We thank the collaboration of Richard Saxton to the correction of the pile-up in the EPIC-pn camera, and fruitful conversations with Jordi José. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. G.S. acknowledges support from the Faculty of the European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC) and the Max-Planck-Institut für extraterrestrische Physik (MPE). We acknowledge the support of the Spanish MINECO grants AYA2014-59084-P (G.S.) and ESP2015-66134-R (M.H.), and the Generalitat de Catalunya grants SGR0038/2014 (G.S.) and SGR 1458/2014 (M.H.).

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I am grateful to Dr. Ralf Klessen for discussions at an early stage of this research and to the referee for a careful reading of the manuscript.

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Comments from the anonymous referee helped to sharpen the presentation of our results. H.Y. thanks Jonah Miller for discussion of the numerical implementation of wave equations. This research was supported in part by NSERC and in part by the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. Research at Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through the Department of Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Research Innovation, and Science.

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We would like to thank M. McCarthy, A. Vanderburg, and B. Montet for productive discussion and helpful comments on the manuscript. We also thank two anonymous referees for providing comments that greatly improved the quality of the manuscript. RAL gratefully acknowledges support from a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. CNS wishes to thank the National Science Foundation for supporting the Astrochemistry programme at the University of Virginia. BAM and PBC are grateful to G. A. Blake for his support. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.

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We thank Martin White, Vinu Vikram, and Adam Lidz for useful discussions. We thank Carlos Hernández-Monteagudo for useful comments on an early version of our paper. AdG was supported by the Edinburgh School of Physics and Astronomy Career Development Summer Scholarship and the RSE Cormack Vacation Research Scholarship. YC, JAP, and CH were supported by the European Research Council under grant numbers 670193 (YC; JAP) and 647112 (CH). We thank the Planck collaboration for making the full-sky y -map and κ -map publicly available and the SDSS collaboration for making public the CMASS galaxy catalogue. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has benefitted significantly from the leading contributions to our field over many years of three sadly departed colleagues: Neil Gehrels, Javier Gorosabel, and Peter Curran . The authors acknowledge useful discussions with Avi Loeb, Andrew Pontzen, Martin Haehnelt, and Alex de Koter. Partly based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 280.D-5059, 081.A-0856, 082.A-0301, 083.A-0644, 091.A-0442, 100.D-0649, and 102.D-0662. Partly based on observations made with the Nordic Optical Telescope, operated by the Nordic Optical Telescope Scientific Association at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain, of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, under programs 31-014, 32-010, 39-023, 48-005, and 51-504. Partly based on observations made with the Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC), installed in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofśica de Canarias, in the island of La Palma, Spain. Partly based on observations made with the Italian Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG) operated on the island of La Palma by the Fundación Galileo Galilei of the INAF (Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica) at the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, under programs A26TAC_63 and A32TAC_5. The WHT and its override programme (for 090715B: programme W09AN001, P.I. Curran; for 161017A: programme W/2017A/23, P.I. Levan) are operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. We thank A. Kamble, R. Starling, and P. Curran for their help with the 090715B observations, and Marie Hrudkova for executing the 161017A observations. Partly based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil). Partially based on data from the Grand Telescopio Canarias (GTC) Public Archive at the Centro de Astrobiología (CAB), under the Spanish Research Council (CSIC) and the National Institute of Technical Aerospace (INTA). This work made use of the GRBspec data base http://grbspec.iaa.es . JJ acknowledges support from Nederlandse Onderzoekschool Voor Astronomie (NOVA) and The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) - The São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) grant for advanced instrumentation in astronomy. KEH acknowledges support by a Project Grant (162948–051) from The Icelandic Research Fund. DAK acknowledges support from the Spanish research project AYA 2014-58381-P and Juan de la Cierva Incorporación IJCI-2015-26153. AJL and ERS acknowledge Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) consolidated grant ST/L000733/1. NRT and KW acknowledge Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) consolidated grant ST/N000757/1. AC acknowledges National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) grant NNX15AP95A. AdUP acknowledges support from a Ramón y Cajal fellowship (RyC-2012-09975), a 2016 Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria (BBVA) Foundation Grant for Researchers and Cultural Creators, and from the Spanish research project AYA 2014-58381-P. RC acknowledges partial support from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Swift grant NNX16AB04G. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen’s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey-III (SDSS-III) web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 725246).

