We are grateful to the anonymous referee for offering constructive comments, which have contributed to substantially improving this paper. The VLBA and the VLA are operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The study was partially supported by the Sasakawa Scientific Research Grant of The Japan Science Society (SN, 28-220) and by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) (24340042, AD) of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).

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NC kindly acknowledges support by the AvH foundation and MPIK, and FMR by a DFG Heisenberg Fellowship (RI 1187/4-1). We thank Werner Hofmann and Luigi Tibaldo for insightful comments. We also thank the referee for the comments that were useful in improving the paper.

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We thank the referee for valuable suggestions and comments that greatly improved the paper. The data used here are courtesy of the NVST, SDO , WIND , RHESSI , and GOES science teams. NVST is jointly operated and administrated by Yunnan Observatories and Center for Astronomical Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Science. This work is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China under grants 11333007, 11403098, 11573012, 11503081, 11503082, and 11633008, and the CAS “Light of West China” Program.

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M.R.M. and A.M.G. are supported by NSF grants AST-0909218 and AST-1412615. A.M.G. is also supported by the Lauren Leichtman Arthur Levine Chair in Astrophysics. This work is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. These observations are associated with programs 11671, 12667, 12318, and 14613. We thank the anonymous referee for their thorough reading and insightful comments, which improved the content and presentation of this paper. Facility: HST (WFC3-IR). Software: Astropy (The Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), IPython (Pérez Granger 2007 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), NumPy (Oliphant 2007 ; van der Walt et al. 2011 ), SciPy (Jones et al. 2001 ; Oliphant 2007 ; Millman Aivazis 2011 ), MultiNest (Feroz et al. 2009 ), PyMultiNest (Buchner et al. 2014 ).

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We thank the anonymous referee for useful comments which helped to improve the paper. This work is partly based on the XMM-Newton AO-12 proposal “The XMM-Newton view of chemical enrichment in bright galaxy clusters and groups” (PI: de Plaa), and is a part of the CHEERS (CHEmical Evolution Rgs cluster Sample) collaboration. The authors thank its members, as well as Liyi Gu and Craig Sarazin for helpful discussions. P.K. thanks Steve Allen and Ondrej Urban for support and hospitality at Stanford University. Y.Y.Z. acknowledges support from the German BMWI through the Verbundforschung under grant 50 OR 1506. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA member states and the USA (NASA). The SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research is supported financially by NWO, the Netherlands Organisation for Space Research.

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The authors wish to thank Sara Ellison, Crystal Martin, and George Djorgovski for aiding in collection and reduction of the Keck/ESI spectroscopy used in this study. We also wish to thank the anonymous referee for useful comments which improved the manuscript. It is our pleasure to thank Neil Crighton, Simeon Bird, Jeff Cooke, Claude-André Faucher-Giguère, Michele Fumagalli, John O’Meara, Celine Péroux, Ali Rahmati, and Sijing Shen for valuable discussion of this work, and to acknowledge Sijing Shen for sharing the results of her analysis of the CGM properties of the Eris2 simulation. Finally, we are grateful to Art Wolfe for sharing his insight on these results and for his inspiring and pioneering work in this field. K.H.R.R. acknowledges the generous support of the Clay Postdoctoral Fellowship, and J.F.H. acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt foundation in the context of the Sofja Kovalevskaja Award. The Humboldt foundation is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research. J.X.P. and M.L. acknowledge support from National Science Foundation (NSF) grants AST-1010004, AST-1109452, AST-1109447, and AST-1412981. This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5 m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.

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We thank the referee for giving suggestions that improved the paper. We warmly thank the California- Kepler Survey team for making their reduced data publicly available. We thank the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia and NASA Exoplanet Archive for the data used in this work. C.M. acknowledges the financial support from Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq). C.M. also thanks D.F. Morell for his kindly assistance in the R language. K.C. and V.S. acknowledge that their work is supported in part by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant 16-XRP16 2-0004, issued through the Astrophysics Division of the Science Mission Directorate. L.G. is thankful for the financial support from Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES). Software: Python packages: astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), isoclassify (Huber et al. 2017 ); and R packages: astro (Lee 2014 ), mclust (Scrucca et al. 2016 ), MASS (Venables Ripley 2002 ).

