Y.F. is supported from the Grant-in-Aid No. 25887024 by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science and from an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, administered by Oak Ridge Affiliated Universities. D.S.S. gratefully acknowledges support from a fellowship from the AMIAS group. J.N. acknowledges support from NASA grant HST AR-12146.04-A and NSF grant AST-1102738. We thank David Hogg for encouraging us to pursue calculations of exoplanetary radio emission. We thank Greg Novak for helpful conversations. We thank Jake VanderPlas for developing the XKCD-style plotting package for matplotlib, and acknowledge its use. A.P. is grateful for support from NSF grants 1352519 and 1440343. Y.F. greatly acknowledges insightful and helpful discussions with Tomoki Kimura and Hiroki Harakawa. The portion of this research for which T.M. is responsible was performed under a National Research Council Research Associateship Award at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). Basic research in radio astronomy at NRL is supported by 6.1 Base funding.

B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Software O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Wavelength O O B-Organization O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


The authors thank Huanqing Chen and Philip Mansfield for their helpful insights and comments during this project. H.Z. acknowledges support from the Heising-Simons Foundation, the Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics and the Blue Waters Student Internship Program. C.A. acknowledges support from both the Enrico Fermi Institute and the Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics. N.G.’s contribution to this work used the resources of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), a U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, HEP User Facility. Fermilab is managed by Fermi Research Alliance, LLC (FRA), acting under contract No. DE-AC02-07CH11359. This work was partly supported by a NASA ATP grant NNX17AK65G, and used resources of the Argonne Leadership Computing Facility, which is a DOE Office of Science User Facility supported under Contract DE-AC02-06CH11357. An award of computer time was provided by the Innovative and Novel Computational Impact on Theory and Experiment (INCITE) program. This research is also part of the Blue Waters sustained-petascale computing project, which is supported by the National Science Foundation (awards OCI-0725070 and ACI-1238993) and the state of Illinois. Blue Waters is a joint effort of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and its National Center for Supercomputing Applications.

O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O B-Location I-Location I-Location B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Gravitational Wave Discovery (OzGrav) through project number CE170100004. The authors would like to thank John Bowman at Walmart Labs (user ‘jbowman’ on stats.stackexchange.com ) for suggesting useful modifications to the likelihood function.

O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Organization I-Organization O O O B-URL O O O O O O O O O


The author acknowledges the Big Bear Solar Observatory, Observatory Paris–Meudon, STEREO , SDO teams for the high-quality data supplied. The author thanks the referee for critical comments and useful suggestions. Movies created using the ESA and NASA funded Helioviewer Project. This work was supported in part by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grant 14-02-92690).

O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Observatory I-Observatory B-Observatory O B-Observatory O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant


We are indebted to Tom Bell for initiating this project and for his help in the early data reduction. We thank our anonymous referee for useful comments. We also thank the Spanish MCIU and the ERC for funding support under grants AYA2017-85111-P and ERC-2013-Syg-610256-NANOCOSMOS.

O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization O O B-Organization O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS MG wishes to acknowledge the support by the Austrian FWF project J-3588-N27, and thanks Y. Cavecchi for suggestions to improve the computations; S. Aljbaae running some of our numerical orbital integrations on a cluster at FEGP-UNESP (Brazil); and Western University for providing computational facilities (the TITAN supercluster and the SHARCNET). EAS gratefully acknowledges the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Postdoctoral Fellowship programme for supporting this project. RD acknowledges the support by the Austrian FWF project S11603-N16. We gratefully acknowledge the developers of iSALE-2D ( http://www.isale-code.de ), the simulation code used in our research, including G. Collins, K. Wunnemann, D. Elbeshausen, B. Ivanov, and J. Melosh. The authors also thank the referee Mario Melita for valuable advice allowing us to improve this paper.

O B-Person O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-ComputingFacility B-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-Software O B-URL O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O


Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. M.M. acknowledges support by NASA through a Hubble Fellowship grant No. HST -HF51308.01 A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555. We also acknowledge support from grant HST -GO-12570.01 A. N.W. thanks Rebecca Canning for helpful discussions.

B-Telescope O O B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Location O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Person O O O B-Organization O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O


We thank Pierre Maxted for interesting discussions and John Southworth for help compiling Table 6 . This paper includes data collected by the Kepler / K 2 mission. Funding for the K 2 mission of Kepler is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST) under support by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Finally, we would like to thank the anonymous referee for their careful reading of the manuscript and helpful suggestions for improvement. Facilities: Kepler ( K2 ), Keck:I, Sloan , CTIO:2MASS, FLWO:2MASS , WISE . Software: astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ), george (Ambikasaran et al. 2014 ).