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We sincerely thank the referee for valuable comments and suggestions that improved the paper significantly. The research work at the Physical Research Laboratory is funded by the Department of Space, Government of India. The authors would like to thank all the members of the Suzaku team for their contributions to the instrument preparation, spacecraft operation, software development and in-orbit instrumental calibration. This research has made use of data obtained through the HEASARC Online Service, provided by NASA/GSFC, in support of NASA High Energy Astrophysics Programmes.

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We are grateful to S. Okuzumi and S. Arakawa for their fruitful discussion and help. We also appreciate the careful reading and fruitful comments by the anonymous referee. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (15K05266).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank M. Takada, T. Sunayama, and T. Nishimichi for useful discussions. RH is supported by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Research Fellowships for Young Scientists (No. 16J01773) and as a doctoral course student in Division for Interdisciplinary Advanced Research and Education, Tohoku University. DJE is supported by U.S. Department of Energy grant DE-SC0013718 and as a Simons Foundation Investigator.

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AR is indebted to Programa Banco de Santander for a UAB-distinguished postdoctoral research contract. Financial support from MINECO (projects CTQ2015-62635-ERC and CTQ2014-60119-P) and DIUE (project 2014SGR482)are gratefully acknowledged. NB acknowledges the financial support from the Université Joseph Fourier de Grenoble and the Observatoire de Grenoble, CC acknowledges the financial support from the French Space Agency CNES.

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This work is based on observations made at the Apache Point Observatory, operated by New Mexico State University. The scientific results reported in this article are based on observations made with the Chandra X-ray Observatory. Support for this work was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra Award Number GO3-14112X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. This research has made use of software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application packages CIAO and ChIPS. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) and the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive (IRSA), which are operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA), and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). Data for this paper are provided in a presistent repository Chandra ObsId 14988. Facilities: ARC , CXO , VLBA .

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This work was made possible by the efforts of Gerard Lemson and colleagues at the German Astronomical Virtual Observatory in setting up the Millennium Simulation database in Garching. We acknowledge useful discussions with participants of the Shanghai Assembly Bias workshop in the final stages of this work. We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that improved the presentation of the paper. I.Z., S.C., E.J., and N.P. acknowledge the hospitality of the ICC at Durham University. I.Z. and S.E.K. acknowledge support by NSF grant AST-1612085. S.C. is supported by a Juan de la Cierva Formacion Fellowship (FJCI-2017-33816). E.J. acknowledges support from “Centro de Astronomía y Tecnologías Afines” BASAL 170002. N.P. acknowledges support from Fondecyt Regular 1191813. This project received financial support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement number 734374.

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The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for constructive comments and suggestions that have improved this paper. Ch.H. and C.R.S. are grateful for the financial support of the European Community under the FP7 by an ERC starting grant number 257431. D.A.D. is grateful for funding from the UK Science and Technology Funding Council via grant number ST/I001808/1. It is a pleasure to acknowledge stimulating discussions with Drs H. E. Potts and P. B. Rimmer. Further to this, the authors would like to thank D. Juncher for discussions regarding dust opacity. The authors would like to acknowledge our local IT support.

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This work has made use of data obtained at the TNO on Doi Inthanon, operated by NARIT, and the PROMPT-8 telescope, operated by the Skynet Robotic Telescope Network. SA gratefully acknowledges the support from the Thai Government Scholarship and the University of Manchester President's Doctoral Scholar Award. VSD acknowledges the support of the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) and the Leverhulme Trust for ULTRASPEC operations. TRM acknowledges the support of STFC through grant ST/L0007333.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Omer Bromberg, Pawan Kumar, and Dimitrios Giannios for helpful discussions.

