Acknowledgments We are grateful to G. I. Ogilvie for his important remarks and suggestions. SVC and PBI were supported in part by RFBR grants 15-02-08476 and 16-02-01043, by programme 7 of the Presidium of Russian Academy of Sciences and also by Grant of the President of the Russian Federation for Support of the Leading Scientific Schools NSh-6595.2016.2.

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Acknowledgments We thank Elisa Costantini for helpful discussions and comments. CJ acknowledges valuable discussions with Lynne Valencic about the cosmic abundances. The anonymous referee is appreciated for providing insightful comments and suggestions, which allowed us to improve this paper significantly. We would also like to thank the XMMNewton team for providing important instructions on technical and calibration issues. This project is supported by the Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt (BMWI/DLR, FKZ 50 OR 1408 and FKZ 50 OR 1604) and the Max Planck Society. This work is based on observations obtained with XMMNewton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. The scientific results reported in this paper are also based on observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory, as well as data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive. This research has made use of software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application packages ciao , chips and sherpa .

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This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/ JAO.ALMA#2011.0.00611.S, 2012.1.00239.S, and 2015.1.00340.S. ALMA is a partnership of the ESO, NSF, NINS, NRC, NSC, and ASIAA. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by the ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. This work was supported by NAOJ ALMA Scientific Research Grant Numbers 2016-03B and JSPS KAKENHI (Grant No. 22244014, 23403001, 26247026, 15K05039, and 18K13582).

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We are grateful to the reviewer of this paper, Dr Bojan Novaković, for comments and suggestions that greatly improved the quality of this paper. We would like to thank the São Paulo State Science Foundation ( FAPESP ) that supported this work via the grant 2016/04476-8 , and the Brazilian National Research Council (CNPq, grant 305453/2011-4 ). This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) and NEOWISE, which are a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration .

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We are grateful to the anonymous referee for constructive comments that significantly improved the manuscript. We are also grateful for the hospitality and financial support of the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics that allowed IA to work directly with the MRS particle files in Garching, Germany. The Millennium Simulation databases used in this paper, and the web application providing online access to them, were constructed as part of the activities of the German Astrophysical Virtual Observatory. This work was partially supported by the National Science Foundation via grant AST-0708468.

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J.C.A.M.J. is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT140101082). This work has been supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra Award Number GO3-14046X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. We are grateful for the contributions of Tom Maccarone, Mike Garcia, and Jerry Orosz, who provided crucial input in the initial design and execution of the observations. Facilities: CXO (ACIS) , VLA , CTIO:1.3 m. Software: CIAO (v4.8; Fruscione et al. 2006 ), CASA (v.4.2.0; McMullin et al. 2007 ), IRAF (v2.15.1a; Tody 1986 , 1993 ), Matplotlib (v2.0.2; Hunter 2007 ), Sherpa (Freeman et al. 2001 ).

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We are grateful to R. Trampedach for clarifications about his results, and for making available the routine to calculate Rosseland opacities. We also thank J. Christensen-Dalsgaard for interesting discussions on this topic, and the anonymous referee for comments that have improved the presentation of our results. S.C. gratefully acknowledges financial support from PRIN-INAF2014 (PI: S. Cassisi).

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IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by the Norwegian Space Center (NSC, Norway) through an ESA PRODEX contract. The author gratefully acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitivity through project AYA2014-60476-P (Solar Magnetometry in the Era of Large Solar Telescopes). Part of this work was supported by the DFG grant RE 3282/1-2. This work has made use of the VALD database, operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow, and the University of Vienna. We would like to thank the referee for the constructive suggestions.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for her/his suggested improvements. IB is supported by an Alexander von Humboldt postdoctoral research fellowship. KG was supported by the German-Russian Interdisciplinary Science Center funded by the German Federal Foreign Office via the German Academic Exchange Service. We thank Graeme Candlish for sharing his data on the velocity field in MOND cosmology and Hosein Haghi for useful discussions about the properties of NGC 1052-DF2.

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We thank the referee for the helpful comments that have helped us to improve the presentation of the paper. This work is supported by the National Basic Research Program (973 Program) of China (grants 2014CB845800) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grants 11543005, U1431124, and 11361140349 (China–Israel joint program).

