We thank the anonymous referee for a prompt and constructive report that has improved the paper. Support for HST program GO-12922 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. D.P. acknowledges support through the EACOA Fellowship from the East Asian Core Observatories Association, which consists of the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Science (NAOC), National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ), Korean Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI), and Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA). Research by A.J.B. is supported in part by National Science Foundation (NSF) grant AST-1412693. JHW acknowledges support by the National Research Foundation of Korea grant funded by the Korean government (No. 2010-0027910 and No. 2016R1A2B3011457). T.T. acknowledges support by the Packard Foundation through a Packard Research Fellowship and by the NSF through grant AST-1412315. V.N.B. gratefully acknowledges assistance from NSF Research at Undergraduate Institutions (RUI) grant AST-1312296. Note that the findings and conclusions do not necessarily represent the views of the NSF. R.J.A. was supported by FONDECYT grant number 1151408. We thank Jonelle L. Walsh for help with the STIS data reduction.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author thanks the observations provided by the Solar Dynamic Observatory , and the referee’s valuable suggestions and comments that highly improved the quality of the paper. This work is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (11773068, 11633008, 11403097, and 11533009), the Yunnan Science Foundation (2015FB191 and 2017FB006), the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories, and the Youth Innovation Promotion Association (2014047) of Chinese Academy of Sciences.

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We thank the referee for their insightful comments that improved the paper quality. We thank Maïca Clavel for useful discussions about the X-ray data analysis. J.S. and I.O. acknowledge financial support from the Czech Science Foundation project No.17-06217Y. I.O. is grateful to Université Grenoble Alpes IPAG for their hospitality during the paper preparation. We have made use of the SDSS, ADS, and NED databases.

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Acknowledgement We wish to thank L. Fletcher for providing us with the data of HD 189733 b. We acknowledge the support of the DFG priority program SPP-1992 “Exploring the Diversity of ExtrasolarPlanets” (DFG PR 3624 602/41 and RE 1664/16-1). This work made use of the GWDG IT infrastructure. The GWDG is a shared corporate facility of the Georg-August-University Göttingen and the nonprofit Max-Planck Society (Max-Planck Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften e. V.). We also acknowledge the use of electronic databases SIMBAD and NASA’s ADS.

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J.Z.G. and R.P.K. acknowledge support by the National Science Foundation under grant AST-1108906 and the hospitality of the Munich University Observatory where part of this work was carried out. B.D. is supported by a fellowship from the Royal Astronomical Society. B.P. is supported in part by the Programme National de Physique Stellaire of the INSU CNRS. S.J.W. and A.Z.B. acknowledge funding by the European Union (European Social Fund) and National Resources under the ARISTEIA action of the Operational Programme Education and Lifelong Learning in Greece.

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Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 60.A-9328 and 091.D-0823. We thank the referee for constructive and pertinent suggestions that helped to improve this paper. N.W., M.C., O.G., D.B., A.G., A.D., and M.M. acknowledge the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) for their support.

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Acknowledgments MAP was funded by the International Research Fellowship programme of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (PE15024). MAP and TMD acknowledge the hospitality of the Kyoto University, where part of this work was carried out. MAP acknowledge the hospitality on her visit to RIKEN, and thanks the valuable discussion with K. Makishima, T. Mihara and the other members of the MAXI team. MAPs research is funded under the Juan de la Cierva Fellowship Programme of the Ministry of Science and Innovation (MINECO) of Spain. MAP and TMD acknowledge support by the Spanish MINECO grant AYA2013-42627. MS acknowledges support by the Special Postdoctoral Researchers Program at RIKEN. This research has made use of data obtained from the Suzaku satellite, a collaborative mission between the space agencies of Japan (JAXA) and the USA (NASA).

