O B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location I-Location O O O O O B-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location O O O O O O B-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey B-Survey O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Telescope O B-URL O O O O B-Telescope B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-URL O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration


We gratefully acknowledge support from NSF grants AST-1716093 (EMH, AS) and AST-1715145 (AJB) and from the trustees of the William F. Vilas Estate and the University of Wisconsin–Madison Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research and Graduate Education with funding from the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation (AJB). The NB921 filter was supported by KAKENHI (23244025) Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A) through the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). The NB816 filter was supported by a grant from Ehime University. We would like to thank Claudia Scarlata for permission to quote unpublished data, David Sobral and Jorryt Matthee for extremely helpful comments on a first draft of the paper, and the anonymous referee for a very useful and constructive report that improved the paper. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sharanya Sur acknowledges computing time at CDAC National Param Supercomputing Facility Pune, Texas Advanced Computing centre and the use of HPC facilities at IIA. Pallavi Bhat is supported by NSF-DOE Award No. DE-SC0016215. The software used in this work was in part developed by the DOE NNSA-ASC OASCR Flash Center at the University of Chicago.

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Acknowledgements We thank the referee for his/her constructive suggestions that improved the paper. The research work at Physical Research Laboratory is funded by the Department of Space, Government of India. This research has made use of data obtained through HEASARC Online Service, provided by NASA/GSFC, in support of NASA High Energy Astrophysics Programs.

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T.K.S. is supported by the Astrobiology Center Project of National Institute of Natural Sciences (NINS) (Grant Number AB271020, AB281018). A.M., A.C. and T.G. acknowledge support by the French ANR, project number ANR-13–13-BS05-0003-01 project MOJO (Modeling the Origin of JOvian planets). T.K.S. thanks Hiroshi Kobayashi and Shinsuke Takasao for fruitful discussions. The authors thank the referee for many valuable comments.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is supported by the CHE-ISF I-Core centre for excellence in Astrophysics. TM is supported by JSPS Overseas Challenge Program for Young Researchers and by Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellow 17J09895. TP is supported by an advanced ERC grant TReX and by the Templeton foundation. EN is partially supported by an consolidator ERC grant (JetNS) and an ISF grant.

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The work at NC State (S.C., K.E., and C.F.) was supported by the Department of Energy through an Early CAREER Award (DOE grant No.SC0010263). C.F. acknowledges support from the Research Corporation for Science Advancement through a Cottrell Scholar Award. The effort at the Universität Basel was supported by the Schweizerischer Nationalfond and by the ERC Advanced Grant “FISH.” K.E. acknowledges support from the GSI. A.P. acknowledges support from the INFN project “High Performance data Network” funded by the Italian CIPE. Software : Agile (Liebendörfer 2001 ), CFNET (Fröhlich et al. 2006b ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ).

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Acknowledgements We acknowledge financial support from the U.S. National Science Foundation, Grant No. CHE-1565872. JK acknowledges XSEDE.org Grant No. CHE-130120 and University of Maryland High-Performance Deepthought facilities for computational time. FL and SDLP acknowledge the programme ‘Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire’ (PCMI) of CNRS/INSU with INC/INP co-funded by CEA and CNES. FL and SDLP acknowledge financial support from the Institut Universitaire de France.

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We would like to thank Will Percival for helpful conversations. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant no. PHYS-1066293 and the hospitality of the Aspen Center for Physics. NP and FZ are supported in part by a DOE Early Career Grant DE-SC0008080. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. Some of the codes in this paper made use of the Chapel programming language. 1

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for a careful reading of this paper. We thank Carlos De Breuck, Palle Mø ller, and the APEX team for their support. Based on observations collected by the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO program 098.B-0657 and 099.B-0063 (APEX) and 196.B-0578 (VLT/MUSE). We acknowledge funding from the INAF PRIN-SKA 2017 program 1.05.01.88.04. YLJ acknowledges support from CONICYT PAI (Concurso Nacional de Inserción en la Academia 2017) No. 79170132. BV acknowledges the support from an Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (PD0028506). This work made use of the KUBEVIZ software, which is publicly available at http://www.mpe.mpg.de/dwilman/kubeviz/ .