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Neil Gehrels sadly died during the late stage of the production of this paper. As Swift PI he was an enthusiastic supporter of multi-messenger observations; he will be sorely missed. The IceCube Collaboration acknowledges the support from the following agencies: US National Science Foundation-Office of Polar Programs, US National Science Foundation-Physics Division, University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation, the Grid Laboratory of Wisconsin (GLOW) grid infrastructure at the University of Wisconsin – Madison, the Open Science Grid (OSG) grid infrastructure; US Department of Energy, and National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, the Louisiana Optical Network Initiative (LONI) grid computing resources; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, WestGrid and Compute/Calcul Canada; Swedish Research Council, Swedish Polar Research Secretariat, Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing (SNIC), and Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden; German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP), Research Department of Plasmas with Complex Interactions (Bochum), Germany; Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS-FWO), FWO Odysseus programme, Flanders Institute to encourage scientific and technological research in industry (IWT), Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (Belspo); University of Oxford, United Kingdom; Marsden Fund, New Zealand; Australian Research Council; Japan Society for Promotion of Science (JSPS); the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), Switzerland; National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF); Villum Fonden, Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF), Denmark This work made use of data supplied by the UK Swift Science Data Centre at the University of Leicester. Funding for the Swift project in the UK is provided by the UK Space Agency. Part of this work was facilitated by the GROWTH project, a partnership in international research and education, NSF PIRE Grant No. 1545949. ASAS-SN is supported by NSF grant AST-1515927. Development of ASAS-SN has been supported by NSF grant AST-0908816, the Center for Cosmology and AstroParticle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Mt. Cuba Astronomical Foundation, and by George Skestos. The Fermi LAT Collaboration acknowledges generous ongoing support from a number of agencies and institutes that have supported both the development and the operation of the LAT as well as scientific data analysis. These include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Department of Energy in the United States, the Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules in France, the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana and the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare in Italy, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), high-energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) in Japan, and the K. A. Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council and the Swedish National Space Board in Sweden. Additional support for science analysis during the operations phase is gratefully acknowledged from the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica in Italy and the Centre National d’Études Spatiales in France. The HAWC Collaboration acknowledges the support from: the US National Science Foundation (NSF); the US Department of Energy Office of High-Energy Physics; the Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program of Los Alamos National Laboratory; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT), México (grants 271051, 232656, 260378, 179588, 239762, 254964, 271737, 258865, 243290, 132197), Laboratorio Nacional HAWC de rayos gamma; L’OREAL Fellowship for Women in Science 2014; Red HAWC, México; DGAPA-UNAM (grants IG100317, IN111315, IN111716-3, IA102715, 109916, IA102917); VIEP-BUAP; PIFI 2012, 2013, PROFOCIE 2014, 2015;the University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation; the Institute of Geophysics, Planetary Physics, andSignatures at Los Alamos National Laboratory; Polish Science Centre grant DEC-2014/13/B/ST9/945; Coordinación de la Investigación Científica de la Universidad Michoacana. We thank Luciano Díaz and Eduardo Murrieta for technical support of the HAWC detector. Support for I. Arcavi was provided by NASA through the Einstein Fellowship Program, grant PF6-170148. D. A. Howell, C. McCully, and G. Hosseinzadeh are supported by NSF-1313484. This work makes use of observations from the LCO network. VERITAS research is supported by grants from the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, the U.S. National Science Foundation and the Smithsonian Institution, and by NSERC in Canada. VERITAS acknowledges the excellent work of the technical support staff at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory and at the collaborating institutions in the construction and operation of the instrument. E. O. Ofek and A. Gal-Yam acknowledge a Minerva grant.

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I-Organization B-Organization B-Location B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Organization I-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Instrument I-Instrument O O 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This work was supported by the National Science Foundation, grant AST-1210285. M.R. acknowledges support from CONICYT (Chile) through FONDECYT grant No. 1140839 and partial support through project BASAL PFB-06. We also thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments.

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The authors acknowledge the open policy for the use of NRAOs VLA. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) is operated by Associated Universities Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Kambiz Fathi acknowledges support from the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences’ Crafoord Foundation. Furthermore, the extensive support from the Swedish National Space Board (Rymdstyrelsen) is gratefully acknowledged by Aage Sandqvist. We also acknowledge with gratitude the support from Miller Goss with concatenation of the observations with the VLA in its BnA and DnC configurations.

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This research has made use of the MAXI data provided by RIKEN, JAXA and the MAXI team; Swift /BAT transient monitor results provided by the Swift /BAT team and data from the Fermi /GBM pulsar project. The authors thank Iain Steele for his help. E.L. is grateful for the warm hospitality of the MAXI team and thanks the IPA program in RIKEN for the support.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS JWM dedicates the work in this paper to his father, William McKee. We thank Francis Graham-Smith, Gemma Janssen, Benjamin Shaw, Patrick Weltevrede, and Cristina Ilie for very helpful discussions, and the anonymous referees for useful comments. The authors acknowledge the support of their colleagues at Jodrell Bank Observatory. This work was supported by the UK Science and Technology Research Council, under grant number ST/L000768/1.

