                                                                      |
|             |                                                   | Triassic (ferns, conifers, etc)                         |                                       |                                                                                      |
|             | Paleozoic (age of insects, fishes, invertebrates) | Permian (mass extinction                                |                                       | Lopingian Guadalupian Cisuralian                                                     |
|             |                                                   | Carboniferous (insects, amniote egg)                    | Pennsylvanian Mississippian           |                                                                                      |
|             |                                                   | Devonian (fishes, vascular plants)                      |                                       |                                                                                      |
|             |                                                   | Silurian (glacial melting, coral reefs, fish with jaws) | Pridoli <br>Ludlow Wenlock Llandovery |                                                                                      |
|             |                                                   | Ordovician (Gondwanaland)                               |                                       |                                                                                      |
|             |                                                   | Cambrian (explosion - sudden increase in biodiversity)  |                                       |                                                                                      |
| Precambrian | Proterozoic (bacteria, archaeans, eukaryotes)     |                                                         |                                       |                                                                                      |
|             | Archaean (toxic atmosphere)                       |                                                         |                                       |                                                                                      |
#### Plate Tectonics  
  
1. **Q:** What features are formed by oceanic-oceanic divergent boundaries?  
**A:** Mid-ocean ridges.  
  
2. **Q:** What does the Seafloor Spreading Theory by Harry Hess propose?  
**A:** The newest rocks are near the mid-ocean ridges.  
  
3. **Q:** What features are formed by continental-continental divergent boundaries?  
**A:** Valleys.  
  
4. **Q:** What features are formed by oceanic-oceanic convergent boundaries?  
**A:** Trenches and volcanic islands/island arcs (e.g., Hawaii).  
  
5. **Q:** What features are formed by oceanic-continental convergent boundaries?  
**A:** Mountain ranges and trenches.  
  
6. **Q:** What features are formed by continental-continental convergent boundaries?  
**A:** Mountain ranges.  
  
7. **Q:** What is formed by transform boundaries?  
**A:** Strike-slip faults (e.g., San Andreas Fault).  
  
#### Continental Drift Theory  
  
8. **Q:** Who proposed the Continental Drift Theory, and what is a significant aspect of it?  
**A:** Alfred Wegener proposed it, and it includes the concept of Pangaea as a supercontinent.  
  
9. **Q:** What are glacial striations?  
**A:** Scratches on rocks caused by moving glaciers.  
  
10. **Q:** What are tillites?  
**A:** Glacial sediments found in rocks.  
  
11. **Q:** What continents made up Laurasia?  
**A:** Asia, Europe, and North America.  
  
12. **Q:** What continents made up Gondwanaland?  
**A:** South America, Antarctica, Africa, Australia, and India.  
  
#### Earthquakes  
  
13. **Q:** What does the Richter scale measure?  
**A:** It measures the magnitude of an earthquake on a scale of 0.0 to 10.0.  
  
14. **Q:** What does a 1.0 increase on the Richter scale signify?  
**A:** A tenfold increase in earthquake strength.  
  
15. **Q:** What scale measures earthquake intensity based on damage observations?  
**A:** The Mercalli scale.  
  
16. **Q:** What is the focus or hypocenter of an earthquake?  
**A:** The origin of an earthquake along the fault line.  
  
17. **Q:** What is an epicenter?  
**A:** The point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus.  
  
18. **Q:** What is a normal fault?  
**A:** A fault where the footwall rises relative to the hanging wall.  
  
19. **Q:** What is a reverse/thrust fault?  
**A:** A fault where the hanging wall rises relative to the footwall.  
  
#### Seismic Waves  
  
20. **Q:** What are P waves and their characteristics?  
**A:** Primary waves, fastest seismic waves, passing through solids and liquids, longitudinal in nature.  
  
21. **Q:** What are S waves and their characteristics?  
**A:** Secondary waves, second fastest, passing only through solids, transverse in nature.  
  
22. **Q:** What are Love waves?  
**A:** Surface waves, transverse, responsible for most felt motion during an earthquake.  
  
23. **Q:** What are Rayleigh waves?  
**A:** Slowest surface waves, include both longitudinal and transverse motions, move in a circular motion.  
  
#### Astronomy Terms  
  
24. **Q:** What is a light year?  
**A:** The distance light travels in one Earth year.  
  
25. **Q:** What is a supernova?  
**A:** The explosion of a big star, marking its death.  
  
26. **Q:** What is a black hole?  
**A:** A remnant of a supernova with a very strong gravitational force.  
  
27. **Q:** What is the difference between a meteoroid, meteor, and meteorite?  
**A:** A meteoroid is in space, a meteor is in Earth’s atmosphere, and a meteorite has reached the Earth’s surface.  
  
28. **Q:** What is perihelion?  
**A:** The point in the orbit of a planet, asteroid, or comet at which it is closest to the sun (for Earth, around January 4).  
  
29. **Q:** What is aphelion?  
**A:** The point in the orbit where a planet, asteroid, or comet is furthest from the sun (for Earth, around July 4).  
  
#### Space Exploration  
  
30. **Q:** What was Sputnik?  
**A:** The first artificial satellite in space, launched by the Soviets.  
  
31. **Q:** Who was Valentina Tereshkova?  
**A:** The first woman in space.  
  
32. **Q:** Who was Yuri Gagarin?  
**A:** The first human in space.  
  
33. **Q:** What notable animal was first in orbit?  
**A:** Laika, the first dog in orbit.  
  
34. **Q:** What are Curiosity and Opportunity?  
**A:** Rovers on Mars. Opportunity was temporarily shut down due to dust storms.  
  
35. **Q:** What is Diwata-1?  
**A:** The first satellite built and designed by Filipinos.  
  
36. **Q:** What is Diwata-2?  
**A:** The second Filipino microsatellite, launched on October 29, 2018.