This work is based upon research supported by the Science Faculty at University of Cape Town (UCT), the South African National Research Foundation and the Department of Science and Technology . Part of this research was conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020 . WLW acknowledges support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council [ST/M001008/1]. We thank Dr Tom Mutabazi and Hiroki Onozato for running some of the observations. We also thank Dr Yasushi Nakajima, Dr Takahiro Nagayama and Dr Ihab Riad for many discussions regarding the reduction pipeline. We are very grateful to Dr Christina Magoulas for her careful reading and comments on the paper. We are grateful to Dr Anja Schroeder for making the 2MASX bright galaxy ZOA list available prior to publication.

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This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA2013.0.00458.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. The data presented here were first reduced by CASA (ALMA default calibration software), but a second iteration in the data reduction and later analysis for presentation was made by using the MAPPING package available in the GILDAS software ( http://www.iram.fr/IRAMFR/GILDAS ). Also, Fig. 5 was obtained from few 30 m-IRAM telescope acquisitions and data from the APEX telescope data archive. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany) and IGN (Spain). APEX is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Institut fur Radioastronomie, the European Southern Observatory, and the Onsala Space Observatory. This work has also been supported by the Spanish MINECO, grants AYA2016-78994-P and FIS2012-32096, and by the European Research Council (ERC) Grant 610256: NANOCOSMOS.

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Acknowledgements This paper is based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil) and Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina) and also on observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern hemisphere under ESO programmes 079.C-0328(A) and 079.C-0328(B). This research has also made use of the NED, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Some of the data presented in this paper were based on observations made with the NASA/ESA HST, obtained from the data archive at the Space Telescope Institute. STScI is operated by the association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under the NASA contract NAS 5-26555. This publication also makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. TVRacknowledges CNPq for the financial support under the grant 304321/2016-8. JES acknowledges FAPESP for the financial support under the grant 2011/51680-6. DM acknowledges CNPq for the financial support under the grant 312987/2016-1. The optical data were obtained under grant support from Instituto do Milênio, MEGALIT (AGR). RBM acknowledges CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior). Finally, we thank Roberto Cid Fernandes for carefully reading the manuscript, which improved a lot the quality of this work, and also Juliana Cristina Motter, for English revision. We also thank the anonymous referee for valuable insights that also enriched this paper.

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O B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O B-Location O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Instrument B-Observatory O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope B-Instrument B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Mission I-Mission O B-URL O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-URL O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration


This paper is based on observations made with ESO telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under program ID 092.B-0104(A). We have made extensive use of the SIMBAD Database at CDS (Centre de Données astronomiques) Strasbourg, the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, CalTech, under contract with NASA, and of the VizieR catalog access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. Support for J.B., D.M., J.C.B., R.K., M.H. is provided by the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourism’s Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, MAS. Support for R.K. is provided from Fondecyt Reg. No. 1130140. R.K.S. acknowledges support from CNPq/Brazil through project 310636/2013-2. We are grateful to the anonymous referee for useful suggestions that helped to improve the paper.

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Work performed by F.E., F.R.d.C. and V.P. was supported by NASA grants NNX13AF79G and NNX14AG03G. M.O. was supported by NASA grants NNX08AO83G at UC Berkeley and NNH16AC60I at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). W.L. was supported by NASA HGI grant NNX16AF78G. L.G. was supported by an NSF Faculty Development Grant (AGS-1429512) to the University of Minnesota. Work performed by F.R.d.C. and W.L. is part of the team effort under the title of “Diagnosing heating mechanisms in solar flares through spectroscopic observations of flare ribbons” at the International Space Science Institute (ISSI). M.O. and F.E. are part of the ISSI team “Particle Acceleration in Solar Flares and Terrestrial Substorms.”

O O O B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration


We thank the anonymous referee for a careful reading of our manuscript and for constructive comments and suggestions, which improved the paper. HIFI has been designed and built by a consortium of institutes and university departments from across Europe, Canada, and the United States under the leadership of SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Groningen, The Netherlands, and with major contributions from Germany, France, and the US. Consortium members are: Canada: CSA, U.Waterloo; France: CESR, LAB, LERMA, IRAM; Germany: KOSMA, MPIfR, MPS; Ireland: NUI Maynooth; Italy: ASI, IFSI-INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di ArcetriINAF; Netherlands: SRON, TUD; Poland: CAMK, CBK; Spain: Observatorio Astronmico Nacional (IGN), Centro de Astrobiologia (CSIC-INTA); Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology MC2, RSS GARD, Onsala Space Observatory, Swedish National Space Board, Stockholm University Stockholm Observatory; Switzerland: ETH Zurich, FHNW; USA: Caltech, JPL, NHSC. L.J. and Y.G. acknowledge support by NSFC grant nos. 11311130491 and 11420101002 and CAS Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences B program no. XDB09000000.

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We thank the anonymous referee for their detailed comments, which have improved the clarity of this paper. JPS, AMS, RGB, CMH and IRS acknowledge support from STFC (ST/I001573/1 and ST/L00075X/1). JPS also gratefully acknowledges support from a Hintze Research Fellowship. IRS acknowledges support from an ERC Advanced Investigator programme DUSTYGAL 321334 and a Royal Society/Wolfson Merit Award. AJB gratefully acknowledges the hospitality of the Research School of Astronomy Astrophysics at the Australian National University, Mount Stromlo, Canberra where some of this work was done under the Distinguished Visitor scheme. DS acknowledges financial support from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific research (NWO) through a Veni fellowship and from FCT through an FCT Investigator Starting Grant and Start-up Grant (IF/01154/2012/CP0189/CT0010). PNB is grateful for support from STFC (ST/M001229/1). We thank Holly Elbert, Timothy Green and Laura Prichard for their observations and Alex Karim for providing main-sequence fits. We also thank Matthieu Schaller for discussions on the EAGLE simulation quantities and Omar Almaini for discussions on the UDS. Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under the programme IDs 60.A-9460, 092.B-0538, 093.B-0106, 094.B-0061 and 095.B-0035. This research uses data from the VIMOS VLT Deep Survey, obtained from the VVDS data base operated by Cesam, Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Marseille, France. This paper uses data from the VIMOS Public Extragalactic Redshift Survey (VIPERS). VIPERS has been performed using the ESO VLT, under the ‘Large Programme’ 182.A-0886. The participating institutions and funding agencies are listed at http://vipers.inaf.it . This paper uses data from zCOSMOS which is based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla or Paranal Observatories under programme ID 175.A-0839. We acknowledge the Virgo Consortium for making their simulation data available. The EAGLE simulations were performed using the DiRAC-2 facility at Durham, managed by the ICC, and the PRACE facility Curie based in France at TGCC, CEA, Bruyres-le-Chtel. This work is based in part on data obtained as part of the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Model I-Model O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Survey O O O O O B-Observatory O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Proposal I-Proposal I-Proposal B-Proposal B-Proposal B-Proposal O B-Proposal O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database O O B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey B-Survey B-Survey O O O O O B-Observatory B-Telescope O O B-Proposal I-Proposal I-Proposal O O O O O O O O O B-URL O O O O O O B-Survey O O O O O O O B-Observatory O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Proposal I-Proposal I-Proposal O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O O B-Model I-Model O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-Organization O O O B-Organization O O B-Organization B-Database I-Database O O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey


I am very grateful to the anonymous referee for their very valuable comments and suggestions, which greatly improved the quality of this work. I thank Professor Richard V. E. Lovelace for his constructive comments in the initial version of this manuscript. Also, I would like to thank Dr. M. Nejad-Asghar and Dr. H. Ebadi for their fruitful discussions, which were helpful for revising the manuscript. This work has been supported financially by Research Institute for Astronomy Astrophysics of Maragha (RIAAM) under research project No. 1/4717-65.

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The authors wish to thank the anonymous referee for comments that helped improved the presentation of this work. We thank August Evrard for comments on an early draft of this manuscript. We also thank Nabila Aghanim for help with accessing the full Planck cluster catalogue and validation table. This work was supported in part by the US Department of Energy contract to SLAC no. DE-AC02-76SF00515. JGB gratefully acknowledges support from the Institut Universitaire de France . A portion of the research described in this paper was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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M.V. acknowledges support from Grant 17-06065S by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic and from the AV ČR Grant RVO:67985815.

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The figure production made use of the pgplot software at the NRC Canada in Victoria.

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This research was carried out using data obtained from the Data Archive and Transmission System (DARTS), provided by the Center for Science-satellite Operation and Data Archive (C-SODA) at ISAS/JAXA. This work was partially supported by a MEXT-Supported Program for the Strategic Research Foundation at Private Universities, 2014–2018 (S1411024).

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We thank the referee for an insightful report which helped to improve our paper. GS, NVA and RCF acknowledge the support from the CAPES–COFECUB project 30007ZD. LS acknowledges the support from CAPES and FAPESP. MVCD thanks FAPESP and CAPES/PDSE–BEX 8509/11-5 scholarships that allowed him to develop this project. He also acknowledges the hospitality of the LUTH, at Observatoire de Paris for a long-term visit. NVA acknowledges the support and hospitality of the LUTH, at Observatoire de Paris, for short term visits. This work has made use of the computing facilities of the Laboratory of Astroinformatics (IAG/USP, NAT/Unicsul), whose purchase was made possible by the Brazilian agency FAPESP (grant 2009/54006-4) and the INCT-A. All the authors wish to thank the team of the SDSS for their dedication to a project which has made this work possible. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS website is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Person O B-Organization O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O B-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Location O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O B-Survey O O B-URL O O B-Survey O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Telescope B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


This work was supported by NSF AAG grant 1211329. J.R.M and K.M.M. were supported under contract with the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) funded by NASA through the Sagan Fellowship Program. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under Grant No. DGE-1143953. Any opinion, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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We thank the referee for his/her helpful comments/suggestions that have improved this Letter. We thank K. Maguire, X-F. Wang for useful discussions. Y-Z.C is supported by the China Scholarship Council (No. 201606040170). KM and SJP are supported by H2020 ERC grant no. 758638. MF is supported by a Royal Society - Science Foundation Ireland University Research Fellowship. SB and AF are partially supported by PRIN-INAF 2017 of Toward the SKA and CTA era: discovery, localization, and physics of transient sources.(PI: M. Giroletti). T.R. acknowledges the financial support of the Jenny and Antti Wihuri and the Vilho, Yrjö and Kalle Väisälä foundations. AR acknowledges financial support by the “Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS)” of the Iniciativa Cientìfica Milenio. CG acknowledges support by the VILLUM FONDEN research grant (project number 00025501) and Investigator grant (project number 16599). MG is supported by the Polish NCN MAESTRO grant 2014/14/A/ST9/00121. FO acknowledges the support of the H2020 Hemera program, grant agreement No 730970. The Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT), operated by the NOT Scientific Association at the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. Observations from the NOT were obtained through the NUTS1 and NUTS2 collaboration which are supported in part by the Instrument Centre for Danish Astrophysics (IDA). The data presented here were obtained (in part) with ALFOSC, which is provided by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA) under a joint agreement with the University of Copenhagen and NOTSA. The Liverpool Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. Based on observations made with the GTC telescope in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofssica de Canarias, under Director’s Discretionary Time (GTC2019-127; PI: A. Morales-Garoffolo). This research makes use of Lasair data ( https://lasair.roe.ac.uk/ ), which is supported by the UKRI Science and Technology Facilities Council and is a collaboration between the University of Edinburgh (grant ST/N002512/1) and Queen’s University Belfast (grant ST/N002520/1) within the LSST:UK Science Consortium. IRAF is written and supported by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories (NOAO) in Tucson, Arizona. NOAO is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), Inc. under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. SNOoPy is a package developed by E. Cappellaro which performs photometry of point-like sources in complex environments using PSF-fitting and template subtraction methods. A package description can be found at http://sngroup.oapd.inaf.it/snoopy.html .

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS GO acknowledges the constructive comments from the referees helped to greatly improve this Letter and thanks Oliver Hahn and Frank van den Bosch for careful reading of the draft. GO was supported by funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research andinnovation programme (grant agreement No. 679145, project ‘COSMO-SIMS’).

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This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the participating institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration, including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. Part of this work is based on archival data, software, or online services provided by the ASI Science Data Center. The NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. TOPCAT 14 14 http://www.star.bris.ac.uk/mbt/topcat/ (Taylor 2005 ) was used for the preparation and manipulation of the tabular data and the images. F. M. gratefully acknowledges the financial support of the Programma Giovani Ricercatori—Rita Levi Montalcini—Rientro dei Cervelli (2012) awarded by the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR).

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The author acknowledges NSF grant AGS1550566 to the University of Maryland, and the BK21 plus program from the National Research Foundation (NRF), Korea, to Kyung Hee University. He also acknowledges the Science Award Grant from GFT Inc. to the University of Maryland.

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An anonymous referee made challenging yet stimulating comments which resulted in substantial improvements in the paper. This work presents results from the European Space Agency (ESA) space mission Gaia . Gaia data are being processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC is provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia MultiLateral Agreement (MLA). The Gaia mission website is https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia . The Gaia archive website is https://archives.esac.esa.int/gaia . This research makes use of the SIMBAD database and the Vizier catalog service, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. We also make heavy use of R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria ( http://www.R-project.org/ ).

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We thank the referee for valuable comments that prompted improvements in the manuscript. We thank Markus Böttcher, Dominique Sluse, Tommaso Treu, and Jabran Zahid for the valuable comments on the manuscript. A.B. is supported by the Department of Energy Office of Science, NASA, and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory with financial support from the NCN grant DEC-2011/01/M/ST9/01891. M.J.G. is supported by the Smithsonian Institution.

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The SAMI Galaxy Survey is based on observations made at the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The SAMI was developed jointly by the University of Sydney and the Australian Astronomical Observatory. The SAMI input catalogue is based on data taken from the SDSS, the GAMA Survey and the VST ATLAS Survey. The SAMI Galaxy Survey is funded by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020, and other participating institutions. The SAMI Galaxy Survey website is http://sami-survey.org/ . GAMA is a joint European-Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the AAT. The GAMA input catalogue is based on data taken from the SDSS and the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is being obtained by a number of independent survey programs including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE , Herschel -ATLAS, GMRT ASKAP providing UV to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA website is http://www.gama-survey.org/ . SMC acknowledges the support of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT100100457). LC acknowledges financial support from the Australian Research Council (DP130100664). SB acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship (FT140101166). MSO acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship Fellowship (FT140100255).

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The authors would like to thank S. Cabrit for stimulating discussions, G. Sandell for help with scheduling the observations, and the referee for valuable comments that helped improving the clarity of the paper. Submillimeter astronomy in Copenhagen is supported by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 646908) through ERC Consolidator Grant “S4F”. Research at the Centre for Star and Planet Formation is funded by the Danish National Research Foundation. J.C.M. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the European Community’s Horizon 2020 framework program (20142020) via the ERC Consolidator grant “From Cloud to Star Formation (CSF)” (project number 648505). A.K. acknowledges support from the Polish National Science Center grants 2013/11/N/ST9/00400 and 2016/21/D/ST9/01098. Based on observations made with the NASA/DLR Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). SOFIA is jointly operated by the Universities Space Research Association, Inc. (USRA), under NASA contract NAS2-97001, and the Deutsches SOFIA Institut (DSI) under DLR contract 50 OK 0901 to the University of Stuttgart.

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The SDO/AIA images are available courtesy of NASA/SDO and the AIA science teams. This work made extensive use of the AIA archive at MEDOC, http://medoc-sdo.ias.u-psud.fr .

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with NASA. We gratefully thank the staff of the Palomar Observatory and Frank Loya for their assistance, and the referee for many questions that led to an improved paper.

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This work is based on data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. This collaboration was partially supported by funding from the Laboratoire Lagrange 2015 BQR. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS, 143, 23. This work was supported in part by NASA grants NNX13AE91G and NNX16AB97G. Computational time at the Texas Advanced Computing Center was provided through XSEDE allocation TG-AST090107. D.S. and R.A.G. acknowledge the financial support from the CNES GOLF grants. D.S. acknowledges the Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur for support during his stays. Some of these computations have been done on the “Mesocentre SIGAMM” machine, hosted by the Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur. The authors wish to thank Sylvain Korzennik for his very careful reading of the paper and valuable suggestions for improving the presentation and the scientific arguments.

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We thank the anonymous referee for the valuable comments. This work has been supported by PRIN-MIUR 2010-2011 (Chemical and dynamical evolution of the Milky Way and Local Group galaxies, PI F. Matteucci) and PRIN-INAF 2012 (The M4 Core Project with Hubble Space Telescope, PI L. Bedin).

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We thank William Gray, Christopher Matzner, Prateek Sharma, and Robert Thacker for helpful discussions and the anonymous referee for comments. S.S. and E.S. were supported by the National Science Foundation grant AST11-03608 and NASA theory grants NNX09AD106 and NNX15AK82G. E.S. gratefully acknowledges the Simons Foundation for funding the workshop Galactic Winds: Beyond Phenomenology which helped to inspire this work. He also gratefully acknowledges Joanne Cohn, Eliot Quataert, and the UC Berkeley Theoretical Astronomy Center, and Uroš Seljak and the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab Cosmology group for hosting him during the period when much of this work was carried out. Part of this research was carried out during the visit of E.S. and E.C.O. at the KITP in UC Santa Barbara, which is supported by the National Science Foundation under grant PHY-1125915. The work of E.C.O. on this project was supported by the National Science Foundation under grant AST-1312006. The authors thank the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC) at The University of Texas at Austin (URL: http://www.tacc.utexas.edu ) and the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE) for providing HPC resources via grant TG-AST140004 that have contributed to the results reported within this paper. The FLASH code is developed in part by the DOE-supported Alliances Center for Astrophysical Thermonuclear Flashes (ASC) at the University of Chicago.

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Acknowledgments The authors have benefited from many inspiring discussions with Hlne Curtois, Noam Libeskind and Brent Tully. We also like to thank the anonymous referee for their constructive report that helped to increase the quality of this work. The hospitality of the Technion Israel Institute of Technology enjoyed by WAH, MF and MB at the early stages of this project is warmly acknowledged. WAH acknowledges support from European Research Council (grant number 646702 CosTesGrav). WAH and MB were also supported by the Polish National Science Center under contract #UMO-2012/07/D/ST9/02785. This research was supported by the I-CORE Program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee, THE ISRAEL SCIENCE FOUNDATION (grant Nos. 1829/12 and 203/09) and the Asher Space Research Institute. MF acknowledges support through the Grant Spin(e) ANR-13-BS05-0005 of the French National Research Agency.

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We thank Maxim Makukov, Chingis Omarov, Emmanuil Y. Vilkoviskij and Ari Laor for valuable comments, discussion, support and supervision. We also thank the anonymous referee for useful comments and suggestions. This work has benefitted very much from funding of exchange and collaboration between Germany and Kazakhstan by Volkswagen Foundation under the project ‘STARDISK – Simulating Dense Star-Gas Systems in Galactic Nuclei using special hardware’ (I/81 396). GRAPE and GPU hardware at Fesenkov Astrophysical Institute in Kazakhstan used for this work have been supported by the STARDISK project too. We acknowledge support from the Strategic Priority Research Program ‘The Emergence of Cosmological Structure’ of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. XDB09000000) (Pilot B programme). We acknowledge support by Chinese Academy of Sciences through the Silk Road Project at NAOC, through the Chinese Academy of Sciences Visiting Professorship for Senior International Scientists, Grant Number 2009S1-5 (RS), and through the ‘Qianren’ special foreign experts programme of China. RS has also been partially supported by NSFC (National Natural Science Foundation of China), grant no. 11073025. GK acknowledges a Chinese Academy of Sciences Young International Postdoctoral Fellowship Grant No. 2011Y2JB09. YM acknowledges support from the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation through grant no. 2015T80011 and from excellence initiative at the University of Heidelberg, through mobility measures for international research collaborations project no. 7.1.47, and the European Research Council under the European Union's Horizon 2020 Programme, ERC-2014-STG grant GalNUC 638435. PB acknowledges the special support by the NASU under the Main Astronomical Observatory GRID/GPU computing cluster project. The special GPU accelerated supercomputer laohu at the Center of Information and Computing at National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, funded by Ministry of Finance of People's Republic of China under the grant ZDYZ2008-2, has been used for some of the largest simulations. We also used smaller GPU clusters titan , hydra and kepler , funded under the grants I/80041-043 and I/84678/84680 of the Volkswagen Foundation and grants 823.219-439/30 and /36 of the Ministry of Science, Research and the Arts of Baden-Württemberg, Germany.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a meticulous and thoughful set of comments. B.P. thanks NSERC for an undergraduate summer fellowship, and Nikhil Mahajan for assistance. Y.W. acknowledges NSERC funding, as well as conversations with Yoram Lithwick, Doug Lin (who pointed out that Johannes Kepler did ponder the planet packing problem), and Scott Tremaine.

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We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments and suggestions. This work was partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant Nos. 11673060, 11763005, and 11873043), the Key Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. KJZD-EW-M06), the Strategic Priority Research Program “The Emergence of Cosmological Structure” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. XDB09000000), and the Natural Science Foundation of Yunnan Province (grant Nos. 2016FB003 and 2017FD072). Additional support was provided by the Specialized Research Fund for Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory (grant No. KLWH201804), by the Key Laboratory of Particle Astrophysics of Yunnan Province (grant No. 2015DG035) and by the Research Foundation for Scientific Elitists of the Department of Education of Guizhou Province (grant No. QJHKYZ[2018]068).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank an anonymous referee for a careful reading of the manuscript. We benefitted from numerous sisyphean conversations about the grey area between explosions and winds with Stan Owocki, Dave Arnett, Eliot Quataert, and Chris Matzner, and informative conversations about binary L2 mass-loss and mergers with Ondrej Pejcha, Stephen Justham, Kaitlin Kratter, and Philipp Podsiadlowski. We have also discussed binary evolution, on occasion, with Selma de Mink. NS’s research on Eta Carinae’s light echoes and eruptive transients was supported by National Science Foundation (NSF) grants AST-1312221 and AST-1515559. Partial support for this work was provided by NASA grants AR-12618, AR-14586, and GO-13390 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. Support for JLP is provided in part by FONDECYT through the grant 1151445 and by the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourism’s Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, MAS. DJJ gratefully acknowledges support from the NSF through award AST-1440254. This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5 m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. This project used data obtained with the Dark Energy Camera (DECam), which was constructed by the Dark Energy Survey (DES) collaborating institutions. Funding for DES, including DECam, has been provided by the U.S. DoE, NSF, MECD (Spain), STFC (UK), HEFCE (England), NCSA, KICP, FINEP, FAPERJ, CNPq (Brazil), the GRF-sponsored cluster of excellence ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’ and the DES collaborating institutions. This work makes use of observations from the LCO network. Based, in part, on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil) (Program GS-2014B-Q-24).

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We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments which improved the quality of this paper. This research has made use of data and/or software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. This research has also made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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We thank the anonymous referees for many useful comments and suggestions. This work is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 11175147,11547311.

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This work is based on the data from NASA's GALEX spacecraft. GALEX is operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology under NASA contract NAS5-98034. We acknowledge the NASA's Astrophysics Data System and NASA's SkyView facility ( http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov ) located at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Jyothy is grateful to Sri Mata Amritanandamayi Devi, the Chancellor of Amrita University for her spiritual guidance. Jyothy would like to thank Mr Sathyanarayanan for his help. We thank the referee for a prompt response and for pointing out inconsistencies in the first draft.

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We thank the referee for useful discussion that helped in improving the content of this paper. Funding for the SDSS-IV has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the US Department of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. SDSS-IV acknowledges support and resources from the Center for High-Performance Computing at the University of Utah. The SDSS web site is www.sdss.org . SDSS-IV is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU)/University of Tokyo, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Leibniz Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik (MPA Garching), Max-Planck-Institut für Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), National Astronomical Observatory of China, New Mexico State University, New York University, University of Notre Dame, Observatário Nacional/MCTI, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, University of Arizona, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford, University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and Yale University. YYZ acknowledges support by the German BMWI through the Verbundforschung under grant 50 OR 1506. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ .

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We are grateful to Scott Adams and Kevin Croxall for helpful discussions about the analysis of MODS prism data. We also appreciate helpful comments from the referee. Support for this work was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra Award No. G04-15134X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. The work of P.M. is partially supported by the National Science Foundation under grant 1615553 and by the Department of Energy under grant DE-SC0015525.

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This work was supported by grant No. 2014/13/D/ST9/ 01818 from the National Science Centre, Poland. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme, under Grant Agreement No. 687378. V.K. was supported by the grant from the Slovak Research and Development Agency with number APVV-15-0458. The Joan Oró Telescope (TJO) of the Montsec Astronomical Observatory (OAdM) is owned by the Catalan Government and is operated by the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia (IEEC). The 0.82 m IAC80 Telescope is operated on the island of Tenerife by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias in the Spanish Observatorio del Teide. Based on observations obtained with the SARA Observatory 1.0 m Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope at ORM, and 0.6 m telescope at CTIO, which are owned and operated by the Southeastern Association for Research in Astronomy ( http://saraobservatory.org ).

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We thank Dr. O. Pirali and S. Gruet for helpful discussions and advices in the far-infrared analysis using the Loomis-Wood program. I.K. and A.J. are indebted to Dr. V.V. Ilyushin for helpful discussions and careful reading of the manuscript. A.J. and I.K. thank the Groupe de Recherche International GDRI HighRes (especially Dr. A. Perrin) and the Programme Chimie Milieu Interstellaire PCMI for travel funding. V. V. thanks the Fonds der Chemischen Industrie (FCI) for a Ph.D. fellowship.

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R.A.G.L., L.L., and G.B. acknowledge the financial support of DGAPA, UNAM (respectively, projects IN108518, IN112417, and IG100319), and CONACyT, Mexico. We sincerely thank the anonymous referee for the very constructive and insightful comments. This work is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA), and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). Facilities: GTC:OSIRIS , HST , CFHT , Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope . Software: SExtractor (Bertin Arnouts 1996 ), IRAF, rvsao (Kurtz Mink 1998 ), sm (Lupton Monger 1991 ), der_snr, Kapteyn (Terlouw Vogelaar 2015 ).

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We thank Achim Weiss for the GARSTEC models used in this work, Zazralt Magic for the grid of model photospheres, and the anonymous referee for critical comments that improved the introduction section and the overall presentation of the text.

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We thank the anonymous referee for the constructive comments and suggestions. GB acknowledges financial support under the INTEGRAL ASI-INAF agreement 2013-025-R.1. EP acknowledges financial support from the Italian Space Agency (ASI) under the contracts ASI-INAF I/037/12/0 and ASI-INAF n.2017-14-H.0. LZ acknowledges financial support under ASI/INAF contract I/037/12/0. FT acknowledges support by the Programma per Giovani Ricercatori – anno 2014 Rita Levi Montalcini. This research project was supported by the DFG Cluster of Excellence “Origin and Structure of the Universe” ( www.universe-cluster.de ). Funding for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the US Department of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. SDSS-IV acknowledges support and resources from the Center for High-Performance Computing at the University of Utah. The SDSS web site is www.sdss.org . SDSS-IV is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU)/University of Tokyo, the Korean Participation Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Leibniz Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik (MPA Garching), Max-Planck-Institut für Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), National Astronomical Observatories of China, New Mexico State University, New York University, University of Notre Dame, Observatário Nacional/MCTI, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, University of Arizona, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford, University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and Yale University.

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The authors acknowledge helpful discussions with Amitava Bhattacharjee, Kristopher G. Klein, William H. Matthaeus, Michael A. Shay, and Jason M. TenBarge. The research at University of Southern California was supported largely by the National Science Foundation (NSF) grant AGS-1202603 under the NSF/DOE Partnership in Basic Plasma Science and Engineering. S.P.G. and T.N.P. were primarily supported by NSF-SHINE grant AGS-1460130; S.P.G. was also supported in part by NASA LWS grant NNX17AH87G. Computational resources were provided by the NASA High-End Computing (HEC) Program through the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Division at Ames Research Center, as well as by the Yellowstone supercomputer sponsored by the NSF at the Computational and Information Systems Laboratory of the National Center for Atmospheric Research. The data used to produce the results described here are archived at the University of Southern California and are available from Dr. Joseph Wang.

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We thank Smadar Naoz for kindly sharing the triple-evolution code OSPE . We also thank the referee for the useful suggestions. This work was supported by NASA ATP Grant NNX14AP92G and NSF Grants AST-1312945 and AST-1716762. K.K. acknowledges support by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under Grant DGE-1324585. S.C. acknowledges support from CIERA, and from NASA Chandra Award TM5-16004X/NAS8-03060, issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center (operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060), and Hubble Space Telescope Archival research grant HST -AR-14555.001-A (from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555). Software: CMC (Joshi et al. 2000 , 2001 ; Fregeau et al. 2003 ; Fregeau Rasio 2007 ; Chatterjee et al. 2010 , 2013 ; Umbreit et al. 2012 ; Morscher et al. 2015 ; Rodriguez et al. 2016b ), Fewbody (Fregeau et al. 2004 ), BSE (Hurley et al. 2002 ), OSPE (Naoz et al. 2011 , 2013 ).

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Acknowledgements J.K. has been funded by ERDF postdoctoral grant No. 1.1.1.2/VIAA/I/16/194 “Chemical effects of cosmic ray induced heating of interstellar dust grains”. The work of J.R.K. has been funded by ERDF project “Physical and chemical processes in the interstellar medium”, No 1.1.1.1/16/A/213. Both projects are being implemented in Ventspils University of Applied Sciences. We also thank Ventspils City Council for its persistent support.

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The cosmological simulations were performed using the ENZO code ( http://enzo-project.org ) and were partially produced at Piz Daint (ETHZ-CSCS, http://www.cscs.ch ) in the Chronos project ID ch2 and s585, and on the JURECA supercomputer at the NIC of the Forschungszentrum Jülich, under allocations nos. 7006 and 9016 (FV) and 9059 (MB). DW acknowledges support from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) through grants SFB 676 and BR 2026/17. FV acknowledges personal support from the grant VA 876/3-1 from the DFG. FV and MB also acknowledge partial support from the grant FOR1254 from DFG. The distances in Section 3.4 and Appendix C have been computed using the Ned Cosmology Calculator (Wright 2006 ). We thank our anonymous referee for the useful feedback that helped improving the final quality of this paper. We also acknowledge fruitful discussions with T. Jones, K. Dolag and C. Gheller.

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We thank Jacqueline van Gorkom, Robyn Sanderson, and Adrian Price-Whelan for useful comments and discussions and the anonymous referee for a constructive review. The authors acknowledge the Shared Research Computing Facility (Yeti 2 ) at Columbia University for providing HPC resources that have contributed to the results reported in this paper. This work was supported by NSF grant no. AST-131296.

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RS acknowledges IUCAA visitor programme and AP acknowledges seed money grant from Tezpur University and visiting associateship of IUCAA, Pune. This research made use of data obtained from the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), provided by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for useful suggestions which has enhanced the quality of the paper.

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