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We acknowledge Dr. Angeles Pérez-Villegas for critical reading of the manuscript and useful suggestions. This work was supported by the São Paulo State Science Foundation, FAPESP, and the Brazilian National Research Council, CNPq. R.S.S.V. acknowledges FAPESP grant 2015/10577-9. This work has made use of the facilities of the Laboratory of Astroinformatics (IAG/USP, NAT/Unicsul), whose purchase was made possible by FAPESP (grant 2009/54006-4) and the INCT-A. We acknowledge the anonymous referee for the detailed review and for the helpful suggestions which allowed us to improve the manuscript.

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Acknowledgments We thank Diederik Kruijssen and Henny Lamers for constructive and helpful discussions on cluster mass-loss. We, in particular FN, NB, IP and VK-P, gratefully acknowledge financial support for this project provided by NASA through grant HST-GO-14069 for the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS526555. NB gratefully acknowledges financial support from the Royal Society (University Research Fellowship) and the European Research Council (ERC-CoG-646928-Multi-Pop). We are grateful to Jay Anderson for sharing with us his ePSF software. DG gratefully acknowledges support from the Chilean BASAL Centro de Excelencia en Astrofsica y Tecnologas Afines (CATA) grant PFB-06/2007.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the referee Alessandro Sonnenfeld for the thorough and helpful comments. CEP thanks Leon Doddema, Martin Vogelaar, and Ewout Helmich for help and support. CEP, CT, GV, and LVEK are supported through an NWO-VICI grant (project number 639.043.308). CT also acknowledges funding from the INAF PRIN-SKA 2017 program 1.05.01.88.04. SC has been financially supported by a grant (project number 614.001.206) from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO). GVK acknowledges financial support from the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA) and Target. Target is supported by Samenwerkingsverband Noord Nederland, European fund for regional development, Dutch Ministry of economic affairs, Pieken in de Delta, Provinces of Groningen and Drenthe. NRN acknowledges financial support from the European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 721463 to the SUNDIAL ITN network. This work is supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in the framework of the TR33 ‘The Dark Universe’. MB is supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, NWO, through grant number 614.001.451 and by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education through grant DIR/WK/2018/12. BG acknowledges support from the European Research Council under grant number 647112. JTAdJ is supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) through grant 621.016.402. CH acknowledges support from the European Research Council under grant number 647112. KK acknowledges support by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. CS has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie actions grant agreement No 664931. This work is based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 177.A-3016, 177.A-3017, and 177.A-3018, and on data products produced by Target/OmegaCEN, INAF-OACN, INAF-OAPD, and the KiDS production team, on behalf of the KiDS consortium. OmegaCEN and the KiDS production team acknowledge support by NOVA and NWO-M grants. Members of INAF-OAPD and INAF-OACN also acknowledge the support from the Department of Physics and Astronomy of the University of Padova, and of the Department of Physics of University of Federico II (Naples). GAMA is a joint European–Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The GAMA input catalogue is based on data taken from the SDSS and the UKIDSS. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is being obtained by a number of independent survey programmes including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE, Herschel -ATLAS, GMRT, and ASKAP, providing ultraviolet to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA website is www.gama-survey.org . Funding for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the US Department of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. SDSS acknowledges support and resources from the Center for High-Performance Computing at the University of Utah. The SDSS web site is www.sdss.org . SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU)/University of Tokyo, the Korean Participation Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Leibniz Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), Max-Planck-Institut fur Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut fur Astrophysik (MPA Garching), Max-Planck-Institut fur Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), National Astronomical Observatories of China, New Mexico State University, New York University, University of Notre Dame, Observatorio Nacional/MCTI, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, University of Arizona, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford, University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and Yale University. The topcat (Taylor 2005 ) and stilts (Taylor 2006 ) software have been extensively used in this project. Author Contributions: all authors contributed to the development and writing of this paper. The authorship list is given in three groups: the lead authors (CEP, CT, GV, LVEK, GVK), followed by two alphabetical groups. The first alphabetical group includes those who are key contributors to both the scientific analysis and the data products. The second group covers those who have either made a significant contribution to the data products, or to the scientific analysis.