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TEEO gratefully acknowledges funding from the Vermont Space Grant Consortium. The authors wish to acknowledge Ben Stappers for providing timing solutions for some pulsars and Joel Weisberg for providing ionospheric rotation-measure estimates. Portions of this work were carried out with support from US National Science Foundation grants AST 0968296 and 1814397. DM acknowledges funding from the grant ‘Indo-French Centre for the Promotion of Advanced Research – CEFIPRA’. The National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (also known as Arecibo Observatory) is operated by the University of Central Florida under a cooperative agreement with the US National Science Foundation, and in alliance with Yang Enterprises and the Ana G. Méndez-Universidad Metropolitana. This work made use of the NASA ADS astronomical data system.

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MS thanks Keiichi Umetsu for useful discussions and Adi Zitrin and Julian Merten for providing useful information on the SL analysis of the CLASH clusters. LM and MS acknowledge financial contributions from contracts ASI/INAF I/023/12/0, by the PRIN MIUR 2010-2011 ‘The dark Universe and the cosmic evolution of baryons: from current surveys to Euclid’ and by the PRIN INAF 2012 ‘The Universe in the box: multiscale simulations of cosmic structure’. CG's research is part of the project GLENCO, funded under the European Seventh Framework Programme, Ideas, Grant Agreement no. 259349.

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We thank Nacho Martín-Navarro for comments on the manuscript, and the anonymous referee for an excellent and thorough report that improved the paper. Support from NASA grant NNX15AK14G, STScI grant GO-13681, and NSF grants AST-1313280, AST-1515084, AST-1518294, AST-1616598, and AST-1616710 is gratefully acknowledged. C.C. acknowledges support from the Packard Foundation. A.V. is supported by an NSF Graduate Research Fellowship. A.J.R. is supported as a Research Corporation for Science Advancement Cottrell Scholar. Based on data obtained with the W.M. Keck Observatory, on Maunakea, Hawaii. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.

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Acknowledgements This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1411943. Part of the work presented herein is supported by NASA Grant No. NNX15AK92G. This study is based on data taken with the Karl G. Jansky VLA which is operated by the NRAO. The NRAO is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This work is based, in part, on data collected at the Subaru Telescope and obtained from the Subaru Mitaka Okayama Kiso Archive (SMOKA), which is operated by the Astronomy Data centre, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan; observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA; and data collected at UKIRT which is supported by NASA and operated under an agreement among the University of Hawaii, the University of Arizona, and Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology centre; operations are enabled through the cooperation of the East Asian Observatory. When the data reported here were acquired, UKIRT was operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the U.K. This study is also based, in part, on observations obtained with WIRCam, a joint project of Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), Taiwan, Korea, Canada, France, and the CFHT which is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique of France, and the University of Hawai'i. The scientific results reported in this article are based in part on observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory and data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive. The spectrographic data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. We wish to thank the indigenous Hawaiian community for allowing us to be guests on their sacred mountain, a privilege, without with, this work would not have been possible. We are most fortunate to be able to conduct observations from this site.

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We acknowledge M. Barkov, E. Derishev, Ya. Istomin, M. Drozdova and especially N. Zakamska for useful comments. We also thank the anonymous referee for helpful remarks. This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation , grant 16-12-10051 .

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Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to the anonymous referee for his/her useful comments. HB acknowledges the Inspire Faculty Grant Support (IFA11-PH02) of the Department of Science and Technology, India. The observations reported in this paper were obtained using the 1-m Sampurnanand Telescope, Nainital, India, and the 2-m HCT at IAO, Hanle, the High Altitude Station of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore, India. This publication makes use of data from the Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.

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This work was supported by a Procter Fellowship at Princeton University, and the US Department of Energy Grant DE-AC02-09-CH11466. We would like to thank A. Schekochihin, J. Krommes, I. Rogachevskii, and G. Lesur for enlightening discussion and useful suggestions.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the reviewer for his/her useful comments. We thank Volker Springel for kindly providing the simulation code arepo and Thomas Greif for providing the outputs of his simulations. This study was supported by World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI), MEXT, Japan and by SPPEXA through JST CREST JPMHCR1414. SI receives the funding from KAKENHI Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B), No. 17K17677. Final note: This letter is dedicated to our friend and colleague Dr. Thomas H. Greif (1981–2019).

