The authors acknowledge useful discussions with G. Nelemans and M. Dan. We acknowledge an anonymous referee for suggestions that helped us to improve the presentation of our results. LP acknowledges support from the PRIN-INAF 2011 project ‘Multiple populations in Globular Clusters: their role in the Galaxy assembly’. AT acknowledges support from the PRIN-MIUR 2010-2011 project ‘The Obscure Universe and the Cosmic Evolution of Barions’. LRY acknowledges support by RFBR grants 14-02-00604, 15-02-04053 and Presidium of RAS program P-41. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System.

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GH acknowledges discussions with A. Tokovinin and K. Hełminiak. We also thank the referee for her/his helpful comments. Support for this project is provided by the Ministry for the Economy, Development, and Tourism's Programa Iniciativa Científica Milenio through grant IC 210009, awarded to the Millennium Institute of Astrophysics; by Proyecto Basal PFB-06/2007; by Fondecyt grant #1141141; and by CONICYT Anillo grant ACT 1101.

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The authors would like to thank Annie Hughes for providing the CO(1–0) data and Akiko Kawamura for the CO(3–2) data. This research was made possible through the financial support of the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) through the programme SYMPATICO (Program Blanc Projet (NR-11-BS56-0023) and also through the EU FP7. SH acknowledges financial support from DFG programme HO 5475/2-1. PACS was developed by MPE (Germany); UVIE (Austria); KU Leuven, CSL, IMEC (Belgium); CEA, LAM (France); MPIA (Germany); INAFIFSI/OAA/OAP/OAT, LENS, SISSA (Italy); IAC (Spain). This development was supported by BMVIT (Austria), ESA-PRODEX (Belgium), CEA/CNES (France), DLR (Germany), ASI/INAF (Italy), and CICYT/MCYT (Spain). SPIRE was developed by Cardiff University (UK); Univ. Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, Univ. Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, Univ. Sussex (UK) and Caltech, JPL, NHSC, Univ. Colorado (USA). This development was supported by CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); Stockholm Observatory (Sweden); STFC (UK); and NASA (USA).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS MJI was supported by the Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT130100235). This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement CoG #683029). JHG gratefully acknowledges support from the Director’s Research Funds at the Space Telescope Science Institute. The manuscript was also substantially improved following helpful comments from an anonymous referee.

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This work was financially supported by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 646717, TUNNELCHEM). The authors also acknowledge support for CPU time by the state of Baden-Württemberg through bwHPC and the German Research Foundation (DFG) through grant no. INST 40/467-1 FUGG. Software: DL-FIND (Kästner et al. 2009 ), DL_POLY (Smith et al. 2002 ), Molpro version 2015.1 (Werner et al. 2012 ), NWCHEM 6.6 (Valiev et al. 2010 ).

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Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Nuala McCullagh for helpful discussions relating to the evolution of the matter power spectrum, and Violeta Gonzalez-Perez for helpful discussions relating to the evaluation of the Limber equation, for both this work and C16 . WIC and CGL acknowledge financial support and fruitful discussions from the Munich Institute for Astro- and Particle Physics (MIAPP) DFG cluster of excellence ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’ workshop entitled ‘The Star Formation History of the Universe’, held in Munich in 2015 August. This work was supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council [ST/K501979/1, ST/L00075X/1]. CMB acknowledges the receipt of a Leverhulme Trust Research Fellowship. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008519/1, and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure.

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Acknowledgments This work is supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TBTAK) under the grant 113F354. Preliminary results of this paper were presented at NewCompStar 2015 Annual Meeting held in Budapest, Hungary, which was supported by COST action MP1304. I am grateful to M. Ali Alpar for fruitful discussions on this and related topics over the years. I wish to express my special thanks to Peter S. Shternin for useful remarks on the cooling of neutron stars. I acknowledge the referee for insightful comments that lead to clarification of some points.

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Acknowledgments We thank Daniel Bardin for his help with the Observatoire de Haute Provence (OHP, France) observations; OHP, IUCAA Observatory (India) and Chandra Himalayan telescope (India) for attribution of observing time; and Programme National de Plantologie (PNP, France) for support. This work was partly supported by CNES, in relation to observations of MIDAS on the Rosetta mission and to measurements with PROGRA2 instruments on parabolic flights on A300-ZeroG. Support for HST comet observations in program numbers GO13863 and 144261 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy Incorporated, under NAS5-26555.