O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O B-Mission I-Mission I-Mission O O O B-Mission I-Mission I-Mission O B-Telescope O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive B-Archive O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O O B-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O B-Mission O B-Telescope B-Survey O B-Observatory B-Observatory O B-Telescope O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O


We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments, which helped improve the clarity of this manuscript. We are grateful to Dr. K. Saigo, Y. Ao, A. Kawamura, and F. Egusa for their supports regarding ALMA data reduction. M.I. was supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant Nos. 23540273 and 15K05030 and the ALMA Japan Research Grant of the NAOJ Chile Observatory, NAOJ-ALMA-0001, 0023, 0072. This paper made use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00032.S, 2015.1.00027.S, and 2016.1.00051.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. Data analysis was in part carried out on the open use data analysis computer system at the Astronomy Data Center, ADC, of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System and the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Observatory O O B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O B-Observatory B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O O O O O O O B-Observatory O B-Identifier B-Identifier O B-Identifier B-Observatory O O O O B-Observatory O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization B-Location B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O B-Observatory B-Organization O B-Observatory O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O B-Database I-Database I-Database B-Database O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


We are grateful to Paweł Moskalik for stimulating discussions, reading the manuscript and detailed comments. Fruitful conversation with Wojtek Dziembowski is also acknowledged. This research is supported by the Polish National Science Centre through grant DEC-2012/05/B/ST9/03932 and by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education through the program ‘Ideas Plus’ award no. IdP2012 000162. The OGLE project has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement no. 246678 to AU.

O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Survey O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Person


We thank A. Gould for valuable discussions. SCN acknowledges support by JPL grant 1500811. GS thanks NExScI for hospitality at Caltech during part of this work.

O O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Organization O O O B-Organization O O O O O


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Ryoma Murata for the detailed investigation that found the error with respect to constraining average M vs average log M.

O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


We thank the referee for providing a helpful report. We also thank Taysun Kimm, Chris Matzner, and Jim Stone for helpful comments and suggestions on the manuscript. This work was supported by Grants No. AST-1312006 and PHY-1144374 from the National Science Foundation. MAS is supported by the Max-Planck/Princeton Center for Plasma Physics. Part of this project was conducted during a visit to the KITP at U.C. Santa Barbara, which is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHY-1125915. Simulations were performed on the computational resources supported by the PICSciE TIGRESS High Performance Computing Center at Princeton University.

O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-Organization I-Organization


This paper made use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA 2011.0.00902.S and 2013.1.01004.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada) and NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. The 2011.0.00902.S data was obtained by N.M.M. while she was a Master student at National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, under the supervision of S.P.L. The authors thank J. C. Mottram for his help in using RATRAN; and M. Hogerheijde for permission to use the 2D version of RATRAN. Astrochemistry in Leiden is supported by the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA), by a Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) professor prize, and by the European Union A-ERC grant 291141 CHEMPLAN. This work is supported by grant 639.041.335 from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) and by the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA) and by the Space Research Organization Netherlands (SRON). S.P.L. acknowledges support from the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan with Grants MOST 102-2119-M-007-004-MY3.

O O O O O O O B-Observatory O B-Identifier I-Identifier O B-Identifier B-Observatory O O O O B-Observatory O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O B-Observatory B-Organization O B-Observatory O B-Identifier O O O O B-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O B-Person O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Software O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Software B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We thank the referee Ioannis Contopoulos for valuable comments and suggestions. We would like to thank Jérôme Pétri for some useful discussions. We acknowledge the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China 11573060 and 11661161010, the National Science Foundation of China 11673060, the National Science Foundation of China 11871418.

O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant O B-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant


We thank Andy Fabian, Rich Plotkin, Amy Reines, Claudia Scarlata, and Anil Seth for helpful discussions, and an anonymous referee for constructive comments. This work was supported in part by Chandra Award Number 11620915, by the National Science Foundation under grant no. NSF PHY11-25915 and by NASA through grant HST-GO-12591.01 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. J.H.W. acknowledges support by the National Research Foundation of Korea grant funded by the Korea government (No. 2012-006087 and No. 2010-0027910).

O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization O O B-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant O O B-Grant


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank an anonymous reviewer whose comments greatly improved the manuscript. We also thank EPnetFaN members for providing us with the computational environment and technical advice. We would like to thank Enago ( http://www.enago.jp ) for the English language review. This work was supported by MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers 23103003, 22540427, 11740117, and 17H06457.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-URL O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant


The authors thank Lorne Nelson for sharing computing facilities. The computations were partially carried out on facilities managed by Calcul Québec and Compute Canada. This work has been supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP16H03986 and JP17K18792. The work has also been supported by a Humboldt Research Award to Ph.P. at the University of Bonn. R.H. was supported by the JSPS Overseas Research Fellowship No. 29–514. Software: MESA (v10108; Paxton et al. 2011 , 2013 , 2015 , 2018 ).

