Chapter 5 
MIDDLE CLASSES IN INDIA 
Objectives: 
Provide the concept of middle class.  
Compare middle classes in India and western countries.  
Describe the rise of middle classes in India.  
Discuss politics of the middle class; and  
Growth of middle classes after independence. 
Introduction:  
Development and modernization in our country are not only affecting the economy but are also  bringing big changes to the social structure of Indian society. As these changes occur, new  social groups and categories of people are emerging. The establishment of a democratic system,  where everyone has the right to vote, and the introduction of a secular (non-religious)  constitution have altered the traditional power structures in society. 
Over the past fifty years, economic development and democratic governance have also  reshaped how social classes are organized in India. In the past, power and social status were  mainly based on caste hierarchy and ownership of agricultural land. While caste and land  ownership still matter, especially in rural areas, they are no longer the only factors that  determine social status. A new group of influential people has emerged in India over the last  fifty years. 
Understanding the Concepts of Class and Middle Class: 
The idea of "class" has been a major focus in Western sociology. Many sociologists have used  the concept of class to understand Western society. Two of the most important sociologists,  Karl Marx and Max Weber, wrote a lot about this topic. 
For Karl Marx, class was the most important idea in understanding society and how it changes.  Marx's view of class is simple and divided into two main groups. He believed that in every  society, there are two basic classes. These classes are based on property relationships: a small  group of "non-producers" controls the means of production (like factories or land), and they  use this control to take surplus products from the larger group of "producers," who do the actual  work. In Marx's view, classes are defined by how people relate to the means of production. He  also believed that economic power leads to political power. Those who control the means of  production also control the government.
In Marx's simple class model, the middle class is just a temporary group. For Marx, the middle  classes included small farmers and small business owners who owned the tools or land they  worked on, without employing others. Marx thought that these middle classes would eventually  disappear as capitalism grew stronger. He believed that, in the end, only two main classes would  remain: the working class (proletariat) and the capitalist class (bourgeoisie). 
Other thinkers have given more importance to the middle class. Sociologists like Max Weber,  Dahrendorf, and Lockwood have different views on class. Max Weber, for example, agreed  with Marx that classes are mainly about economics, but he looked at the concept differently.  Unlike Marx, Weber believed that classes only develop in market economies, where people  compete for money. Weber defined classes as groups of people who have a similar position in  the economy and, because of that, receive similar economic rewards. In simple terms, Weber  thought that a person's class is determined by their "market situation"—how much money they  can make and what they can buy with it. A person's economic position also affects their life  choices and what they can afford in society. 
The Middle Classes in Western Countries: 
Historically, the term "middle class" was first used to describe the rising group of bourgeoisies in Western Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries. During the early stages of the industrial  economy, the bourgeoisie (which included new merchants and industrialists) found themselves  positioned between the land-owning aristocracy (gentry) and the poor working classes. As  industrialization advanced, the influence of the land-owning gentry faded, and the bourgeoisie,  consisting of big industrialists and financiers, emerged as the dominant class. The term "middle  class" then came to refer to independent small traders, professionals, and artisans who were  situated between the bourgeoisie and the working class. 
These middle classes grew in number as towns expanded and urbanization increased alongside  industrial production. As big towns and cities developed, it became harder for consumers and  producers to trade directly, leading to the growth of these "old middle classes." 
The "new middle class" emerged later due to the further growth of industrial capitalism and the  rise of large corporations with complex organizational structures. The sociologist G.D.H. Cole  pointed to two major developments that led to the rise of this new middle class: the increase in  public schools and the spread of education, and the rise of joint-stock companies. These  changes created large-scale enterprises and gave birth to a new class of salaried managers and  administrators. Another sociologist, Lockwood, also linked the rise of the white-collar salaried  class to the growth of corporate capitalism and big organizations. 
The main difference between the "old" and "new middle classes" is their role in the economy.  The old middle classes were independent and not part of either the capitalist or working classes.  In contrast, the new middle classes were part of large organizations and held intermediate  positions within the industrial economy. They grew in response to the needs of modern industry,  which required specialists, professionals, and technical and administrative skills. The "new"  middle classes further expanded as the "tertiary" or service sector of the economy grew. This  included industries like banking, insurance, healthcare, tourism, and mass media, which  employed skilled labour and professionals. As a result, the proportion of the new middle classes  has been steadily increasing in Western industrialized countries.
