Acknowledgements EN acknowledges the Polish National Science Center grant no. 2014/13/B/ST9/00902. Calculations have been carried out at the Wrocław Centre for Networking and Supercomputing ( http://www.wcss.pl ), grant No. 214. Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 097.C-0277 and 097.D-0478.

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Comments from an anonymous referee spurred substantial revisions to this paper. This research was supported by NSERC of Canada.

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We would like to thank an anonymous referee for helpful suggestions that improved the paper. This work is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AST-1616632, by the NASA Astrophysics Theory Program, by the NASA Astrophysics Data Analysis Program, and by Fermi Guest Investigator Program. Resources supporting this work were provided by the NASA High-End Computing (HEC) Program through the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Facility at NASA Ames Research Center and NASA Center for Climate Simulation (NCCS) at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

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We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments which further improved the quality of the paper. This research work is financially supported by S N Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences under Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. This publication makes use of data from The UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey or UKIDSS which is a next generation near-IR sky survey using the wide field camera (WFCAM) on the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope on Mauna Kea in Hawaii. We also use data from Two-micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS), which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This paper uses data observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with NASA. The authors are thankful to the HTAC members and staff of HCT, operated by Indian Institute of Astrophysics (Bangalore); JTAC members and staff of 1.04 m Sampurnanand telescope operated by Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (Nainital).

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Acknowledgements SK and MJH are supported by STFC grant ST/M001008/1. SK acknowledges a Senior Research Fellowship from Worcester College Oxford. EKL acknowledges support from the UK's Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant number St/K502029/1).

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The Berger GRB group at Harvard is supported in part by the NSF under grant AST-1411763 and by NASA under grant NNX15AE50G. This paper is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under Grant No. DGE1144152. W.F. acknowledges support provided by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF4-150121 issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for NASA under contract NAS8-03060. We thank Ragnhild Lunnan, Maria Drout, Josh Grindlay, and Avi Loeb for helpful discussions. The HST data presented here and the Swift /UVOT data used in this work were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. Based in part on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, acquired through the Gemini Science Archive, and processed using the Gemini IRAF package, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil) and Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnologia e Innovación Productiva (Argentina). Based in part on data obtained from the ESO Science Archive Facility. This paper makes use of data gathered with the 6.5 m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. This research has made use of data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive and software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application package CIAO. Based in part on data collected at the Subaru Telescope and obtained from SMOKA, which is operated by the Astronomy Data Center, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. We thank S.B. Cenko for providing Palomar 60 inch afterglow images for GRBs 060206 and 090618, T. Krühler and J. Greiner for providing GROND afterglow images for GRBs 080520, 081121, and 081109 and a WHT image for GRB 090113, D. Malesani for providing a TNG afterglow image for GRB 060605, D. A. Kann for providing a WHT afterglow image for GRB 060124, and D. Perley for providing a Keck telescope afterglow image of GRB 071010A and a Palomar 60 inch afterglow image of GRB 080607.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was conducted within the Emmy Noether research group on ‘Accretion Flows and Feedback in Realistic Models of Massive Star Formation’ funded by the German Research Foundation under grant no. KU 2849/3-1. Additionally, the authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for comments which helped clarify the discussion found here.

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We acknowledge the anonymous referee for useful comments and suggestions, the use of the Fermi -LAT data provided by the Fermi Science Support Center, the SIMBAD database operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France and the data of Herschel provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. This work is supported by National Key Program for Research and Development (2016YFA0400200), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 11433009, 11525313, 11722328, 11703093), the Joint Research Fund in Astronomy under cooperative agreement between the National Natural Science Foundation of China and Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. U1738126), and the Natural Science Foundation for Young Scholars of Jiangsu Province, China (No. BK20191109).