O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-Person O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant 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B-Observatory O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Proposal I-Proposal B-Proposal O B-Proposal O O O O O O B-Organization B-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization O B-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location B-Survey O O O B-Location O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Dataset I-Dataset I-Dataset O O O O O O O B-Survey O O B-Survey O O O O B-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Survey B-Telescope B-Survey B-Telescope B-Survey B-Telescope B-Telescope B-Survey B-Telescope O B-Telescope O B-Wavelength O B-Wavelength O B-Survey O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location O B-Observatory O O O O O B-Survey O O B-URL O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Survey O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O O B-URL O B-Survey O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Observatory I-Observatory B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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We would like to thank Ruud Visser for providing a detailed and clear referee’s report that helped to improve the paper. We also want to thank Zhaohuan Zhu for providing the burst spectrum of FU Orionis. CH.R. and E.V. acknowledge funding by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): project number I2549-N27. CH.R. and M.G. acknowledge funding by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): project number P24790. M.A. and A.P. acknowledge funding by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF): project number: 200021L_163172. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme FP7-2011 under grant agreement No. 284405. This publication was partly supported from the FFG ASAP 12 project JetPro* (FFG-854025). This publication was supported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF). The computational results presented have been achieved using the Vienna Scientific Cluster (VSC). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. All figures were made with the free Python module Matplotlib ( Hunter 2007 ). This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ).

O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O O O O O B-Model O B-Model O B-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O B-Software O O O B-Software O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O


We are grateful to M. Geller, J. Najita, D. Wilner, and an anonymous referee for comments and helpful discussions. NASA provided essential support for this program through a generous allotment of computer time on the NCCS “discover” cluster and Outer Planets Program grant NNX11AM37G.

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We thank the staff at the JAO and the EU ARC Network who have participated in the EOC and Science Verification activities, observations and data reduction that made the release of the data to the community possible. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2011.0.00018.SV and ADS/JAO.ALMA#2012.1.00453.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada) and NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany) and IGN (Spain). J.C. and A.F. thank the ERC for support under grant ERC-2013-Syg-610256-NANOCOSMOS. They also thank Spanish MINECO for funding support under grants AYA2012-32032, and from the CONSOLIDER Ingenio program “ASTROMOL” CSD 2009-00038. KS acknowledges grant 105-2119-M-001-036 from the Taiwanese Ministry of Science and Technology.

O O O O O O B-Observatory O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory O B-Identifier O B-Identifier B-Observatory O O O O B-Observatory O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O B-Observatory B-Organization O B-Observatory O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Telescope O O O B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location B-Person O B-Person O O B-Organization O O O O B-Grant O O O B-Location B-Organization O O O O O B-Grant O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O B-Grant O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


We thank Lars Bildsten, Jared Brooks, Rob Farmer, Jason Ferguson, Ken Shen, and Frank Timmes for helpful discussions. We thank Marius Dan and Cody Raskin for providing the results of their SPH simulations as part of previous work. We thank Ken'ichi Nomoto, Todd Thompson, and Stan Woosley for useful conversations following the presentation of these results in preliminary form. We thank an anonymous referee for comments that led to improvements in the manuscript. We acknowledge stimulating workshops at Sky House and Palomar Observatory where these ideas germinated. JS is supported by the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Program under grant DGE-1106400 and by NSF grant AST-1205732 . EQ is supported in part by a Simons Investigator award from the Simons Foundation and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. This research is funded in part by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation through Grant GBMF5076 . DK was supported in part by a Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Physics Early Career Award, and by the Director, Office of Energy Research, Office of High Energy and Nuclear Physics, Divisions of Nuclear Physics, of the US Department of Energy under Contract no. DE-AC02-05CH11231 . This research used the SAVIO computational cluster resource provided by the Berkeley Research Computing program at the University of California Berkeley (supported by the UC Chancellor, the UC Berkeley Vice Chancellor of Research, and the Office of the CIO). This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System and GNU Parallel (Tange 2011 ).