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The authors are very thankful to the referee for valuable comments that helped to improve the paper. The authors would also like to thank Jesper Rasmussen and Alastair Sanderson for kindly providing their observational data, as well as Susana Planelles and Elena Rasia for kindly providing their simulation outputs and for useful discussions. This work is partly based on the XMM-Newton AO-12 proposal “The XMM-Newton view of chemical enrichment in bright galaxy clusters and groups” (PI: de Plaa), and is a part of the CHEERS (CHEmical Evolution Rgs cluster Sample) collaboration. H.A. acknowledges the support of NWO via a Veni grant. P.K. acknowledges financial support from STFC. C.P. acknowledges support from ERC Advanced Grant Feedback 340442. T.H.R. acknowledges support from the DFG through grant RE 1462/6 and through the Transregional Collaborative Research Centre TRR33 The Dark Universe, project B18. This project has been supported by the Lendület LP2016-11 grant awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA member states and the USA (NASA). The SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research is supported financially by NWO, The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research.

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The authors thank I. Cooke, R. Martin-Domenech, P. Maksiutenko, and L. Kelley for valuable feedback. J.B.B. acknowledges funding from the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under grant DGE1144152. This work was supported by an award from the Simons Foundation (SCOL # 321183, K.O.). Software: NumPy (Van Der Walt et al. 2011 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ).

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We kindly thank Jun Li and Hua Guo for providing the potential energy surface. Astrochemistry in Leiden in general was supported by the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under grant agreement No. 238258, the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA) and from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) within the framework of the Dutch Astrochemistry Network. SI acknowledges the Royal Society for financial support. T.L. was supported by the Dutch Astrochemistry Network financed by NWO. T.L. and J.K. were financially supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 646717, TUNNELCHEM).

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This work was supported by the 973 program (2013CB837900), National Science Foundation of China (U1331205). W.A.B. has been supported as a Visiting Professor of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KJZD-EW-T01). P.M. thanks the support through the CAS PIFI program. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. The e-MERLIN is a National Facility operated by the University of Manchester at Jodrell Bank Observatory on behalf of the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). This research has made use of the United States Naval Observatory (USNO) Radio Reference Frame Image Database (RRFID). This research has made use of data from the MOJAVE database that is maintained by the MOJAVE team (Lister et al. 2009a ).

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SPCP is grateful to the Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, USA, the Research School for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia, and the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain, for hospitality and support during short and extended working visits in the course of his PhD thesis research. He thanks Roelof de Jong and Ron Allen for help and support during an earlier period as a visiting student at Johns Hopkins University and the Physics and Astronomy Department, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences for this appointment. PCK thanks the directors of these same institutions and his local hosts Ron Allen, Ken Freeman and Johan Knapen for hospitality and support during many work visits over the years, most of which were directly or indirectly related to the research presented in this series of papers. Work visits by SPCP and PCK were supported by an annual grant from the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of the University of Groningen to PCK, accompanying his distinguished Jacobus C. Kapteyn professorship, and by the Leids Kerkhoven-Bosscha Fonds. PCK's work visits were also supported by an annual grant from the Area of Exact Sciences of the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO), in compensation for his membership of its board.

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Acknowledgements We are very grateful to the anonymous referee for his/her very valuable comments. This work is partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC 11433004 and 11173020), Top Talents Program of Yunnan Province, the Natural Science Foundation of Yunnan Province (2013FB063), the Young Teachers Program of Yuxi Normal University, and the Program for Innovative Research Team (in Science and Technology) in University of Yunnan Province (IRTSTYN).

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We thank the anonymous referees for carefully reading the manuscript and for valuable comments that helped improve this paper substantially. We also thank Professor Yang Chen for discussions, Dr Rai Yuen for smoothing out the language and Dr Cristobal Espinoza for useful suggestions on the braking indices of several radio pulsars. This work was supported by Xinjiang Natural Science Foundation No. 2013211A053, by Chinese National Science Foundation through grants Nos 11173041, 11173042, 11273051, 11373006 and 11133001, by the National Basic Research Programme of China grants 973 Programmes 2012CB821801, by the Strategic Priority Research Programme ‘The Emergence of Cosmological Structures’ of the Chinese Academy of Sciences through No. XDB09000000 and by the West Light Foundation of Chinese Academy of Sciences No. 2172201302.