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The support of the Namibian authorities and of the University of Namibia in facilitating the construction and operation of H.E.S.S. is gratefully acknowledged, as is the support by the German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), the Max Planck Society, the German Research Foundation (DFG), the French Ministry for Research, the CNRS-IN2P3 and the Astroparticle Interdisciplinary Programme of the CNRS, the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the IPNP of the Charles University, the Czech Science Foundation, the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education, the South African Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation, the University of Namibia, the Innsbruck University, the Austrian Science Fund (FWF), and the Austrian Federal Ministry for Science, Research and Economy, and by the University of Adelaide and the Australian Research Council. We appreciate the excellent work of the technical support staff in Berlin, Durham, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Palaiseau, Paris, Saclay, and in Namibia in the construction and operation of the equipment. This work benefited from services provided by the H.E.S.S. Virtual Organisation, supported by the national resource providers of the EGI Federation.

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Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Nathan Crockett for providing the data on Orion KL and Sgr B2, and Peter Schilke for the data on NGC6334I. We also thank Frederik Dhooghe for discussing his results on halogens in 67P/C–G and David Neufeld and Catherine Walsh for discussions on the chemistry. MK is supported by an Intra-European Marie Sklodowska-Curie Fellowship. Astrochemistry in Leiden is supported by the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA), by a Royal NetherlandsAcademy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) professor prize, and by the European Union A-ERC grant 291141 CHEMPLAN. HIFI has been designed and built by a consortium of institutes and university departments from across Europe, Canada andthe United States under the leadership of SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Groningen, The Netherlands and with major contributions from Germany, France and the US. Consortium members are: Canada: CSA, U.Waterloo; France: CESR, LAB, LERMA, IRAM; Germany: KOSMA, MPIfR, MPS; Ireland, NUI Maynooth; Italy: ASI, IFSI-INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri-INAF; Netherlands: SRON, TUD; Poland: CAMK, CBK; Spain: Observatorio Astronómico Nacional (IGN), Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA). Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology - MC2, RSS GARD; Onsala Space Observatory; Swedish National Space Board, Stockholm University - Stockholm Observatory; Switzerland: ETH Zurich, FHNW; USA: Caltech, JPL, NHSC.

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We thank Y. L. Yung, J. F. Kasting, C. E. Harman, and S. Seager for a helpful discussion of atmospheric photochemistry. R.Y.H. was supported by NASA grant No. 80NM0018F0612 and grant No. 15038.004 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. The research was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank N. Cornish, K. Kyutoku, T. Narikawa, T. Robson, H. Sugiura, and D. Toyouchi for their help. This work is supported by JSPS Kakenhi Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (nos. 17H06358 and 19K03870).

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Acknowledgements We are grateful to Matthew Walker for providing us with the observational data. We are also grateful to Nana Cabo, Oscar Loaiza, Octavio Obregón, Jorge Peñarrubia, Miguel Sabido, and Erik Verlinde for useful discussions. AXGM acknowledges support from Cátedras CONACYT and UCMEXUS-CONACYT collaborative project funding. This work is supported by CONACyT-Mexico grants 182445, 167335, 179208, 179881, and Fronteras de la Ciencia 281, and also by DAIP-Universidad de Guanajuato grants 1,046/2016 and 878/2016.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Harley Katz, Yohan Dubois, and Marta Volonteri for useful discussion, and the anonymous referee for constructive comments. The research of RSB is supported by Science and Technologies Facilities Council (STFC) and by the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) on grant ANR-16-CE31-0011, and the research of AS and JD at Oxford is supported by Adrian Beecroft. This work is part of the Horizon-UK project, which used the DiRAC Complexity system, operated by the University of Leicester IT Services, which forms part of the STFC DiRAC High Perforamce Computing Facility ( http://www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment is funded by National E-Infrastructure capital grant ST/K000373/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K0003259/1. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. All visualizations in this work were produced using the yt-project (Turk et al. 2011 ).

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We would like to thank the referee, Johan Hamaker, for extremely valuable comments that improved the paper. This work is based upon research supported by the South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation. Trienko Grobler originally pointed us in the direction of Wirtinger derivatives.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank the referee for their careful reading of the manuscript and their thoughtful and astute comments, which have led to clear improvements. I gratefully acknowledge the support of the STFC via an Ernest Rutherford Fellowship (grant ST/P003850/1).