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We acknowledge support from the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF); the U.S. Department of Energy Office of High-Energy Physics; the Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program of Los Alamos National Laboratory; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT), México (grants 271051, 232656, 260378, 179588, 239762, 254964, 271737, 258865, 243290, 132197), Laboratorio Nacional HAWC de rayos gamma; L’OREAL Fellowship for Women in Science 2014; Red HAWC, México; DGAPA-UNAM (grants IG100317, IN111315, IN111716-3, IA102715, 109916, IA102917); VIEP-BUAP; PIFI 2012, 2013, PROFOCIE 2014, 2015; the University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation; the Institute of Geophysics, Planetary Physics, and Signatures at Los Alamos National Laboratory; Polish Science Centre grant DEC-2014/13/B/ST9/945; and Coordinación de la Investigación Científica de la Universidad Michoacana. Thanks to Luciano Díaz and Eduardo Murrieta for technical support.

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We are grateful to Dr. Itsuki Sakon, Dr. Chris Packham, Dr. Hiroshi Shibai, Dr. Takao Nakagawa, Dr. Satoshi Okuzumi, and Dr. Inga Kamp for useful comments. We thank the referee for many important suggestions and comments. The numerical calculations in this study were carried out on SR16000 at Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics (YITP) and computer systems at Kwasan and Hida Observatory (KIPS) in Kyoto University. This work is supported by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research, 23103005, 25108004, 25400229, and 16J06887. S.N. is grateful for the support from the educational program organized by Unit of Synergetic Studies for Space, Kyoto University. C.W. acknowledges support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO, program number 639.041.335). Astrophysics at Queen’s University Belfast is supported by a grant from the STFC.

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It is a pleasure to thank Maria Bergemann (MPIA) John Bochanski (Rider), Morgan Fouesneau (MPIA), Ricardo Schiavon (Liverpool John Moores University), Dan Foreman-Mackey (UW), Amelia Stutz (MPIA), and Ben Weiner (Arizona State) for valuable discussions and contributions. This project made use of the NASA Astrophysics Data System and open-source code in the numpy and scipy packages. The research has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP 7) ERC Grant Agreement n. [321035]. We thank the Kavali Institute Theoretical Physics Galactic Archeology Program: this research was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. NSF PHY11-25915. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the participating institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the participating institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration, including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, the University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, the University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, the University of Tokyo, the University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, the University of Virginia, the University of Washington, and Yale University.

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We would like to thank the anonymous referee for instructive comments. This work is partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC 11433004, 11103016, 11173020), the Doctoral Fund of the Ministry of Education of China (RFDP 20115301110005), the Key Project of the Chinese Ministry of Education (212160), the Top Talents Programme of Yunnan Province, the Applied Basic Research Project of Yunnan Province (2011FB012) and the Light of the Western Talent Training Project (W8090303).

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We would like to acknowledge the helpful comments of the anonymous referee, as these greatly helped to improve the manuscript. This work has been supported by NASA EPSCoR grant NNX13AD28A.

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SG thanks the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) for the award of a studentship. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. 308024 .

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The authors thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments and suggestions. The authors also thank Dr. R. Kale for providing the VLA radio data. I.U. thanks H. Martínez-Rodríguez for his support in the initial stage of this work. H.A. acknowledges the support of NWO via Veni grant. T.O. and Y.I. acknowledge support by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers 26220703 and 15H03642. SRON is supported financially by NWO, the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA member states and the USA (NASA).

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I thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that improved the paper. I also thank Feng Chen and Sarah Gibson for reading the paper and for helpful comments. This work is supported in part by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research grant FA9550-15-1-0030 to NCAR. NCAR is sponsored by the National Science Foundation. The numerical simulations were carried out on the Cheyenne supercomputer at NWSC under the NCAR Strategic capability project NHAO0011 and also on the DOD supercomputers Thunder at AFRL and Topaz at ERDC under the project AFOSR4033B701.

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We acknowledge Susan Agrain, Tim Bedding, Karsten Brogaard, Hans Kjeldsen, Daniel Huber, Marc Pionsonneault, and Jie Yu for fruitful discussions and helpful comments. Funding for the Stellar Astrophysics Centre is provided by The Danish National Research Foundation (Grant DNRF106). The research was supported by the ASTERISK project (ASTERoseismic Investigations with SONG and Kepler ) funded by the European Research Council (Grant agreement No. 267864). D.S. acknowledges support from the Australian Research Council. A.V. is supported by the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship, Grant No. DGE 1144152. V.S.A. acknowledges support from VILLUM FONDEN (research grant 10118).