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We thank Shugo Michikoshi and Hiroshi Kobayashi for fruitful discussion. We also thank the anonymous referee for insightful and constructive comments that helped to improve the manuscript. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant Nos. JP18J20360, 16H02160, 18H05436, 18H05437, and 19K14764, and in part by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Scientific Research grant No. 2016-02A (SZT).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SDC and SW acknowledges support from the ERC starting grant No. 679852 ‘RADFEEDBACK’. APW, ADC and PCC gratefully acknowledge the support of a consolidated grant (ST/N000706/1) from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. STS acknowledges funding by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) via the Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 956 Conditions and Impact of Star Formation (subproject A4) and the Bonn-Cologne Graduate School. RLS gratefully acknowledges the support of a UK Science and Technology Facilities Council postgraduate studentship. SEJ gratefully acknowledge the support of postgraduate scholarships from the School of Physics Astronomy at Cardiff University and the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. SW further thanks the DFG for funding through the Collaborative Research Center (SFB956) on the ‘Conditions and impact of star formation’. PCC acknowledges support from the European Community’s Horizon 2020 Programme H2020-COMPET-2015, through the StarFormMapper Project (number 687528). SDC would like to thank Volker Ossenkopf for useful discussions about radiation transfer. The authors would also like to thank the anonymous referee for their helpful comments on the paper. This work was performed using the facilities of the Advanced Research Computing at Cardiff Division, Cardiff University.

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The project was funded by FONDATION MERAC. We acknowledge support from the Programme National de Physique Stellaire (PNPS) of the Institut Nationale de Sciences de l’Univers of CNRS. S.M.A. and S.A.K. acknowledge the SCOPES grant No. IZ73Z0-152485 for financial support.

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We are grateful to the referee for helpful comments. This work was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of China under grant numbers 11133001 and 11333004, and the Strategic Priority Research Program of CAS (under grant number XDB09000000).

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This research was supported under the Australian Research Council funding scheme (FT110100263). GADS warmly thanks Chien Peng for useful discussions. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED). Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained through program GO-13050.

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Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for his/her careful review and insightful comments. TH is financially supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JP15J10520 and JP26800113).

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The authors thank the anonymous referee for useful and constructive comments which improved the paper. We want to thank A. Tielens and J. Slavin for providing the hot gas spectrum shown in Fig. 5 . The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme FP7-2011 under grant agreement No. 284405. C.R. and M.G. acknowledge funding by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): project number P24790. The computational results presented have been achieved using the Vienna Scientific Cluster (VSC). This publication was supported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. All figures were made with the free Python module Matplotlib ( Hunter 2007 ). This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ).

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This work was supported by the NASA Astrobiology Institute's Virtual Planetary Laboratory Lead Team, funded through the NASA Astrobiology Institute under solicitation NNH12ZDA002C and Cooperative Agreement Number NNA13AA93A. T.R. gratefully acknowledges support from an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at NASA Ames Research Center, administered by Oak Ridge Affiliated Universities. This work benefited from the use of advanced computational, storage, and networking infrastructure provided by the Hyak supercomputer system at the University of Washington. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System. We thank Dave Crisp and Robin Wordsworth for helpful comments and discussion. We are grateful for the comments of an anonymous reviewer, which allowed us to greatly improve this manuscript.

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Roman R. Rafikov is an IBM Einstein Fellow at the Institute of Advanced Study; his financial support is provided by the NSF via grants AST-1409524, AST-1515763, NASA via grants 14-ATP14-0059, 15-XRP15-2-0139, and The Ambrose Monell Foundation. Jenny E. Greene acknowledges funding from the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AAG: #1310405. We are thankful to Dr. Adam Myers, Dr. Michael Eracleous, and Dr. Zoltan Haiman for useful comments and suggestions.

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We thank Mary Putman, David Schiminovich, Yong Zheng, and our referee for their useful discussions and thoughtful feedback, which have helped us improve various drafts of this manuscript. Many thanks to Lauren Corlies for sharing her C loudy models used in our mock observations. We acknowledge support from NSF grants AST-1312888, AST-1615955, and DGE-1644869 and NASA grant NNX15AB20G, as well as computational resources from NSF XSEDE and Columbia University’s compute cluster. Simulations were run on the Texas Advanced Computing Center Stampede supercomputer and were performed using the publicly available Enzo code ( http://enzo-project.org ) and analyzed with the yt package (Turk et al. 2011 ). Enzo is the product of a collaborative effort of many independent scientists from numerous institutions around the world. Their commitment to open science has helped make this work possible. The Flatiron Institute is supported by the generosity of the Simons Foundation.