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This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. The authors thank the referee, Prof. Shri Kulkarni, for offering comments that significantly improved this manuscript. Facility: TESS .

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We thank Tiago Pereira for his help during the observations. Comments from the referee led to considerable improvement of the presentation. IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research Center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by the Norwegian Space Center through an ESA PRODEX contract. The SST is operated on the island of La Palma by the Institute for Solar Physics of Stockholm University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. This research received funding from both the Research Council of Norway and the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/20072013)/ERC grant agreement No. 291058. We made much use of the SolarSoft and ADS libraries.

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We thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments which helped us to improve this paper. We are grateful to Kathryn Kreckel for providing us the filtered density contrast of the galaxies from Grogin Geller ( 1999 ) and to Margaret Geller for valuable discussion. EMC was supported by Padua University through grants 60A02-5857/13, 60A02-5833/14, 60A02-4434/15, CPDA133894, and BIRD164402/16. EMC acknowledges the Max-Planck-Institut fr extraterrestrische Physik for the hospitality while this paper was in progress. This investigation was based on observations obtained at the Michigan-Dartmouth-MIT (MDM) Observatory and at the Gemini Observatory under program GN-2011B-9-80. MDM Observatory, Kitt Peak, Arizona is operated by a consortium of Dartmouth College, the University of Michigan, Columbia University, the Ohio State University, and Ohio University. Gemini Observatory is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnologa e Innovacin Productiva (Argentina), and Ministrio da Cincia, Tecnologia e Inovao (Brazil). Parts of the data used in this research were acquired through the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) Archive ( http://www.sdss.org/ ). Funding for the creation and distribution of the SDSS Archive has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium (ARC) for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are The University of Chicago, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, The Johns Hopkins University, the Korean Scientist Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPI), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. This research also made use of the HyperLeda Database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr/ ) and NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/ ).

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T.R. and D.H. are supported by the German Aerospace Center (DLR, grants 05 OR 1507 and 50 OR 1501, respectively). The GAVO project had been supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) at Tübingen (05 AC 6 VTB, 05 AC 11 VTB) and is funded at Heidelberg (05 AC 11 VH3). Financial support from the Belgian FRS-FNRS is also acknowledged. P.Q. is research director of this organization. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. The TIRO ( http://astro.uni-tuebingen.de/~TIRO ), TMAD ( http://astro.uni-tuebingen.de/~TMAD ), and TOSS ( http://astro.uni-tuebingen.de/~TOSS ) services were constructed as part of the Tübingen project of the German Astrophysical Virtual Observatory (GAVO, http://www.g-vo.org ). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System and the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.

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Acknowledgments MMRau thanks the anonymous referee, Gary Bernstein, Michael Troxel and Sarah Bridle for invaluable comments on the manuscript. This work was supported by SFB-Transregio 33 The Dark Universe by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and the DFG cluster of excellence Origin and Structure of the Universe.

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We acknowledge support by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) under grants AYA2013-47447-C3-1-P, and MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia “María de Maeztu”). This research has been supported by the Marie Curie Career Integration Grant 321520. V.B.-R. also acknowledges financial support from MINECO and European Social Funds through a Ramón y Cajal fellowship. X.P.-F. also acknowledges financial support from Universitat de Barcelona and Generalitat de Catalunya under grants APIF and FI (2015FI_B1 00153), respectively. D.K. acknowledges financial support by a grant-in-aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI, No. 24105007-1) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (MEXT). M.P. is a member of the working team of projects AYA2013-40979-P and AYA2013-48226-C3-2-P, funded by MINECO.

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We thank Andrew Youdin for a helpful discussion. This work is based on observations made with the cryogenic mission of the Spitzer Space Telescope , which was operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. It also makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This project was partially supported by contracts 1255094 and 1256424 from Caltech/JPL to the University of Arizona, and by NASA Grant NNX10AD38G. Facilities: Spitzer (MIPS , IRAC) , WISE .

