The authors thank Drs. Alan Heays, Kenji Furuya, and Mihkel Kama for useful discussions and an anonymous referee for their insightful comments. C.W. acknowledges support from the European Union A-ERC grant 291141 CHEMPLAN and from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO, program number 639.041.335). H.N. acknowledges the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research 23103005 and 25400229. She also acknowledges support from the Astrobiology Project of the CNSI, NINS (grant numbers AB261004, AB261008). A portion of the numerical calculations were carried out on SR16000 at YITP in Kyoto University.

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Positive criticism from an anonymous referee led to substantial improvements in the paper. This research was supported by NSERC of Canada. Computations were performed on the niagara supercomputer at the SciNet HPC Consortium. SciNet is funded by: the Canada Foundation for Innovation; the Government of Ontario; Ontario Research Fund—Research Excellence; and the University of Toronto.

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We wish to thank the anonymous referee for the useful comments which significantly improved the paper.


T.-W. Chen thanks the organisers and participants of MIAPP workshop “Supernovae: The Outliers” for stimulating discussions: You-Hua Chu for interacting galaxy, Maryam Modjaz for metallicity and Ken’ichi Nomoto for CSM model. T.-W. Chen thanks Stefan Taubenberger for bolometric light curve comparison and participants in the Garching SN meeting for useful advise. T.W.C, T.K., R.Y. and P.W. acknowledge the support through the Sofia Kovalevskaja Award to P. Schady from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation of Germany. S.J.S. acknowledges ERC grant 291222 and STFC grants ST/I001123/1 and ST/L000709/1. L.G. was supported in part by the US National Science Foundation under Grant AST-1311862. A.J. acknowledges funding by the European Union’s Framework Programme for Research and Innovation Horizon 2020 under Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 702538. M.S. acknowledges support from EU/FP7-ERC grant 615929. K.M. acknowledges support from the STFC through an Ernest Rutherford Fellowship. The Liverpool Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. Part of the funding for GROND (both hardware as well as personnel) was generously granted from the Leibniz-Prize to Prof. G. Hasinger (DFG grant HA 1850/28-1). We acknowlegde use of the Pan-STARRS1 photometric reference catalogue: the Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) have been made possible through contributions of the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, Queen’s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, and Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE) and the Los Alamos National Laboratory.

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We thank a number of unnamed colleagues for interesting discussions. G.Ö. is a Royal Swedish Academy of Science research fellow (supported by a grant from the Knut Alice Wallenbergs foundation). This work was supported by the Swedish Research Council and the Swedish National Space Board. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.

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This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant Nos 11203016 and 11143012. This work is partly supported by the Young Scholars Program of Shandong University, Weihai. We are also grateful for data taken and assembled by the WEBT collaboration and stored in the WEBT archive at the Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino-INAF ( http://www.oato.inaf.it/blazars/webt/ ) and data from the Steward Observatory spectropolarimetric monitoring project supported by Fermi Guest Investigator grants NNX08AW56G, NNX09AU10G and NNX12AO93G, as well as data from the variable star observations from the AAVSO International Database contributed by observers worldwide.

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S.K. and P.M.W. received funding through BMBF Verbundforschung (project MUSE-AO, grant 05A14BAC and 05A14MGA). Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA), and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA).

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Acknowledgments We thank the referee, James Reeves, for his helpful comments. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and the USA (NASA). M.D. acknowledges financial under contract ASI – INAF grant I/037/12/0. G.P. acknowledges the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (BMWI/DLR, FKZ 50 OR 1408) and the Max Planck Society. B.D.M. acknowledges support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 665778 via the Polish National Science Center grant Polonez UMO-2016/21/P/ST9/04025.

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This research was supported by the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute under the RD program (Project No. 3348-20160002) supervised by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning. Support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Grant No. Yo 194/1-1, is gratefully acknowledged. P.N. would like to thank Phillip Podsiadlowski and Stephan Geier for useful discussions.

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U.M. and H.B.P. acknowledge support from the Marie Curie FP7 career integration grant “GRAND,” the Research Cooperation Lower Saxony-Israel Niedersachsisches Vorab fund, the Minerva center for life under extreme planetary conditions and the ISF I-CORE grant 1829/12.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee whose comments and suggestions helped to significantly improve the manuscript.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is supported by the I-CORE program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee (grant 1937/12), and was performed in part at Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported by National Science Foundation grant PHY-1607611. We thank an anonymous referee for useful comments.