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We would like to thank the anonymous referee for their comments and suggestions. The authors also wish to thank Ivan Milić for useful discussions during the analysis of the presented work. Financial support by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through projects AYA2014-60476-P and AYA2014-60833-P are gratefully acknowledged. CJDB acknowledges Fundación La Caixa for the financial support received in the form of a PhD contract. AAR also acknowledges financial support through the Ramón y Cajal fellowships. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. JdlCR is supported by grants from the Swedish Research Council (2015-03994), the Swedish National Space Board (128/15) and the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB). This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (SUNMAG, grant agreement 759548). The Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by the Institute for Solar Physics of Stockholm University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. The Institute for Solar Physics is supported by a grant for research infrastructures of national importance from the Swedish Research Council (registration number 2017-00625). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. We acknowledge the community effort devoted to the development of the following open-source packages that were used in this work: numpy ( http://www.numpy.org/ ), matplotlib ( https://matplotlib.org/ ) This research has made use of SunPy, an open-source and free community-developed solar data analysis package written in Python ( SunPy Community et al. 2015 ). The author thankfully acknowledges the technical expertise and assistance provided by the Spanish Supercomputing Network (Red Española de Supercomputación), as well as the computer resources used: the LaPalma Supercomputer, located at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias.

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This work is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555.

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This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00634.S and ADS/JAO.ALMA#2011.0.00004.SV. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This work is partially based on observations carried out with the IRAM IRAM 30 m telescope. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). The work of M.G. and A.K.L. is partially supported by the National Science Foundation under grant nos. 1615105, 1615109, and 1653300. E.S. acknowledges financial support to the DAGAL network from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007–2013/under REA grant agreement no. PITN-GA-2011-289313. A.H. acknowledges support from the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES). A.U. acknowledges support from Spanish MINECO grants ESP2015-68964 and AYA2016-79006. E.R. is supported by a Discovery Grant from NSERC Canada. F.B. acknowledges funding from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement no. 726384—EMPIRE) This paper made use of the NASA Astrophysics Data Abstract service, AstroPy, the IDL Astronomy User’s Library, CASA, and the NASA Extragalactic Database. M.G. and A.K.L. gratefully acknowledge helpful discussions with Todd Thompson and the OSU galaxy and ISM discussion groups. Diane Cormier is supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 702622. M.J.J.-D. and F.B. acknowledge support from DFG grant BI 1546/1-1. E.O. is supported by grant AST-7173949 from the National Science Foundation.

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We thank L. Cortese and L. Spitler for useful discussions. DAF thanks the ARC for financial support via DP130100388. This work was supported by NSF grant AST-1211995. Finally, we thank the referee for a prompt report and several useful suggestions to improve the paper.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Gravitational Wave Discovery (OzGrav), through project number CE170100004. EJH acknowledges support from a Australian Research Council DECRA Fellowship (DE170100891). AdUP and CCT acknowledge support from Ramón y Cajal fellowships RyC-2012-09975 and RyC-2012-09984 and the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through project AYA2017-89384-P. DAK acknowledges support from the Spanish research project AYA2017-89384-P. MB acknowledges funding as ‘personal tecnico de apoyo’ under fellowship number PTA2016-13192-I. MC is supported by the David and Ellen Lee Postdoctoral Fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. SA is supported by the CNES Postdoctoral Fellowship at Laboratoire AstroParticule et Cosmologie. SA, AC, CL, and RM acknowledge the financial support of the UnivEarthS Labex program at Sorbonne Paris Cité (ANR-10-LABX-0023 and ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02). SA and NL acknowledge the financial support of the Programme National Hautes Energies (PNHE). DT acknowledges the financial support of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) PIFI post-doctoral fellowship program (program C). UBAI acknowledges support from the Ministry of Innovative Development through projects FA-Atech-2018-392 and VA-FA-F-2-010. IRiS has been carried out thanks to the support of the OCEVU Labex (ANR-11-LABX-0060) and the A*MIDEX project (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) funded by the ‘Investissements d’Avenir’ French government program. IRiS and T120 thank all the Observatoire de Haute-Provence staff for the permanent support. SB, NK, RN, and MV acknowledge the Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation (SRNSF grant No 218070). TAROT has been built with the support of the Institut National des Sciences de l’Univers, CNRS,France. TAROT is funded by the CNES and thanks the help of the technical staff of the Observatoire de Haute Provence, OSU-Pytheas.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Support for this work was provided by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF4-150127 awarded by the Chandra X-ray Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for NASA under contract NAS8-03060. TI thanks the Undergraduate Summer Research Program (USRP) at the department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, for support. JS thanks the Niels Bohr Institute for its hospitality while part of this work was completed, and the Kavli Foundation and the DNRF for supporting the 2017 Kavli Summer Program.