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This work was supported by NASA ATP Grant NNX14AP92G and NSF Grant AST-1716762. K.K. acknowledges support by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under grant No. DGE-1324585. S.C. acknowledges support from CIERA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through a Chandra Award Number TM5-16004X/NAS8-03060 issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center (operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060), and Hubble Space Telescope Archival research grant HST -AR-14555.001-A (from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge the ‘Accordo Quadro INAF-CINECA (2017)' for the availability of high performance computing resources and support. Simulations have been performed as part of the class-A project ‘Three-dimensional relativistic simulations of bow shock nebulae' (PI B. Olmi). The authors also acknowledge financial support from the PRIN-MIUR project prot. 2015L5EE2Y ‘Multi-scale simulations of high-energy astrophysical plasmas'. B. Olmi wishes also to acknowledge Andrea Mignone, from the PLUTO team, for fundamental support, and Simone Landi and Luca Del Zanna for fruitful discussions.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a constructive and helpful report, E. Schunová for her feedback on earlier versions of this manuscript, S. D. Miller for comments on his results, and P. Wiegert for sharing the details of his pre-impact orbital solution. This work was partially supported by the Spanish “Comunidad de Madrid” under grant CAM S2009/ESP-1496. Some of the calculations discussed here were completed on the “Servidor Central de Cálculo” of the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. In the preparation of this paper, we made use of the NASA Astrophysics Data System, the ASTRO-PH e-print server, the MPC data server, and the NEODyS information service.

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The authors are very grateful to the referee, Frans Snik, for his insightful suggestions and helpful comments to improve the quality of the original manuscript. This work is partially supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grants NNX12AG05G and NNX14AD33G issued through the Astrophysics Research and Analysis (APRA) program (PI: R. Soummer). M.N. would like to thank Rémi Soummer and Laurent Pueyo for their support. M.N. would also like to acknowledge the ESO Chile Visiting Scientist program. Finally, A.V. would like to thank the Paranal staff for their patience and support when performing the tests presented in this work. SPHERE is an instrument designed and built by a consortium consisting of IPAG (Grenoble, France), MPIA (Heidelberg, Germany), LAM (Marseille, France), LESIA (Paris, France), Laboratoire Lagrange (Nice, France), INAF Osservatorio di Padova (Italy), Observatoire de Genève (Switzerland), ETH Zurich (Switzerland), NOVA (Netherlands), ONERA (France) and ASTRON (Netherlands) in collaboration with ESO. SPHERE was funded by ESO, with additional contributions from CNRS (France), MPIA (Germany), INAF (Italy), FINES (Switzerland) and NOVA (Netherlands). SPHERE also received funding from the European Commission Sixth and Seventh Framework Programmes as part of the Optical Infrared Coordination Network for Astronomy (OPTICON) under grant number RII3-Ct-2004-001566 for FP6 (20042008), grant number 226604 for FP7 (20092012) and grant number 312430 for FP7 (20132016).

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We thank Stephen White who edited the GMRT data of April 06, 2006 when he was a visiting scientist in Meudon in July 2006. P. Subramanian acknowledges partial support from the CAWES-II program, administrated by the Indian Space Research Organization. We also thank N. G. Kantharia and S. Ananthakrishnan for helpful discussions regarding GMRT observation procedures, and an anonymous referee for helping us to improve the manuscript.

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Acknowledgments We are grateful to Dr D. Weisz, Dr A. McConnachie and Dr N. Ho and collaborators for generously providing their data for this project. The authors thank the anonymous referee for the comments that have helped to improve this paper. AdP also thanks S. Bertran de Lis for her support and help during this project. This research was supported by the Polish National Science Centre under grant 2013/10/A/ST9/00023.

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We thank Mark Reid for pointing out the large amount of high-mass clumps that would be required to account for the global Galactic HCN and IR luminosities. This work was supported by NASA grant NNX12AE42G and NSF grant AST-1211844. A.E.G. acknowledges support from FONDECYT grant 3150570. This research made use of APLpy, an open-source plotting package for Python hosted at http://aplpy.github.com .

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank Adrick Broeils, Martha P. Haynes, J. M. van der Hulst, and Marc A. W. Verheijen, as well as the THINGS, LITTLE THINGS, and WHISP collaborations, for providing H i data cubes and moment maps of archival data. The authors also acknowledge the referee for their insight and helpful recommendations that improved this manuscript. This paper is based on work presented in EER's PhD dissertation, which was accepted by Indiana University graduate faculty in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree. The authors acknowledge observational and technical support from the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO). We acknowledge use of the WIYN 0.9 m telescope operated by WIYN Inc. on behalf of a Consortium of ten partner Universities and Organizations, and the WIYN 3.5 m telescope. The WIYN Observatory is a joint facility of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Indiana University, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, and the University of Missouri. This work is based on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. E.E.R. acknowledges support from the Provost's Travel Award for Women in Science, a professional development fund supported through the Office of the Provost at Indiana University Bloomington, the Indiana University College of Arts and Sciences Dissertation Year Fellowship, and the Indiana Space Grant Consortium. L.v.Z. recognizes support from the Helena Kluyver Female Visitor programme at ASTRON during which some of this analysis was completed. This work was partially supported by NASA ADAP award NNX17AF17G. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) that is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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This paper was based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope associated with program 13481; support for this program was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute. EML is additionally supported by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant number HST -HF-51324.01 A from the Space Telescope Science Institute. The Space Telescope Science Institute is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555.