O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Software B-Identifier B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation O B-Citation O B-Citation O


This research has made use of data obtained through the HEASARC Online Service, provided by the NASA/GSFC, in support of NASA High Energy Astrophysics Programs. MC acknowledges the many discussion with suggestions provided by Professor A R Rao, TIFR, Mumbai, India. This research has made use of the General High-energy Aperiodic Timing Software (GHATS) package developed by T. M. Belloni at INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera.

O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O B-Organization O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person I-Person B-Organization B-Location I-Location O O O O O O O B-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software B-Software O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory


We thank Scott Dodelson, Enrique Gaztanaga, Ashley Ross, Martin Crocce, Eduardo Rozo, Jonathan Blazek, Adam Amara, Benjamin Joachimi, Catherine Heymans, Rachel Mandelbaum, Josh Frieman and the DES MPP group for helpful conversations. SS recognizes receipt of a UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) Doctoral Training Grant. SLB, MT, JZ and DK acknowledge support from the European Research Council.

O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


Breakthrough Listen is funded by the Breakthrough Initiatives ( breakthroughinitiatives.org ). Y.G.Z. thanks Dan Werthimer, Deepthi Gorthi, Aman Dhar, and Liam Conner for helpful discussions. V.G. would like to acknowledge NSF grant 1407804 and the Marilyn and Watson Alberts SETI Chair funds.

O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-URL O B-Person O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


O O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization O B-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Organization O B-Organization O B-Organization O O B-Organization O B-Organization O O O O O B-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Location B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-URL O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Location I-Location O O O O B-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O B-Instrument O O O O B-Telescope B-Location B-Location B-Location B-Location O O B-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Survey I-Survey O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We thank Sergey Koposov and collaborators for sending a copy of their submitted paper with their nine discoveries, and Helmut Jerjen for pointing out the association between Kim 2 and DES J2108.8−5109. Marla Geha provided useful comments on the presentation of these results. K.B. and A.D.W. thank Beth Willman for advice regarding the search for ultra-faint galaxies. A.D.W. thanks Ellen Bechtol for her generous hospitality during the preparation of this manuscript. We acknowledge helpful suggestions from the anonymous referee. This work made use of computational resources at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and University of Chicago Research Computing Center. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number (1138766). A.C.R. acknowledges financial support provided by the PAPDRJ CAPES/FAPERJ Fellowship. A.A.P. was supported by DOE grant DE-AC02-98CH10886 and by JPL, run by Caltech under a contract for NASA. Funding for the DES Projects has been provided by the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. National Science Foundation, the Ministry of Science and Education of Spain, the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Kavli Institute of Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago, the Center for Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Mitchell Institute for Fundamental Physics and Astronomy at Texas AM University, Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos, Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico and the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Collaborating Institutions in the Dark Energy Survey. The DES data management system is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number AST-1138766. The DES participants from Spanish institutions are partially supported by MINECO under grants AYA2012-39559, ESP2013-48274, FPA2013-47986, and Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa SEV-2012-0234, some of which include ERDF funds from the European Union. The Collaborating Institutions are Argonne National Laboratory, the University of California at Santa Cruz, the University of Cambridge, Centro de Investigaciones Enérgeticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas-Madrid, the University of Chicago, University College London, the DES-Brazil Consortium, the University of Edinburgh, the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zürich, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Institut de Ciències de l’Espai (IEEC/CSIC), the Institut de Física d’Altes Energies, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München and the associated Excellence Cluster universe, the University of Michigan, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, the University of Nottingham, The Ohio State University, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Portsmouth, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford University, the University of Sussex, and Texas AM University.

O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Person O B-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Grant B-Person O O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Grant O O B-Organization O O B-Organization O O O O B-Organization O O O B-Survey I-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O B-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Grant O B-Survey O O B-Location O O O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Organization O O O B-Location I-Location O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS MNSQ acknowledges financial support from the Higher Education Commission (HEC), Pakistan to visit INAF-IAPS in Rome, Italy under the HEC Program of Short Research Visit Abroad: Pakistan Program for Collaborative Research (PPCR) and HEC Project No. 7558/Punjab/NRPU/RD/HEC/2017. We also acknowledge the PEACE instrument team and ESA Cluster Active Archive from where the data has been downloaded.

O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization O B-Location I-Location O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O O O O O


LSP, EKG, and IAZ acknowledge support within the framework of Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 on ‘The Milky Way System’ (especially subproject A5), which is funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG). LSP and IAZ thank the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut at Heidelberg University, where part of this investigation was carried out, for the hospitality. LSP and IAZ acknowledge the support of the Volkswagen Foundation under the Trilateral Partnerships grant no. 90411. IAZ also acknowledges the special support by the NASU under the Main Astronomical Observatory GRID/GPU computing cluster golowood project. This work was partly funded by a subsidy allocated to the Kazan Federal University for the state assignment in the sphere of scientific activities (LSP). SFS thanks the CONACYT-125180 and DGAPA-IA100815 projects for providing him support in this study. This study uses data provided by the Calar Alto Legacy Integral Field Area (CALIFA) survey ( http://califa.caha.es/ ). Based on observations collected at the Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA) at Calar Alto, operated jointly by the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (CSIC). This research made use of Montage, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Earth Science Technology Office, Computational Technnologies Project, under Cooperative Agreement Number NCC5-626 between NASA and the California Institute of Technology. The code is maintained by the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ .