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NuGrid acknowledges significant support from NSF grants PHY 02-16783 and PHY 09-22648 (Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, JINA). RH and CG acknowledge the support from Eurocore project Eurogenesis and ERC Starting Grant No. 306901. RH acknowledges support from the World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI Initiative), MEXT, Japan. MP acknowledges the support from the Ambizione grant of the SNSF and the SNF grant (Switzerland). AH acknowledges the support by NSF through grant AST-1109394, by US DOE grants FC02-09ER41618 (SciDAC), DE-FG02-87ER40328 and by an ARC Future Fellowship (FT120100363).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for their thorough and careful reading of this paper and many constructive suggestions. We acknowledge Nicolas Peretto for help with CO data at the locations of some of our sources. HC, HLG, and PC acknowledge support from the European Research Council (ERC) in the form of Consolidator Grant cosmicdust (ERC-2014-CoG-647939). MJB and IDL acknowledge support from the ERC in the form of Advanced Grant SNDUST (ERC-2015-AdG-694520). MM acknowledges support from an STFC Ernest Rutherford fellowship (ST/L003597/1). Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported in part by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) Astrophysics Theory Program grant NNX14AB37G and NSF (National Science Foundation) grant AST-1411879. UD is immensely grateful to Ben Brown for allocating time on the LCD machines, where all the calculations using dedalus were performed. UD specially thanks Phil Armitage, Bhupendra Mishra, and Vladimir Zhdankin for general discussions. The authors thank the anonymous referee for their constructive comments.

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Acknowledgements This project has been supported by Australian Research Council via the Discover Early Career Research Award (DE150100301). Auchettl kindly thanks La Trobe University for funding via a PhD scholarship. Theoretical work (Project AY7) was undertaken with the assistance of resources and services from the NCI, which is supported by the Australian Government. We finally thank the reviewers for their thoughtful comments and suggestions for future work.

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We thank Uwe Lammers, who contributed to the idea and progress of this study, and its funding under ESA Contract No. 4000108677/13/NL/CB. We are grateful to Ulrich Bastian, Alex Bombrun, Anthony Brown, Sergei Klioner, Uwe Lammers, Paul McMillan, Mercedes Ramos-Lerate, and the referee, Floor van Leeuwen, for their helpful feedback to our manuscript. This work was supported by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC) and uses the AGIS/AGISLab and GaiaTools software packages; special thanks to their maintainers and developers. We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Swedish National Space Board and the Royal Physiographic Society in Lund.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study is based on observations made with the SALT under programme 2017-1-MLT-010. BM acknowledges support from the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa and thanks the Institute of Astronomy at KU Leuven for their hospitality. We thank the anonymous referee for a helpful report whose comments helped improve this paper. This paper is based on spectroscopic observations made with the Southern African Large Telescope (SALT) under programme 2017-1-MLT-010 (PI: B. Miszalski). We are grateful to our SALT colleagues for maintaining the telescope facilities and conducting the observations. We thank A.Y. Kniazev for making available his HRS pipeline data products. HVW and RM acknowledge support from the Belgian Science Policy Office under contract BR/143/A2/STARLAB. HVW acknowledges additional support from the Research Council of K.U. Leuven under contract C14/17/082. Polish participation in SALT is funded by grant no. MNiSW DIR/WK/2016/07. This research has been partly founded by the National Science Centre, Poland, through grant OPUS 2017/27/B/ST9/01940 to JM. IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation.

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We thank Mark Lacy for his advice and useful discussion with regards to the Sajina model, as well as George Helou for suggesting the extended Schmidt law as another point of analysis, and Yong Shi, Michael Brown, and Aditya Togi, whose comments improved the revised version of this paper. This work made use of the remote access computing accounts of the NASA Herschel Science Center, which were very helpful in reducing the Herschel data. L.L. and P.M.O. acknowledges support for this work provided by NASA through an award issued by JPL/Caltech. Support for K.A. is provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant # HST -HF2-51352.001 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. This work is based in part on observations made with Herschel , a European Space Agency Cornerstone Mission with significant participation by NASA. This publication used observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)/California Institute of Technology (Caltech) under a contract with NASA. Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and JPL/Caltech, funded by NASA, were also used. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC)/Caltech, funded by NASA and the NSF, as well as from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (Sloan-III), whose funding has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the NSF, and the U.S. DOE Office of Science, and which is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the Sloan-III Collaboration. Finally, this publication makes use of data from the Galaxy Evolution Explorer , retrieved from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST), part of the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) and the Infrared Science Archive (IRSA) which are operated by the JPL/Caltech, under contract with the NASA, and NASA’s Astrophysics Data System (ADS). We also used software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Facilities: Herschel , Spitzer , WISE , 2MASS , Sloan , GALEX .