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We thank the US Air Force Research Laboratory, Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR-OS-BLAN-0033-01), Conseil des Programmes Scientifiques et Technologiques (CPST) for their great support. We would also like to thank the Polar Institut Paul Emile Victor (IPEV) for the precious infrastructure and friendly help. M. Chadid is indebted to all the people who participated in the Antarctica expeditions within the PAIX framework.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank J. Granot, H. Hamidani, K. Hotokezaka, K. Kashiyama, T. Kinugawa, S. Kisaka, K. Kyutoku, G. P. Lamb, A. Levinson, T. Matsumoto, T. Piran, G. Ryan, M. Shibata, K. Takahashi, and R. Yamazaki for useful discussions. This work is partly supported by JSPS KAKENHI nos. 18H01215, 17H06357, 17H06362, 17H06131, 26287051 (KI), and 15H02087 (TN). Discussions during the YITP workshop YITP-W-18-11 on ‘Jet and Shock Breakouts in Cosmic Transients’ and the workshop at Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported by National Science Foundation grant PHY-1607611, were also useful to complete this work.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a careful reading of the manuscript and insightful suggestions. We are very grateful to all of the Subaru Telescope staff. We thank Dr. Furusawa for providing the Suprime-Cam number counts we used to check our data. We thank Dr. Hamana for providing his reconstruction code. We thank Dr. Oguri for incisive comments that have led to improvements in the analysis and discussion. We thank Dr. Okabe for sharing computer resources necessary for reduction and analysis. We thank Dr. Barnacka for a careful reading of the manuscript. Y.U. was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B) from the JSPS (26800103) and MEXT Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas New Developments in Astrophysics Through Multi-Messenger Observations of Gravitational Wave Sources (24103003). The Smithsonian Institution supports the research of M.J.G. A Smithsonian Clay Postdoctoral Fellowship generously supports the research of H.J.Z. The Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) collaboration includes the astronomical communities of Japan and Taiwan, and Princeton University. The HSC instrumentation and software were developed by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ), the Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the universe (Kavli IPMU), the University of Tokyo, the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), the Academia Sinica Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics in Taiwan (ASIAA), and Princeton University. Funding was contributed by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), (Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), the Toray Science Foundation, NAOJ, Kavli IPMU, KEK, ASIAA, and Princeton University. We used software developed for the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope. We thank the LSST Project for making their code available as free software at http://dm.lsstcorp.org (Ivezic et al. 2008 ; Axelrod et al. 2010 ). We acknowledge the use of lensfit for shear measurement (Miller et al. 2007 ; Kitching et al. 2008 ). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this sacred mountain. Facilities: Subaru (HSC) , MMT (Hectospec).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Instrument O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O B-Organization B-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Person O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O B-Person O B-Instrument I-Instrument B-Instrument O O O O O O B-Location O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Observatory O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Observatory B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O B-URL B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O B-Software O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O O B-URL O B-Survey O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O O O B-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Instrument O B-Telescope B-Instrument


This presented work is funded through the DFG grant: WO 857/10-1. Special thanks go to Yaroslav Pavlyuchenkov for his comments and advice, which were very helpful in the early development phase of Mol3D . We also want to acknowledge Peter Scicluna and Tommy Breslein for language editing and Jan Philipp Ruge for the helpful advice, especially regarding the use of the CASA simulator.