This development in the West suggests that Marx’s prediction was incorrect. While the "old"  middle classes have declined, the "new" middle classes have continued to grow. 
The Middle Classes in India: 
The middle classes first emerged in Western Europe with the growth of industrial and urban  economies. Initially, the term "middle class" referred to the new industrial bourgeoisie, or the  business-owning class. Later, it came to describe the social groups that were in-between the  industrialists and the working class, including skilled professionals. 
In India, however, the middle classes developed in a different historical context. They began to  emerge in the 19th century during British colonial rule. Although they rose under British  influence, the Indian middle classes played a significant role in the struggle for independence  from colonial rule. After independence, the middle classes continued to be important in shaping  India's economic development and social change policies. Therefore, it is essential to  understand their history, social makeup, and political influence. 
The Rise of the Middle Classes in India During British Rule: 
The British colonial rule in India was very different from previous empires in the subcontinent.  Unlike earlier rulers, the British not only took control of most of India but also transformed its  economy and government. They changed the land revenue system and introduced modern  industry, reorganized the political and administrative structures, and brought Western ideas and  cultural values to the Indian people. 
As the historian B.B. Mishra noted, the Indian middle class developed in a unique way  compared to the middle class in the West. In the West, the middle class emerged mainly due to  economic and technological changes, with most people involved in trade and industry. In India,  however, the middle class grew more because of changes in law and public administration than  because of economic development. Most of them were engaged in learned professions like law,  medicine, and teaching. 
By the mid-19th century, the British had brought a large portion of India under their control.  Around this time, following the success of the Industrial Revolution, British goods started  flooding the Indian market, and trade between Britain and India increased. The British also  introduced railways and other modern services like the press and postal departments. They  needed a large number of educated people to work in these new administrative systems, but it  wasn’t feasible to bring all these workers from Britain. To address this, they established schools  and colleges in major Indian cities like Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. 
The British intended these institutions to not only produce workers for their administration but  also to spread Western ideas and values. They wanted to create a class of Indians who, while  Indian by birth, would think and behave like the British. This goal was clearly expressed by  Lord Macaulay in 1835 when he stated that the British should aim to create a class of people  who would be intermediaries between the British rulers and the millions of Indians they  governed Indians who were British in their tastes, opinions, morals, and intellect.
Over time, a new class of people emerged in India. Apart from those working in British  administrative jobs, this class included independent professionals like lawyers, doctors,  teachers, and journalists. This "educated middle class" grew steadily, particularly in urban  areas, and was mostly made up of people from upper-caste backgrounds. By 1911, there were  186 colleges in India with 36,284 students. This number increased to 231 colleges with 59,595  students by 1921, and by 1939, there were 385 colleges with 144,904 students. 
In addition to the English-educated group, there were other segments of Indian society that  could be considered middle class. These included small traders, shopkeepers, and independent  artisans, similar to the "old middle classes" in the West. Merchants and artisans had always  been distinct social groups in traditional Indian society, and as the economy changed under  British rule, many merchants moved to new towns and cities to become independent traders.  This shift accelerated after India gained independence. 
During British rule, modern industry, though limited, also began to develop. The establishment  of railways in the mid-19th century helped modern industry grow in India. While the British  built the railways mainly to transport raw materials for their industries abroad, they also  invested in local industries like plantations. The increase in economic activity boosted trade,  and some local traders accumulated enough wealth to invest in modern industries. The  Swadeshi movement, started by Indian nationalists, also encouraged the growth of native  industries. Along with those working in British administrative jobs, the white-collar workers  in these new industries became part of the emerging middle class in India. 
Politics of the Middle Classes During the Freedom Movement: 
Although the middle classes in India emerged under British rule and were educated in English  language and culture, they did not stay loyal to the British forever. Members of the middle class  became actively involved in social reform movements and started questioning the British rule  in India. Over time, they began to challenge the legitimacy of British authority. It was this  middle class that provided the leadership for the independence movement. As Varma notes,  "The educated middle-class elite, who led the National Movement, opposed British rule by  advocating for the very democratic principles that Britain itself represented. 