B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O B-Person B-Person O O B-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey B-Survey B-Survey O B-URL O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O B-Software O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O B-Survey O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Location I-Location I-Location O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O B-Location B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O O B-URL O


This study was supported by the ERDF – Research and Development Operational Programme under the project ‘University Scientific Park Campus MTF STU – CAMBO’ ITMS: 26220220179. AD acknowledges the Slovak grant VEGA 1/0335/16. Furthermore, we acknowledge constructive comments of the anonymous reviewer, who helped us to improve this work.

O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


We thank an anonymous referee for some useful comments and suggestions. This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Fond Québécois pour la Recherche—Nature et Technologie, the Canadian Foundation for Innovation, and time allocation on the computing infrastructures of Calcul Québec, a member of the Compute Canada consortium.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration


Acknowledgements We thank C. Mason and T. Yuan for providing their data and models. This work made use of I mfit and B arolo softwares. EMDT acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council through grant DP160100723. CG acknowledges support by VILLUM FONDEN Young Investigator Programme through grant no. 10123. FF acknowledges hospitality at the European Southern Observatory in Garching as a scientific visitor. AM, PR, GBC and ML acknowledge financial support from PRIN-INAF 2014 1.05.01.94.02.

O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O B-Software I-Software O B-Software I-Software O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Location O O O O B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to sincerely thank the referee for a critical review which proved to be crucial for this study. We acknowledge the work of people involved in the designing, construction and deployment of the COS onboard HST . We also wish to extend our thanks to all those who had carried out data acquisition through Far-UV observations towards the sightlines mentioned in this paper. The plots in Figs 2 , 3 , and 9 were generated using the graphics environment developed by Hunter ( 2007 ).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Instrument O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank M. Sun for help with setting up the binary model, Y. Shen and K. Gültekin for helpful discussions, Z. Haiman for useful comments, and an anonymous referee for a quick and constructive report that significantly improved this work.

O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Acknowledgements We thank the referee for his/her comments during the reviewing process.. F.M., A.S.M., P.S., A.S. research is carried out within the Collaborative Research Centre 956, sub-projects A6 and C3, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) - project ID 184018867. MP acknowledges funding from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 664931. This research made use of Astropy 4 , a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration 2013 , 2018 ).

O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Software I-Software O O O O B-Software O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation O


We thank Andreas Lagg and Markus Fränz (MPS) for extensive software support and Martha Kusterer and Jon Vandegriff (both JHUAPL) for reducing the MIMI data. Cassini data analysis at MPS was supported by the German Space Agency (DLR) through contracts 50 OH 1101 and 50 OH 1502 and by the Max Planck Society. The JHUAPL authors, as well as K.D., were partially supported by the NASA Office of Space Science under task order 003 of contract NAS5-97271 between NASA/GSFC and JHU and subcontract to the Academy of Athens. E.E. thanks the Brazilian Federal Research Foundation agency (CNPq302583/2015-7) for financial support.

O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person B-Organization O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O B-Organization O O O B-Wavelength O B-Mission O O O B-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization O B-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant O O O


Acknowledgements The authors thank the anonymous referee who’s comments helped improve the manuscript and Cléa Serpollier for her early investigative work in the subject. This work has been carried out within the frame of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). The authors acknowledge the financial support from the SNSF under grant 200020_172746.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant


This research has received funding by the Sêr Cymru II, part-funded by the European Regional Development Fund through the Welsh Government. H.M. is partly funded by an STFC consolidated grant to Aberystwyth University. The Swedish 1 m Solar Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by the Institute for Solar Physics of Stockholm University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. The Institute for Solar Physics is supported by a grant for research infrastructures of national importance from the Swedish Research Council (registration number 2017-00625). The work of D.K. was supported by Georgian Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation project FR17_323. J.K. acknowledges the project VEGA 2/0004/16. This work was also supported by the project ITMS No. 26220120029, based on the operational Research and Development Program financed from the European Regional Development Fund. The authors acknowledge support from the grant 19-17102S of the Czech Funding Agency. P.H. was supported also by the grant 19-09489S. S.J. acknowledges the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency No. P1-0188. The data were acquired within Spanish SST time allocation. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. The authors wish to thank the anonymous referee who provided constructive remarks that greatly improved the quality of this paper. Facilities: SST (CRISP , CHROMIS).