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We thank Axel Brandenburg for comments and useful discussions. F.D.S. acknowledges the Swedish Research Council International Postdoc fellowship for support, Giuseppe Jacopo Guidi for discussions, and the INAF Astrophysical observatory of Catania for the warm hospitality that allowed this work to be carried out.

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Support for this work was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra awards GO2–13091X and AR3-14017X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8–03060. E.S. acknowledges support from The Science Academy (Bilim Akademisi, Turkey) under the BAGEP program. We would like to thank the anonymous referee for carefully reading the paper and providing useful comments.

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This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. We have also used UKIDSS data from the UKIDSSDR8plus database. The UKIDSS project is defined in Lawrence et al. (2007) . UKIDSS uses the UKIRT Wide Field Camera (WFCAM; Casali et al. 2007 ) and a photometric system described in Hewett et al. (2006) . We thank R. M. Humphreys for her comments on an early version of the paper and N. L. J. Cox for his advice on DIBs.

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We thank Jarle Brinchmann, J. J. Eldridge, Elizabeth Stanway, Eric Pellegrini, Selma de Mink, Evan Kirby, Jim Fuller, Phil Hopkins, and Maryam Shirazi for very informative conversations. We benefited significantly from talks, discussions, and conversations during the First Carnegie Symposium in Honor of Leonard Searle, “Understanding Nebular Emission in High-Redshift Galaxies,” held at the Carnegie Observatories in Pasadena, 2015 July 13–17. T. Bensby, C. Esteban, and D. Erb kindly provided machine-readable data from their published work. This work has been supported in part by the US National Science Foundation through grants AST-0908805 and AST-1313472 (C.C.S., A.L.S., R.F.T.), as well as by an NSF Graduate Student Research Fellowship (A.L.S.). Finally, we wish to extend thanks to those of Hawaiian ancestry on whose sacred mountain we are privileged to be guests.

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The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) have been made possible through contributions of the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, Queen’s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, and Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE) and the Los Alamos National Laboratory. We thank the anonymous referee for very beneficial comments. T.S. thanks Andrea Merloni, Phil Uttley, Brandon Kelly, Jason Dexter, Simone Scaringi and Barbara De Marco for many helpful discussions and comments.

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L.D.F. acknowledges support through the ESO Studentship Programme, CAPES Programme and CNPq fellowship Programme (166880/2014-0). L.P. acknowledges the Visiting Researcher program of CNPq Brazilian Agency, at the Fed. Univ. of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil. Support for C.C. is provided by the Ministry for the Economy, Development and Tourism’s Programa Iniciativa Científica do Milênio through grant IC20009, awarded to the Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS). G.F.P.M. acknowledges financial support by CNPq grant 476909/2006-6, FAPERJ grant APQ1/26/170.687/2004 and ESO, for financial support for a trip to Garching, which enabled participation in this work. We thank Dr. Martin Asplund and Dr. Maria Bergemann for their contribution with the line lists used in this work. This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System, of the WEBDA database, operated at the Department of Theoretical Physics and Astrophysics of the Masaryk University, and of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.

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We would like to thank Ezequiel Treister and the anonymous referee for helpful discussions regarding the interpretations of our results. We would also like to thank Scott Chapman for providing radio images of the SSA22 field. CS acknowledges support from CONICYT-Chile (FONDECYT 3120198, Becas Chile 74140006, and the Anillo ACT1101). FEB acknowledges support from CONICYT-Chile (Basal-CATA PFB-06/2007, FONDECYT 1141218, Gemini-CONICYT 32120003, ‘EMBIGGEN”Anillo ACT1101), and Project IC120009 ‘Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS)’ funded by the Iniciativa Científica Milenio del Ministerio de Economía, Fomento y Turismo. The work of DS was carried out at Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with NASA. JEG thanks the Royal Society. Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 085.A-0616 and 089.A-0405. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.