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We thank the anonymous referee for a careful reading of the manuscript. H.J.Z. gratefully acknowledges the generous support of the Clay Postdoctoral Fellowship. I.D. is supported by the Harvard College Observatory Menzel Fellowship and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Postdoctoral Fellowship (NSERC PDF-421224-2012). I.C. acknowledges support from the Russian Science Foundation project #14-22-00041. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555.

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We thank an anonymous referee for insightful comments that have improved the content and presentation of this paper. D.W.J. and D.Z. acknowledge financial support from NASA LTSA award NNG05GE82G and GALEX grant NNX11AI47G. G.D.L. acknowledges financial support from the European Research Council under European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement No. 202781. P.J. acknowledges support by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to Paul Bryans and an anonymous referee for useful comments. NCAR is sponsored by the National Science Foundation.

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We thank the referee for valuable comments and suggestions. N.S. acknowledges financial support from the pole PAGE of the Université Grenoble Alpes. G.L., G.D. and M.F. are grateful to the participants of the KITP 2017 program on Confronting MHD Theories of Accretion Disks with Observations for the many useful conversations pertaining to this work (and thus this research was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. NSF PHY-1125915). This work was granted access to the HPC resources of IDRIS under the allocation A0020402231 made by GENCI (Grand Equipement National de Calcul Intensif). Some of the computations presented in this paper were performed using the Froggy platform of the CIMENT infrastructure ( https://ciment.ujf-grenoble.fr ), which is supported by the Rhône-Alpes region (GRANT CPER07_13 CIRA), the OSUG@2020 labex (reference ANR10 LABX56) and the Equip@Meso project (reference ANR-10-EQPX-29-01) of the programme Investissements d’Avenir supervised by the Agence Nationale pour la Recherche.

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RH thanks Avi Shporer for providing the program to compute ingress and egress shapes, Tiffany Kataria for making available preliminary 3D atmospheric circulation simulations, Edwin Kite for discussion on the molten lava planet, Feng Tian for discussion on the atmospheric escape of rocky planets, and Wesley Traub and Yuk L. Yung for helpful discussions. This paper includes data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. Support for RH’s work was provided in part by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant #51332 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555. Part of the research was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NKL’s work was performed in part under contract with the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) funded by NASA through the Sagan Fellowship Program executed by the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute.

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This work was supported by the Romanian Ministry of National Education under the contracts 1EU-10 (in the Programme of Complementary Research in Fusion) and PN 09 39 01 01.

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Work is supported by grant of Russian Science Foundation 14-12-01287.

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The authors acknowlede insightful comments from Moti Milgrom, Paola Di Matteo, Francoise Combes, Edouard Bernard, Gary Mamon, and an anonymous referee. F.R. acknowledges support from the European Research Council through grant ERC-StG-335936.

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We wish to thank T. Fouchet, E. Jaupart, G. Laibe, and D. Stevenson for helpful discussions. G.C. acknowledges the warm hospitality of the OWL Institute at the University of Santa Cruz, where part of this work was accomplished. This work was supported by the Programme National de Planétologie (PNP) of CNRS-INSU cofunded by CNES.

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Acknowledgements The authors contributed in the following way to this paper. DS undertook the calibration and completion of all simulations; the development of all analysis codes, including the ANN; the production of all figures and the first draft of the paper. II supervised the project and helped with the interpretation of results and feedback on the first draft. KD provided guidance throughout and significant feedback on the first draft. DS would like to thank Joakim Rosdahl for valuable technical feedback, Scott J. Clay for advice and feedback on the first draft, Peter A. Thomas, Paul R. Shapiro, and Benoît Fournier for useful discussions and feedback. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) DiRAC High-performance computing (HPC) Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). The DiRAC system is funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008519/1, STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1, and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. We acknowledge PRACE for awarding us computational time under project PRACE4LOFAR grant 2014102339 and ‘Multi-scale simulations of Cosmic Reionization’ grants 2014102281, 2015122822, and 2016153528 to resource Curie based in France at CEA and to resource Marenostrum based in Spain at BSC. This work was supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant numbers ST/F002858/1 and ST/I000976/1) and the Southeast Physics Network (SEPNet). Some of the analysis was done on the Apollo cluster at The University of Sussex. We made extensive use of the pymses (Guillet, Chapon Labadens 2013 ) and pynbody (Pontzen et al. 2013 ) python modules when developing our own analysis pipeline.