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Support for this work was provided by the French space agency CNES. M.P. acknowledges funding from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 664931. Support for this work was also provided by NASA ( Herschel OT funding) through an award issued by JPL/Caltech. This paper makes use of Herschel /HIFI data. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. HIFI has been designed and built by a consortium of institutes and university departments from across Europe, Canada, and the United States under the leadership of SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Groningen, The Netherlands and with major contributions from Germany, France, and the U.S. Consortium members are: Canada: CSA, U. Waterloo; France: CESR, LAB, LERMA, IRAM; Germany: KOSMA, MPIfR, MPS; Ireland: NUI Maynooth; Italy: ASI, IFSI-INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri-INAF; Netherlands: SRON, TUD; Poland: CAMK, CBK; Spain: Observatorio Astronómico Nacional (IGN), Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA); Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology-MC2, RSS and GARD, Onsala Space Observatory, Swedish National Space Board, Stockholm Observatory; Switzerland: ETH Zurich, FHNW; USA: Caltech, JPL, NHSC. Finally, we thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments and suggestions.

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The authors thank the members of the Oxford Galactic Dynamics group for insightful comments on the manuscript. JS acknowledges the support of the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). JB was supported by STFC by grants R22138/GA001 and ST/K00106X/1. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC grant agreement no. 321067. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.

O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O O B-URL O B-Survey O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous reviewer for their careful reading of this work and for their thoughtful comments and suggestions. NPJ is supported by an Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarship-Doctoral from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. NPJ and JB received support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC; funding reference number RGPIN-2015-05235) and from an Ontario Early Researcher Award (ER16-12-061). Funding for Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS III web site is www.sdss3.org . Funding for the SDSS IV has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. SDSS-IV acknowledges support and resources from the Center for High-Performance Computing at the University of Utah. The SDSS web site is www.sdss.org .

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The main production runs was done on the MILKYWAY supercomputer, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) through the Collaborative Research Centre (SFB 881) ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject Z2), hosted and cofunded by the Jülich Supercomputing Center (JSC). The special GPU accelerated supercomputer LAOHU at the Center of Information and Computing at National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, funded by Ministry of Finance of People's Republic of China under the grant ZDYZ2008-2, has been used for some of code development. We also used a smaller GPU cluster KEPLER , funded under the grants I/80 041-043 and I/81 396 of the Volkswagen Foundation and grants 823.219-439/30 and /36 of the Ministry of Science, Research and the Arts of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. This work was supported by the Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject A6) of the German Research Foundation (DFG), and by the Volkswagen Foundation under the Trilateral Partnerships grant no. 90411 . The authors wish to thank G. Bertin, J. Sellwood, I. G. Shukhman, J. Wicker for reading the paper and suggesting improvements to the text, and anonymous referee for valuable remarks and assistance. EVP acknowledges financial support by the Russian Basic Research Foundation, grants 15-52-12387, 16-02-00649, and by the Basic Research Program OFN-15 ‘The active processes in galactic and extragalactic objects’ of Department of Physical Sciences of RAS. PB acknowledges the special support by the NASU under the Main Astronomical Observatory grid/ GPU GOLOWOOD computing cluster project.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee, Matthew Benacquista, for his useful comments. We also thank Emanuele Ripamonti, Alessandro Bressan, Elena D’Onghia, and Gijs Nelemans for useful discussions. We warmly thank The Illustris team for making their simulations publicly available. Numerical calculations have been performed through a CINECA-INFN agreement and through a CINECA-INAF agreement, providing access to resources on GALILEO and MARCONI at CINECA. MM acknowledges financial support from the MERAC Foundation through grant ‘The physics of gas and protoplanetary discs in the Galactic centre’, from INAF through PRIN-SKA ‘Opening a new era in pulsars and compact objects science with MeerKat’, from MIUR through Progetto Premiale ’FIGARO’ (Fostering Italian Leadership in the Field of Gravitational Wave Astrophysics) and ’MITiC’ (MIning The Cosmos Big Data and Innovative Italian Technology for Frontier Astrophysics and Cosmology), and from the Austrian National Science Foundation through FWF stand-alone grant P31154-N27 ‘Unraveling merging neutron stars and black hole – neutron star binaries with population-synthesis simulations’. NG acknowledges financial support from Fondazione Ing. Aldo Gini and thanks the Institute for Astrophysics and Particle Physics of the University of Innsbruck for hosting him during the preparation of this paper. This work benefited from support by the International Space Science Institute (ISSI), Bern, Switzerland, through its International Team programme ref. no. 393 The Evolution of Rich Stellar Populations BH Binaries (2017-18).