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This work was supported by NASA’s Planetary Science Division Internal Scientist Funding Program through the Fundamental Laboratory Research (FLaRe) work package at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Also acknowledged is the NASA Astrobiology Institute through funding to the Goddard Center for Astrobiology under proposal 13-13NAI7-0032. Stephen Brown, Eugene Gerashchenko, and Martin Carts of NASA Goddard’s Radiation Effects Facility are thanked for the operation and maintenance of the Van de Graaff accelerator. Many helpful conversations with Marla Moore and Perry Gerakines are acknowledged.

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The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program (FP/2007–2013)/ERC grant Agreement No. 279954. C.M. would like to thank Antonio J. Cuesta, Bruce A. Bassett, Jarah Evslin, and Hendrik Hildebrandt for their helpful comments, and to acknowledge the support from the joint research training program of CAS and CNRS. We gratefully acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for their commentary that helped improve this paper. Software: CAMB 12 12 http://camb.info/ (Lewis et al. 2000 ; Lewis et al. 2017 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ; Droettboom et al. 2018 ), statsmodels (Seabold et al. 2017 ), NumPy (Walt et al. 2011 ), and SciPy (Jones et al. 2001 ).

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This work has been made possible thanks to the ESAC Science Operations Division research funds, code EXPRO IPL-PSS/GP/gp/44.2014, plus support from the ESAC Space Science Faculty. Pablo Riviere-Marichalar and Carlo Manara acknowledge funding from the ESA Research Fellowship program. H. Bouy is funded by the Spanish Ramn y Cajal fellowship program number RYC-2009- 04497. This research made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at the CDS, Strasbourg, France. This work made extensive use of Topcat (TOPCAT http:// www.star.bristol.ac.uk/~mbt/topcat/ and STILTS, Taylor 2005, 2006). We thank the referee, Manuel Güdel, for his comments and corrections, which help to make this work complete. We would also like to thank Benjamin Montesinos and Nuria Huelamo for their comments and help.

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Based on observations with the 100-m Telescope of the MPIfR (Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie) at Effelsberg. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. S.E.R. and R.J.S. acknowledge support from the DFG via the SPP 1573 Physics of the ISM (grants RA 2158/1-1 and SM321/1-1). R.J.S. also acknowledge support from the SFB 881 The Milky Way System.

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We thank the referee for many insightful comments and for discussion that helped to improve this paper significantly. The authors thank Merel van ’t Hoff, Jeong-Eun Lee, and Marc Audard for providing valuable discussions. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2017.1.01693.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. T.H.H. and N.H. acknowledge the support by Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan (MoST) 107-2119-M-001-041 and 108-2112-M-001-048. N.H. acknowledges a grant from MoST 108-2112-M-001-017. C.W. acknowledges financial support from the University of Leeds and from the Science Facilities and Technology Council (STFC), under grant No. ST/R000549/1. J.K.J. acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 646908). S.-P.L. acknowledges the support from the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) of Taiwan with grant MOST 106-2119-M-007-021-MY3. Software: CASA (McMullin et al. 2007 ), RADMC-3D (Dullemond et al. 2012 ), Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), APLpy (Robitaille Bressert 2012 ).

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We would like to give our special thanks to the authors of Pierbattista et al. ( 2012 ), particularly to Dr. M. Pierbattista for producing new fits for the simulated data and Prof. P. Gonthier for reading a draft of our paper and giving us constructive feedback. We also thank Prof. K. Tollefson and Dr. J. Pretz for useful suggestions and Dr. G. Sinnis and Prof. M. Voit for their encouragement to publish this work. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation.

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RC would like to thank Raphael Gavazzi for useful discussions. The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee, whose comments were helpful in improving the paper, and the telescope staff at the IRAM 30-m telescope for their excellent support during observations. We are also very grateful to the former director of IRAM, P. Cox, for his generous attribution of Director’s Discretionary Time early on during the program, and to Daniel Dicken for sharing telescope time. This work is based on observations carried out under projects number 082-12, D09-12, 065-13, 094-13, 223-13, 108-14, and 217-14 with the IRAM 30-m telescope. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany) and IGN (Spain). This work was supported by the Programme National Cosmology et Galaxies (PNCG) of CNRS/INSU with INP and IN2P3, co-funded by CEA and CNES. RC was supported by DFF – 4090-00079. ML acknowledges CNRS and CNES for support. CY was supported by an ESO Fellowship.