O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Fellowship O O B-Organization O B-Grant O B-Person O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant O B-Person O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O B-Software I-Software B-Citation I-Citation O


We thank Chris Pritchet and Dennis Zaritsky for help carrying out the MENeaCS spectroscopic survey, Patrick Kelly for making his python SLR code publicly available, and Radek Wojtak for suggesting an assessment of orientation bias. C.S., H.H., and M.V. acknowledge support from the European Research Council under FP7 grant number 279396. H.H., M.C. and R.F.J.vdB. acknowledge support from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research grant number 639.042.814. Based on observations obtained with MegaPrime/MegaCam, a joint project of CFHT and CEA/IRFU, at the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) which is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Science de l’Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France, and the University of Hawaii. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http:// [0]www. [0]sdss3. [0]org/. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. This work has made use of the python packages scipy (http:// [0]www. [0]scipy. [0]org) and matplotlib (http:// [0]matplotlib. [0]org; Hunter 2007 ) and of IPython ( Pérez Granger 2007 ).

O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Survey O O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Software B-Software I-Software O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Instrument O O O O B-Telescope O B-Organization O O B-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O O B-URL I-URL I-URL I-URL O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database B-Database O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O O O O O B-Software O B-Software B-URL I-URL I-URL I-URL O B-Software B-URL I-URL I-URL B-Citation I-Citation O O O B-Software O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O


We thank the referee for their careful reading of this paper and the very useful comments that greatly helped to improve the paper. P.T. and V.P. were funded for this work by the NASA Heliophysics Guest Investigator grant NNX15AF50G. P.T. was also supported by contracts 8100002705 and SP02H1701R from Lockheed Martin to SAO, and NASA contract NNM07AB07C to the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. B.D.P. was supported by NASA contract NNG09FA40C ( IRIS ). This work has benefited from discussions at the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) meetings on “New Diagnostics of Particle Acceleration in Solar Coronal Nanoflares from Chromospheric Observations and Modeling,” and “Heating in the Magnetic Chromosphere,” where topics relevant to this work were discussed with other colleagues. IRIS is a NASA Small Explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by ESA and the Norwegian Space Centre. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System and of the SolarSoft package for IDL.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event O B-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O B-Software O O B-Software


The authors are especially grateful for the numerous discussions with Bidya Karak and Banibrata Mukhopadhyay. We thank the editor and the anonymous reviewer for comments that led to substantial improvements in the presentation of this paper. The authors are also thankful to Saikat Ghosh, Anand Jha, Aditya Kelkar, Anuj Nandi, Mahendra Verma, and Harshawardhan Wanare for helpful discussions. S.C. acknowledges financial support through the INSPIRE faculty award (DST/INSPIRE/04/2013/000365) conferred by the Indian National Science Academy (INSA) and the Department of Science and Technology (DST), India.

O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Location


We acknowledge AYA2014-54348-C3-1-R by MINECO/Spain and FEDER funds/EU (P.J.A., C.R.-L., and Z.M.B.); FPIBES-2011-049647 MINECO/Spain (Z.M.B.). A.R. acknowledges research funding from ERC Starting Grant 279347 and DFG Grant RE1664/9-2. M.Z. is funded through DFG Grant RE 1664/12-1. J.S.J. acknowledges funding by Fondecyt through grant 1161218 and partial supportfrom CATA-Basal (PB06, Conicyt).

O O B-Grant O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location B-Person B-Person O B-Person B-Grant B-Organization B-Person B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization B-Grant B-Organization


This research has made use of data obtained through the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center Online Service, provided by the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. This work made use of data from the NuSTAR mission, a project led by the California Institute of Technology, managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work made use of observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. V.M.K. is supported by a Lorne Trottier Chair in Astrophysics Cosmology, a Canada Research Chair, CIFAR, by an NSERC Discovery Grant and Herzberg Award, and by FRQNT/CRAQ. R.F.A. acknowledges support from an NSERC Postdoctoral Fellowship. P.S. is a Covington Fellow at DRAO. Facilities: Swift , NuSTAR , XMM-Newton . Software: astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), xspec 12.8.2 ( http://xspec.gfsc.nasa.gov ), heasoft v6.19,6.20 ( https://heasarc.nasa.gov/lheasoft/ ), SAS v16.0 (Gabriel et al. 2004 ).

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F.T. thanks A. Bolatto and A. Marscher for useful comments. F.T. and C.S.R. acknowledges support for this work by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) through Chandra Award Number GO4-15103A issued by the Chandra X-Ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060. F.T. acknowledges partial support by the Programma per Giovani Ricercatori-anno 2014 “Rita Levi Montalcini.” E.B. is supported by the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska Curie grant agreement No. 655324, and by the ICORE program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee (grant No. 1937/12).