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This work is based on observations collected at the European Southern Observatory, Chile, and the Gran Telescopio de Canarias (GTC), installed in the Spanish Observatory del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, in the island of La Palma. LTSC is supported by the FPI Program by the Ministerio de Economía y Competividad (MINECO) under grant AYA2011-22614. LTSC would like to thank Luis Peralta de Arriba for comments that helped to improve the presentation of the results. JG-R acknowledges support from Severo Ochoa excellence program (SEV-2011-0187) post-doctoral fellowship.

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P.S. is a Covington Fellow at DRAO. S.B. and S.C. acknowledge support from NASA Chandra grants GO7-18059A and GO7-18059B issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060. J.W.T.H. acknowledges funding from an NWO Vidi fellowship. J.W.T.H. and C.G.B. acknowledge support from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement nr. 337062 (DRAGNET; PI Hessels). L.G.S. gratefully acknowledges support from the ERC Starting Grant BEACON under contract no. 279702 and the Max Planck Society. V.M.K. holds the Lorne Trottier and a Canada Research Chair and receives support from an NSERC Discovery Grant and Herzberg Prize, from an R. Howard Webster Foundation Fellowship from the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR), and from the FRQNT Centre de Recherche en Astrophysique du Quebec. C.J.L. is supported by the NSF under grant No. 1611606. B.M. acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) under grants AYA2016-76012-C3-1-P and MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia “María de Maeztu”). The Green Bank Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. The Arecibo Observatory is operated by SRI International under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation (AST-1100968), and in alliance with Ana G. Méndez-Universidad Metropolitana, and the Universities Space Research Association. Based on observations with the 100 m telescope of the MPIfR (Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie) at Effelsberg. Based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. This research has made use of data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive, and software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application package CIAO. Facilities: GBT (GUPPI) , Arecibo (PUPPI) , Effelsberg (PFFTS) , XMM (EPIC/pn , EPIC/MOS) , CXO (ACIS-I) , Fermi (GBM). Software: PRESTO, XMM SAS v16.0, HEASoft v6.19, CIAO v4.8.2.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS M-KL is supported by the Theoretical Institute for Advanced Research in Astrophysics (TIARA) based in the Academia Sinica Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA) and the Ministry of Science and Education (MOST) grant 107-2112-M001-043-MY3. Computer time for this study was provided by the computing facilities MCIA (Mésocentre de Calcul Intensif Aquitain) of the Universite de Bordeaux and by HPC resources of Cines under the allocation A0050406957 made by GENCI (Grand Equipement National de Calcul Intensif).

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Acknowledgments We would like to thank Dmitriy Blinov, Vasiliki Pavlidou and Aris Tritsis for fruitful discussions as well as Vassilis Charmandaris, Paul Goldsmith, Nick Kylafis and Josh Peek for their helpful comments on the paper. We are grateful to the anonymous reviewer for a detailed report that greatly improved this work. Also, we thank Monica He for her contribution during the first steps of this work and Damianos Mylonakis for helping out with technical issues. We used the python module corner (Foreman-Mackey 2016 ) to produce Fig. 5 . This research has made use of astropy , a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ). GVP and KT acknowledge support by FP7 through the Marie Curie Career Integration Grant PCIG-GA-2011-293531 SFOnset and partial support from the EU FP7 Grant PIRSES-GA-2012-31578 EuroCal. JJA acknowledges funding from the European Research Council under the European Unions Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. 617001. This research has used data from the Herschel Gould Belt Survey (HGBS) project ( http://gouldbelt-herschel.cea.fr ). The HGBS is a Herschel Key Programme jointly carried out by SPIRE Specialist Astronomy Group 3 (SAG 3), scientists of several institutes in the PACS Consortium (CEA Saclay, INAF-IFSI Rome and INAF-Arcetri, KU Leuven, MPIA Heidelberg) and scientists of the Herschel Science Center (HSC).