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We thank the anonymous referee for the valuable comments that helped us to improve the paper. PB thanks CSIR, India for Research Fellowship grant.

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PC acknowledges the financial support of the European Research Council (ERC; project PALs 320620)

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We thank the referee for helpful comments that improved the quality of our work. R.M. is grateful to the Aspen Center for Physics and the NSF Grant #1066293 for hospitality during the completion of this work and for providing a stimulating environment that inspired this project. Support for this work was provided by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation Fellowship for Science and Engineering awarded to A.M.S.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the French–Brazilian exchange program CAPES-COFECUB. We are grateful to T. Been, C. Grygiel, A. Domaracka and J. M. Ramillon for their invaluable support. The Brazilian agencies CNPq (INEspaço), CNPq (301868/2017-4), CAPES (BEX 5383/15-3) and FAPERJ (E-26/213.577/2015, E-26/216.730/2015, E-05/2015-214814 and E-03/2017-203.204) are also acknowledged.

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I am grateful to the referee, for helpful comments and suggestions that improved the paper.


Acknowledgements Rosetta is an ESA mission with contributions from its member states and NASA. We thank CNES for sponsoring the French participations to Alice hardware and VIRTIS_H development, operations and scientific analysis. The Alice team acknowledges continuing support from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory through contract 1336850 to the Southwest Research Institute. We thank an anonymous reviewer for the valuable comments and suggestions that has improved the manuscript.

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We thank Barbara De Marco and Agata Różańska for discussion and comments. This research was supported by Polish National Science Centre grant nos. 2015/17/B/ST9/03422 and 2015/18/M/ST9/00541 and by Ministry of Science and Higher Education grant W30/7.PR/2013. This research was supported by “the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities.” It received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under grant agreement no. 312789, Polish National Science Center grant Polonez 2016/21/P/ST9/04025, the National Program on Key Research and Development Project (grant no. 2016YFA0400803), and the Chinese National Science Foundation (grant no. 11622326). This research was partly financed by grant DEC-2011/03/B/ST9/03459 from the Polish National Science Centre. This work made use of the High Performance Computing Resource in the Core Facility for Advanced Research Computing at Shanghai Astronomical Observatory.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a very careful reading of our manuscript that has led to a marked improvement in the clarity of this paper. M.B.K. is grateful to the University of Sheffield and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences for the support received. M.B.K. also acknowledges the open research program of CAS Key Laboratory of Solar Activity, National Astronomical Observatories, No. KLSA201610. P.C. thanks the University of Sheffield for hospitality and support for a visit during which this work was initiated and the CAS PIFI project 2017VMC0002 and National Astronomical Observatories, Beijing, for support. The simulation was carried out on NASA’s Pleiades supercomputer under GID s1061. P.C. also acknowledges computing time awarded on the PARAM Yuva-II supercomputer at C-DAC, India, under the grant name Hydromagnetic-Turbulence-PR. We have used the 3D visualization software Paraview for volume rendering and field line plotting. R.E. is grateful to the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC; grant Nos. ST/L006316/1 and ST/M000826/1) UK and the Royal Society for their support. The authors also express their gratitude to Christopher J. Nelson and Michael S. Ruderman (both at University of Sheffield, UK) for a number of useful discussions and improving the manuscript.