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We thank François Lanusse, Anthony Pullen, Alex Geringer-Sameth, Sébastien Fromenteau and Shirley Ho for useful discussions related to this work. We also thank Uroš Seljak, Emmanuel Schaan, David Spergel and the anonymous referee for helpful feedback on this work. We thank Martin White and Beth Reid for providing us halo catalogue from simulations. We also thank the SDSS-I/II/III and Planck collaboration for their efforts in providing the data sets used in this work. RM acknowledges the support of the Department of Energy Early Career Award programme. SS acknowledges support from John Peoples Jr Presidential Fellowship from Carnegie Mellon University. Some of the results in this paper have been derived using the healpix package (Górski et al. 2005 ). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.SDSS3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington and Yale University. Author Contributions . SS and RM contributed to the analysis and writing the paper. JB is an SDSS-III BOSS architect who contributed to the development of the BOSS survey.

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This work has been supported by the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana under the contract ASI-INAF 2015-039-R.O ‘Missione M4 di ESA: Partecipazione Italiana alla fase di assessment della missione THOR’. SP and GZ acknowledge support from the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) in Bern through the International Team no. 297 ‘Superdiffusive transport in space plasmas and its influence on energetic particle acceleration and propagation’.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for their constructive review, which helped improve the paper. We thank Rachel Mason for making the XDGNIRS reduction pipeline available. CMB acknowledges support from the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. Based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil). RMcD is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (project number FT150100333). CC acknowledges support from NASA grant NNX15AK14G, NSF grant AST-1313280 and the Packard Foundation.

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These data products have been processed by the Cambridge Astronomy Survey Unit (CASU) at the Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, and by the FLAMES/UVES reduction team at INAF/Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri. These data have been obtained from the Gaia -ESO Survey Data Archive, prepared and hosted by the Wide Field Astronomy Unit, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, which is funded by the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 programme through ERC grant number 320360 and by the Leverhulme Trust through grant RPG-2012-541. We acknowledge the support from INAF and Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca (MIUR) in the form of the grant “Premiale VLT 2012”. This work has been partially supported by PRIN-INAF-2014. The results presented here benefited from discussions held during the Gaia -ESO workshops and conferences supported by the ESF (European Science Foundation) through the GREAT Research Network Programme. M.M. acknowledges financial support from the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR) through grant FIRB 2012 RBFR12PM1F, from INAF through grant PRIN-2014-14, and from the MERAC Foundation. S.G.S. acknowledges the support by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) through national funds and a research grant (project Ref. UID/FIS/04434/2013, and PTDC/FIS-AST/7073/2014). S.G.S. also acknowledge the support from FCT through Investigador FCT contract of reference IF/00028/2014 and POPH/FSE (EC) by FEDER funding through the program Programa Operacional de Factores de Competitividade COMPETE.

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Acknowledgements Based on observations made with APEX under programme IDs O-097.F-9318, O-098.F-9305, 077.F-9310, and 079.F-9325. This work is based on observations carried out under project number 010-13 with the IRAM 30 m telescope. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). The Onsala 20 m telescope is operated by the Swedish National Facility for Radio Astronomy, Onsala Space Observatory at Chalmers University of Technology. L.D. acknowledges support from the ERC consolidator grant 646758 AEROSOL and the FWO Research Project grant G024112N. E.D.B. acknowledges financial support from the Swedish National Space Board. H.O. acknowledges financial support from the Swedish Research Council.

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D.Z. and H.Z. acknowledge financial support from NSF grant AST-171384. J.W. acknowledges support from a 2018 Sloan Foundation Fellowship. The authors gratefully acknowledge the SDSS-III team for providing a valuable resource to the community. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Eric Baxter, Joe DeRose, Ian Dell'Anotonio, Daniel Gruen, Hung-Jin Huang, Benjamin Joachimi, Andrey Kravtsov, Rachel Mandelbaum, Surhud More, Yuedong Fang, Mike Jarvis, Masahiro Takada, Joop Schaye, Frank van den Bosch, Mark Vogelsberger, Anja von der Linden, and Risa Wechsler for helpful discussions. We are very grateful to Erin Sheldon for allowing us to use his SDSS shear catalogues and source photometric redshift distributions. J.C., B.J., and G.B. are partially supported by the US Department of Energy grant DE-SC0007901 and funds from the University of Pennsylvania.

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