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We thank Ora Zackay, Zeljko Ivesic, Robert Lupton, and Assaf Horesh for many discussions. This paper is based on observations obtained with the Samuel Oschin Telescope as part of the Palomar Transient Factory project, a scientific collaboration between the California Institute of Technology, Columbia University, Las Cumbres Observatory, the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, the University of Oxford, and the Weizmann Institute of Science. B.Z. is grateful for receiving the Clore fellowship. E.O.O. is incumbent of the Arye Dissentshik career development chair and is grateful for support by grants from the Willner Family Leadership Institute Ilan Gluzman (Secaucus NJ), Israel Science Foundation, Minerva, Weizmann-UK, and the I-Core program by the Israeli Committee for Planning and Budgeting and the Israel Science Foundation (ISF). A.G. acknowledges support from the I-Core program “The Quantum universe,” as well as from the Kimmel Award.

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Acknowledgements We would like the thank the anonymous referee for their constructive report on this manuscript. We would also like to thank Christoph Federrath, Tiago Costa and Noam Soker for helpful comments and suggestions. MAB and DS acknowledge support by the ERC starting grant 638707 ‘BHs and their host galaxies: co-evolution across cosmic time’. DS further acknowledges support from the STFC. This research used the DiRAC Darwin Supercomputer hosted by the University of Cambridge High Performance Computing Service ( http://www.hpc.cam.ac.uk/ ), provided by Dell Inc. using Strategic Research Infrastructure Funding from the Higher Education Funding Council for England and funding from the Science and Technology Facilities Council; the COSMA Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility. This equipment was funded by a BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/K00087X/1, DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. The DiRAC Complexity system, operated by the University of Leicester IT Services, which forms part of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment is funded by BIS National E-Infrastructure capital grant ST/K000373/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K0003259/1. DiRAC is part of the UK National E-Infrastructure.

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We thank the anonymous referee for fruitful comments. We also thank Evgenii Polyachenko for reading the manuscript and several helpful comments. The numerical simulations were performed at the Research Computing Centre (Moscow State University) and Joint Supercomputer Centre (Russian Academy of Sciences). The numerical simulation, carried out at the Research Computing Centre of Lomonosov Moscow State University, was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant no. 14-22-00041. One of the authors (SAK) was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship sponsored by the Italian MIUR. The work was also partially supported by the President RF grant (MK-4536.2015.2) and RFBR grants (15-02-06204 and 15-32-21062).

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We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the large team of HPOL and WUPPE observers from the University of Wisconsin who helped to acquire and reduce these data. The relocation and refurbishment of HPOL was supported in part by a Small Research Grant from the American Astronomical Society and by funding from the Dunham Fund for Astrophysical Research. Observations with HPOL at Ritter Observatory have been supported by NSF grant no. AST-1412135 (KSB/JEB), the Helen Luedtke Brooks Endowed Professorship (KSB), and the Scott Smith Fund for Research at Ritter Observatory. We thank the Ritter observing team for help with acquiring observations. We also thank G. Peters and A.M. Magalhães for helpful discussions in the early stages of this project. ACC acknowledges support from CNPq (grant no. 307594/2015-7) and FAPESP (grant no. 2015/17967-7). This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract no. NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant no. NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts.

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This work was supported by grant No. 16-18495S of the Czech Funding Agency and by ASI ASCR project RVO:67985815. The authors also acknowledge support by the International Space Science Institute (ISSI), namely through the team of H. Tian, who deal with chromospheric flares. Comments and suggestions of the referee are also highly acknowledged.