O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Location B-Telescope O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Instrument O B-Instrument


Acknowledgments BK, SK and LT acknowledge Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation and Ilia State University for the fundamental research grant FR/377/6-290/14. KM and DD acknowledge the funding by the German BMBF (Verbundforschung Astro- und Astroteilchenphysik) and HAP (Helmholtz Alliance for Astro-particle Physics). PR acknowledges the contract ASI-INAF I/004/11/0. We acknowledge the helpful service of heasarc , and the use of public data from the Swift and Fermi archives. This research has made use of the xrtdas software, developed under the responsibility of the ASDC, Italy, and the data from the OVRO 40-m monitoring programme that is supported in part by NASA grants NNX08AW31G and NNX11A043G, and NSF grants AST-0808050 and AST-1109911. In our study, the data from the Steward Observatory spectropolarimetric monitoring project supported by Fermi Guest Investigator grants NNX08AW56G, NNX09AU10G, NNX12AO93G and NNX15AU81G were used. We thank the FACT Collaboration for making their analysis results publicly available, and appreciate their long-term monitoring initiative that provides precious input for MWL studies. We thank the anonymous referee for his/her very useful comments and suggestions that helped to improve the quality of the paper.

O B-Person B-Person O B-Person O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-Archive O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O O O O O B-Software I-Software O O O O O O B-Organization B-Location O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Acknowledgements DAA acknowledges support by a CIERA Postdoctoral Fellowship. CAFG was supported by NSF grants AST-1412836 and AST-1517491, NASA grant NNX15AB22G, STScI grant HST-AR-14562.001 and CXO grant TM7-18007X. EQ was supported by NASA ATP grant 12-ATP-120183, a Simons Investigator award from the Simons Foundation, and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. Support for PFH was provided by an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship, NASA ATP Grant NNX14AH35G, and NSF grant AST-1411920 and CAREER award #1455342. RF acknowledges support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant no. 157591). PT acknowledges support from NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF-51384.001-A awarded by STScI. AW was supported by a Caltech-Carnegie Fellowship, the Moore Center for Theoretical Cosmology and Physics at Caltech and NASA grant HST-GO-14734 from STScI. DK was supported by NSF Grant AST1412153 and a Cottrell Scholar Award from the Research Corporation for Science Advancement. The simulations were run using XSEDE, supported by NSF grant ACI-1053575, and Northwestern Universitys compute cluster Quest.

O B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Telescope B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-ComputingFacility O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility


We thank the referee for a very helpful report. C.-Y.C. is grateful for the support from Virginia Institute of Theoretical Astronomy (VITA) at the University of Virginia through the VITA Postdoctoral Prize Fellowship, and the support partly from NSF grant AST-1815784. The work of E.C.O. was supported by grant 510940 from the Simons Foundation.

O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant O O O B-Person O O O O B-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization


We are grateful to the anonymous referee for the valuable comments and advices. In this study, we used the SDSS DR9 data. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS website is http://www.sdss.org/ . We acknowledge the use of the HyperLeda data base. This work was supported by Russian Foundation for Basic Research (projects nos. 12-02-00685 and 14-22-03006-ofi-m). IYK is also grateful to Dmitry Zimin's non-profit Dynasty Foundation. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The observations at the 6-meter BTA telescope were carried out with the financial support of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (agreement No. 14.619.21.0004, project ID RFMEFI61914X0004).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Dataset I-Dataset O O O O B-Survey O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O B-URL O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database B-Database O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2012.1.00988.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada) and NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. We are grateful to the European ALMA Regional Centres, particularly those in Garching and Manchester, for their dedicated end-to-end support of data associated with this paper. We have also received immense support from the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This work is also based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 094.A-0959 (PI: Hamer). We also present observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained from the data archive at the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. G.R.T. thanks E.S.T. and A.S.T. for educating him on nature’s many sources of uplift. G.R.T. also acknowledges support from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) through Chandra Award Number GO7-8128X as well as Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship Award Number PF-150128, issued by the Chandra X-ray Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060. B.J.W., S.W.R., J.A.Z., P.E.J.N., R.P.K., W.R.F., C.J., and Y.S. also acknowledge the financial support of NASA contract NAS8-03060 ( Chandra X-ray Center). F.C. acknowledges the European Research Council for the Advanced Grant Program # 267399-Momentum. M.G. is supported by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship Award Number PF5-160137, as well as Chandra grant GO7-18121X. The work of S.A.B., C.P.O., and B.R.M. was supported by a generous grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. H.R.R. and T.A.D. acknowledge support from a Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) Ernest Rutherford Fellowship. A.C.E. acknowledges support from STFC grant ST/P00541/1. A.C.F. acknowledges support from ERC Advanced Grant “Feedback.” M.N.B. acknowledges funding from the STFC. Basic research in radio astronomy at the Naval Research Laboratory is supported by 6.1 Base funding. This research made use of Astropy , 39 39 http://www.astropy.org/ a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (The Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 , 2018 ). Some MUSE data reduction and analysis was conducted on Hydra, the Smithsonian Institution’s High Performance Cluster (SI/HPC). Facilities: CXO (ACIS-S) , HST (ACS , NICMOS) , VLT: Yepun . Software : Astropy (The Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 , 2018 ), CASA (McMullin et al. 2007 ), CIAO (Fruscione et al. 2006 ), IPython (Perez Granger 2007 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), NumPy (van der Walt et al. 2011 ), PySpecKit (Ginsburg Mirocha 2011 ), scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ). DOI-linked software repository for this paper .