Middle Classes in India After Independence: 
After India gained independence, different parts of society had played a role in the freedom  struggle, but it was the middle classes that took over the governance from the British. Although  colonial rule ended, many of the institutions and structures from the colonial era continued to  function under the new government. This means that middle-class individuals who had worked  for the British were able to retain their positions and roles in the new government system.
Size and Composition: 
In the early years after independence, exact numbers about the middle class in India weren't  available. One estimate suggests that about 10% of the population were middle class. Like  middle classes in other countries, it wasn't a uniform group. While they shared some common  goals and ideals, there were differences in income, occupation, and education within this class. 
On the lower end of the social scale were the agricultural poor, peasants, and landless workers.  Other groups not considered middle class included unskilled and semi-skilled manual workers,  skilled workers, petty clerks, and employees like postmen, constables, soldiers, and peons. At  the higher end were wealthy industrialists, capitalists, big landowners, and members of princely  families. 
The middle class mostly consisted of government officers, qualified professionals (such as  doctors, engineers, college and university teachers), journalists, and white-collar employees in  the private sector. Typically, middle-class income was moderate, but income alone didn't define  this class. For instance, a wealthy but illiterate petty trader wouldn’t be considered middle class.  Education was a key characteristic of the middle class, along with a commitment to  development and nation-building. Knowledge of English was also common among them. 
Growth of the Middle Class: 
After India gained independence, the country entered a new phase with a focus on democratic  values like secularism, freedom, justice, and equality. To achieve these goals, India adopted a  plan for development that aimed to grow agriculture, industry, and the service sectors of the  economy. The government launched various programs to support this growth, which required  many trained professionals. 
As a result, there was an increase in government jobs, and urban industrial and service sectors  expanded. Although India's economic growth was slower compared to some other developing  countries, the industrial sector grew significantly, and the service sector expanded even more  rapidly. The growing urban population led to a boom in industries such as banking, insurance,  healthcare, hotels, media, and advertising, creating many new jobs for trained professionals. 
In rural areas, development programs, particularly the Green Revolution, led to significant  agricultural growth. This success increased the wealth of landowners and changed rural  aspirations. Many began sending their children to English-medium schools and higher  education institutions. Consumption patterns also shifted as rural people started acquiring  goods and lifestyles previously considered unnecessary. 
A new middle class emerged in rural India, with some members interested in urban jobs. This  "rural middle class" differed from the traditional urban middle class in that it was more locally  and regionally focused, often pursuing regional rather than national interests. Politically, this  group has been active in movements for regional autonomy. 
Additionally, a new segment of the middle class emerged from Dalit caste groups due to  government policies promoting education and employment for Scheduled Castes. These  policies enabled some Dalits to enter urban professions, particularly in the service and  government sectors, leading to the rise of a new Dalit middle class.
Summary:  
This unit explores the concept and evolution of the middle class in India, comparing it with its  counterparts in Western countries, detailing its rise, political involvement, and growth after  independence. 
Concept of Middle Class: The term "middle class" refers to a social group characterized by  moderate income, education, and occupation, often bridging the gap between the lower and  upper classes. In India, the middle class includes professionals, government employees, and  business people, but varies in terms of income and education. 
Comparison with Western Middle Classes: In Western countries, the middle class primarily  emerged due to economic and technological advancements, focusing on trade and industry. In  contrast, the Indian middle class developed more through changes in law and administration  and was heavily influenced by British colonial policies. 
Rise of Middle Classes in India: The middle class in India began to take shape during British  rule, expanding further with the introduction of modern institutions and educational reforms.  Post-independence, the middle class grew as India pursued planned development and  modernization, including expansion in government, industry, and services. 
Politics of the Middle Class: Although initially supportive of British rule, the Indian middle  class became active in social reform and the independence movement. They played a crucial  role in challenging colonial rule and advocating for democratic values. 
Growth After Independence: Following independence, the middle class expanded significantly  due to development programs, industrial growth, and urbanization. New segments emerged,  including a rural middle class influenced by agricultural advancements and a Dalit middle class  benefitting from affirmative action policies. 
Overall, the middle class in India has evolved through various stages, reflecting changes in  political, economic, and social landscapes, and continues to play a significant role in the  country's development.
make moind map of each topic