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Based in part on observations made with the NASA/DLR Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy. SOFIA Science Mission Operations are conducted jointly by the Universities Space Research Association, Inc., under NASA contract NAS2-97001, and the Deutsches SOFIA Institut under DLR contract 50 OK 0901. We GREATfully acknowledge the support by the observatory staff and the careful examination of this work by an anonymous referee. The kinetic data used in our study were downloaded from the online database KIDA ( http://kida.obs.u-bordeaux1.fr ).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Financial support was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. Paul Hickson thanks the National Astronomial Observatories, Chinese Acadamy of Sciences for hospitality during a sabbatical visit, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences for support from the President’s International Fellowship Initiative, 2017VMA0013.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the MINECO Ramón y Cajal programme RYC-2016-20254, by the MINECO grant AYA2017-86274-P, by the AGAUR (SGR-661/2017), by the Netherlands Research Council NWO (grant VENI [nr. 639.041.645]), by the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007–2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. 320964 (WDTracer), by Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme no. 677706 (WD3D), and by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant #HST-HF2-51357.001-A, awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Based on observations obtained at the SOAR telescope, which is a joint project of the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, e Inovação da República Federativa do Brasil, the U.S. National Optical Astronomy Observatory, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and Michigan State University.

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Thanks go to Eric Jensen and an anonymous referee for helpful comments that greatly improved this paper. The author acknowledges support from NASA ATP grant NNX12AD43G.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a careful consideration of the manuscript and helpful comments. We thank V.S. Titov for insightful discussions. The calculations presented in this work were performed on the quadri-core bi-Xeon computers of the Cluster of the Division Informatique de l’Observatoire de Paris. K.D. acknowledges funding from the Computational and Information Systems Laboratory and from the High Altitude Observatory, as well as support from the Air Force Office of Scientific Research under award FA9550-15-1-0030. The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation. T.T. was supported by the NSF through grant AGS-1348577 and by NASA's LWS program. B.K. acknowledges support by the DFG.

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We thank Rudy Gilmore for discussions. PMS acknowledges support from NSF grant NSF AST 09-08693 ARRA. This work made in the ILP LABEX (under reference ANR-10-LABX-63) was supported by French state funds managed by the ANR within the Investissements d'Avenir programme under reference ANR-11-IDEX-0004-02. JRP acknowledges support from NSF-AST-1010033. AD acknowledges the support of the Spanish MICINN's Consolider-Ingenio 2010 Programme under grant MultiDark CSD2009-00064.

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Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for the helpful comments. With the support of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Directorate General for the Country Promotion (Bilateral Grant Agreement ZA14GR02 Mapping the Universe on the Pathway to Square Kilometre Array). AMB and ACS acknowledge support by Sonderforschungsbereich (SFB) 881 The Milky Way System (subproject A7 and A8) of the German Research Foundation (DFG).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The figures in this work are produced with plotting routines from matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ) and ChainConsumer (Hinton 2016 ). Some of the results in this paper have been derived using the healpy and HEALPix package (Zonca et al. 2019 ). The authors thank D. H. Weinberg and C. Chuang for useful conversations in the course of preparing this work. AC acknowledges support from NASA grant 15-WFIRST15-0008. During the preparation of this paper, CH was supported by the Simons Foundation, NASA, and the U.S. Department of Energy. Funding for the DES projects has been provided by the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. National Science Foundation, the Ministry of Science and Education of Spain, the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Kavli Institute of Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago, the Center for Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Mitchell Institute for Fundamental Physics and Astronomy at Texas AM University, Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos, Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico and the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, and the Collaborating Institutions in the Dark Energy Survey. The Collaborating Institutions are Argonne National Laboratory, the University of California at Santa Cruz, the University of Cambridge, Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas-Madrid, the University of Chicago, University College London, the DES-Brazil Consortium, the University of Edinburgh, the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zürich, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Institut de Ciències de l’Espai (IEEC/CSIC), the Institut de Física d’Altes Energies, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München and the associated Excellence Cluster Universe, the University of Michigan, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, the University of Nottingham, The Ohio State University, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Portsmouth, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford University, the University of Sussex, Texas AM University, and the OzDES Membership Consortium. Based in part on observations at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory, National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The DES data management system is supported by the National Science Foundation under grant numbers AST-1138766 and AST-1536171. The DES participants from Spanish institutions are partially supported by MINECO under grants AYA2015-71825, ESP2015-66861, FPA2015-68048, SEV-2016-0588, SEV-2016-0597, and MDM-2015-0509, some of which include ERDF funds from the European Union. IFAE is partially funded by the CERCA program of the Generalitat de Catalunya. Research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013), including ERC grant agreements 240672, 291329, and 306478. We acknowledge support from the Brazilian Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia (INCT) e-Universe (CNPq grant 465376/2014-2). This manuscript has been authored by Fermi Research Alliance, LLC under contract no. DE-AC02-07CH11359 with the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of High Energy Physics. The United States Government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the United States Government retains a non-exclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, world-wide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this manuscript, or allow others to do so, for United States Government purposes. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. This work used resources at the Owens Cluster at the Ohio Supercomputer Center (Ohio Supercomputer Center 1987 ).