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS GBTrans activities are supported by a National Science Foundation (NSF) award AST-1516958. DRL was supported by NSF award number OIA-1458952. GG would like to thank Mayuresh Surnis and Dan Werthimer for useful discussions and Nate Garver-Daniels for the technical support for this work. GG, DRL, RP, and MAM are members of the NANOGrav Physics Frontiers Center that is supported by NSF award 1430284. SWE was supported by NSF award AST-1516170 to Virginia Tech. KR would like to acknowledge financial support from European Research Council Horizon 2020 grant (no. 694745). The Green Bank Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. We thank the referee for very helpful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.

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This work was partially supported by NASA grants NNX09AC46G and NNX13AF31G. We thank Randall Smith for helpful discussions.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA2013.1.00521.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ.

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We warmly thank the German ALMA ARC node for their excellent support for this project and R. Somerville for providing the information on the simulation predictions for our redshift range of interest. We also thank the referee for constructive comments. E.S. acknowledges fruitful discussions with R. Somerville, R. Feldmann, N.Z. Scoville, N. Bouché, and C. de Breuck that helped to significantly focus the paper. B.G. gratefully acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council as the recipient of a Future Fellowship (FT140101202). A.K. acknowledges support by the Collaborative Research Council 956, sub-project A1, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). Support for B.M. was provided by the DFG priority program 1573 “The physics of the interstellar medium.” V.S. acknowledges funding from the European Union’s Seventh Framework program under grant agreement 337595 (ERC Starting Grant, “CoSMass”). This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00151.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC, and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. Based on data obtained with the European Southern Observatory Very Large Telescope, Paranal, Chile, under Large Program 185.A-0791. Facility: ALMA.

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We thank Qiang Yuan and Zhao-Huan Yu for helpful discussions. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under grant nos. 11375277, 11410301005, 11647606, and 11005163, the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, the Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province under grant no. 2016A030313313, and the Sun Yat-Sen University Science Foundation.

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K.J.K. gratefully acknowledges funding for this work received through a NASA Earth and Space Science Fellowship, as well as the use of codes written by B. J. Lynch. The numerical simulations were performed under a grant of NASA High-End Computing resources to C.R.D. on Discover at NASA’s Center for Climate Simulation. Grants from NASA’s Living With a Star, Heliophysics Supporting Research, and Heliophysics Internal Scientist Funding Model programs partially supported K.J.K., S.K.A., J.A.K., and C.R.D.

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Based on observations made with the WHT operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. This research has been supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under the grants AYA2007-67625-CO2-01, AYA2009-12903 and AYA2012-39408-C02-02. JEB acknowledge financial support to the DAGAL network from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013/ under REA grant agreement number PITN-GA-2011-289313. This research made use of astropy , a community-developed core python package for astronomy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), aplpy , an open-source plotting package for python hosted at http://aplpy.github.com , and astrodendro , a python package to compute dendrograms of astronomical data ( http://www.dendrograms.org/ ). We acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda data base ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). We thank Roberto Terlevich, the referee of the paper, whose comments have led to important improvements on the original version of the paper.

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Acknowledgements We thank the IRAM staff for their support in carrying out the CALYPSO observations, and the anonymous referee for a detailed reading that significantly helped us to improve the paper. We thank Kees Dullemond, Ralf Klessen, Sandrine Bottinelli, Benoit Commercon, and Ralf Launhardt for their participation to the preparation of the CALYPSO project. We thank the INSU “Action Spécifique ALMA” for their financial support to the CALYPSO collaboration. This work has benefited from the support of the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (Advanced Grant ORISTARS with grant agreement No. 291294 and Starting Grant MagneticYSOs with grant agreement No. 679937).

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This work has been funded by the ANR GIPSE ANR-14-CE33-0018. This work has made use of the VALD database, operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow, and the University of Vienna. This work has made use of the BASS2000 data base at http://bass2000.obspm.fr/ . Our group is part of the LabEx OSUG@2020 (Investissement d’avenir – ANR10 LABX56).