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Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 60.A-9379. The asteroid diameters and albedos based on NEOWISE observations were obtained from the Planetary Data System (PDS). Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. This research has made use of the Keck Observatory Archive (KOA), which is operated by the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute (NExScI), under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. This research used the MPC service developed, maintained, and hosted at the Lagrange laboratory, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur ( Delbo et al. 2017 ). Photometry of 6 Hebe was identified and extracted from WASP data with the help of Neil Parley (Open University, now IEA Reading). The WASP project is currently funded and operated by Warwick University and Keele University, and was originally set up by Queen’s University Belfast, the Universities of Keele, St. Andrews and Leicester, the Open University, the Isaac Newton Group, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the South African Astronomical Observatory and by STFC. The WASP project is currently funded and operated by Warwick University and Keele University, and was originally set up by Queen’s University Belfast, the Universities of Keele, St. Andrews and Leicester, the Open University, the Isaac Newton Group, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the South African Astronomical Observatory and by STFC. TRAPPIST-South is a project funded by the Belgian Funds (National) de la Recherche Scientifique (F.R.S.-FNRS) under grant FRFC 2.5.594.09.F, with the participation of the Swiss National Science Foundation (FNS/SNSF). E.J. and M.G. are F.R.S.-FNRS research associates. Based on observations with ISO, an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA Member States and with the participation of ISAS and NASA. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. Herschel fluxes of Hebe where extracted by Csaba Kiss (Konkoly Observatory, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1121 Budapest, Konkoly Thege Miklós út 15–17, Hungary). TM received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme, under Grant Agreement No. 687378.

O O O O O B-Observatory O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Proposal I-Proposal I-Proposal O O O O O O O B-Mission O O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database B-Database O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive B-Archive O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O O O B-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O B-Survey O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization O B-Survey O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization B-Survey O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O B-Person O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O B-Telescope O B-Organization O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Telescope O O B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Location O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Telescope O O B-CelestialObject O O O B-Person I-Person B-Observatory I-Observatory B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location B-Person O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


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We acknowledge support from the Research Council of Lithuania under the grant No. MIP-85/2012. The European Union FP7-PEOPLE-2010-IRSES program is acknowledged for funding exchange visits in the framework of the project POSTAGBinGALAXIES (grant agreement No. 269193). L. Z. thanks Drs. T. Kipper, M. R. Schmidt, U. G. Jørgensen, and A. Barzdis for assistance during the first iterations of abundance analysis and valuable discussions. This research has made use of the Simbad database operated at CDS (Strasbourg, France) and the VALD database operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow, and the University of Vienna. The publication charge was paid by the Research Council of Lithuania.

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We are grateful to the referee, Prof. Michael Shull, for his thorough reading and for useful comments and suggestions that have significantly improved the clarity of the paper. E.L. thanks G. Calderone for having modified the code QSFit to handle low-resolution WFC3 spectra and for feedback and suggestions on the fitting procedure. E.L. is supported by a European Union COFUND/Durham Junior Research Fellowship (under EU grant agreement 609412). M.F. acknowledges support by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant ST/P000541/1). This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement 757535). Support for HST Program GO-14127 was provided by NASA through grants from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS526555. M.R. acknowledges support by HST-GO-14127.011 and a NASA Keck PI Data Award, administered by the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory from telescope time allocated to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through the agency’s scientific partnership with the California Institute of Technology and the University of California. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Facilities: HST (WFC3) , Keck:II (ESI). Software: astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), corner (Foreman-Mackey 2016 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ), QSFit (Calderone et al. 2017 ).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge valuable input from M. Aumer, J. Bland-Hawthorn, C. Dobbs, R. Genzel, K. Masters, M. Miville-Deschenes, E. Ostriker, S. Ragan, and D. Soderblom. We also thank the referee for a careful reading of the original manuscript and for numerous suggestions that improved the clarity and organization of the paper. The research of CFM is supported in part by NASA ATP grant NNX13AB84G.

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This work has been partly funded by a PRIN-INAF 2014 grant, the PRIN INAF SKA-CTA grant and a PRIN MIUR 2015. We acknowledge the CINECA award under the ISCRA initiative, for the availability of high-performance computing resources.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for useful comments. R.G. and J.G. are supported by the Israeli Science Foundation under grant No. 719/14 and by the ISF-NSFC joint research program (grant No. 3296/19). We thank Merlin Kole for organizing and the hospitality at the conference Shedding new light on Gamma-Ray Bursts with polarization data in Geneva where part of this work was completed.