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We gratefully acknowledge the provision of the LOFAR radio data in electronic form by Jose Sabater Montes. MK thanks Jim Dale for comments on parts of the manuscript. We thank the anonymous referee for a very useful report.

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We thank Alessandro Morbidelli, Steven N. Shore and David Nesvorný for helpful discussions during this project. We are very grateful to Bertram Bitsch who kindly provided his code for calculating the migration maps. We also thank an anonymous referee for valuable comments. The work of O.C. and M.B. has been supported by Charles University in Prague (project GA UK No. 128216; project SVV-260441). The work of M.B. was supported by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic (grant No. 13-01308S). Access to computing and storage facilities owned by parties and projects contributing to the National Grid Infrastructure MetaCentrum, provided under the program “Projects of Large Research, Development, and Innovations Infrastructures” (CESNET LM2015042), is greatly appreciated.

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We thank the referee for several helpful suggestions. We gratefully acknowledge Renbin Yan and Jeff Newman for their assistance with spectroscopic throughput corrections. T.A.J. acknowledges support from the Southern California Center for Galaxy Evolution through a CGE Fellowship. C.L.M. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under AST-1109288. Funding for the DEEP2 Galaxy Redshift Survey has been provided by NSF grants AST-95-09298, AST-0071048, AST-0507428, and AST-0507483, as well as NASA LTSA grant NNG04GC89G. Spectroscopic data in DEEP2 were obtained with the DEIMOS spectrograph at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeornautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation.

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We wish to acknowledge the assistance of Dr Poonam Chandra in supplying radio afterglow data. DC is supported by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT100100345). We thank the reviewer for providing suggestions that have improved the clarity of our results.

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The Australia Telescope Compact Array is part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. We thank Matteo Murgia (INAF-Cagliari), who made available to us his fitting programme SYNAGE.

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Acknowledgments This manuscript was begun while the author was a visitor at the Center for Space and Habitability at the University of Bern, Switzerland. The author thanks Ray Pierrehumbert for a stimulating conversation that eventually sparked this work and Daniel Kitzmann for a discussion of hazes.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a helpful report. ADB wishes to acknowledge partial support from grants NSF-AST 0955836 and 1412419. MR wishes to acknowledge support from CONICYT(CHILE) through FONDECYT grant no. 1140839 and partial support through project BASAL PFB-06. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.

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The RXTE /PCA data were obtained from the RXTE Guest Observer Facility (GOF) at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Centre (GSFC). This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. D.L. thanks the referee for suggestions that led to improvements in this work.

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Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments that improved the manuscript. We thank the teams of Fermi and GOES for their open data-use policy. This study is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under grants 11603077, 11573072, 11333009, 973 programme (2014CB744200) and Laboratory No. 2010DP173032. DL is supported by the Youth Fund of Jiangsu No. BK20161095. QMZ is supported by the Surface Project of Jiangsu No. BK20161618 and the Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS. The authors wish to thank the International Space Science Institute in Beijing (ISSI-BJ) for supporting and hosting the meetings of the International Team on ‘Magnetohydrodynamic Seismology of the Solar Corona in the Era of SDO/AIA', during which discussions leading to this publication were held.

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