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M. I. R.-B. and Ch. H. acknowledge financial support of the European Community under the FP7 by the ERC starting grant 257431. Ch. H. thanks for the hospitality of the Kaptyn Astronomical Insititut at the University of Groningen, and travel support from NWO and LKBF. We thank A. Sicilia-Aguilar and P. Rimmer for the insightful and valuable discussions of the manuscript. Most literature search was performed using the ADS. We gratefully acknowledge our local computer support.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee for useful comments and suggestions that improved the clarity of this paper. LC is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT180100066) funded by the Australian Government. This research was conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. JvdS is funded under Bland-Hawthorn’s ARC Laureate Fellowship (FL140100278). CPL has received funding from a Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DE150100618) and the MERAC Foundation for a Post-doctoral Research Award. SB acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship (FT140101166). MSO acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship (FT140100255). The SAMI Galaxy Survey is based on observations made at the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The Sydney-AAO Multi-object Integral field spectrograph (SAMI) was developed jointly by the University of Sydney and the Australian Astronomical Observatory. The SAMI input catalogue is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, the GAMA Survey, and the VST ATLAS Survey. The SAMI Galaxy Survey is supported by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013, the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020, and other participating institutions. The SAMI Galaxy Survey website is http://sami-survey.org/ GAMA is a joint European–Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The GAMA input catalogue is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is being obtained by a number of independent survey programs including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE, Herschel -ATLAS, GMRT, and ASKAP providing UV to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA website is http://www.gama-survey.org/ . Part of this work was performed on the gSTAR national facility at Swinburne University of Technology. gSTAR is funded by Swinburne and the Australian Government’s Education Investment Fund. We acknowledge the Virgo Consortium for making their simulation data available. The EAGLE simulations were performed using the DiRAC-2 facility at Durham, managed by the ICC, and the PRACE facility Curie based in France at TGCC, CEA, Bruyeres-le-Chatel.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DT acknowledges financial post-doctoral support from The Claude Leon Foundation (South Africa). YZM would like to acknowledge the supports from National Research Foundation with grant no. 105925 and 110984, and from the National Science Foundation of China, no. 11828301. The Parkes radio telescope is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility which is funded by the Australian Government for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation). The authors would like to thank Dr. Christopher Anderson for granting access to the processed Parkes 21-cm maps, and for several valuable suggestions about the analysis presented in this work.

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D.M., E.K., and M.C. acknowledge support from the European Research Council through the Consolidator Grant ERC-2017-CoG-771310-PI2FA. R. O. acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness through the grant AYA2017-85465-P. R.O. also acknowledges the travel support received from the International Space Science Institute (Bern, Switzerland) as well as discussions with members of the ISSI team on “Observed multi-scale variability of coronal loops as a probe of coronal heating”, led by C. Froment and P. Antolin. The authors thankfully acknowledge the technical expertise and assistance provided by the Spanish Supercomputing Network (Red Espanola de Supercomputacion), as well as the computer resources used: the LaPalma Supercomputer, located at the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias.

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CH acknowledges the support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) for PhD funding. We thank the groups that have spent time developing molecular line lists, particularly ExoMol, HITEMP and HITRAN, without which this work would not be possible. We also thank Richard Freedman, Iouli Gordon, Jonathan Tennyson and Sergey Yurchenko for helpful discussions. We would like to thank the anonymous reviewer for a very helpful review.

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This work has been funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 11403015, 11203016, 11143012 and U1531105. This work is partly supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province under grant no. ZR2012AQ008 and ZR2014AQ007.

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ELR would like to thank the anonymous referee for their useful comments, which improved the Letter significantly. ELR acknowledges support from the University of Texas at San Antonio and University of Texas at Austin.

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We would like to thank Cees Bassa and Jason Hessels for helping to conceive and develop toaster . We would also like to thank Paulo Freire and Gregory Desvignes for useful discussions, as well as Stefan Osłowski, Golam Shaifullah, Antoine Lassus, and John Antoniadis for helping to observe. PL and EG acknowledge support from IMPRS Bonn/Cologne. RNC acknowledges the support of IMPRS Bonn/Cologne and the Bonn–Cologne Graduate School. KJL gratefully acknowledges support from National Basic Research Program of China, 973 Program, 2015CB857101 and NSFC 11373011. The PSRIX backend was constructed as part of the LEAP project, which was funded by the ERC Advanced Grant LEAP, Grant Agreement Number 227947 (PI M. Kramer).

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We thank the anonymous referee for her/his useful comments. Fruitful discussions with F. Fraternali, J.P. Naiman, R. Sancisi, M. Tosi, and G. Zamorani are also acknowledged. FD'A and AD'E acknowledge support from PRIN INAF 2014 (principal investigator S. Cassisi). EV acknowledges support from grant NASA-NNX13AF45G .

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The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for his/her fruitful comments, R. Lecocguen, D. Crussaire and the team at the MSDP for acquiring the H observations. We thank G. Aulanier for fruitful discussions and the sketch of a “tornado”, which has been drawn by Sylvain Cnudde. We deeply thank L. Fletcher for giving many comments on the manuscript to improve its clarity.P.J.L. acknowledges support from an STFC Research Studentship ST/K502005/1. N.L. acknowledges support from STFC grant ST/L000741/1. L.O. would like to acknowledge support by NASA Cooperative Agreement grant NNG11PL10A to CUA. The AIA data are provided courtesy of NASA/SDO and the AIA science team.

