We thank the anonymous referee for significantly improving this paper by pointing out uncertainties that had been missed. This work is supported by the International Partnership Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences No.114A11KYSB20160008, the National Natural Science Foundation of China No. 11373038, and the National Key Basic Research Program of China (973 Program) 2015CB857100, the China Ministry of Science. D.L. acknowledges support from the “CAS Interdisciplinary Innovation Team” program. This work was carried out in part at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which is operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology. M.K. acknowledges the support of Special Funding for Advanced Users, budgeted and administrated by Center for Astronomical Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAMS). N.M.M.G. acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council through grant FT150100024. The Arecibo Observatory is operated by SRI International under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation (AST-1100968), and in alliance with Ana G Méndez-Universidad Metropolitana, and the Universities Space Research Association. CO data were observed with the Delingha 13.7 m telescope of the Qinghai Station of Purple Mountain Observatory. We appreciate all the staff members of the Delingha observatory and Zhichen Pan for their help during the observations.

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S.H. was supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG, grant We 1312/37-1), T.R. by the German Aerospace Center (DLR, grant 05 OR 1402). The TMAD service ( http://astro-uni-tuebingen.de/~TMAD ) used to compile atomic data for this paper was constructed as part of the activities of the German Astrophysical Virtual Observatory. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 093.D-0426. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . This research made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, and of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.

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This work is based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. T.H. and S.B. were supported by grant HST GO 13862. V.W. acknowledges the support of the European Research Council via the award of a starting gant (SEDMorph: P.I. V. Wild). This project also made use of archival SDSS data. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. T.H. thanks the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics, the Simons Foundation, and the Aspen Center for Physics for supporting informal workshops on galactic winds, feedback, and the circum-galactic medium during 2014, 2015, and 2016. These provided important input for this paper. Conversations at these workshops with Romeel Davé Crystal Martin, Norm Murray, Ralph Pudritz, Eliot Quataert, Brant Robertson, Chuck Steidel, Todd Thompson, and Ellen Zweibel were especially helpful. He also thanks Greg Bryan, Mark Voit, and Brian O‘Shea for interesting discussions of the possible importance of wind-driven precipitation. Facility: Sloan (COS) .

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We gratefully acknowledge support from Australian Research Council (DMcN), and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, the Land Niedersachsen (J-UG). The quantum chemical calculations performed in this work were supported by computational resources on the NCI Australia National Facility through the National Computational Merit Allocation Scheme.

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The realization of this work was supported by the Hungarian OTKA NN grants 103244 and 114560.

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We thank the referee for a timely and constructive report that helped improve this paper. We would like to thank David Phillips and the members of the HARPS-N solar telescope team for sharing the data with us before their publication. The research leading to these results received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement number 313014 (ETAEARTH). A.C.C. acknowledges support from STFC grant ST/M001296/1.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank Michelle Cluver, Jeffrey Newman, and Steven Bamford for helpful discussions, along with the anonymous referee for providing useful comments that improved the quality of this manuscript. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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S.G.M. would like to thank Ian McCarthy and Ishiyama Tomoaki for access to and help with simulation data. A.S.G.R. acknowledges support of a UWA postdoctoral research fellowship, as well as an Australian Research Council (ARC) Discovery Project (DP) grant, DP140100395. The Centre for All-Sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO) is an Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence, funded by grant CE11E0090. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.

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The authors thank the referee for valuable suggestions and comments to improve the quality of this article. We gratefully acknowledge Y. N. Su, P. F. Chen, J. Zhang, B. Kliem, R. Liu, S. Gibson, H. Gilbert, M. D. Ding, and H. N. Wang for inspiring and constructive discussions. SDO is a mission of NASA's Living With a Star Program. AIA and HMI data are courtesy of the NASA/ SDO science teams. STEREO /SECCHI data are provided by a consortium of US, UK, Germany, Belgium, and France. QMZ is supported by Youth Fund of JiangSu BK20141043, by 973 program under grant 2011CB811402, and by NSFC 11303101, 11333009, 11173062, 11473071, and 11221063. H. Ji is supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program—The Emergence of Cosmological Structures of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, grant No. XDB09000000. Y.G. is supported by NSFC 11203014. Li Feng is supported by the NFSC grant 11473070, 11233008, and by grant BK2012889. Li Feng also thanks the Youth Innovation Promotion Association, CAS, for the financial support.

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We thank N. Schartel for the possibility to perform the ToO observation in the Director Discretionary Time, and the XMM–Newton team for the support for the observation. We gratefully acknowledge the Sardinia Regional Government for the financial support (P. O. R. Sardegna F.S.E. Operational Programme of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia, European Social Fund 2007-2013 – Axis IV Human Resources, Objective l.3, Line of Activity l.3.1). This work was partially supported by the Regione Autonoma della Sardegna through POR–FSE Sardegna 2007–13, L.R. 7/2007, Progetti di Ricerca di Base e Orientata, project no. CRP-60529. We also acknowledge financial contribution from the agreement ASI-INAF I/037/12/0. The High-Energy Astrophysics Group of Palermo acknowledges support from the Fondo Finalizzato alla Ricerca (FFR) 2012/13, project no. 2012- ATE-0390, founded by the University of Palermo.

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The first author wish to thank the School of Astronomy, IPM for providing support while working on this paper. AM also acknowledges the Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes (ING) and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC) for hospitality and support while this paper was in progress. We also thank an anonymous referee for a lot of constructive comments. The authors acknowledge support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) through grants AYA2009-11137, AYA2013-48226-C3-1-P, AYA2013-46886-P and AYA2014-58308-P. JFB also acknowledges financial support from the DAGAL network from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Unions Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013/ under REA grant agreement number PITN-GA-2011-289313. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington and Yale University.

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We are infinitely grateful to the staff members at the Nordic Optical Telescope for their valuable and unique support during the observations. We thank the editor and the anonymous referee for their careful review and very positive feedback. Davide Gandolfi thanks Gabriele Cologna for the interesting conversations on the properties of the planetary system. Hannu Parviainen has received support from the Rocky Planets Around Cool Stars (RoPACS) project during this research, a Marie Curie Initial Training Network funded by the European Commission’s Seventh Framework Programme. He has also received funding from the Väisälä Foundation through the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters and from the Leverhulme Research Project grant RPG-2012-661. Financial supports from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) are acknowledged by Hans J. Deeg for the grant AYA2012-39346-C02-02, by Sergio Hoyer for the 2011 Severo Ochoa program SEV-2011-0187, and Roi Alonso for the Ramón y Cajal program RYC-2010-06519. This paper includes data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission Directorate. The Kepler data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX13AC07G and by other grants and contracts. This research has made an intensive use of the Simbad database and the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS, 143, 23.

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Acknowledgments The authors thank Volker Springel for providing us with gadget 3 , and Giuseppe Murante for useful discussion. Data post-processing and storage has been done on the CINECA facility PICO, granted us thanks to our expression of interest. Partial support from Consorzio per la Fisica di Trieste is acknowledged. EM has been supported by PRIN MIUR 2010-2011 J91J12000450001 The dark Universe and the cosmic evolution of baryons: from current surveys to Euclid and by a University of Trieste grant. PM has been supported by PRIN-INAF 2009 Towards an Italian Network for Computational Cosmology and by a F.R.A. 2012 grant by the University of Trieste. SB has been supported by PRIN MIUR 01278X4FL grant and by the InDark INFN Grant. SA has been supported by a Department of Energy grant de-sc0009946 and by NSF-AST 0908241.

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Most of the numerical calculations presented in this study were performed on the Savio computational cluster provided by the Berkeley Research Computing program at the University of California, Berkeley (supported by the UC Berkeley Chancellor, Vice Chancellor of Research, and Office of the CIO). We would like to thank the anonymous referee for the very thorough and detailed review, which resulted in a substantially improved manuscript. We would like to specifically acknowledge the referee for having the idea to estimate the value of from the “effective gravitational energy” released upon mixing.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Carles Badenes for suggesting that we investigate the size distributions of SNRs. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under grant no. 1313036.

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This work was supported by the International Center of Future Science of Jilin University (P.R. China) and the project of Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine “Dynamics, evolution and physical effects in the formation of structure of the universe, supernova remnants and close binary stars with relativistic components” (state registration no. 0116U001544).

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The authors thank Rachel Akeson, John Carpenter, Kevin Flaherty, Lynne Hillenbrand, Heather Knutson, Patrick Ogle, Inseok Song, Karl Stapelfeldt, and Barbara Whitney for their contributions to the YSOVAR project and valuable discussions on this work. H.Y.A.M. acknowledges support from the IPAC Visiting Graduate Research Fellowship program. P.P. acknowledges the work of Nancy Silbermann, William Mahoney, and the Spitzer scheduling team in scheduling the data volume-intensive observations, and thanks Greg Doppmann for providing the Keck/NIRSPEC spectrum. K.C. acknowledges support provided by the NSF through grant AST-1449476. A.M.W. thanks the staff of the Observatorio Astronómico Nacional in Sierra San Pedro Mártir. This work is based in part on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with NASA. Support for this work was provided by NASA through an award issued by JPL/Caltech. Facilities: CTIO:1.3 m , Mayall , OANSPM:HJT , SOAR , Spitzer (IRAC).

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Dust studies at Leiden Observatory are supported through the Spinoza Premie of the Dutch science agency, NWO. S.K. would like to thank C.P. Dullemond, J. Dra ̧żkowska and T. Birnstiel for useful discussions, and S. Okuzumi for comments and helping with the comparison to his work. The authors thank B. Gundlach and J. Blum for sharing a version of their manuscript. C.W.O. acknowledges support for this work by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant No. HST-HF-51294.01-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555.

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This work has been supported by the Australian Research Council (grants FL110100012, FT140100554 and DP120100991). JM thanks support by FAPESP (2012/24392-2). DLL thanks the Robert A. Welch Foundation of Houston, Texas for support through grant F-634. TB was supported by the project grant ‘The New Milky Way’ from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. Australian access to the Magellan Telescopes was supported through the Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy of the Australian Federal Government. The Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope is operated by the National Research Council of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique of France, and the University of Hawaii. The Hobby–Eberly Telescope is a joint project of the University of Texas at Austin, the Pennsylvania State University, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, and Georg-August-Universität Göttingen.

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Acknowledgments DW was supported by NSF grant 1518246. We thank Marua Brada, Marcus Brggen, James Bullock, Will Dawson, James Jee, Manoj Kaplinghat, Reinout van Weeren and David Sobral for discussions that shaped the direction of this project, and for their careful reading of the manuscript. The Merging Cluster Collaboration has provided valuable input to this project. We thank the Ohio Supercomputer Center for the use of the Ruby cluster during its commissioning phase.

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We thank F. Mignard and Ch. Ordenovich (OCA, Nice) for putting at our disposal the use of the Gaia simulator of Solar system observations. The work of TSR was carried out through the Gaia Research for European Astronomy Training (GREAT-ITN) network. He received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement no. 264895. The work of AC was partly funded by ASI contract I/058/10/0.

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We thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments.


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Acknowledgments We would like to thank Tamara Davis for useful comments on a draft of this paper. DS thanks the Faculty of Technology of the University of Portsmouth for support during his PhD studies. DB, EM and RCN acknowledge funding from STFC grant ST/N000668/1 and EM acknowledges the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020.

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This work is partially supported by the grants ANR-12-BS05-0002 and ANR-13-BS05-0005 of the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche. CU is supported by the Delta-ITP consortium, a program of the Netherlands organization for scientific research (NWO) that is funded by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW). CU thanks IAP for hospitality when this project was initiated and the Balzan Centre for Cosmological Studies for financial support during the visit. The simulations were run on the Horizon cluster. We acknowledge support from S. Rouberol for running the cluster for us.

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SNXM acknowledges IMPRS for a PhD research scholarship. SJA, WJH and SNXM would like to thank DGAPA-UNAM for financial support through projects PAPIIT IN101713 and IN112816. This work has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System.

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Herschel is a European Space Agency space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led principal investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. HIFI has been designed and built by a consortium of institutes and university departments from across Europe, Canada, and the United States under the leadership of SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Groningen, The Netherlands, and with major contributions from Germany, France, and the US. Consortium members are: Canada: CSA, U. Waterloo; France: IRAP (formerly CESR), LAB, LERMA, IRAM; Germany: KOSMA, MPIfR, MPS; Ireland, NUI Maynooth; Italy: ASI, IFSI-INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri-INAF; Netherlands: SRON, TUD; Poland: CAMK, CBK; Spain: Observatorio Astronmico Nacional (IGN), Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA). Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology MC2, RSS GARD; Onsala Space Observatory; Swedish National Space Board, Stockholm University Stockholm Observatory; Switzerland: ETH Zurich, FHNW; USA: Caltech, JPL, NHS. Support for this work was provided by NASA ( Herschel OT funding) through an award issued by JPL/Caltech. This work was partially supported by grants from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA). The data presented here are archived at the Herschel Science Archive, http://archives.esac.esa.int/hda/ui , under OBSID 1342198337 and 1342201585.

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We thank Laurent Gizon and Gert Lube for encouragement and support. Research funding by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) under grant SFB963/1, project A11, is gratefully acknowledged.

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This research was based in part on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (USA), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovaļão (Brazil) and Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina). Elements of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS, 143, 23. This research was conducted with the support of Australian Research Council DP130101667. We thank the International Telescope Support Office and Gemini Observatory for contributing travel funding.

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AAW is supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council. We thank Jason Sanders and Carlo Nipoti for some useful conversations, as well as the referee for a thorough and useful report.

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C.F.G.’s work was supported, in part, by a Romano Professorial Scholar appointment, a Simons Fellowship in Theoretical Physics, and a Visiting Fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. We thank S. Desch, C. Thompson, M. Chandra, B. Ryan, J. Papaloizou, and C. Terquem for comments, and the referee, S. Charnoz, for a thoughtful report that greatly improved the manuscript.

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We thank the referee for thoughtful and constructive feedback on this work. We acknowledge our colleagues in the CANDELS collaboration for very useful comments and suggestions. We also thank the great effort of all the CANDELS team members for their work to provide a robust and valuable data set. We thank Karl Gordon for insightful discussions on the physical implications of these results. We also thank Daniela Calzetti and Veronique Buat for helpful comments and comments. This work is based in part on observations taken by the CANDELS Multi-Cycle Treasury Program with the NASA/ESA HST , which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. This work is supported by HST program No. GO-12060. Support for Program No. GO-12060 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. We acknowledge the Spanish MINECO grant AYA2012-31277 for funding the contribution from Pablo Pérez-González. This work is based in part on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The authors acknowledge the Texas AM University Brazos HPC cluster that contributed to the research reported here. URL: http://brazos.tamu.edu .

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The authors also thank the anonymous referee for comments that strengthened the arguments in this paper. The authors thank Lucas Tarr and George Doschek for discussions that improved the modeling and understanding of this event. This research was performed while J.W.R. held an NRC Research Associateship award at the US Naval Research Laboratory with the support of NASA. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement No. 606862 (F-CHROMA) (PJAS). IRIS is a NASA Small Explorer developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by the Norwegian Space Center through an ESA PRODEX contract. CHIANTI is a collaborative project involving George Mason University, the University of Michigan (USA) and the University of Cambridge (UK).

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This work was supported by the National Key RD Program of China (2016YFA0400702), the National Science Foundation of China (11473002, 11721303), the National Youth Fund (11303008), and the Youth Foundation of Hebei Province of China (A2011205067). We thank Jenny Greene for sending the data from Greene Ho ( 2005a ). M.K. is grateful to Jian-Min Wang for his hospitality and help during her visit to IHEP and to JinLin Han for his help during her stay at NAOC. She thanks Song Huang, Ligang Hou, Xianmin Meng, Jinyi Shangguan, Jiayi Sun, and Junzhi Wang for their help. Funding for the SDSS has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS website is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington.

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The observations have been supported by the OPTICON project (observing proposals 2010B/01, 2011A/014 and 2012A/015), which is funded by the European Commission under the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7). Part of the observations have been taken under service mode (service proposal AO171) and the authors gratefully acknowledge the help of the AAO support astronomers. This research is partially supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (Mineco) under grant AYA2012-39364-C02-02. The work reported on in this publication has been partially supported by the European Science Foundation (ESF), in the framework of the GREAT Research Networking Programme. This research was achieved using the POLLUX database ( http://pollux.graal.univ-montp2.fr ) operated at LUPM (Université Montpellier II CNRS, France with the support of the PNPS and INSU. This research made use of the Simbad, Vizier, and Aladin services developed at the Centre de Données Astronomiques de Strasbourg, France. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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Acknowledgements We are grateful to our referee Mike Bessell for his very thorough and useful report of our paper. The project is supported by fondation MERAC. N.C., H.G.L., and A.J.G. were supported by Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 “The Milky Way System” (subproject A4) of the German Research Foundation (DFG). R.S.K. acknowledges support from the European Research Council via the Advanced Grant “STARLIGHT: Formation of the First Stars” (project number 339177). C.A. acknowledges funding from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are most grateful to Volker Springel for allowing us to use the gadget -3 code. This work is supported by the Brazilian Agencies FAPESP (grants 2016/01355-5, 2016/22183-8, and 2013/10559-5) and by CNPq (grant 308643/2017-8).

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The authors thank the referee, Kyle Oman, for the excellent suggestions and for providing us with the APOSTLE/EAGLE V Rlast and V rot (2 kpc) simulated data points. We also thank Aaron Dutton for providing us with the NIHAO RAR at 2 kpc. We acknowledge useful discussions with Federico Lelli and Stacy McGaugh.

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Acknowledgements The anonymous referee is thanked for providing comments and feedback that improved the overall quality of the paper. ECE acknowledges the support of the South African National Astrophysics and Space Science Programme (NASSP).

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We thank the anonymous referee for a constructive report that helped improve the manuscript. The authors also acknowledge various people for helpful and inspiring discussion at various stages during the preparation of this manuscript, including Evan Bauer, Jared Brooks, Maria Drout, JJ Eldridge, Chris Evans, Rob Farmer, Miriam Garcia, Stephan Geier, Zhanwen Han, Edward van den Heuvel, Stephen Justam, Lex Kaper, Alex de Koter, Søren Larsen, Danny Lennon, Pablo Marchant, Colin Norman, Philipp Podsiadlowski, Onno Pols, Mathieu Renzo, Hugues Sana, Tomer Shenar, Nathan Smith, Elizabeth Stanway, Silvia Toonen, Jorick Vink, Manos Zapartas and the VFTS collaboration. This work was carried out on the Dutch national e-infrastructure with the support of SURF Cooperative. The authors acknowledges John Hillier for making his code, CMFGEN, publicly available. YG thank Martin Heemskerk for providing computing expertise and support throughout the project and Alessandro Patruno for allowing us to use the Taurus computer. SdM has received funding under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program from the European Research Council (ERC) (Grant agreement No. 715063). JHG acknowledges support from the Irish Research Council New Foundations Award 206086.14414 “Physics of Supernovae and Stars”. This work made use of v2.2.1 of the Binary Population and Spectral Synthesis (BPASS) models as last described in Eldridge et al. (2017) and Stanway Eldridge (2018) .

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We thank Christophe Sandt (SOLEIL) for his help with the infrared microscope at the SMIS beam line. VUV measurements were made at the DISCO beam line of the SOLEIL synchrotron radiation facility (projects: 20141074 and 20130778). This work has been supported by the French program “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire”, the ANR COSMISME project (grant ANR-2010-BLAN-0502). L.G. acknowledges support from the CNES post-doctoral fellowship program.

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This scientific work makes use of the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory, operated by CSIRO. We acknowledge the Wajarri Yamatji people as the traditional owners of the Observatory site. Support for the operation of the MWA is provided by the Australian Government Department of Industry and Science and Department of Education (National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy: NCRIS), under a contract to Curtin University administered by Astronomy Australia Limited. We acknowledge the iVEC Petabyte Data Store and the Initiative in Innovative Computing and the CUDA Center for Excellence sponsored by NVIDIA at Harvard University. JKS is supported from NSF Physics Frontier Center award number 1430284. DLK and SDC acknowledge support from the US National Science Foundation (grant AST-1412421). Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020. This work was supported by the Flagship Allocation Scheme of the NCI National Facility at the ANU.

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We acknowledge financial support from PRIN MIUR 2010-2011, project ‘The Chemical and dynamical Evolution of the Milky Way and Local Group Galaxies’, prot. 2010LY5N2T. NR acknowledges support from the Swedish Research Council, VR (project number 621-2014-5640), Funds from Kungl. Fysiografiska Sällskapet i Lund. (Stiftelsen Walter Gyllenbergs fond and Märta och Erik Holmbergs donation). NR acknowledges the supports from Knut och Alice Wallenbergs stiftelse. We thank I. J. Danziger for reading the manuscript. Finally, we thank an anonymous referee for his/her important suggestions which improved the paper.

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The authors thank the referee for his/her comments. The scientific results reported in this article are based on data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive and observations obtained with XMM - Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP72007-2013) ERC grant agreement No. 340519. M.A., P.M., E.P., and G.W.P. acknowledge partial funding support from NASA grant NNX14AC22G. F.A.-S. acknowledges support from Chandra grant GO3-14131X.

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The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee whose constructive comments helped to improve the clarity of the manuscript. This work was supported by funds from the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA), and the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) of Taiwan by grant NSC 102-2119-M-001-008-MY3. This work is partly based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme 084.C-1095(A). The HST /STIS spectra were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST) at the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. Facilities: HST (STIS) , VLT:Kueyen (X-Shooter) .

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The research leading to these results was funded by the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under grant agreement number ITN 215212 “Black Hole Universe” and by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie under grant numbers DLR 50 OR 0701 and 50 OR 1113. This work was partially completed by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344, and is supported by NASA grants to LLNL. Support for this work was also provided by NASA through the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) contract SV3-73016 to MIT for Support of the Chandra X-Ray Center (CXC) and Science Instruments; CXC is operated by SAO for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060. We acknowledge the support by the DFG Cluster of Excellence “Origin and Structure of the Universe” and are grateful for the support by MCB through the Computational Center for Particles and Astrophysics (C2PAP). We are thankful to John E. Davis for the SLXfig package that was used to create the figures throughout this paper, to David Huenemoerder for the AGLC routines that handled the grating lightcurves and routines related to plasma diagnostics, and to Thomas Dauser for parallel computing routines. This research has made use of the MAXI data provided by RIKEN, JAXA, and the MAXI team.

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The Parkes telescope and the ATCA are both part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. Financial support for this work was provided by the Australian Research Council. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System Abstract Service; and the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. SLB is the recipient of an Australian Research Council DECRA Fellowship (project number DE130101270). The authors dedicate this paper to the memory of J. L. Caswell, who was the driving force behind the MMB survey, and will continue to inspire maser studies for years to come.

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Pulsar research at the Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics and the observations using the Lovell Telescope is supported by a consolidated grant from the STFC in the UK.

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Acknowledgments We thank Eric Huff, Melanie Simet and Rachel Mandelbaum for useful discussions, and also the anonymous referee for pointing out problems with the method involving the mixing of deconvolved and directly measured parameters and several other changes which improved the paper. This work is based on observations obtained with MegaPrime/MegaCam, a joint project of CFHT and CEA/DAPNIA, at the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) which is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France and the University of Hawaii. This research used the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre operated by the National Research Council of Canada with the support of the Canadian Space Agency. CFHTLenS data processing was made possible thanks to significant computing support from the NSERC Research Tools and Instruments grant program.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We gratefully acknowledge useful discussions with Isabella Söldner-Rembold regarding the velocity ellipsoid, and numerous helpful discussions with Matias Blaña. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 798384. This work has made use of data from the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia , processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium ( DPAC ). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society, and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen’s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

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We thank Slavko Bogdanov, Simin Mahmoodifar, Sharon Morsink, Joonas Nättilä, Feryal Özel, Juri Poutanen, Dimitrios Psaltis, and Tod Strohmayer for useful discussions.

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This work was strongly supported by computing resources from the Swiss National Supercomputing Centre (CSCS) under projects ID ch2 and s585 in 2014–2015. FV acknowledges personal support from the grant VA 876/3-1 from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. FV and MB also acknowledge partial support from the grant FOR1254 from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. We acknowledge the use of computing resources under allocations no. 7006 and 9016 (FV) and 9059 (MB) on supercomputers at the NIC of the Forschungszentrum Jülich. We acknowledge the use of the online ‘Cosmology Calculator’ by Wright ( 2006 ). We thank K. Dolag for very fruitful discussions at an early stage of this work, and our referee H. Kang for very useful comments on the manuscript.

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We thank A.S. Rivkin and P. Vernazza for kindly providing their spectral data. The research of Z.K. is supported by VEGA – The Slovack Agency for Science, Grant No. 2/0032/14. This program was supported by the French national space agency CNES and French INSU – PNP program.

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We thank the referee for a very helpful report. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with participation from NASA. The Herschel spacecraft was designed, built, tested, and launched under a contract to ESA managed by the Herschel / Planck Project team by an industrial consortium under the overall responsibility of the prime contractor Thales Alenia Space (Cannes), and including Astrium (Friedrichshafen) responsible for the payload module and for system testing, Thales Alenia Space (Turin) responsible for the service module, and Astrium (Toulouse) responsible for the telescope, with in excess of a hundred subcontractors. SPIRE has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by Cardiff Univ. (UK) and including: Univ. Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, Univ. Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); Stockholm Observatory (Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, Univ. Sussex (UK); and Caltech, JPL, NHSC, Univ. Colorado (USA). This development has been supported by national funding agencies: CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); STFC, UKSA (UK); and NASA (USA). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. AF acknowledges support from the ERC via an Advanced Grant 321323-NEOGAL.

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We thank Wesley Even, Sean M. Couch, Donald Q. Lamb, Ryan Chornock, Ken Chen, Alexandra Kozyreva, and Ragnhild Lunnan for useful discussions and comments. This work was supported in part by the STScI grants AR 12820 and 13276 and the National Science Foundation under grants AST-0909132 and PHY-0822648 for the Physics Frontier Center “Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics” (JINA). E.C. thanks the Enrico Fermi Institute for its support via the Enrico Fermi Fellowship.

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The authors would like to thank Profs. Guillermo Muñoz Caro and Maria Palumbo for conversations about laboratory studies of sulfur-containing ices, Prof. Susanna Widicus Weaver about gas-grain modeling, and Profs. John Black and David Neufeld about observations. JL would also like to thank Dr. Wing-Fai Thi for helpful feedback during the development of the astrochemical code.

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Acknowledgments This work was supported by the UKs Science and Technology Facilities Council, grant numbers ST/J001333/1, ST/M001008/1 and ST/L001403/1. We gratefully acknowledge the use of data from the ESO Public Survey program 179.B-2002 taken with the VISTA 4.1m telescope and data products from the Cambridge Astronomical Survey Unit. Support for DM and CC is provided by the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourisms Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to the Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, MAS. DM is also supported by the Center for Astrophysics and Associated Technologies PFB-06 and Fondecyt Project No. 1130196. MSNK is supported by the Marie-Curie Intra-European fellowship project GESTATE (661249). This research has made use of the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France; also the SAO/NASA Astrophysics data (ADS). ACG was supported by the Science Foundation of Ireland, grant 13/ERC/I2907. We also acknowledge the support of CONICYT REDES project No. 140042 Young variables and proper motion in the Galactic plane. ValparaisoHertfordshire collaboration C. Contreras Pea was supported by a University of Hertfordshire PhD studentship in the earlier stages of this research. We thank Janet Drew for her helpful comments on the structure of the paper.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Francis-Yan Cyr-Racine, Giulia Despali, Chuck Keeton, Stacy Kim, Alex Kusenko, Leonidas Moustakas, Annika Peter, and Simona Vegetti for helpful suggestions and interesting discussions throughout the course of this project. We also thank the anonymous referee for comments that improved the quality of this work. DG, TT, and SB acknowledge support by the US National Science Foundation through grant AST-1714953. DG, TT, SB and AN acknowledge support from HST-GO-15177. Support for Program number GO-15177 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. AN acknowledges support from the NASA Postdoctoral Program Fellowship. This work used computational and storage services associated with the Hoffman2 Shared Cluster provided by the UCLA Institute for Digital Research and Education’s Research Technology Group. This work also used computational and storage services associated with the Aurora and Halo supercomputers. These resources were provided by funding from the JPL Office of the Chief Information Officer.

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