Make the following notes shorter and more concise: "Chapter 22
Charles Darwin - published origin of species, started scientific revolution. Began era of evolutionary biology
Three key observations about life
Organisms are adapted for life in their biotic and abiotic environments
The many shared characteristics (unity) of life
The diversity of life
Evolution: the process by which species accumulate differences from their ancestors as they adapt to different environments over time. Darwin preferred to call it “descent with modification”
Aristotle believed species were fixed (unchanging). He arranged species on a scale of increasing complexity called the scala naturae
Carolus linnaeus developed a nested classification system grouping similar species into increasingly inclusive categories. He also created the binomial naming system ie homo sapiens
Darwin used fossils to try to understand change in organisms
Many fossils are found in sedimentary rock, which appears in layers called strata
Paleontology is the study of fossils. Developed in large part by Georges Cuvier
Cuvier observed: older strata contain fossils less similar to current organisms than more recent strata, from layer to layer, new species appear while others disappear, speculated that boundaries between strata represent sudden catastrophic events
James Hutton - proposed that Earth’s geologic features were formed gradually ie valleys being formed by rivers
Charles Lyell proposed that process is still in work today
Darwin reasoned that the Earth must be older than the widely accepted age of a few thousand years
Darwin took a position on a transatlantic vessel called The Beagle. Darwin collected samples of different organisms along the way
He noted that fossils resembled living species from the area in which they were found, and living species resembled other species from areas nearby
During an earthquake in Chile, Darwin observed the uplift of rocks by several meters. He inferred that rocks containing fossils of ocean organisms in the Andean Mountains must have been raised there by many similar earthquakes 
Darwin hypothesized that species from the mainland colonized and then diversified on the galapagos islands
Adaptations are inherited characteristics that enhance an organism’s survival and reproduction in specific environments
Darwin perceived that new species could arise from ancestral forms through gradual accumulation of adaptations. This must have created the diverse group of finches
Natural selection is a process in which individuals with certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates because of those traits
Papers by both Wallace and Darwin were presented to the Linnean Society of London on July 1, 1858. Within a decade, most scientists were convinced that life’s diversity is the product of evolution
Darwin used descent with modification to describe his view of life. By this view, all organisms are related by descent from a common ancestor that lived in the past 
Darwin viewed the history of life as a tree, with multiple branchings from a common trunk. – Labeled branches represent groups of organisms living in the present day while Unlabeled branches represent extinct groups
Humans modify species through artificial selection, breeding only individuals with desired traits
Darwin drew two inferences from two observations
Observation #1: Members of a population often vary in their inherited traits
Observation #2: All species can produce more offspring than the environment can support, and many of these offspring fail to survive and reproduce
Inference #1: Individuals with inherited traits that increase survival and reproduction in an environment tend to produce more offspring than other individuals 
Inference #2: The unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations
Thomas Malthus wrote about the capacity of human populations to increase faster than critical resources
If advantageous traits increase the number of offspring that survive and reproduce, then they will appear at higher frequency in the next generation
If the environment changes, natural selection may drive adaptation to new conditions, giving rise to new species
Individuals do not evolve; it is the population that evolves over time
Natural selection does not create new traits; it selects for traits already present in the population
Natural selection favors traits that are advantageous in the current, local environment
Homology, similarity resulting from common ancestry, is another type of evidence for evolution
Homologous structures are anatomical resemblances that represent variations on a structural theme present in a common ancestor
Comparative embryology reveals anatomical homologies not visible in adult organisms 
Vestigial structures are remnants of features that served a function in the organism’s ancestors
Molecular homologies include the genetic code shared by all life and specific genes that are shared between vastly different organisms
Convergent evolution is the evolution of similar, or analogous, features in distantly related groups
Analogous traits arise not through common ancestry, but through independent adaptation to similar environments"