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The authors warmly thank Evelyne Roueff, Jonathan Tennyson and Alexandre Faure for numerous fruitful discussions. We acknowledge the support of the European COST Actions ‘Our Astrochemical History’ CM1401 and ‘Molecules in motion’ (MOLIM) CM1405. We are grateful to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA, Vienna) for scientific and financial support through the Contract No. 16712 with the University of Douala (CAMEROON) and through the Coordinated Research Projects ‘Atomic and Molecular Data for State-Resolved Modelling of Hydrogen and Helium and their Isotopes in Fusion Plasmas’ and ‘Light Element Atom, Molecule and Radical Behaviour in the Divertor and Edge Plasma Regions’. We thank the financial support from the French CNRS via the programmes ‘Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire’, the ‘Physique théorique et ses interfaces’ projects TheMS, TPCECAM and ‘InPhynity MEXAT’. We are very grateful for the generous support of Agence Nationale de la Recherche via the projects ‘SUMOSTAI’ (ANR-09-BLAN-020901) and ‘HYDRIDES’ (ANR-12-BS05-0011-01), of IFRAF-Triangle de la Physique via the project ‘SpecoRyd’, and of Fédération de Recherche Fusion par Confinement Magnétique - ITER. We acknowledge the constant financial support from La Région Haute-Normandie via the CPER ‘THETE’ project, and the GRR Electronique, Energie et Matériaux. Part of this work has been performed in the frame of the ‘Fédération de Recherche Energie, Propulsion, Environnement’, and of the LabEx EMC 3 , via the project PicoLIBS (ANR-10-LABX-09-01). Finally, MDEE and OM thank the Laboratoire Ondes et Milieux Complexes of the University of Le Havre for hospitality.

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The authors are grateful to Joe Weingartner, Tiffany Lewis and Michael Efroimsky for numerous discussions which contributed to the development of this work. We would also like to thank Nick Cowan for his many helpful comments and suggestions that improved the quality of this study.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS JMDK gratefully acknowledges funding from the German Research Foundation (DFG) in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group (grant number KR4801/1-1, PI Kruijssen), from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the ERC Starting Grant MUSTANG (grant agreement number 714907, PI Kruijssen), and from Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject B2) of the DFG. JP and NB gratefully acknowledge funding from the ERC under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the ERC Consolidator Grant Multi-Pop (grant agreement number 646928, PI Bastian). NB and RAC are Royal Society University Research Fellows. This work made use of high-performance computing facilities at Liverpool John Moores University, partly funded by the Royal Society and LJMU’s Faculty of Engineering and Technology. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grants ST/H008519/1 and ST/K00087X/1, STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. This work has made use of numpy (van der Walt, Colbert Varoquaux 2011 ), scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ), and astropy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ). All figures in this paper were produced using the python library matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ). The authors thank Marta Reina-Campos, Benjamin Keller, and Mélanie Chevance for advice and helpful discussions during the development of this work. We thank an anonymous referee for comments that improved the presentation of this paper.

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The authors thank the referee for comments that helped to improve this paper. We acknowledge the use of the data from SOHO , STEREO , Wind , DSCOVR , and GOES satellites and the world data center (WDC) for Geomagnetism, Kyoto. This work is supported by grants from CAS (Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS and Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences QYZDB-SSW-DQC015), NSFC (41774181, 41774178, 41574165, 41474164, 41761134088), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (WK2080000077), and the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories.

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We thank all the python , numpy and scipy communities for the high-quality free software they made available. MS thanks Philipp Edelmann for all the technical support during the developing of this work. EEOI acknowledges financial support from Brazilian agencies FAPESP (2011/09525-3) and CAPES (9229-13-2). Supported by German DFG Cluster of Excellence ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’ and the DFG Transregio Project 33 ‘Dark Universe’. We thank Dan Birchall for observing assistance, the technical and scientific staffs of the Palomar Observatory, the High Performance Wireless Radio Network (HPWREN) and the University of Hawaii 2.2-m telescope. We recognize the significant cultural role of Mauna Kea within the indigenous Hawaiian community, and we appreciate the opportunity to conduct observations from this revered site. This work was supported by the Director, Office of Science, Office of High Energy Physics, of the US Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231; by a grant from the Gordon Betty Moore Foundation; in France by support from CNRS/IN2P3, CNRS/INSU, PNCG and the Lyon Institute of Origins under grant ANR-10-LABX-66; and in Germany by the DFG through TRR33 ‘The Dark Universe’. Some results were obtained using resources and support from the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, supported by the Director, Office of Science, Office of Advanced Scientific Computing Research, of the US Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231. HPWREN is funded by National Science Foundation Grant Number ANI-0087344, and the University of California, San Diego. This work was written using the collaborative ShareLaTeX platform.

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