O O O O O O O B-Observatory O B-Identifier B-Observatory O O O O B-Observatory O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O B-Observatory B-Organization O B-Observatory O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Location O B-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Proposal I-Proposal I-Proposal O B-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization O O O B-Wavelength O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Software O O O B-URL O O O B-Software O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation O O B-Instrument O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility O B-Organization I-Organization B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-Organization O B-Telescope B-Instrument O B-Telescope B-Instrument O B-Instrument O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the Science and Technology Facilities Council (United Kingdom), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia (Brazil) and Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), for the observational data in the projects GS-2009A-Q-5 and GS-2010A-Q-26. This work is based in part on data products produced in big surveys, so we also thank the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) which is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Science de l'Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France, and the University of Hawaii and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV funding by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. ACS thanks the financial support provided by CAPES. LSJ thanks support from CNPq and FAPESP (00800-4/2012). RMO thanks the financial support provided by CAPES and CNPq (142219/2013-4). ESC acknowledges support from CNPq and FAPESP (2014/13723-3). GLN also thanks support from CNPq.

O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location I-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location I-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O O O O B-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization


The authors acknowledge the staff members of the Qinghai Radio Observing Station at Delingha for their support of the observations. We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments and suggestions that helped to improve this paper. This work is supported in part by National Key RD Program of China (2017YFA0402700). Y.S. acknowledges support from NSFC grants 11233001 and 11233007. X.Z. acknowledges support from NSFC grant 11403104 and Jiangsu Provincial Natural Science Foundation grant BK20141044. Y.C. acknowledges support from 973 Program grant 2015CB857100 and NSFC grant 11633007. Y.G. acknowledges support from NSFC grant 11127903. Facility: PMO 13.7m . Software: GILDAS/CLASS (Pety 2005 ).

O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Observatory B-Telescope O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O


Work on this project by K.T.V. and A.C.S. was supported by AST-1350389. J.S. acknowledges support from NSF grant AST-1514763 and the Packard Foundation. A.J.R. was supported by National Science Foundation grant AST-1515084 and as a Research Corporation for Science Advancement Cottrell Scholar. I.C.’s research is supported by the Telescope Data Center, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. I.C. also acknowledges support by the Russian Science Foundation grant 17-72-20119 and by the ESO Visiting Scientist programme. Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). Facilities: HST , VLT/SINFONI .

O O O O O B-Person O B-Person O O O B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Observatory B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-Organization B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Telescope O B-Telescope O


This work was supported by a U.S. Department of Energy Early Career grant. We thank Dan Matthews, David Schlegel, Arjun Dey, and Eduardo Rozo for helpful discussions. Funding for the DEEP2 survey has been provided by NSF grants AST-0071048, AST-0071198, AST-0507428, and AST-0507483. (Some of) the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. The DEEP2 team and Keck Observatory acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community and appreciate the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. CFHT LS is based on observations obtained with MegaPrime/MegaCam, a joint project of CFHT and CEA/IRFU, at the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), which is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Science de l’Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France, and the University of Hawaii. This work is based in part on data products produced at Terapix available at the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre as part of the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey, a collaborative project of NRC and CNRS. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the entire COSMOS collaboration, consisting of more than 100 scientists. The HST COSMOS program was supported through NASA grant HST -GO-09822.

O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O O O B-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Survey I-Survey O O O O O O B-Instrument O O O O B-Telescope O B-Organization O O B-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Survey O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant no. 2017R1A3A3001362, funded by the Korea government (MSIP). MH acknowledges the support from Global PhD Fellowship Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (NRF-2013H1A2A1033110). This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5 m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile, and the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope (UKIRT) which is supported by NASA and operated under an agreement among the University of Hawaii, the University of Arizona, and Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center; operations are enabled through the cooperation of the Joint Astronomy Centre of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the UK.

O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Location O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location


I am grateful to the referee for helpful comments and suggestions. This work has been supported by the French National Research Agency (ANR) through the grant no. ANR-13-JS05-0003-01 (project EMPERE).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant


The authors thank Joshua Moloney for helpful discussions and assistance with emission line identification. Support for program number HST -GO-13302.01 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute. EMT acknowledges support from NASA Earth and Space Science Fellowship grant NNX14-AO18H. Facilities: HST (COS, STIS) .