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The authors are grateful to the referee for comments and suggestions that greatly improved the manuscript. This work was supported by the Programme National “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire” (PCMI) of CNRS/INSU with INC/INP co-funded by CEA and CNES and the DIM ACAV a funding programme of the Region Ile de France. T.N is granted by the LabEx MICHEM.

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We thank the anonymous referee for careful review and valuable suggestions, the SMT staff for their help during the observations, Ran Wang for her help with the observation, and U. Lisenfeld for kindly making the H i data available to us. X.J. acknowledges support for this work from the Strategic Priority Research Program “The Emergence of Cosmological Structures” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), grant XDB09000000. This work is supported under the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 11273015 and 11133001), the National Basic Research Program (973 program No. 2013CB834905), and Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education (20100091110009). Z.-Y.Z acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC) in the form of an Advanced Grant, cosmicism . This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Arecibo Observatory is part of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center which is operated by Cornell University under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Based on observations made with the NASA Galaxy Evolution Explorer ( GALEX ). GALEX is operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology under NASA contract NAS5-98034. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III Web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.

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This work was supported by the ERC under the Advanced Investigator Project 267219 and the University of Jordan. JT and SNY thank the support of the COST action MOLIM (CM1405). We thank the Royal Society for supporting a visit by OVN to London.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a careful review and suggestions that improved the manuscript. This research was partially supported by a Jet Propulsion Lab/NASA grant to the University of Minnesota (RSA 1541900/NNN12AA01C). Support for HST Programs GO-11696, 12283, 12568, 12902, 13517, 13352, and 14178 was provided by NASA through grants from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. T.G. is grateful to the LABEX Lyon Institute of Origins (ANR-10-LABX-0066) of the Université de Lyon for its financial support within the program “Investissements d’Avenir” (ANR-11-IDEX-0007) of the French government operated by the National Research Agency (ANR). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Gianfranco Bertone and Denis Erkal for useful discussions and comments. We thank the anonymous referee whose comments have greatly improved this manuscript. NB acknowledges the support of the D-ITP consortium, a programme of the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) that is funded by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW). JB acknowledges the support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), funding reference number RGPIN-2015-05235, and from an Alfred P. Sloan Fellowship.

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We thank an anonymous referee for helpful comments that considerably improved the manuscript. GB thanks Judd Bowman, Andrea Ferrara, Adrian Liu and Aaron Ewall-Wice for useful inputs and comments on this work and Jordan Mirocha for help with ares . The LEDA experiment is supported by NSF grants AST/1106059 and PHY/0835713. JZ gratefully acknowledges a South Africa National Research Foundation Square Kilometre Array Research Fellowship. This research was supported by the Munich Institute for Astro- and Particle Physics (MIAPP) of the DFG cluster of excellence ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’. With the support of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Directorate General for the Country Promotion (Bilateral Grant Agreement ZA14GR02 – Mapping the Universe on the Pathway to SKA).

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We thank the referee for his/her constructive comments. This research has been partly co-financed by the European Union (European Social Fund—ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program “Education and Lifelong Learning” of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF)—Research Funding Program: “Thales. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund.” S.P. acknowledges support from an FP7 Marie Curie Grant (FP7-PEOPLE-2010-RG/268288). A.V. was also supported by internal JHU/APL funds.

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We sincerely thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments and suggestions that significantly improved the scientific content and presentation of the manuscript. We also thank Jun Zhang for constructive suggestions, as well as Junchao Hong and Haidong Li for helpful discussions. SDO is a mission of NASA’s Living With a Star Program. H.C.C, J.Y.Y, and Y.D.D are supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under grants 11633008, 11703084, and 11873088, and also by the CAS program QYZDJ-SSW-SLH012. K.F.J is supported by NSFC under grants 11773072 and 11873027.

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M. Beuret thanks Arnaud Siebert for providing the shape of the spiral arms from Englmaier et al. (2011) . This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS, 143, 23. This research has also made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. Davide Elia’s and Eugenio Schisano’s research activity is supported by the VIALACTEA project, a Collaborative project under Framework Programme 7 of the European Union funded under Contract #607380, that is hereby acknowledged.