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Acknowledgments Guang-Xing Li thanks Xun Shi for discussions and for comments on the paper, and thanks Manuel Behrendt and Andi Burket for introducing him the problem and for sharing their views. Alexei Kritsuk is acknowledged for a discussion at MIAPP (Munich) where he introduced the Marochnik etal. ( 1983 ) paper, and Masataka Fukugita is acknowledged for a discussion on H I /H 2 transition. Jens Kauffman and Pavel Kroupa are acknowledge for critical comments. Bruce Elmegreen is acknowledged for an in-depth discussion on the multiphase ISM. Finally, the referee must be thanked for a careful reading of the paper and for the pertinent comments. This paper is supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) priority programme 1573 ISM-SPP.

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The author acknowledges fruitful exchange with H. Andressen, A. Burrows, Th. Foglizzo, A. Heger, W.R. Hix, H.-Th. Janka, Y. Levin, T. Plewa, and T. Waters. He has been supported by the Australian Research Council through a Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (grant DE150101145) and by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation through a Feodor Lynen fellowship. The computations were performed on Raijin at the NCI National Facility (project fh6) using computer time contingents obtained through NCMAS, ASTAC, and a Monash LIEF top-up grant, on the Monash eGrid Cluster, and on the IBM iDataPlex system hydra at the Rechenzentrum of the Max-Planck Society (RZG).

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PNB and JS are grateful for support from the UK STFC via grant ST/M001229/1. KJD acknowledges support from the ERC Advanced Investigator programme NewClusters 321271. GG acknowledges the CSIRO OCE Postdoctoral Fellowship. MJH and WLW acknowledge support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) [ST/M001008/1]. APM would like to acknowledge the support from the NWO/DOME/IBM programme “Big Bang Big Data: Innovating ICT as a Driver For Astronomy”, project #628.002.001. LKM acknowledges support from Oxford Hintze Centre for Astrophysical Surveys, which is funded through generous support from the Hintze Family Charitable Foundation. This publication arises from research partly funded by the John Fell Oxford University Press (OUP) Research Fund. IP acknowledges support from INAF under PRIN SKA/CTA “FORECaST”. The LOFAR group in Leiden is supported by the ERC Advanced Investigator programme New-Clusters 321271. LOFAR, the LOw Frequency ARray designed and constructed by ASTRON, has facilities in several countries, which are owned by various parties (each with their own funding sources) and are collectively operated by the International LOFAR Telescope (ILT) foundation under a joint scientific policy. The ILT resources have benefited from the following recent major funding sources: CNRS-INSU, Observatoire de Paris, and Université d’Orléans, France; BMBF, MIWF-NRW, MPG, Germany; Department of Business, Enterprise and Innovation (DBEI), Ireland; NWO, The Netherlands; and The Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), UK. Part of this work was carried out on the Dutch national e-infrastructure with the support of the SURF Cooperative through grant e-infra 160022 and 160152. The LOFAR software and dedicated reduction packages on https://github.com/apmechev/GRID_LRT were deployed on the e-infrastructure by the LOFAR e-infragroup, consisting of J. B. R. Oonk (ASTRON Leiden Observatory), A. P. Mechev (Leiden Observatory), and T. Shimwell (ASTRON) with support from N. Danezi (SURFsara) and C. Schrijvers (SURFsara). This research has made use of the University of Hertfordshire high-performance computing facility ( http://uhhpc.herts.ac.uk/ ) and the LOFAR-UK computing facility located at the University of Hertfordshire and supported by STFC [ST/P000096/1]. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration 2018 ).

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E.L. is supported by an NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellowship under award AST-1801937. R.D.M. acknowledges funding support from NSF AST-1714506 and NASA-NNX15AW69G. A.V.’s work was performed under contract with the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) funded by NASA through the Sagan Fellowship Program executed by the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute. Thank you to R. Esselstein for helpful conversations about stellar rotation periods for this paper. Thank you also to the anonymous referee for careful and thoughtful comments on the manuscript.

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This research is supported by the Polish National Science Centre through grant DEC-2012/05/B/ST9/03932. Fruitful discussions with Pawel Moskalik are acknowledged. We also thank Jan Skowron for enlightening discussion about the OGLE photometry.