O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Proposal I-Proposal O O O B-Organization O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Telescope B-Instrument B-Instrument O


Acknowledgements We would are deeply grateful to our colleagues who have provided us with valuable guidance. Special thanks to Dr Julia Bryant (CAASTRO) and Prof Matthia Jäger (Institut für Photonische Technologien) for productive discussions.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Organization O B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for insightful comments and suggestions that improved not only the original manuscript, but the algorithm itself as well. This publication was made possible by NPRP grant ♯ X-019-1-006 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the author.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TRC acknowledges support from the Associateship Scheme of ICTP, Trieste. PD acknowledges support from the European Research Council’s starting grant DELPHI (717001) and from the European Commission’s and University of Groningen’s CO-FUND Rosalind Franklin program. PD thanks R. Bouwens, N. Gnedin, P. Oesch, and Z. Haiman for illuminating discussions.

O B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O


This research has made use of data and/or software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. This work made use of data supplied by the UK Swift Science Data Centre at the University of Leicester. Authors thank the Russian Science Foundation (grant 19-12-00423), National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC U1838201), German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD, project 57405000, VD), and the Academy of Finland travel grants 324550 (ST) and 316932 (AL) for support.

O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive B-Archive O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Grant B-Person O O


We acknowledge the use of data from the Fermi Science Support Center (FSSC) at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. JNZ thanks Dr Yizhong Fan for help in improving the presentation. This work is supported in part by 973 Programme of China under grant 2013CB837000, the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grants 11273064 and 11443004, the Strategic Priority Research Programme ‘The Emergence of Cosmological Structures’ of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDB09000000) and by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation under grant 2014M551680.

O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant O B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Fellowship


LSO and RW received support from a NWO TOP Grant, module 1, awarded to RW. DP is partially supported by the Mexican Conacyt (CB-2014-01, #240512). This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHY-1430152 (JINA Center for the Evolution of the Elements).

B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Person B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization B-Grant B-Grant O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Grant B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 programme through ERC grant number 320360 and by the Leverhulme Trust through grant RPG-2012-541. We acknowledge the support from INAF and Ministero dell’ Istruzione, dell’ Università’ e della Ricerca (MIUR) in the form of the grant “Premiale VLT 2012”. The results presented here benefit from discussions held during the Gaia -ESO workshops and conferences supported by the ESF (European Science Foundation) through the GREAT Research Network Programme. A. Recio-Blanco, P. de Laverny and V. Hill acknowledge the Programme National de Cosmologie et Galaxies (PNCG) of CNRS/INSU, France, for financial support.

O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O B-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event O O O B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Organization B-Location O O O


Acknowledgements SPIRE has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by Cardiff Univ. (UK) and including: Univ. Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, Univ. Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); Stockholm Observatory(Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, Univ. Sussex (UK); and Caltech, JPL, NHSC, Univ. Colorado (USA). This development has been supported by national funding agencies: CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); STFC, UKSA (UK); and NASA (USA). PACS has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by MPE (Germany) and including UVIE (Austria); KUL, CSL, IMEC (Belgium); CEA, OAMP (France); MPIA (Germany); IFSI, OAP/AOT, OAA/CAISMI, LENS, SISSA (Italy); IAC (Spain). This development has been supported by the funding agencies BMVIT (Austria), ESA-PRODEX (Belgium), CEA/CNES (France), DLR (Germany), ASI (Italy), and CICT/MCT (Spain). V.K. would like to thank Richard Allison, and Richard Parker for their help and discussions on mass segregation with the MST method. This work has received support from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (ERC Advanced Grant Agreements no. 291294 – ORISTARS – and no. 267934 – MISTIC) and from the French National Research Agency (Grant no. ANR–11–BS56–0010 – STARFICH). D.A. acknowledges support by FCT/MCTES through national funds (PIDDAC) by the grant UID/FIS/04434/2019. N.S. and S.B. acknowledge support by the French ANR and the German DFG through the project GENESIS (ANR–16–CE92–0035–01/DFG1591/2–1). G.J.W. gratefully acknowledges support from The Leverhulme Trust. We also acknowledgesupport from the French national programs of CNRS/INSU on stellar and ISM physics (PNPS and PCMI). This research hasmade use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg (France), and of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

O B-Instrument O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Location B-Observatory B-Location B-Organization B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location B-Observatory I-Observatory B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization B-Organization B-Person I-Person B-Location O B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person I-Person B-Location O O O O O O O O O B-Person B-Location B-Observatory B-Location B-Organization B-Organization B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location B-Instrument O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Organization B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Organization B-Organization B-Organization B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location B-Person O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Model I-Model O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization O O B-Location B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Location O O O B-Organization O O O O O B-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O O B-Organization B-Location B-Location O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database B-Database O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


Acknowledgments This work is based on observations with INTEGRAL , an ESA project with instruments and the science data centre funded by ESA member states (especially the PI countries: Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Spain), and Poland, and with the participation of Russia and the USA. This research has made use of: data obtained from the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC) provided by NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center; the SIMBAD database operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France; the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; the Palermo BAT Catalogue and data base operated at INAFIASF Palermo. The data were obtained from the European 8 and Russian 9 INTEGRAL Science Data Centers. The authors are grateful to E. M. Churazov, who developed the INTEGRAL /IBIS data analysis methods and provided the software, and thank the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics for computational support. This work was financially supported by Russian Science Foundation grant 14-22-00271.