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We are thankful to the journal referee for constructive comments. We are also grateful to the Fermi -LAT Collaboration internal referee Rodrigo Nemmen for useful suggestions and Philippe Bruel, Elizabetta Cavazzutti, Sara Cutini, Seth Digel, Alberto Domínguez, Marcello Giroletti, and Dave Thompson for critical reading of the manuscript. The Fermi LAT Collaboration acknowledges generous ongoing support from a number of agencies and institutes that have supported both the development and the operation of the LAT, as well as scientific data analysis. These include NASA and the Department of Energy in the United States, the Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules in France, the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana and Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare in Italy, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) in Japan, and the K. A. Wallenberg Foundation, Swedish Research Council, and Swedish National Space Board in Sweden. Additional support for science analysis during the operations phase is gratefully acknowledged from the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica in Italy and the Centre National d’Études Spatiales in France. This work performed in part under DOE Contract DE-AC02-76SF00515. This research has made use of data obtained through the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center Online Service, provided by the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. Part of this work is based on archival data, software, or online services provided by the ASI Data Center (ASDC). This research has made use of the XRT Data Analysis Software (XRTDAS). This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. The scientific results reported in this article are based on data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive. This research has made use of software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application packages CIAO, ChIPS, and Sherpa. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by NASA. Software: SAS (v15.0.0), fermiPy (Wood et al. 2017 ), XSPEC (Arnaud 1996 ), Swift-XRT data product generator (Evans et al. 2009 ), CIAO (v.4.9).

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Acknowledgements JDS acknowledges the support from the European Research Council (ERC) under the Horizon 2020 Framework Program via the Consolidator Grant CSF-648505. AB acknowledges the support from the ERC Advanced Grant ORISTARS under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (Grant 291294). AP was partly funded by a Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics (CITA) National Fellowship. We thank the referee M. Alves for her constructive comments that have led to improvements in this presentation of our results. Thanks to M. Houde and S. Basu for their comments on the early versions of this work. We also thank the following people who helped with their encouragement and conversation: P. G. Martin, H. Beuther, C. Heiles, T. Robishaw, M.-A. Miville-Deschênes, and A. Roy. Special thanks go to Thomas Müller at the Haus der Astronomie for his assistance in the magnetic field visualization.

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Research at Armagh Observatory is a grant aided by the N. Ireland Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure. M.M. is funded by the Leverhulme trust. We thank Richard Harrison for important discussion and an anonymous referee for insightful comments. M.M. thanks Kamalam Vanninathan, Astrid Veronig and Zhenghua Huang for fruitful discussions on this manuscript. We are grateful to Vasyl Yurchyshyn for providing us with the BBSO images. We thank STFC for the support via ST/J001082/1.

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Acknowledgments GDS and MO'D are partially supported by Department of Energy grant DE-SC0009946 to the particle astrophysics theory group at CWRU. MO'D is partially supported by the CAPES Foundation of the Ministry of Education of Brazil. Some of the results in this paper have been derived using the healpix (Górski et al. 2005 ) package. This work made use of the High Performance Computing Resource in the Core Facility for Advanced Research Computing at Case Western Reserve University.

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We acknowledge valuable communications and discussions with F. Bouchet, C. Burigana, J. Dunkley, G. Efstathiou, K. Ganga, P. Naselsky, H. Peiris, C. Räth and D. Scott. GDS and CJC are supported by a grant from the US Department of Energy to the Particle Astrophysics Theory Group at CWRU. DH has been supported by the DOE, NSF, and the Michigan Center for Theoretical Physics. DJS is supported by the DFG grant RTG 1620 ‘Models of gravity’. DH thanks the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics and GDS thanks the Theory Unit at CERN for their respective hospitality. This work made extensive use of the healpix package (Górski et al. 2005 ). The numerical simulations were performed on the facilities provided by the Case ITS High Performance Computing Cluster. We acknowledge the use of the Legacy Archive for Microwave Background Data Analysis (LAMBDA), part of the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Center (HEASARC). HEASARC/LAMBDA is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. This paper made use of observations obtained with Planck ( http://www.esa.int/Planck ), an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States, NASA, and Canada.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by NASA Astrophysics Theory Program grant NNX13AG61G and the International Space Science Institute in Bern. SH was supported by Japan JSPS KAKENH 15K05040 and the joint research project of ILE, Osaka University. The radiation MHD simulation was partly carried out on the Cray XT4 at CfCA, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, and on SR16000 at YITP in Kyoto University.

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E.W.C. thanks Karel Schrijver and Jürg Beer for organizing a series of stimulating ISSI Team meetings on extreme solar events, and Ian Richardson for sharing results in advance of publication. E.D. acknowledges support from the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) through the ESA-PRODEX programme, grant No. 4000120800.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This publication makes use of vosa , developed under the Spanish Virtual Observatory project supported from the Spanish MICINN through grant AyA2011-24052. This research has made use of the SIMBAD data base and VizieR catalogue access tool, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. This is based on observations made with the CAOS operated by the Catania Astrophysical Observatory.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge the Virgo Consortium for making their simulation data available. The eagle simulations were performed using the DiRAC-2 facility at Durham, managed by the ICC, and the PRACE facility Curie based in France at TGCC, CEA, Bruyg̀resle-Chåtel. We would like to thank Claudio Dalla Vecchia for the kind help with the data handling. We also thank Romeel Davé for providing the simba simulation data and for his help in interpreting them, and the CANDELS team for providing the latest available data.

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This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant 14-12-01287 (S.S.T., A.A.L., A.A.M.), the Foundations’ Professor Pool, the Finnish Cultural Foundation and the Academy of Finland grant 268740 (J.P.). We also acknowledge the support from the COST Action MP1304.

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Acknowledgements We thank L. Dunne and S. Maddox for hosting the author and for initial advice at the University of Canterbury and subsequent helpful discussions. Stuart Weston is a recipient of a CSIRO Astronomy and Space Science, Australia Telescope National Facility Graduate Research Scholarship. Nicholas Seymour is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship. Mattia Vaccari acknowledges support from the European Commission Research Executive Agency (FP7-SPACE-2013-1 GA 607254), the South African Department of Science and Technology (DST/CON 0134/2014) and the Italian Ministry for Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation (PGR GA ZA14GR02). We thank the referee, Jim Condon, for critically reading the manuscript and suggesting substantial improvements which have significantly improved the paper.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS WEK was supported by an ESO Fellowship and the Excellence Cluster Universe, Technische Universität München, Boltzmannstrasse 2, D-85748 Garching, Germany. Support for program #13432 was provided to KSL and PFW by NASA through grant HST -GO-13432 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. PFW acknowledges additional support from the NSF through grant AST-1714281. We would like to acknowledge the detailed discussions and input from Marten van Kerkwijk and Kim Venn during the preparation of the HST proposal that led to the observations reported here. We would like to acknowledge the helpful comments by our referee.

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We thank an anonymous referee for his useful comments and suggestions. G. Picogna acknowledges the support through the German Research Foundation (DFG) grant KL 650/21 within the collaborative research program “The first 10 Million Years of the Solar System”. Some simulations were performed on the bwGRiD cluster in Tübingen, which is funded by the Ministry for Education and Research of Germany and the Ministry for Science, Research and Arts of the state Baden-Württemberg, and the cluster of the Forschergruppe FOR 759 “The Formation of Planets: The Critical First Growth Phase” funded by the DFG.

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The authors would like to thank Mayte Alfaro Cuello, Moritz Reichert and Thomas de Boer for readily sharing their results with us. This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 804240).

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We are grateful to the referee, Scott Gaudi, for providing constructive criticism that has led to improvements in this paper. We thank the members of the TESS Science Team for their contributions to the mission. In particular, Jacob Bean, Tabetha Boyajian, Eric Gaidos, Daniel Huber, Geoffrey Marcy, Roberto Sanchis-Ojeda, and Keivan Stassun provided helpful comments on the manuscript, and discussions with Jon Jenkins helped inform our approach to the simulations. We acknowledge Anthony Smith, Kristin Clark, and Michael Chrisp at MIT-Lincoln Laboratory for their respective roles in the project management, systems engineering, and optical design for the TESS payload. In addition, Barry Burke and Vyshnavi Suntharalingam at MIT-LL provided useful input to the PSF model. We thank Leo Girardi for adding the TESS bandpass to the TRILEGAL simulation and for providing a perl script to facilitate the queries. We also thank Gibor Basri for sharing the stellar variability data from Kepler . This publication makes use of data products from the 2MASS, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.

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We acknowledge helpful comments and suggestions from our referee. We thank Spanish MINECO for funding support under grants CSD2009-00038, AYA2009-07304, and AYA2012-32032. We also thank the ERC for support under grant ERC-2013-Syg-610256-NANOCOSMOS. Part of this research was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), California Institute of Technology (Caltech), under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Support for this work was provided by NASA through an award issued by JPL/Caltech. This work was supported by the German Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG project number SFB 956, C1. This work was in part also supported by theCNRS program “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire (PCMI).” Facilities: Herschel Space Observatory , IRAM:30m.

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M.Y.S. thanks K. D. Denney for a beneficial discussion. We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that improved the paper. M.Y.S. and Y.Q.X. acknowledge the support from NSFC-11603022, NSFC-11473026, NSFC-11421303, the 973 Program (2015CB857004), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2016M600485), the CAS Frontier Science Key Research Program (QYZDJ-SSW-SLH006), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities. W.N.B. acknowledges support from NSF Grant AST-1516784 and Chandra X-ray Center grant GO6-17083X. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. Software: Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), Kapteyn (Terlouw Vogelaar 2015 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), Numpy Scipy (Van Der Walt et al. 2011 ).

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The authors are very grateful to Stephen Bougher for generously providing access to the M-GITM model, and acknowledge valuable discussions with Andrew Knoll, Janet Luhmann, Michael Summers, Lei Dai, Takuya Shibayama, and David Pawlowski. The detailed and insightful report furnished by the referee is also much appreciated. M.L. and A.L. were partly supported by grants from the Breakthrough Prize Foundation for the Starshot Initiative and Harvard University’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences, and by the Institute for Theory and Computation (ITC) at Harvard University. C.D. was supported by the NASA Living With a Star Jack Eddy Postdoctoral Fellowship Program, administered by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. X.F. and B.M.J. acknowledge support from NASA’s MAVEN mission. Resources for this work were provided by the NASA High-End Computing (HEC) Program through the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Division at Ames Research Center.

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FD is indebted to the ScaLAPACK team for both the provision of their libraries and their responses to numerous questions. FD thanks the European Research Council (ERC) for funding under the H2020 research innovation programme (grant agreement #740651 NewWorlds). NJM is part funded by a Leverhulme Trust Research Project Grant and partly supported by a Science and Technology Facilities Council Consolidated Grant (ST/R000395/1), both of which we gratefully acknowledge. This study uses material produced using Met Office Software. Additionally, used the DiRAC Complexity system, operated by the University of Leicester IT Services, which forms part of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment is funded by BIS National E-Infrastructure capital grant ST/K000373/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K0003259/1. DiRAC is part of the National e-Infrastructure. Additionally, this research made use of the ISCA High Performance Computing Service at the University of Exeter. Finally, this work was also partly funded by the ERC grant No. 320478-TOFU.

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This research has made use of data and/or software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The High-Energy Astrophysics Group of Palermo acknowledges support from the Fondo Finalizzato alla Ricerca (FFR) 2012/13, project No. 2012-ATE-0390. We also acknowledge a financial contribution from the agreement ASI-INAF I/037/12/0. M.D.S. thanks the Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica, Università di Palermo, for its hospitality. A.R. and A.S. gratefully acknowledge the Sardinia Regional Government for its financial support (P.O.R. Sardegna F.S.E. Operational Programme of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia, European Social Fund 2007-2013 – Axis IV Human Resources, Objective l.3, Line of Activity l.3.1.). A.P. acknowledges grant SGR2014-1073 and partial support from “NewCompStar”, COST Action MP1304. A.P. acknowledges support via an EU Marie Skłodowska-Curie fellowship under grant No. 660657-TMSP-H2020-MSCA-IF-2014, as well as fruitful discussion with the international team on “The diskmagnetosphere interaction around transitional millisecond pulsars” at ISSI (International Space Science Institute), Bern.

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We thank Matias Zaldarriaga for useful discussions. US acknowledges support from NASA grant NNX15AL17G. ZV is supported in part by the U.S. Department of Energy contract to SLAC no. DE-AC02-76SF00515. IM is supported by Fermi Research Alliance, LLC under Contract No. De-AC02-07CH11359 with the United States Department of Energy.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge financial support from the national programs (PNP, PNPS, PCMI) of INSU, CNRS, CEA, and CNES, France. This project was partly supported by the IDEXLyon project (contract nANR-16-IDEX-0005) under the auspices University of Lyon. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 823823. This work has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement ERC advanced grant 740021-ARTHUS, PI: Thomas Buchert). We thank the referee for his constructive report. We have used mathematica (Wolfram Research 14 ).

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Both BN and MS acknowledge the financial support and hospitality provided by the European Southern Observatory (ESO) through the award of an ESO studentship and visiting fellowship, respectively. EMC, EDB, LM, and AP acknowledge financial support from Padua University through grants DOR1699945/16, DOR1715817/17, DOR1885254/18, and BIRD164402/16.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. The authors would also like to thank referee Santiago García-Burillo, who provided valuable input and helped improve the condition of the publication.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Matthias Bartelmann for helpful comments on this analysis and for acting as the external blinder for the KiDS-450 data. We are also very grateful to Mike Jarvis for the treecorr correlation function measurement software and Martin Kilbinger for the nicaea theoretical modelling software. We are thankful to Vasiliy Demchenko, Naomi Robertson, Shahab Joudaki, Laura Jean Wells, and members of the KiDS consortium for useful discussions. We extend our gratitude to the anonymous referee for their comments which improved this paper. BG, CH, JHD, AA, MA, and TT acknowledge support from the European Research Council under grant number 647112. JHD also acknowledges support from the European Commission under a Marie-Sklodwoska-Curie European Fellowship (EU project 656869). LvW is supported by NSERC of Canada. HH is supported by an Emmy Noether grant (No. Hi 1495/2-1) of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. KK acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. PS acknowledges support from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in the framework of the TR33 ‘The Dark Universe’. TT acknowledges funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement number 797794. This KiDS data are based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 177.A-3016, 177.A-3017, and 177.A-3018. Computations for the SLICS N -body simulations (now publicly available; http://slics.roe.ac.uk ) were performed in part on the Orcinus supercomputer at the WestGrid High Performance Computing (HPC) Consortium ( www.westgrid.ca ), in part on the General Purpose Cluster supercomputer at the SciNet HPC Consortium. SciNet is funded by: the Canada Foundation for Innovation under the auspices of Compute Canada; the Government of Ontario; Ontario Research Fund – Research Excellence; and the University of Toronto. All authors contributed to the development and writing of this paper. The authorship list is given in three groups: the lead authors (BG, CH, JHD, and FS), followed by two alphabetical groups. The first alphabetical group includes those who are key contributors to both the scientific analysis and the data products. The second group covers those who have either made a significant contribution to the data products, or to the scientific analysis.

O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O B-Software O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O B-Software O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Location B-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Location B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Survey O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Proposal I-Proposal I-Proposal B-Proposal O B-Proposal O O O B-Model I-Model I-Model I-Model O O O B-URL O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O B-URL O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Acknowledgements We would like to thank J. D. Long for Python advice and the referee for comments that improved this paper. OCJ and MM acknowledge support from NASA grant, NNX14AN06G, for this work. The authors also acknowledge financial support from the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) Taiwan under grant MOST104-2628-M-001-004-MY3. IM and AAZ were funded by the Science and Technology Facilities Council under grant ST/L000768/1. The NASA Astrophysics and Data Analysis Program (Grant NNX13AE66G) supported GCS and the addition of high-resolution IRS spectra to CASSIS, the Combined Atlas of Sources with Spitzer IRS Spectra. Readers are referred to ApJS, 196, 8 (2011). BAS acknowledges support from NASA grants NNX13AD54G and NNX15AF15G. The work of MS was supported by the appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at Goddard Space Flight Center. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS, 143, 23 (2000). Facilities: Spitzer (IRS), Spitzer (MIPS), Spitzer (IRAC).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for their constructive comments that helped us improve the manuscript. DS acknowledges the hospitality of the IAC and a Severo Ochoa visiting grant. SS and JC acknowledge studentships from the Lancaster University. JM acknowledges a Huygens PhD fellowship from Leiden University. APA acknowledges financial support from the Science and Technology Foundation (FCT, Portugal) through research grants UID/FIS/04434/2013 and fellowship PD/BD/52706/2014. The authors thank Alyssa Drake, Kimihiko Nakajima, Yuichi Harikane, Max Gronke, Irene Shivaei, Helmut Dannerbauer, Huub Röttgering, Marius Eide, and Masami Ouchi for many engaging and stimulating discussions. We also thank Sara Perez, Alex Bennett, and Tom Rose for their involvement in the early stages of this project. Based on data products from observations made with European Southern Observatory (ESO) Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under ESO programme IDs 294.A-5018, 097.A-0943, 098.A-0819, 099.A-0254, and 179.A-2005 and on data products produced by terapix and the Cambridge Astronomy Survey Unit on behalf of the UltraVISTA consortium. Based on observations using the WFC on the 2.5 m INT, as part of programmes 2013AN002, 2013BN008, 2014AC88, 2014AN002, 2014BN006, 2014BC118, and 2016AN001. The INT is operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. This work is based in part on data products produced at terapix available at the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre as part of the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey (CFHTLS), a collaborative project of NRC and CNRS. We are grateful to the CFHTLS, COSMOS-UltraVISTA, and COSMOS survey teams. We are also unmeasurably thankful to the pioneering and continuous work from previous Ly α surveys’ teams. Without these previous Ly α and the wider reach legacy surveys, this research would have been impossible. We also thank the VUDS team for making available spectroscopic redshifts from data obtained with VIMOS at the European Southern Observatory Very Large Telescope, Paranal, Chile, under Large Programme 185.A-0791. Finally, the authors acknowledge the unique value of the publicly available programming language python , including the numpy and scipy (Van Der Walt, Colbert Varoquaux 2011 ; Jones et al. 2001 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), and the topcat analysis program (Taylor 2005 ). We publicly release a catalogue with all LAEs used in this paper (SC4K), so it can be freely explored by the community (see five example entries in Table A1 ).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Location O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Observatory O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Location B-Proposal I-Proposal I-Proposal B-Proposal B-Proposal B-Proposal O B-Proposal O O O O O O B-Software O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O B-Instrument O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O B-Proposal I-Proposal B-Proposal B-Proposal B-Proposal B-Proposal B-Proposal O B-Proposal O B-Telescope O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey B-Survey O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization O O O O O B-Survey B-Survey O B-Survey O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey O O O O O O O O O O B-Instrument O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Location I-Location O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Software O O O B-Software O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O B-Software O O B-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O B-Dataset O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


The authors would like to sincerely thank an anonymous referee whose comments led to substantial improvements in the manuscript, Luc Arnold for discussions on the E-ELT capabilities, Franck Selsis for discussions on the thermal-IR emission of planets with an atmosphere during their day–night cycle, and Antoine Crouzier for different comments. A.L. and F.M. thank CNES for their continuous technical support regarding space interferometry, free flying, and high-precision astrometry, and the French POLCA project (ANR-10-BLAN-0511). O.A. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Program (ERC grant agreement No. 337569) and from the French Community of Belgium through an ARC grant for Concerted Research Action.

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This work is based on the observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO programme 095.D-0343(A). We thank the anonymous referee for his/her very constructive comments to our manuscript. RPM acknowledges financial support from the project TElescopi CHErenkov made in Italy (TECHE).it. CRA 1.05.06.04.01 cap 1.05.08 for the project ‘Studio multi-lunghezze d'onda da stelle di neutroni con particolare riguardo alla emissione di altissima energia’. DGC acknowledges the financial support by CONICYT through a ‘Becas Chile’ fellowship no. 72150555.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for detailed, insightful, and thorough feedback that improved the quality of the manuscript. We would also like to thank Till Sawala for useful discussions and for providing the raw data used in Appendix C , and Roan Haggar for code-testing the public software. This research made use of numpy (van der Walt, Colbert Varoquaux 2011 ), scipy (Jones, Oliphant Peterson 2011 ) and matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ) and we thank their developers for making them freely available. ON was supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) through grant ST/N50404X/1 and MC, ARJ, and CSF were supported by STFC grant ST/L00075X/1. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grants ST/H008539/1 and ST/K00087X/1, STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1, and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure.

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Acknowledgements SB is thankful to the anonymous referee for helpful comments that helped us improve some of the descriptions in this paper. SB is indebted to Sverre Aarseth of the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge, for his efforts in improving nbody6/7 , without which this study would not have been possible. SB is thankful to Sverre Aarseth also for reading the manuscript and providing improvement suggestions. SB is thankful to the computing team of the Argelander-Institut fr Astronomie, University of Bonn, for their efficient maintenance of the workstations on which all the computations have been performed.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Alis Deason for providing the properties of her modelled stellar haloes in electronic form. We acknowledge useful discussions with Antonela Monachesi, Kohei Hattori, Sarah Loebman, Monica Valluri, Ian Roederer, and Adam Smercina. We also would like to thank the Illustris simulations team, in particular Annalisa Pillepich, Vincent Rodrigues-Gomez, and Dylan Nelson.

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We thank Bharat Kumar Yerra, Li Haining, Tan Kefeng, and Liu Yujuan for their constructive suggestions and discussions. This work is supported by the Astronomical Big Data Joint Research Center, co-founded by the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the Alibaba Cloud. This study is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant Nos. 11390371, 11233004, U1431106, 11573035, 11625313, and 11603033, the National Key Basic Research Program of China (973 program), 2014CB845701 and 2014CB845703, and JSPS—CAS Joint Research Program. W.A. is partially supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant No. 16H02168.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the referee for valuable comments. EK thanks K. É. Gabányi and S. Frey for discussions on the topic. This work was supported by the Hungarian National Research Development and Innovation Office (NKFIH) in the form of the grant 123996, and it was based upon work from the COST action CA15117 (CANTATA), supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology). This research has made use of data from the OVRO 40-m monitoring programme (Richards et al. 2011 ), which is supported in part by NASA grants NNX08AW31G, NNX11A043G and NNX14AQ89G and NSF grants AST-0808050 and AST-1109911. This research has made use of data from the MOJAVE data base, which is maintained by the MOJAVE team (Lister et al. 2009a ). The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.

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We thank the anonymous referee for the comments and suggestions that improved this paper. We acknowledge Vladimir Avila-Reese, Xavier Hernandez, Manuel Peimbert and Liliana Hernández-Martínez, for helpful suggestions. LC thanks for the financial supports provided by CONACyT of México (grant 241732), by PAPIIT of México (IG110115, IA100815, IA101315) and by MINECO of Spain (AYA2010-16717). NA-V thanks for the financial support provided by Universidad Iberoamericana.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the anonymous referee for constructive feedback that improved the manuscript. We wish to sincerely thank all the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, SMA, JCMT, and IRAM NOEMA staff that supported us during this observing campaign. The authors also offer a special thanks to the IRAM NOEMA Director, Karl-Fredrich Schuster, for granting our NOEMA DDT request. AJT thanks Craig Heinke and Bailey Tetarenko for useful discussions on accretion disc contributions in broad-band spectra of X-ray binaries. AJT is supported by an Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Post-Graduate Doctoral Scholarship (PGSD2-490318-2016). AJT and GRS are supported by NSERC Discovery Grants. JCAMJ is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT140101082). SBM acknowledges support from VICI grant Nr. 639.043.513/520, funded by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO). TDR acknowledges support from the NWO Veni Fellowship, grant number 639.041.646. DA acknowledges support from the Royal Society. This work is based on observations carried out under project numbers S15DE and D15AB with the IRAM NOEMA Interferometer. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. We thank the engineers and staff of the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory for maintenance and operation of AMI, which is supported by the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford. The AMI telescope acknowledges support from the European Research Council under grant ERC-2012-StG-307215 LODESTONE. The SMA is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. The JCMT is operated by the East Asian Observatory on behalf of The National Astronomical Observatory of Japan; Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics; the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute; the Operation, Maintenance and Upgrading Fund for Astronomical Telescopes and Facility Instruments, budgeted from the Ministry of Finance (MoF) of China and administrated by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), as well as the National Key RD Program of China (No. 2017YFA0402700). Additional funding support is provided by the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom and participating universities in the United Kingdom and Canada. The authors also wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. We acknowledge with thanks the variable star observations from the AAVSO International Database contributed by observers worldwide and used in this research.

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The authors thank Prateek Sharma for useful discussions. SC gratefully acknowledges financial support received through the INSPIRE faculty fellowship (DST/INSPIRE/04/2013/000365) awarded by Department of Science and Technology (Government of India).

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We are grateful to the anonymous referee for constructive comments leading to significant improvement of this paper. We thank the financial support of the Key Research Program of the CAS (grant No. KJZD-EW-M06), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC; grant No. 11433004), and the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (2016YFA0400700). We also thank the financial support of the NSFC (grant No. 11273052), and the Youth Innovation Promotion Association, CAS. We also acknowledge the support of the staff of the Lijiang 2.4 m telescope. Funding for this telescope has been provided by the CAS and the People’s Government of Yunnan Province.

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We thank everyone who offered their help to this work, including Matthew Miller, Edmund Hodges-Kluck, Zhijie Qu, and our anonymous referee, whose comments helped to improve this work. Special thanks also go to Eric Peng for the computational resources he provided. This research is funded by the China Scholarship Council, NASA ADAP grant NNX16AF23G, and the Department of Astronomy at the University of Michigan, who we also thank for their hospitality. Software: AtomDB (Foster et al. 2012 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ).

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We are grateful to Ivan Marti-Vidal and the Nordic ALMA Regional Center for providing us with helpful CASA software tools and advice on analyzing the data. We appreciate Tohru Nagao, Jeremy Blaizot, Peter Mitchell, Takashi Kojima, Shiro Mukae, Yuichi Harikane, Akio Inoue, and Rieko Momose for useful comments and suggestions. We are indebted for the support of the staff at the ALMA Regional Center. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO, ALMA #2013.1.00815.S, #2015.1.00834.S, #2015.1.01111.S, #2015.1.01105, #2016.1.01240.S, #2012.1.00523.S, and #2012.1.00602.S. ALMA is a partnership of the ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by the ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. This study is supported by World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI Initiative), MEXT, Japan, and KAKENHI (15H02064, 16J02344, 17H01110, 17H01111, and 17H01114) Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A) through the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), the Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellow, the NAOJ ALMA Scientific Research grant No. 2017-06B, and the Munich Institute for Astro- and Particle Physics (MIAPP) of the DFG cluster of excellence “Origin and Structure of the Universe.” S.F. is supported by the ALMA Japan Research Grant of NAOJ Chile Observatory NAOJ-ALMA-197, The 2018 Graduate Research Abroad in Science Program Grant (GRASP2018), and the Hayakawa Satio Fund awarded by the Astronomical Society of Japan. A.F. and R.J.I. acknowledge support from the ERC Advanced Grant INTERSTELLAR H2020/740120 and COSMIC ISM 321302, respectively.

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We thank the referee for the comments and suggestions to improve the presentation of our results. The work of L.B., C.E., and C.F. was partially funded under the auspices of the U.S. Dept. of Energy and supported by contract W-7405-ENG-36 to Los Alamos National Laboratory. Simulations at LANL were performed on HPC resources provided under the Institutional Computing program.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by XSEDE computing grants TG-AST190001 and TG-AST180052 and the Stampede2 supercomputer at the Texas Advanced Computing Center. KSSB was supported by a Porat Postdoctoral Fellowship at Stanford University.

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Acknowledgements We are grateful to Ski Antonucci, Edi Bon, Xiao-Bo Dong, Wen-Juan Liu, Bill Mathews, and Victor Oknyansky for extensive comments on the paper. We also wish to thank the anonymous referee for numerous helpful comments that have improved the paper.

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We acknowledge the support from a 985 project at Peking University. L.J., S.C., and E.E. also acknowledge the support from NASA through awards issued by STScI ( HST PID: 11149,12329,12616) and by JPL/Caltech ( Spitzer PID: 40026,70094). We would like to thank R. Ryan for his advice on IRAC photometry and using iGALFIT . We also thank J. Rhoads and Z. Zheng for their insightful comments, and thank P. Madau and P. A. Oesch for providing us with the data used for Figures 10 and 12 . Facilities: HST (NICMOS,WFC3) , Spitzer (IRAC) , Subaru (Suprime-Cam) .

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I would like to thank Frank Postberg, Nicolas Altobelli, and Mario Trieloff for stimulating discussions on the composition of dust in the Local Cloud. I also thank Martin Hilchenbach, Harald Krüger, and Thomas Albin for their hospitality during my stay at Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research (MPS), where much of the writing was performed. Special thanks go to an anonymous reviewer who made careful reading and provided useful comments and suggestions. I am grateful to MPS's research fellowship and financial support for my travel expense to MPS as well as to JSPS's Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (#26400230). This research has made use of the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.

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MG and PKB are funded by Science and Technology Facilities Council (UK), grant ST/P000428/1. Simulations have been performed using the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility.

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V.V.G. and J.C. acknowledge support from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant No. 15XRP15_20140 issued through the Exoplanets Research Program. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA# 2012.1.00681.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ.

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Authors thank the anonymous referee for the helpful comments. This work is partially supported by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie through the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR) under the grant numbers 50 OG 1301, 50 OR 1310.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are sincerely grateful to the referee for constructive and valuable suggestions and comments, which help us improve the manuscript. We thank the Square Kilometre Array Regional Center prototype developed by Shanghai Astronomical Observatory for providing us with computing resources. We acknowledge the support of Astronomical Information Technology Group and Public Technology Service Center, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences (NAOC); this work was supported by High Performance Computing Cluster of NAOC. This work was supported by the National Key RD Programme of China (grant no. 2018YFA0404600), the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no. XDB23010300), and the Key Projects of Frontier Science of Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no. QYZDY-SSW-SLH022).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Gravitational Wave Discovery (OzGrav), through project number CE170100004. EJH acknowledges support from an Australian Research Council DECRA Fellowship (DE170100891). The authors gratefully thank Raymond Frey (University of Oregon), the assigned reviewer for the LIGO Scientific Collaboration, for conducting a thorough review of the manuscript that included a number of insightful suggestions. We are also particularly grateful to Giulia Stratta (INAF/OAS), who provided some useful comments to improve the manuscript. We also thank Aaron Tohuvavohu of the Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory ( Swift ) for useful discussions on the follow-up capabilities of Swift . Finally, we thank the anonymous referee for a thorough reading of the manuscript and for providing a number of erudite suggestions that have enriched the paper. This paper has LIGO document ID P1800322.

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Acknowledgements The authors thank Elena Lega and Bertram Bitsch for an extremely careful reading of a first draft of this manuscript, and for constructive feedback. MAJ acknowledges financial support from a UNAM DGAPA fellowship. The simulations presented in this work were run on a GPU cluster acquired with CONACyT's grant 178377. The authors acknowledge support from UNAM's grant PAPIIT IN101616.

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