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The STEREO /SEPT, Chandra /EPHIN, and SOHO /EPHIN project is supported under grant 50OC1702 by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology on the basis of a decision by the German Bundestag. R.G.H. acknowledges the Spanish MICIU/FEDER/AEI for the financial support under project ESP2017-88436-R. I.G.R. acknowledges support from NASA programs NNH17ZDA001N and NH14ZDA001N-LWS, and from the STEREO mission. F.E. and N.D. acknowledge support from NASA grant NNX17AK25G. Additional support from an Alexander von Humboldt group linkage program is appreciated. We thank the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) for hosting our team on “Solar flare acceleration signatures and their connection to solar energetic particles.” Financial support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) via project GI 1352/1-1 is acknowledged. We thank Dr. R. D. Strauss, Dr. E. Kontar, and Dr. A. Warmuth for helpful discussions.

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We thank the anonymous referee for thoughtful comments and suggestions that improved this paper. We are grateful to D. Koester for sharing his grid of white dwarf atmosphere models. We thank J. J. Hermes for his insightful comments on the appropriate mass ranges for the WD fits. This paper is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. These observations are associated with program #13354 and R.D.M. has been supported by NASA HST-GO-13354.001-A and NSF AST- 1714506. E.M.L. is funded by a National Science Foundation Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellowship under award No. AST-1801937. Facility: HST (COS). Software: MESA (Paxton et al. 2015 ), numpy (van der Walt et al. 2011 ), astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ; Price-Whelan et al. 2018 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ), seaborn (Waskom et al. 2018 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ), ipython (Pérez Granger 2007 ).

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We would like to thank Mélanie Habouzit, Yohan Dubois, Joseph Silk, Gary Mamon, Stéphane Colombi, Rebekka Bieri, Andrea Negri, Mitch Begelman, Bhaskar Agarwal, Britton Smith, Mei Sasaki, and Paul Clark for valuable discussions and helpful contributions. We also thank the referee for insightful comments. We are very grateful for the free availability of the code music . We acknowledge funding from the European Research Council under the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) via the ERC Grant ‘BLACK’ under the project number 614199 (TH, MAL, MV) and via the ERC Advanced Grant ‘STARLIGHT: Formation of the First Stars’ under the project number 339177 (RSK, SCOG). SCOG and RSK acknowledges support from the DFG via SFB 881, ‘The Milky Way System’ (subprojects B1, B2 and B8) as well as via SPP 1573 ‘Physics of the Interstellar Medium’. The simulations described in this paper were performed at the Jülich Supercomputing Centre.

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We thank an anonymous referee and M. Walmsley for comments that helped to improve this paper. We thank the SOFIA operations and the GREAT instrument teams, whose support has been essential for the GREAT accomplishments, and the DSI telescope engineering team. Based (in part) on observations made with the NASA/DLR Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy. SOFIA Science Mission Operations are conducted jointly by the Universities Space Research Association, Inc., under NASA contract NAS2-97001, and the Deutsches SOFIA Institut, under DLR contract 50 OK 0901. We thank N. Cunningham for providing us with the spectacular image of the region. This work was partly funded by grant ANR-09- BLAN-0231-01 from the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche as part of the SCHISM project. It was also partly supported by the CNRS programme “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire”.

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We acknowledge a helpful report from an anonymous referee. J.B.-P. and L.H. acknowledge UNAM-PAPIIT grant number IN103012. Numerical simulations were performed either at Miztli, a 4096-core cluster at DGTIC-UNAM, or at the University of Michigan HPC center, partially supported by UNAM-PAPIIT grant number IN103012 to J.B.-P. A.K. would like to acknowledge funding by the Rackham Graduate School at the University of Michigan.

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Acknowledgments We thank the Wyoming NASA Space Grant Consortium who funded this work through the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Grant #NNX15AI08H. ADM was partially supported by National Science Foundation grant 1515404.

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The authors thank Paul Kuin for the UVOTPY software used in extracting the UVOT spectra, Rollin Thomas for the SYN++ and SYNAPPS spectra synthesis packages, and Chris Burns for the SNooPy light-curve analysis program. We also thank the George P. and Cynthia Woods Mitchell Institute for Fundamental Physics Astronomy at Texas AM and the Carnegie Supernova Project. M.S. is supported partially by the NASA Swift Guest Investigator grant NNX15AR51G. P.J.B. and the Swift Optical/Ultraviolet Supernova Archive are supported by NASA’s Astrophysics Data Analysis Program through grant NNX13AF35G. We acknowledge the support of the staff of the Li-Jiang 2.4-m telescope (LJT), and Tsinghua-NAOC 80-cm telescope (TNT). Funding for the LJT has been provided by Chinese academy of science (CAS) and the People’s Government of Yunnan Province. The TNT is owned by Tsinghua University and operated by the National Astronomical Observatory of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (NAOC). J.J.Z. is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, grant 11403096). The work of X.F.W. is supported by the Major State Basic Research Development Program (2013CB834903), the NSFC (grants 11073013, 11178003, 11325313), Tsinghua University Initiative Scientific Research Program, and the Strategic Priority Research Program “The Emergence of Cosmological Structures” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. XDB09000000). This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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This work was supported in part by the DeutscheForschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) via SFB 956. It was also partly supported by fruitful discussions with members of the Czech Science Foundation DFG collaboration (No. 13-00070J) and with members of the European Union Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement no 312789; Strong gravity: Probing Strong Gravity by Black Holes Across the Range of Masses.