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The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for the important suggestions/corrections on this paper. Part of this work was supported by CAPES/Cofecub Project 712/2011. BF thanks CNPq Project 142849/2010-3. JGH acknowledges partial support from FAPESP Proc. No. 2010/50930-6. This publication makes use of data products from the 2MASS, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This publication makes use of data products from the WISE , which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Dunlap Institute is funded through an endowment established by the David Dunlap family and the University of Toronto. BMG acknowledges the support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) through grant RGPIN-2015-05948, and of the Canada Research Chairs program. Partial support for LR comes from NSF grant 17-14205 to the University of Minnesota. XS is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant No. 11763008.

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The authors would like to thank Stefan Hilbert, Sherry Suyu, Malte Tewes, James Nightingale and an anonymous referee for very useful comments. DDX thanks the HITS fellowship. DS acknowledges support from a Back to Belgium grant from the Belgian Federal Science Policy (BELSPO) and partial funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, reference SL172/1-1. PS and VS acknowledge support by the DFG through Transregio 33, ‘The Dark Universe’. VS also acknowledges support by the European Research Council under ERC-StG EXAGAL-308037. LH acknowledges support from NASA grant NNX12AC67G and NSF grant AST-1312095. DDX and VS gratefully acknowledge the support of the Klaus Tschira Foundation.

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A.W.M. was supported through Hubble Fellowship grant 51364 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555. This research was supported by NASA grant NNX11AC33G to E.G. E.G. was also supported by an International Visitor grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation. We thank Bandit for his useful discussions and encouragement during the writing of this manuscript. This work used the Immersion Grating Infrared Spectrograph (IGRINS), which was developed under a collaboration between the University of Texas at Austin and the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI) with the financial support of the US National Science Foundation under grant ASTR1229522, of the University of Texas at Austin, and of the Korean GMT Project of KASI. The IGRINS pipeline package PLP was developed by Dr. Jae-Joon Lee at Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute and Professor Soojong Pak's team at Kyung Hee University. SNIFS on the UH 2.2 m telescope is part of the Nearby Supernova Factory project, a scientific collaboration among the Centre de Recherche Astronomique de Lyon, Institut de Physique Nucléaire de Lyon, Laboratoire de Physique Nucléaire et des Hautes Energies, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Yale University, University of Bonn, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Tsinghua Center for Astrophysics, and the Centre de Physique des Particules de Marseille. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. This research was made possible through the use of the AAVSO Photometric All-Sky Survey (APASS), funded by the Robert Martin Ayers Sciences Fund. The authors acknowledge the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC) at The University of Texas at Austin for providing grid resources that have contributed to the research results reported within this paper. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Facilities: IRTF (SpeX) , UH:2.2 m (SNIFS) , kepler , Keck:II (NIRC2) , Smith (IGRINS) .

B-Person O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Person B-Person O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Instrument I-Instrument I-Instrument I-Instrument B-Instrument O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Location B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization O B-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Instrument O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive B-Archive B-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Archive O O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey B-Survey O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O O O B-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Instrument O B-Telescope I-Telescope B-Instrument O B-Telescope O B-Telescope B-Instrument O B-Telescope B-Instrument O


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This work is supported by the NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Division (grant No.1311958 to G.V.). We thank Dr. J. Brucato of the Astrophysical Observatory of Arcetri (Italy) for providing the sample used in these experiments and Zhirou Zhang, Jianming Shi, and Tyler Hopkins for technical help. R.T.G. acknowledges the support of the NASA Astrophysics Theory Program (grant No. NNX11AC38G).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Fabrizio Arrigoni Battaia for insightfull discussions related to this manuscript. This research was carried out on the High Performance Computing resources at New York University Abu Dhabi; on the theo cluster of the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie and on the hydra clusters at the Rechenzentrum in Garching. We greatly appreciate the contributions of these computing allocations. All figures in this work have been made with matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), using the open-source python libraries: pynbody (Pontzen et al. 2013 ), numpy (Walt, Colbert Varoquaux 2011 ), and scipy (Eric Jones et al. 2001 ). AO and BM are funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) – MO 2979/1-1. TB acknowledges support from by the European Research Council under ERC- CoG grant CRAGSMAN-646955. RK acknowledges support from NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF7-180163 awarded by the Chandra X-ray Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for NASA under contract NAS8-03060.

O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-Organization O B-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant


We would like to thank the anonymous referee for the many constructive remarks and suggestions that greatly helped us to improve the content and layout of the paper. MS thanks Giulia Despali, Chiara Mancini, and Alessia Moretti for helpful discussions and hints. CC would like to thank Rosaria Tantalo and Emanuela Chiosi for valuable collaboration and the Department of Physics and Astronomy of the Padua University for the friendly hospitality and computational support. The tool HMFcalc and the public data from the ILLUSTRIS project have been amply used in this study.

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The USRA co-authors gratefully acknowledge NASA funding through contract NNM13AA43C. The UAH co-authors gratefully acknowledge NASA funding from co-operative agreement NNM11AA01A. E.B. and T.D.C. are supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Goddard Space Flight Center, administered by Universities Space Research Association under contract with NASA. D.K., C.A.W.H., C.M.H., and T.L. gratefully acknowledge NASA funding through the Fermi GBM project. Support for the German contribution to GBM was provided by the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) via the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt (DLR) under contract number 50 QV 0301. A.v.K. was supported by the Bundesministeriums für Wirtschaft und Technologie (BMWi) through DLR grant 50 OG 1101. N.C. and J.B. acknowledge support from NSF under grant PHY-1505373. S.M.B. acknowledges support from Science Foundation Ireland under grant 12/IP/1288. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the United States National Science Foundation (NSF) for the construction and operation of the LIGO Laboratory and Advanced LIGO as well as the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) of the United Kingdom, the Max-Planck-Society (MPS), and the State of Niedersachsen/Germany for support of the construction of Advanced LIGO and construction and operation of the GEO600 detector. Additional support for Advanced LIGO was provided by the Australian Research Council. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and the Foundation for Fundamental Research on Matter supported by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, for the construction and operation of the Virgo detector and the creation and support of the EGO consortium. The authors also gratefully acknowledge research support from these agencies as well as by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of India, the Department of Science and Technology, India, the Science Engineering Research Board (SERB), India, the Ministry of Human Resource Development, India, the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigación, the Vicepresidència i Conselleria d’Innovació Recerca i Turisme and the Conselleria d’Educació i Universitat del Govern de les Illes Balears, the Conselleria d’Educació Investigació Cultura i Esport de la Generalitat Valenciana, the National Science Centre of Poland, the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, the Russian Science Foundation, the European Commission, the European Regional Development Funds (ERDF), the Royal Society, the Scottish Funding Council, the Scottish Universities Physics Alliance, the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA), the Lyon Institute of Origins (LIO), the National Research, Development and Innovation Office Hungary (NKFI), the National Research Foundation of Korea, Industry Canada and the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Economic Development and Innovation, the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council Canada, the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, the Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovations, and Communications, the International Center for Theoretical Physics South American Institute for Fundamental Research (ICTP-SAIFR), the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong, the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), the Leverhulme Trust, the Research Corporation, the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Taiwan and the Kavli Foundation. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the NSF, STFC, MPS, INFN, CNRS, and the State of Niedersachsen/Germany for provision of computational resources.

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This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.01520.S. ALMA is a partnership of the ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with the NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by the ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. This research has made use of the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). We thank Jonathan Braine, the referee of the paper, for helpful comments that improved the quality of this paper substantially. P.J. acknowledges support through project LM2015067 of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic. P.J. and J.P. acknowledge support from the project 19-18647S of the Czech Science Foundation and from the institutional research project RVO:67985815. M.S. acknowledges support from NASA grants GO6-17111X and 80NSSC18K0606 and NSF grant 1714764. L.C. is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT180100066) funded by the Australian Government. T.S. acknowledges support through fellowship SFRH/BPD/103385/2014 funded by FCT (Portugal) and POPH/FSE (EC). This work was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through national funds (UID/FIS/04434/2013) and by FEDER through COMPETE2020 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007672). T.S. also acknowledges support from DL 57/2016/CP1364/CT0009. This work was supported by FCT/MCTES through national funds (PIDDAC) by grant PTDC/FIS-AST/29245/2017. E.B. acknowledges support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant No. ST/M001008/1). M.F. acknowledges support by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant No. ST/P000541/1). This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 757535). Facility: ALMA. Software: CASA (McMullin et al. 2007 ), GILDAS (Guilloteau Lucas 2000 ), astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ).

O O O O O O O B-Observatory O B-Identifier B-Observatory O O O O O B-Observatory O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location O O O B-Organization B-Location B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O B-Observatory B-Organization O B-Observatory O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O B-URL O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Grant O O B-Organization O B-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Organization O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Observatory O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O


The research activities of the Observational Astronomy Stellar Board at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte are supported by continuous grants from the Brazilian agencies CNPq and FAPERN and by the INCT-INEspaço. C.C. acknowledges a PDJ/CAPES fellowship (Process n °88887.114342/2015-00). B.B. acknowledges the support of the NASA Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship. A.L. acknowledges the support from the Center for Magnetic Self-Organization, a distinguished visitor PVE/CAPES appointment at the Physics Graduate Program at UFRN, Natal, Brazil and thanks the DFTE/UFRN for hospitality.

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R.G. and J. G. are supported by the Israeli Science Foundation under grant No. 719/14. F.D.C. acknowledges support from the UNAM-PAPIIT grant IN117917. We acknowledge the support from the Miztli-UNAM supercomputer (project LANCAD-UNAM-DGTIC-281) in which the simulations were performed.

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We thank the anonymous referee for comments and suggestions that improved the paper. We acknowledge financial support from INAF under the contracts PRIN-INAF-2011 (“Black Hole growth and AGN feedback through cosmic time”) and PRIN MIUR 2010-2011 (“The dark Universe and the cosmic evolution of baryons”). M.B. acknowledges support from the FP7 Career Integration Grant “eEASy” (CIG 321913). C.F. gratefully acknowledges financial support from PRIN MIUR 2010-2011, project “The Chemical and Dynamical Evolution of the Milky Way and Local Group Galaxies”, prot. 2010LY5N2T. E.P. acknowledges financial support from INAF under the contract PRIN-INAF-2012. Funding for this work has also been provided by the Israel Science Foundation grant 284/13.

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We thank the anonymous referee for insightful comments that helped improve the manuscript. MV and MC thank Henk Hoekstra and Rachel Mandelbaum for useful and stimulating discussions. MC acknowledges support from NWO VIDI grant number 639.042.814 and ERC FP7 grant 278594. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008519/1, and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. We also gratefully acknowledge PRACE for awarding us access to the resource Curie based in France at Très Grand Centre de Calcul. This work was sponsored by the Dutch National Computing Facilities Foundation (NCF) for the use of supercomputer facilities, with financial support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO). The research was supported in part by the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC Grant agreements 278594-GasAroundGalaxies, GA 267291 Cosmiway, and 321334 dustygal, the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant numbers ST/F001166/1 and ST/I000976/1), Rolling and Consolodating Grants to the ICC, Marie Curie Reintegration Grant PERG06-GA-2009-256573. TT acknowledges the Interuniversity Attraction Poles Programme initiated by the Belgian Science Policy Office ([AP P7/08 CHARM]).

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We would like to thank Eric Herbst and Ilsa Cooke for their helpful suggestions and Xixin Liang for technical assistance. We are grateful to an anonymous referee for the constructive comments that helped to improve the paper. This work was supported by NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Research Grants No. 1311958 and No. 1615897.

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F.M. gratefully acknowledges the financial support of the Programma Giovani Ricercatori – Rita Levi Montalcini – Rientro dei Cervelli (2012) awarded by the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR). Part of this work is based on the NVSS (NRAO VLA Sky Survey): The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is operated by Associated Universities, Inc., under contract with the National Science Foundation. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research made use of the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive and Extragalactic Database (NED), which are operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration, including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a prompt and insightful report. G.M. and A.N. acknowledge the financial support from the National Science Centre, Poland through grant No. 2016/23/B/ST9/00579. A.N. is also supported by the National Science Centre, Poland through grant No. 2015/19/B/ST9/02937. E.V. acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades under the project PGC2018-101950-B-I00. M.K. is supported by the Polish National Science Center (NCN) through grant 2017/27/B/ST9/02727. Facility: TNG(HARPS-N).