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SS acknowledges support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific research (NWO), VENI grant 639.041.233. RS acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the European Union (FP/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement no. 306476. DS acknowledges (i) financial support from the NWO through a Veni fellowship and (ii) funding from FCT through a FCT Investigator Starting Grant and Start-up Grant (IF/01154/2012/CP0189/CT0010) and from FCT grant PEst-OE/FIS/UI2751/2014.

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Acknowledgements For useful discussions in the course of this work, we would like to thank Rolf-Peter Kudritzki, Nathan Smith, Justyn Maund and Paul Crowther.

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We are thankful to Raphael Roth and Fortunate Joos for providing data on C production rates and for useful discussions on the carbon cycle. Support by the Academy of Finland to the ReSoLVE Center of Excellence (project no. 272157) and by IPGP through its invitation program is acknowledged. Y.G. and G.K. were partly financed by grant N 14.Z50.31.0017 of the Russian Ministry of Science and Education. This is IPGP contribution No. 3699.

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We are extremely grateful to Lyuba Slavcheva-Mihova for providing us with their HST structure map of Mrk 590. Also, we thank Sandra Raimundo for helpful discussions and the anonymous reviewer for insightful comments. We wish to thank the staff of the Nordic and Italian nodes of the European ARC, in particular Ivan Marti-Vidal, for assistance with the data reduction and imaging. We are also indebted to SMA support staff, including Mark Gurwell and Lars Kristensen, for their assistance with the preparation of the SMA proposal, scheduling of observations and data reduction. Travel to the Nordic node of the ARC was made possible through the MARCUs RadioNet3 funding from the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) under grant agreement no. 283393. JYK is supported by a research grant (VKR023371) from Villumfonden. MV, JYK, and DL gratefully acknowledge support from the Danish Council for Independent Research via grant no. DFF 4002-00275. The Dark Cosmology Centre is funded by the Danish National Research Foundation. The work of VC is partly supported by the Italian Ministero dell′′Istruzione, Università e Ricerca through the grant Progetti Premiali 2012 – iALMA (CUP C52I13000140001). BMP is grateful to the US National Science Foundation for support through grant AST–1008882 to The Ohio State University. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00534.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This research also makes use of data from the SMA, which is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. We also used data based on observations made with the NASA/ESA HST , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). The NVAS image used in this paper was produced as part of the NVAS, (c) AUI/NRAO. We acknowledge the use of data from the NASA Extragalactic Database (NED).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the ERC Advanced Investigator Project 267219, the UK Natural Environment Research Council and the Russian Fund for Fundamental Studies (grant 18-02-0057).

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Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their gratitude to the computing facilities of IATE and UNC, without which these numerical experiments would not have been possible. We also thank an anonymous referee for valuable comments and suggestions that improved the manuscript. This work was funded by research grants from SECYT/UNC, CONICET, and ANPCyT.

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Acknowledgements We wish to thank Jay Anderson for helping us quantify the additional uncertainty introduced by the 180° rotation between epochs. Thanks also to Bo Reipurth for helpful conversations. MR would like to thank John Bieging, Tom Haworth and Chris Miller. HH numbers are assigned by Bo Reipurth in order to correspond with the catalogue of HH objects maintained at http://ifa.hawaii.edu/reipurth/ ; see also Reipurth Reiter (2017), A General Catalog of Herbig-Haro Objects , 3rd Edition, in preparation. Support for this work was provided by NASA through grants AR-12155, GO-13390 and GO-13391 from the Space Telescope Science Institute. This work is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained from the Data Archive at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. These HST observations are associated with programmes GO 10241, 10475, 13390 and 13391.

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Data from ESO FEROS programme ID 078.C-0493(A) and FLAMES programme 171.D-0237(B) were taken from the ESO archive. This research has made use of the simbad (Wenger et al. 2000 ) Database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France and the ESO Archive. JVS thanks the ESO Director General Discretionary Fund and Queen's University Belfast Visiting Scientist Fund for financial support. We would like to thank two anonymous referees whose comments significantly improved the paper.

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The authors thank the anonymous referee for useful comments that improved this paper. We also thank Jane Lin for helpful discussions on stellar mass for the Li-rich giants. This research was supported by the National Key Basic Research Programme of China 2014CB845700, and by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant Nos. 11833006, 11603037, and 11473033. This work is supported by the Astronomical Big Data Joint Research Center, cofounded by the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Alibaba Cloud. K.P. acknowledges support from the Mt. Cuba Astronomical Foundation Grant and from Center for Astronomical Megascience, CAS. Guoshoujing Telescope (the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope LAMOST) is a National Major Scientific Project built by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Funding for the project has been provided by the National Development and Reform Commission. LAMOST is operated and managed by the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 188.B-3002. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy. Software: Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 , 2018 ), PARAM (da Silva et al. 2006 ), SPECTRUM (Gray Corbally 1994 ), MARCS (Gustafsson et al. 2008 ).

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The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for constructive comments. The authors thank Doug Gilliam (NSO) and Michiel Van Noort (MPS) for their valuable support during the acquisition and MOMFBD processing of the data. S.L.G. and F.Z. are supported by Università degli Studi di Catania (Linea di intervento 1 e Linea di intervento 2). The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Framework Programme for Research and Innovation, grant agreements H2020 PRE-EST (No. 739500) and H2020 SOLARNET (No. 824135). This work was also supported by INAF Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (PRIN-INAF-2014). S.J. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 682462) and from the Research Council of Norway through sits Centres of Excellence scheme (project No. 262622).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Steve Warren for helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper. This work was supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) grants ST/L00075X/1 and ST/P000541/1. AJG acknowledges an STFC studentship funded by STFC grant ST/N50404X/1. CDL has received funding from the ARC Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. CDL also thanks the Mobilising European Research in Astrophysics and Cosmology (MERAC) Foundation for a Postdoctoral Research Award. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC High Performance Computing (HPC) Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grants ST/H008519/1 and ST/K00087X/1, STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments. M.J. acknowledges the support of the Academy of Finland Grant No. 285769. P.C. acknowledges the support of the ERC Advanced grant PALs 320620.

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The author is really thankful to the anonymous referee for numerous comments, which led to a significant improvement of the manuscript. The author is also grateful to C.J. Pethick and D.G. Yakovlev for discussions. This work was supported by RSF, grant no. 14-12-00316.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a careful reading of the manuscript and helpful suggestions that strengthened this paper greatly. We thank our colleagues on the AGES, ISS, SDWFS, NDWFS, and the XBoötes teams and the HerMES team for making the data publicly available. The first Spitzer MIPS survey of the Boötes region was obtained using GTO time provided by the Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph Team (PI, James Houck) and by M. Rieke. We thank the collaborators in that work for access to the 24 μ m catalog generated from those data by Emeric Le Floc’h. This work was supported under Contract NAS8-03060. R.J.A. was supported by Gemini-CONICYT Grant 32120009. K.N.H and R.C.H. were partially supported by NASA through ADAP Award NNX12AE38G and by the National Science Foundation through Grant 1211096. This work was also supported by Science and Technologies Facilities Council (STFC) grant ST/I001573/1 (D.M.A. and A.D.M.) and the Leverhulme Trust (D.M.A.). R.C.H. acknowledges support from an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship and Dartmouth Class of 1962 Faculty Fellowship. C.-T.J.C was supported by a Dartmouth Fellowship and the William H. Neukom 1964 Institute for Computational Science.

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The authors thank the anonymous reviewer for a careful reading of this manuscript and providing thoughtful feedback that improved this paper. We also thank Alis Deason for assistance in line-list vetting, Gina Duggan for useful discussions on generating grids of synthetic spectra, Raja Guha Thakurta for help with observations and insightful conversations, and Luis Vargas and Marla Geha for sharing their data for M31 outer halo RGB stars. I.E. acknowledges support from a Ford Foundation Predoctoral Fellowship and the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship under grant No. DGE-1745301, as well as the NSF under grant No. AST-1614081, along with E.N.K. K.M.G. and J.W. acknowledge support from NSF grant AST-1614569. E.C.C. was supported by an NSF Graduate Research Fellowship as well as NSF grant No. AST-1616540. The analysis pipeline used to reduce the DEIMOS data was developed at UC Berkeley with support from NSF grant AST-0071048.