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We thank the anonymous referee and R. Ulrich for constructive comments. We are grateful to X. Zhao for the spherical harmonic decomposition code, and A. A. Norton and B. McClintock for bringing the DPD catalog to our attention. This work is supported by NASA contract NAS5-02139 (HMI). The HMI data are courtesy of NASA and the SDO /HMI team. The SSN records are courtesy of WDC-SILSO, Royal Observatory of Belgium, Brussels. Facility: SDO

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS RAB was supported by grant #2017/12828-4, So Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP). The work of AS was supported by the Russian Science Foundation under grant no.19-71-10018, carried out at the Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University. EMGDP was partially supported by FAPESP grant #2013/10559-5 and National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) grant 306598/2009-4. The simulations were run at the cluster GAPAE of the group of Plasmas and High-Energy Astrophysics from the Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics and Atmospheric Sciences at the University of So Paulo (IAG-USP) (FAPESP grant #2013/10559-5).

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We gratefully acknowledge the developers of iSALE-2D, including Gareth Collins, Kai Wunnemann, Dirk Elbeshausen, Boris Ivanov and Jay Melosh. Numerical computations were carried out on the PC cluster at Center for Computational Astrophysics, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. We thank the referee, H.J. Melosh for helpful suggestions and comments. S.W. thank Alexander N. Krot for helpful comments and discussions on chondrules and also thank Brandon C. Johnson and Kosuke Kurosawa for kindly comments on simulations. The part of this research was carried out at JPL/Caltech under a contract with NASA. Y.H. is supported by JPL/Caltech.

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This research was partially supported by the Italian Space Agency (ASI) under contracts I/013/12/0 and I/022/10/2 and by the European Commission’s Seventh Framework Program under the grant agreement STORM (project n° 313038). Data from Wind and Messenger were obtained from NASA-CDAWeb and NASA-PDS websites, respectively.

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We acknowledge the financial support of the UnivEarthS Labex program at Sorbonne-Paris-Cité (ANR-10-LABX-0023 and ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02) through project SolarGeoMag. We also acknowledge the support from the ERC PoC SolarPredict project, CNES Solar Orbiter and INSU/PNST grants, and Idex SPC through the DAMSE project. We are grateful to Roger Ulrich for giving us digital access to his surface meridional circulation measurements. We also thank SIDC for access to their sunspot series observations. Wilcox Solar Observatory data used in this study were obtained via the Web site http://wso.stanford.edu on 2017 September 29 03:15:25 PDT, courtesy of J.T. Hoeksema. A.S.B. thanks M. DeRosa and A. Title for useful discussions. Numerical computations were performed on the S-CAPAD platform, IPGP, France and on the DIM-ACAV funded Anais server at CEA/IRFU. IPGP contribution 3889.

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We thank the anonymous referee for useful comments. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Support for this work was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra Award Number GO5-16133X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. R.J.W. is supported by a Clay Fellowship awarded by the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. W.R.F., C.J., and F.A.-S. acknowledge support from the Smithsonian Institution. F.A.-S. acknowledges support from Chandra grant GO3-14131X. Basic research in radio astronomy at NRL by TEC is supported by 6.1 Base funding. M.N. acknowledges PRIN-INAF 2014 1.05.01.94.02. This research made use of APLpy, an open-source plotting package for Python (Robitaille Bressert 2012 ). This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ).

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Cs. K. has been supported by the PECS grant # 4000109997/13/NL/KML of the HSO ESA, the K-104607 grant of the Hungarian Research Fund (OTKA), and the LP2012-31 “Lendület” grant of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. We are indebted to our referee for the useful comments.

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Acknowledgements This study is based on observations with XMMNewton , an ESA Science Mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member states and the USA (NASA), and with Swift , a NASA mission with international participation. We would like to thank the anonymous referee for the useful comments and suggestions that helped improve the manuscript. The XMMNewton project is supported by the Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt (BMWi/DLR, FKZ 50 OX 0001) and the Max-Planck Society. The OGLE project has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Communitys Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement no. 246678 to AU. We thank the Swift team for accepting and carefully scheduling the target of opportunity observations, and we acknowledge the use of public data from the Swift data archive. GV acknowledges support from the BMWi/DLR grant FKZ 50 OR 1208. PM acknowledges support by the Centre National dtudes Spatiales (CNES). Last but not least, we wish to thank Dr. M. Petropoulou and Dr. F. Koliopanos for their useful comments.

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Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Julian Krolik, Joe Silk, Meng Su and Ilias Cholis for useful discussions. We especially thank Glennys Farrar for valuable detailed comments on an earlier draft. This work was supported by NSF Grant No. 0244990, NASA NNX15AB18G, the John Templeton Foundation and the Simons Foundation.

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Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Italian Ministry of Education, University, and Research through the PREMIALEWOW 2013 research project under grant Ricerca di pianeti intorno a stelle di piccola massa. J.M. acknowledges support from the Ariel ASI-INAF agreement N. 2015-038-R.0. E.V. and C.E. acknowledge support from the On the rocks project funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad under grant AYA2014-55840-P. We sincerely appreciate the careful reading of the manuscript and the constructive comments of the anonymous referee.

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We thank Chris Belczynski for providing tabulated data to map between ZAMS stellar masses and final compact remnant masses, and Tod Lauer for assistance in interpreting the Nuker data sets. We thank Iair Arcavi and Suvi Gezari for providing useful data on the peak luminosities of observed TDEs. We thank Brad Cenko, Jacqueline van Gorkum, Morgan MacLeod, Jeremiah Ostriker, Greg Snyder, Linda Strubbe, and Sjoert van Velzen for helpful conversations. Finally, we also thank the anonymous referee for many useful suggestions. BDM gratefully acknowledges support from the NSF grant AST-1410950 and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHYS-1066293 and the hospitality of the Aspen Center for Physics.

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I am grateful to the anonymous referee for the helpful comments that allowed me to improve the paper.


We acknowledge A.J. Koning for development of the nuclear reaction code TALYS, his help in using the code, and his willingness to answer questions concerning nuclear physics. This work was supported by NASA grant NNH13AV36I and the Chief of Naval Research (CNR). B.K. acknowledges the Israeli Science Foundation for support. G.S. was supported by NSF/SHINE grant 1156092.

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Support for this work was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra Award Number G04-15114X to S.M. issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. Support for the HST program number GO-13185 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. K.D.D. was supported by an NSF AAPF fellowship awarded under NSF grant AST-1302093 while she worked on this project. M.V. gratefully acknowledges support from the Danish Council for Independent Research via grant number DFF 4002-00275.

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We warmly thank Simon Goodwin, this papers referee, for his enlightened and useful comments that have helped to improve the content and presentation of this work. Likewise, we also wish to thank Richard Parker for his reading of the draft and the discussion held concerning specific points of the paper. We acknowledge support from the Spanish Ministry for Economy and Competitiveness and FEDER funds through grant AYA2013-40611-P.

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We thank Jeremiah P. Ostriker, Gurtina Besla, and Benedikt Diemer for useful comments and discussions. SG acknowledges support provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51341.001-A awarded by the STScI, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. VS acknowledges support through the European Research Council through ERC-StG grant EXAGAL-308037. LH acknowledges support from NSF grant AST-1312095 and NASA grant NNX12AC67G. Simulations were run on the Harvard Odyssey and CfA/ITC clusters, the Ranger and Stampede supercomputers at the Texas Advanced Computing Center as part of XSEDE, the Kraken supercomputer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory as part of XSEDE, the CURIE supercomputer at CEA/France as part of PRACE project RA0844, and the SuperMUC computer at the Leibniz Computing Centre, Germany, as part of project pr85je.

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We thank Kassandra Anderson for useful discussions and Cristóbal Petrovich for comments on the manuscript. We also thank the referee Smadar Naoz for a constructive report. This work has been supported in part by NSF grant AST-1211061, and NASA grants NNX14AG94G and NNX14AP31G.

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This research has made use of the Exoplanet Orbit Database and the Exoplanet Data Explorer at exoplanets.org . The project has been supported by Swiss National Science Foundation grants 200021-138016, 200020-15710 and 200020-160119. A.A.V. acknowledges support from an Ambizione Fellowship of the Swiss National Science Foundation.

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