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Acknowledgements This work is based upon observations carried out at the OAN SPM, Baja California, Mexico. GT and SZ acknowledge PAPIIT grants IN108316, IN100617 and CONACyT grant 166376. We are grateful to Dr J. V. Hernndez Santisteban for the opportunity to work with the original data of 1RXS J064434.5334451. We thank the daytime and night support staff at the OAN-SPM for facilitating and helping to obtain our observations.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the reviewer for her/his valuable comments on the submitted manuscript. NN thanks T. Fischer for providing neutrino-driven wind trajectories used in this study. This work has been partially supported by the European Research Council (EU-FP7-ERC-2012-St Grant 306901, EU-FP7 Adv Grant GA321263-FISH), the EU COST Action CA16117 (ChETEC), the UK STFC (ST/M000958/1), and MEXT Japan (‘Priority Issue on Post-K computer: Elucidation of the Fundamental Laws and Evolution of the Universe’ and ‘the World Premier International Research Centre Initiative: WPI Initiative’). GC acknowledges financial support from the EU Horizon2020 programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant 664931. CF acknowledges support by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Nuclear Physics, under Award No. DE-FG02-02ER41216. Parts of the computations were carried out on COSMOS (STFC DiRAC Facility) at DAMTP in University of Cambridge. This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/J005673/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008586/1, and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K00333X/1. DiRAC is part of the UK National E-Infrastructure. Further computations were carried out at CfCA, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, and at YITP, Kyoto University. The University of Edinburgh is a charitable body, registered in Scotland, with Registration No. SC005336.

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This work is dedicated to our colleague and friend Tomas Dahlen, for whom this supernova has been named in memoriam. He is dearly missed. We thank the Hubble Frontier Fields team at STScI for their substantial efforts to make the HFF program successful. In particular, thanks are due to Matt Mountain for the allocation of discretionary orbits for the HFF program; to Jennifer Lotz, Norman Grogin, and Patricia Royle for accommodations in strategy and implementation to make the FrontierSN program possible; to Anton Koekemoer for HFF data processing support. We also thank the CLASH team, led by Marc Postman, for observations, catalogs, and high level science products that were of significant value for this analysis. Thanks to Jonatan Selsing for helpful comments on the manuscript. This work utilizes gravitational lensing models produced by modeling teams that were funded as part of the HST Frontier Fields program conducted by STScI. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. The lens models were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). Financial support for this work was provided to S.A.R. by NASA through grants HST-HF-51312 and HST-GO-13386 from STScI, which is operated by Associated Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. (AURA), under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. A.M. acknowledge the financial support of the Brazilian funding agency FAPESP (Post-doc fellowship—process number 2014/11806-9). Support for this research at Rutgers University was provided in part by NSF CAREER award AST-0847157 to SWJ. The Dark Cosmology Centre is supported by the Danish National Research Foundation. J.M.D. acknowledges support of the consolider project CSD2010-00064 and AYA2012–39475-C02-01 funded by the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad. J.M. contributed to this research from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with NASA and acknowledges support from NASA Grants HST-GO-13343.05-A and HST-GO-13386.13-A. The research leading to these results has received funding from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/20072013) under REA grant agreement number 627288. A.Z. acknowledges financial support from NASA through grant HST-HF-51334.01-A awarded by STScI and operated by AURA. T.T. acknowledges support by the Packard Foundation in the form of Packard Research Fellowship. GLASS is funded by NASA through HST grant GO-13459. L.L.R.W. acknowledges the support of the Minnesota Supercomputing Institute. Facility: HST (WFC3).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Erica Hammerstein thanks the National Science Foundation for support through a Research Experience for Undergraduates program at Wayne State University (National Science Foundation Grant No. PHY-1460853). We thank Manuel Torres for helpful comments that improved the paper. We thank the referee, and author of ELC, Jerry Orosz, for a helpful referee report and guidance in using the latest MCMC version of ELC. This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5-m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. This paper makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.

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