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We wish to thank the anonymous referee for the extremely useful comments that greatly improved the quality of this paper. G.N. and M.S. acknowledge the Programme National de Cosmologie et Galaxies (PNCG) of CNRS/INSU, France, for financial support. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, the Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. Funding for RAVE has been provided by the Australian Astronomical Observatory; the Leibniz-Institut fuer Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP); the Australian National University; the Australian Research Council; the French National Research Agency; the German Research Foundation (SPP 1177 and SFB 881); the European Research Council (ERC-StG 240271 Galactica); the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica at Padova; Johns Hopkins University; the National Science Foundation of the USA (AST-0908326); the W. M. Keck foundation; the Macquarie University; The Netherlands Research School for Astronomy; the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada; the Slovenian Research Agency; the Swiss National Science Foundation; the Science Technology Facilities Council of the UK; Opticon; Strasbourg Observatory; and the Universities of Groningen, Heidelberg, and Sydney. Based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 188.B-3002. These data products have been processed by the Cambridge Astronomy Survey Unit (CASU) at the Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, and by the FLAMES/UVES reduction team at INAF/Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri. These data have been obtained from the Gaia -ESO Survey Data Archive, prepared and hosted by the Wide Field Astronomy Unit, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, which is funded by the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 programme through ERC grant number 320360 and by the Leverhulme Trust through grant RPG-2012-541. We acknowledge the support from INAF and Ministero dell’ Istruzione, dell’ Università’ e della Ricerca (MIUR) in the form of the grant “Premiale VLT 2012”. The results presented here benefit from discussions held during the Gaia -ESO workshops and conferences supported by the ESF (European Science Foundation) through the GREAT Research Network Programme. The Guo Shou Jing Telescope (the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope, LAMOST) is a National Major Scientific Project built by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Funding for the project has been provided by the National Development and Reform Commission. LAMOST is operated and managed by National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences.

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This work was supported in part by the Theoretical Astrophysics Center at UC Berkeley. D.K. is supported in part by a Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Physics Early Career Award, and by the Director, Office of Energy Research, Office of High Energy and Nuclear Physics, Divisions of Nuclear Physics, of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231. Numerical computations utilized the Savio computational cluster resource provided by the Berkeley Research Computing program at the University of California, Berkeley (supported by the UC Berkeley Chancellor, Vice Chancellor of Research, and Office of the CIO).

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We are grateful to the referee S. Johnston for very useful comments, to A. Jessner, D. Schnitzeler and D. Riquelme for discussions, to P. Lazarus for sharing code, and to C. Ng for reading the manuscript. Partly based on observations with the 100-m telescope of the MPIfR at Effelsberg. The Nançay radio observatory is operated by the Paris Observatory, associated with the French CNRS. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). APEX is a collaboration between the MPIfR, the European Southern Observatory, and the Onsala Space Observatory. Financial support by the European Research Council for the ERC Synergy Grant BlackHoleCam (ERC-2013-SyG, Grant Agreement no. 610058) is gratefully acknowledged. PT is supported for this research through a stipend from the International Max Planck Research School (IMPRS) for Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Universities of Bonn and Cologne.

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ML and AB were supported by the DOE (Grant No. DE-AC02-09CH-11466) and the NSF (Grant No. AGS-1338944) during the course of this work. ML is grateful to Gordon Ogilvie for his encouraging comments regarding a preliminary version of the manuscript. ML is thankful to Santiago Benavides and Pallavi Bhat for their insightful assistance.

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I am grateful to T. Baker and M. G. Santos for extensive discussions, and acknowledge Y. Akrami, S. Camera, P. G. Ferreira, A. Raccanelli, J.-P. Uzan, M. Viel, F. Villaescusa-Navarro, and K. Zarb-Adami for useful comments and suggestions. I was supported by European Research Council grant StG2010-257080. The code and Fisher matrices used in this paper are available from http://philbull.com/mg_ska/ .

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