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We thank the referee for her/his suggestions on sharpening the focus of our Letter. PM, GP, MT acknowledge the support from the ERC Consolidator Grant funding scheme ( project STARKEY , G.A. n. 615604).

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The authors would like to thank Timo Reinhold, Alexander Shapiro, and Gibor Basri for useful discussions. MBN and LG acknowledge support from NYUAD Institute grant G1502. This paper includes data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. Data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts.

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Acknowledgements The research of AP is supported by the Associateship Scheme of ICTP, Trieste and the Ramanujan Fellowship awarded by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are also very grateful to the anonymous referee for her/his instructive comments which significantly improved the content of the paper. This work is supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2017YFA0402703). This work has been supported by the National Science Foundations of China (Nos. 11973029 and 11873032).

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Based on observations obtained at the SOAR telescope, which is a joint project of the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, Inovações e Comunicações (MCTIC) do Brasil, the U.S. National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO), the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC), and Michigan State University (MSU). A.K. gratefully acknowledges support from the German Research Foundation (DFG) via Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 (“The Milky Way System,” subproject A08). We thank C.I. Johnson and A. Mucciarelli for useful comments. We thank the referee for the thorough reading of the manuscript and timely suggestions to improve it.

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F.M. thanks the Agence Nationale de la Recherche for financial support (grant ANR-11-JS56-0007). We thank John Hillier for making his atmosphere code CMFGEN available and for constant help with it. G.A.W. acknowledges Discovery Grant support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). We thank an anonymous referee for a prompt and positive report.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The groundwork for this paper began as an MPhys project completed by Alison Young and Jemma Holloway at the University of Exeter. We are grateful to David Acreman for assistance with running TORUS. We would also like to thank Nathan Mayne and Tim Naylor for helpful discussions regarding SED fitting and photometry. Finally, we thank the anonymous referee and Michael Dunham for comments that helped to improve the paper. Some figures were produced using the publically available SPLASH visualization software (Price 2007 ). This work was supported by the European Research Council under the European Commission’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013 Grant Agreement No. 339248). The calculations discussed in this paper were performed on the University of Exeter Supercomputer, a DiRAC Facility jointly funded by Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the Large Facilities Capital Fund of Department for Business Innovation Skills (BIS), and the University of Exeter. This work used the DiRAC Complexity system, operated by the University of Leicester IT Services, which forms part of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment is funded by BIS National E-Infrastructure capital grant ST/K000373/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K0003259/1. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. The JCMT has historically been operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the National Research Council of Canada and the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. Additional funds for the construction of SCUBA-2 were provided by the Canada Foundation for Innovation. Chris Mowat is supported by an STFC studentship. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. This research used the services of the Canadian Advanced Network for Astronomy Research (CANFAR), which is supported by CANARIE, Compute Canada, University of Victoria, the National Research Council of Canada, and the Canadian Space Agency. This research used the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre operated by the National Research Council of Canada with the support of the Canadian Space Agency. Starlink software (Currie et al. 2014 ) is supported by the East Asian Observatory. matplotlib is a 2D graphics package used for Python for application development, interactive scripting, and publication-quality image generation across user interfaces and operating systems. This research made use of aplpy (Robitaille Bressert 2012 ), an open-source plotting package for Python hosted at http://aplpy.github.com . Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led principal investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. This research has made use of data from the Herschel Gould Belt survey (HGBS) project ( http://gouldbelt-herschel.cea.fr ). The HGBS is a Herschel Key Programme jointly carried out by SPIRE Specialist Astronomy Group 3 (SAG 3), scientists of several institutes in the PACS Consortium (CEA Saclay, INAF-IFSI Rome and INAF-Arcetri, KU Leuven, MPIA Heidelberg), and scientists of the Herschel Science Center (HSC). The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.

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Acknowledgments We thank Alireza Rahmati, Alexandre Refregier and Sergey Koposov for useful discussions, and Robert Crain for kindly providing the data from the EAGLE simulations. This work has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in the AAS 143, 23. HP's research is supported by the Tomalla Foundation. GK gratefully acknowledges support from the ERC Advanced Grant 320596 ‘The Emergence of Structure During the Epoch of Reionization’.

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K. S. Croker warmly acknowledges: N. Kaiser (ENS) for numerous conversations clarifying the historical understanding of pressure within FLRW models; X. Tata (Hawai‘i) for penetrating feedback and explicit revisions; E. Mottola (LANL) for traveling to Hawai‘i for discussions concerning applications of this work and for pointing out omissions in early arguments; D. Farrah (Hawai‘i) for comments on clarity; J. D. Bjorken (SLAC) for regular correspondence and encouragement; and I. Szapudi (IfA) for criticism, which significantly strengthened the arguments presented. Portions of this work were performed with financial support from the Fulbright U.S. Student Program and the UH Vice Chancellor for Research. Software : Maxima 8 8 http://maxima.sourceforge.net (Maxima 2019 ).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PRB is supported by Track I award OIA-1458952 and is a member of the NANOGrav Physics Frontiers Center, which is supported by National Science Foundation award number 1430284. The Parkes radio telescope is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. Data taken at Parkes is available via a public archive. We thank the referee Patrick Weltevrede for valuable comments that helped to improve the text.

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This research has made use of the 2MASS archive, provided by NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Additionally, this research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.

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This research was primarily supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) through a Canada Graduate Scholarship (J. West) and the Canada Research Chairs and Discovery Grants Programs (S. Safi-Harb). The modeling was performed on a local computing cluster funded by the Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI) and the Manitoba Research and Innovation Fund (MRIF). The radio images presented in this paper and companion website made use of data obtained with the following facilities: CHIPASS 1.4 GHz radio continuum map, Canadian Galactic Plane Survey (CGPS) and other data from the Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory, Southern Galactic Plane Survey, Effelsberg 100 m Telescope and Stockert Galactic plane survey (2720 MHz; via MPIfR’s Survey Sampler), Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope (MOST) Supernova Remnant Catalogue (843 MHz), Sino-German 6 cm survey. Additionally we acknowledge the use of NASA’s SkyView facility ( http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov ) located at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center for the data from the 4850 MHz Survey/GB6 Survey, NRAO VLA Sky Survey, Sydney University Molonglo Sky Survey (843 MHz), and the Westerbork Northern Sky Survey (325 MHz Continuum). Very Large Array (VLA) data was acquired via the NRAO Science Data Archive and the Multi-Array Galactic Plane Imaging Survey. We thank Michael Bietenholz and David Kaplan for providing the VLA images of G021.6–00.8 and G042.8+00.6, respectively. This research made use of APLpy, an open-source plotting package for Python ( http://aplpy.github.com ) and Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013). This research also made use of Montage, which is funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number ACI-1440620, and was previously funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Earth Science Technology Office, Computation Technologies Project, under Cooperative Agreement Number NCC5-626 between NASA and the California Institute of Technology. This research has made use of the NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS). We thank the referee for comments that improved the manuscript.

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The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Unions Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) / ERC Grant Agreement No. 308024. This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 programme through ERC grant number 320360. The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for the comments that greatly helped us to improve the paper.

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SDO is a mission of NASA’s Living With a Star Program. We thank the referee for the suggestions, which helped to improve the paper. P.V. is supported by an INSPIRE grant of AORC scheme under the Department of Science and Technology. W.M. is funded by Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative Grant No. 2015PE015 and NSFC Grant Nos. 41131065, 41574165, and 41421063. C.M. and T.R. thank the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): [P26174-N27]. The presented work has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement No. 606692 [HELCATS]. C.J.F. was partially funded by STEREO FARSIDE grant to UNH and NASA STEREO grant NNX15AU01G (decline of cycle 24). We thank the ACE SWEPAM and MAG instrument teams and the ACE Science Center for providing the ACE data.

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Results in this paper are based on observations made with the NASA/DLR Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). SOFIA is jointly operated by the Universities Space Research Association, Inc. (USRA), under NASA contract NAS2-97001, and the Deutsches SOFIA Institut (DSI) under DLR contract 50-OK-0901 to the University of Stuttgart. Financial support for this work was provided by NASA through awards SOF-04-0205 and SOF-05-0014, issued by USRA. The authors wish to thank an anonymous referee for very useful comments. Parts of the observations described in this paper were obtained at the Hale Telescope, Palomar Observatory, as part of a continuing collaboration between the California Institute of Technology, NASA/JPL, Yale University, and the National Astronomical Observatories of China. The authors wish to thank Chris Martin, the CWI team, and the staff of the Palomar observatory for permission to use, and assistance with, the semi-private PCWI instrument. The authors also thank S. Laine (Caltech/IPAC) and M. Krause (MPIFR) for permission to use the radio continuum, CO 1–0, and processed IRAC images used in this paper. This work was initiated, in part, at the Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported by NSF grant PHY-1607611. T.D.-S. acknowledges support from ALMA-CONICYT project 31130005 and FONDE-CYT regular project 1151239.

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R. Hounsell acknowledges support from the Space Telescope Science Institute and the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. The USAF/NASA SMEI is a joint project of the University of California San Diego, Boston College, the University of Birmingham (UK), and the Air Force Research Laboratory. P.P.H., A.B., B.V.J., and J.M.C. acknowledge support from NSF grant ATM-0852246 and NASA grant NNX08AJ11G. A.W.S. acknowledges support from NSF grant AST-1009566. S.S. acknowledges partial support from NASA and NSF grants to ASU. We would like to thank Dr. Zach Cano (Centre for Astrophysics and Cosmology at the University of Iceland) for his thoughtful ideas and help during this project. Finally, we would like to thank the referee for their helpful comments and guidance.

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The authors would like to thank the institutional support of the Faculty of Philosophy and Science of the Silesian University in Opava, and the Albert Einstein Centre for Gravitation and Astrophysics supported by the Czech Science Foundation Grant No. 14-37086G.

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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Observatory O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O B-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O B-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant O O B-Grant O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Telescope O B-URL O O O O B-Telescope B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-URL O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-URL O


Acknowledgements We would like to thank our colleagues Ernesto Vieira Neto, Helton da Silva Gaspar, Luiz Augusto Guimarães Boldrin, Rafael Ribeiro de Sousa and Rodolfo José Bueno Rogerio for valuable discussions. This research was supported by the Brazilian agencies Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo - FAPESP (proc. 2016/24561-0).

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This research is based on observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory and has made use of software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application packages CIAO, ChIPS, and Sherpa. P.E. and N.R. acknowledge funding in the framework of the NWO Vidi award A.2320.0076. M.M. is supported by an STFC Ernest Rutherford fellowship (ST/L003597/1). R.P. was partly supported by NSF award AST-1616157. We thank the anonymous referee for many valuable comments. P.E. is grateful to Lia Corrales, Sandro Mereghetti, Elisa Costantini, and Mathieu Renzo for useful discussions. R.P. and P.E. are grateful to Richard McCray for relevant information. Facility: Chandra (ACIS, HRC). Software: ChaRT (Carter et al. 2003 ), CIAO (v4.8; Fruscione et al. 2006 ), FTOOLS (v6.21; Blackburn et al. 1995 ), MARX (v5.3; Davis et al. 2012 ), Sherpa (Freeman et al. 2001 ), XSPEC (v12.9.1; Arnaud et al. 1996 ).

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Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that contributed to this paper. We acknowledge helpful conversations with Dave Alexander, Francesca Civano, Andy Fabian, Ryan Hickox, James Mullaney, Kirpal Nandra and Marta Volonteri. JA acknowledges support from ERC Advanced Grant FEEDBACK 340442. AG acknowledges the thales project 383549 that is jointly funded by the European Union and the Greek Government in the framework of the programme ‘Education and lifelong learning’. This work is based in part on observations taken by the CANDELS Multi-Cycle Treasury Program and the 3D-HST Treasury Program (GO 12177 and 12328) with the NASA/ESA HST, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. The scientific results reported in this article are based to a significant degree on observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory.

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We thank Li Zeng for helpful discussions and an anonymous referee for a detailed review that greatly enhanced the quality of this paper.

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The authors thank Steve Finkelstein for helpful discussions, and the anonymous referee for insightful comments on the manuscript. AGS was supported by an AGEP-GRS supplement to NSF grant AST-1009973. MBK acknowledges support provided by NASA through Hubble Space Telescope theory grants (programs AR-12836 and AR-13888) from the Space Telescope Institute (STScI), which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. DRW is supported by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF-51331.01 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute. JSB was supported by HST AR-12836 and NSF AST-1009973.

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We thank Christine Wilson for making the Caltech Millimeter Array CO map available to us. We also thank the referee for valuable and supportive comments that have significantly helped us to improve the first submitted version of this paper. AMI acknowledges support from the Spanish MINECO through project AYA2015-68217-P. PMW received support through BMBF Verbundforschung (projects MUSE-AO, grant 05A14BAC, and MUSE-NFM, grant 05A17BAA). Based on observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO programmes 095.B-0042, 096.B-0017, and 097.B-0346. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This paper uses the plotting package jmaplot developed by Jesús Maíz-Apellániz 7 . We are also grateful to the communities who developed the many python packages used in this research, such MPDAF ( Piqueras et al. 2017 ), Astropy ( Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), numpy ( Walt et al. 2011 ), scipy ( Jones et al. 2001 ) and matplotlib ( Hunter 2007 ).

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M.M.-P. acknowledges support by the KASI and UNAM-DGAPA postdoctoral fellowships. This work is partially supported by the KASI project 2019184100 and Conacyt project CB-2016-281948. O.G.-M. acknowledges support by the PAPIIT projects IA100516. A.A.-H. acknowledges support through grant PG C2018-094671-B-I00 (MCIU/AEI/FEDER,UE). Work by A.A.H. was done under project No. MDM-2017-0737 Unidad de Excelencia “María de Maeztu”- Centro de Astrobiología (INTA-CSIC). Y.K. acknowledges support from grant DGAPA-PAPIIT 106518, and from program DGAPA-PASPA. T.H. acknowledges the support from the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT; 2019R1A2C1087045). C.R.A. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN) through project PN AYA2013-47742- C4-2-P. C.R.A. also acknowledges the Ramon y Cajal Program of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. This work is based on observations obtained with the Spitzer Space Observatory , which is operated by JPL, Caltech, under NASA contract 1407. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by JPL, Caltech, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. CASSIS is a product of the Infrared Science Center at Cornell University, supported by NASA and JPL.

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This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. L.F.R. and L.L. are grateful to CONACyT, Mexico and DGAPA, UNAM for their financial support. S.L. acknowledges support from project DGAPA IN105815 and CONACytT 238631. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2012.1.00123.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada) and NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ.

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We thank E. Barr, J-P. Macquart and an anonymous referee for extensive helpful comments which have hugely improved the quality of this manuscript. EFK and EP acknowledge the support of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110 001 020.

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The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for her or his valuable comments, which substantially helped to improve the quality of the paper. This research has made use of SIMBAD, 2MASS, the GCVS catalogue, and the AAVSO variable search index. D.A. acknowledges the USRA NASA postdoctoral programme and the support of the Center for Space and Habitability of the University of Bern. S.C. acknowledges the Hungarian OTKA Grant K113117. D.K. gratefully acknowledges the support of the Center for Space and Habitability of the University of Bern and the MERAC Foundation for partial financial assistance. This work has been carried out within the frame of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. D.K. acknowledges the financial support of the SNSF. HIPO work at Lowell is supported by USRA subcontract 8500-98-003. FLITECAM work at UCLA is supported by USRA subcontract 08500-05, PI Ian McLean. M.G. acknowledges financial support by the Helmholtz association, PD-015, and the Technische Universität Berlin.

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O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location I-Location O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O B-Location B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O O B-Location B-Location B-Location B-Location O B-Location O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Instrument I-Instrument O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Location O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O B-Location B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O B-Instrument O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-URL O O O O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O B-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant B-Organization O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Telescope O O B-Software I-Software O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O O B-Organization B-Location I-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Department of Space, Government of India. The research has made use of the SIMBAD data base operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France; the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA; and the data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. We acknowledge the dusty team for making their codes available for the astronomy community. We sincerely thank the anonymous referee for very useful comments, which improved the quality of the article.

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Acknowledgements MS and MJ acknowledge the support of the Academy of Finland Grant No. 285769. JMa acknowledges the support of ERC-2015-STG No. 679852 RADFEEDBACK.

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ZH acknowledges support from NASA grant NNX11AE05G. JP and RJ acknowledge support from Mineco grant FPA2011-29678-C02-02. JP acknowledges support from Anillo de Ciencia y Tecnologia (Project ACT1101). JP also thanks Yohan Dubois for providing the tracer particle patch for the ramses code. REG was supported by Proyecto Financiamiento Basal PFB-06’Centro de Astronomia y Tecnologias Afines’ and Proyecto Comité Mixto ESO 3312-013-82. The Geryon cluster at the Centro de Astro-Ingenieria UC was extensively used for the analysis calculations performed in this paper. The Anillo ACT-86, FONDEQUIP AIC-57 and QUIMAL 130008 provided funding for several improvements to the Geryon cluster. Finally, we thank the anonymous referee for useful comments on the manuscript.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Marat Gilfanov for helpful comments. O.G. is supported by an NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Fellowship under award AST-1602595. This work is based on data obtained with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , all of which was obtained from MAST. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with NASA.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the Swedish National Space Board (SNSB) through grants 108/12, 112/13, and 96/15. We are indebted to the whole Rosetta mission team, Science Ground Segment, and Rosetta Mission Operation Control for their hard work making this mission possible.

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T.R. and D.H. are supported by the German Aerospace Center (DLR, grants 05 OR 1507 and 50 OR 1501, respectively). The GAVO project had been supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) at Tübingen (05 AC 6 VTB, 05 AC 11 VTB) and is funded at Heidelberg (05 AC 11 VH3). Financial support from the Belgian FRS-FNRS is also acknowledged. PQ is research director of this organization. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. We thank Ralf Napiwotzki for putting the reduced ESO/VLT spectra at our disposal, Monica Raineri who sent us the electronic versions of the Kr iv ( Bredice et al. 2000 ) and Kr v ( Raineri et al. 2012 ) data, and Liang Liang who provided the Kr vii data ( Liang et al. 2013 ). This work used the profile-fitting procedure, OWENS, that was developed by M. Lemoine and the FUSE French Team. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System and the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. The TheoSSA service ( http://dc.g-vo.org/theossa ) used to retrieve theoretical spectra for this paper and the TOSS service ( http://dc.g-vo.org/TOSS ) that provides weighted oscillator strengths and transition probabilities were constructed as part of the activities of the German Astrophysical Virtual Observatory.

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The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 745782. B.V. and M.D. acknowledge financial support by the Croatian Science Foundation under project 6212 “Solar and Stellar Variability.” M.T. acknowledges the support by the FFG/ASAP Programme under grant no. 859729 (SWAMI) and from the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) V195-N16.

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This work was sponsored by the Chief of Naval Research and NASA’s Hinode project. Hinode is a Japanese mission developed and launched by ISAS/JAXA, with NAOJ as domestic partner and NASA and STFC (UK) as international partners.

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G.M.W. acknowledges discussions with Frank Rieger, who pointed out the numerical error in the expression for the particle gyro-radius in Equation (99) of Webb et al. ( 2018a ). We thank the referee for a very thorough report and for pointing out inconsistencies and errors in the original manuscript. G.M.W. and G.L. were supported in part by NASA grant 80NSSC19K0075. P.M. acknowledges the support of a NASA Earth and Space Science Fellowship Grant 16-HELIO16F-0022. J.A.L.R. is supported in part by NASA grants NNX15A165G, 80NSSC19K0276, and NSF-DOE grant PHY-1707247. G.P.Z. has been supported in part by the NSF EPSCoR RII-Track-1 Cooperative Agreement OIA-1655280 and an NSF/DOE Partnership in Basic Plasma Science and Engineering via NSF grant PHY-1707247. A.F.B. acknowledges valuable insights and discussions with Prof. Peter Biermann on UHECR and candidate sources and radio galaxies.

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We thank Dr. Jin Matsumoto for fruitful discussions and comments. Shinsuke Takasao acknowledges support from the Research Fellowship of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). This work was supported by the Grant-in-Aids from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (No. 25287039).

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The authors acknowledge the efforts of the Kepler Mission team in obtaining the light curve data used in this publication. These data were generated by the Kepler Mission science pipeline through the efforts of the Kepler Science Operations Center and Science Office. The Kepler Mission is lead by the project office at NASA Ames Research Center. Ball Aerospace built the Kepler photometer and spacecraft which is operated by the mission operations center at LASP. These data products are archived at the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes. The authors would thank the University at Albany Physics Department for its ongoing support in our exoplanet research. Daniel Angerhausen’s Research was supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Goddard Space Flight Center, administered by Oak Ridge Associated Universities through a contract with NASA. The authors thank Em DeLarme, Jon Morse, William B. Rossow, and Barbara J. Thompson for discussions about this exciting extrasolar system.

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E.H. acknowledges support by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) and the Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) through grant ESP2016-80435-C2-1-R, as well as the support of the Generalitat de Catalunya/CERCA program. D. D. acknowledges support provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51372.001-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. E.S. acknowledges support by the Russian Science Foundation grant No. 14-50-00043 for conducting international photometric observing campaign. I.S. acknowledges support by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project No. 17-02-00542). R.B. acknowledges support from FONDECYT Post-doctoral Fellowship Project No. 3180246. M.L. acknowledges support from the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG) under project 859724 “GRAPPA”. S.-H.G. acknowledges the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.U1531121). L.C. recognizes funding from DLR – 50OR1804. Funding for the Stellar Astrophysics Centre is provided by The Danish National Research Foundation (Grant agreement no.: DNRF106). We thank the staff at the various participating observatories STELLA, CASLEO, Calar Alto, TJO, and others for their support. Partly based on data obtained with the STELLA robotic telescopes in Tenerife, an AIP facility jointly operated by AIP and IAC, on data acquired at Complejo Astronómico El Leoncito, operated under agreement between the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina and the National Universities of La Plata, Córdoba and San Juan, on observations collected at the Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA) at Calar Alto, operated jointly by the Max-Planck Institut für Astronomie and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (CSIC), and on data obtained with the Joan Oró Telescope (TJO) of the Montsec Astronomical Observatory (OAdM), owned by the Generalitat de Catalunya and operated by the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia (IEEC). This research has made use of the SIMBAD data base and VizieR catalog access tool, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, and of the NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS).

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This research has made use of data and software obtained from the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), provided by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. We acknowledge the use of Fermi -LAT data and analysis tools from Fermi Science Support Center. We thank Dr. David Paneque for providing published multiwaveband campaign data of Mrk 501.

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SDO is a mission of NASA’s Living With a Star Program. SOHO is a project of international cooperation between ESA and NASA. This work used the DAVE4VM code written and developed by P. W. Schuck at the Naval Research Laboratory. I thank the referee, Prof. P. Démoulin, and Prof. B. Ravindra for useful comments and suggestions. P.V. is supported by an INSPIRE grant of AORC scheme under the Department of Science and Technology.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge partial financial support from the Center for Space and Habitability (CSH), the PlanetS National Center of Competence in Research (NCCR), the Swiss National Science Foundation, a European Research Council (ERC) Consolidator Grant, and the Swiss-based MERAC Foundation. CF acknowledges partial financial support from a University of Bern International 2021 Ph.D. Fellowship. We thank Simon Grimm, Daniel Kitzmann, Maria Oreshenko, Shami Tsai, and Matej Malik for constructive conversations.

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H.F. and G.Z. are supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant nos. 11390371, 11233004, and 11603033. D.G.Y. was supported by NSF grant AST-1009603, D.E.W. by NSF grant AST-1238926, J.A.D. by NSF grant AST-1008424, T.P.S. by NSF grant AST-1009929, and B.L.R. by NSF grant AST-1008801. Based in part on data obtained from the ESO Science Archive Facility by user “zihaoj.” Facilities: APO (ARCES) , ESO/Max Planck: 2.2 m (FEROS) , Magellan : Clay (MIKE) .

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