O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O B-Location B-Location B-Location B-Location B-Location B-Location O B-Location O O O O O B-Location O O B-Location O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive B-Archive O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Database O O O B-Organization B-Location I-Location O B-Database I-Database I-Database B-Database O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database O O B-Organization B-Location O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O B-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O B-Telescope B-Instrument O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AVN acknowledges the Russian Science Foundation (RSF) grant 16-12-10225. DB, YS, and FL were supported by the ‘Programme National Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire’ (PCMI) of CNRS/INSU with INC/INP co-funded by CEA and CNES. YS would like to thank support from the Computing Center of the ‘Institut National de Physique Nucléaire’ (IN2P3). We are grateful to Dr. Wan for providing the collisional rate coefficients for H 2 –H 2 collisions.

O B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Organization O B-Organization O O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Person O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O


Acknowledgements Comments from an anonymous referee are gratefully acknowledged. The authors thanks Sergio Dzib, Carlos Carrasco-González, Mark Reid, Riccardo Cesaroni, and Roberto Galván-Madrid for fruitful discussion in preparation. A.S. gratefully acknowledges financial support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) Priority Program 1573.

O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the reviewer for the careful and thorough reading of this manuscript and for the thoughtful comments and constructive suggestions which help to improve the quality of this manuscript.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Acknowledgments The authors thank Reed Essick, Tanja Hinderer and the referee for valuable comments. This work is supported in part by NASA ATP grant NNX14AB40G. HY is also supported in part by the National Science Foundation and the LIGO Laboratory. LIGO was constructed by the California Institute of Technology and Massachusetts Institute of Technology with funding from the National Science Foundation and operates under cooperative agreement PHY-0757058.

O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Instrument O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Grant


Acknowledgements We thank our referee, Ulrike Heiter, for providing constructive feedback that improved the content and clarity of this manuscript. This work has made use of the VALD data base, operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow and the University of Vienna. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ). This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS 143, 23. We acknowledge support from NSF-AST 1009314 (E.R., J.W.) and NASA Origins of Solar System program under NNX13AK17G (J.W.).

O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Software O O O B-Software O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database B-Organization B-Location I-Location O O O O O B-Database I-Database O O O B-Identifier I-Identifier I-Identifier O O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Person O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Person


Acknowledgements The IMEX model was developed under ESA funding (contract 4000106316/12/NL/AF - IMEX). H.K. and P.S. are grateful to the MPI für Sonnensystemforschung and the University of Stuttgart for their support. We are grateful to an anonymous referee whose comments substantially improved the presentation of our results.

O O B-Model I-Model O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


We thank the referee for his/her thorough report, in particular for pointing out the misinterpretation of broad-band colours. TR acknowledges support from CONICYT project Basal AFB-170002. He also acknowledges an ESO senior visitorship, during which the data reductions were performed, which was essential for this contribution. T.H.P. gratefully acknowledges support by FONDECYT Regular Project No. 1161817 and by CONICYT project Basal AFB-170002. Dominik Bomans is thanked for discussions on STARLIGHT and literature hints. We use QFitsView (version 3.2, developed by Thomas Ott and Alex Agudo Berbel at the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching) for extracting and averaging spectra.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Grant O O O O O B-Software B-Identifier I-Identifier O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O O


The authors thank Dr. J.J. Tobin for providing the CARMA N 2 H + (1–0) data for Figure 1 . We are grateful to Dr. A. Palau for providing the data points in Figure 13 . We thank Dr. T. Stanke for providing us with the JCMT CO (3–2) data for comparison. The authors acknowledge the staff at APEX, IRAM 30 m, SMA, and JVLA for assistance with operations. The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. T.H.H. and S.P.L. are thankful for the support of the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) of Taiwan through grants NSC 98-2112- M-007-007-MY3, NSC 101-2119-M-007-004, MoST 102-2119-M-007-004-MY3, and MoST 104-2119-M-007-021. T.H.H. appreciates the grant from MOST with the PhD exchange student award (MOST 103-2917-I-007-005) and also thanks the MPIfR for supporting him as a visiting astronomer in Bonn, Germany.

O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O B-Wavelength B-Wavelength I-Wavelength I-Wavelength I-Wavelength I-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Telescope B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Grant B-Organization B-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Organization B-Fellowship O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location


This project was supported by the Polish National Center of Science under decision UMO-2016/20/S/ST9/00142.

O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant