We thank Joachim Puls for his advice and for the fastwind comparison models; Rolf Kudritzki for making the optical observations available to us; and Miguel Urbaneja for sharing his original CSPN model runs. We also thank the anonymous referees for helpful comments which improved the paper. This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) under grants Pa 477/4-1 and Pa 477/7-1.

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The authors acknowledge the anonymous referee for very useful comments and suggestions. JV acknowledges the support of ESO through a studentship. JV and MB acknowledge the support of the Fund for Scientific Research Flanders (FWO-Vlaanderen). The authors are grateful to CTIO for the hospitality and the dedicated assistance during the numerous observing runs.

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The authors thank R.G. Bhaskar and V. Wakelam for stimulating conversations. We also thank the anonymous referee for their valuable comments. This work was supported in part by the NSF Division of Astronomical Sciences Astronomy and Astrophysics Grants Program and by the NASA Astronomy and Physics Research and Analysis Program. X.U. is Senior Research Associate of the FRS-FNRS. S.V. was supported in part by the NSF Research Experience for Undergraduates program.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Support for this work was provided by NASA through grant number JWST-ERS-01324 and HST-GO-15212 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. Support was also provided through NSF grant: COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH: The Final Frontier: Spectroscopic Probes of Galaxies at the Epoch of Reionization (AST 1815458, AST 1810822). The Cosmic Dawn Center is funded by the DNRF. MB acknowledges support by NSF through award NSF-AAG-1815458 and through NASA ADAP grant 80NSSC18K0945. The authors wish to thank Simon Birrer for helpful discussions during the development of the Bayesian inference analysis.

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The authors thank the anonymous referee for his/her constructive comments that greatly helped to improve the content of this manuscript. This work is financially supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants no. 11273068, 11473073, 11403105), the Strategic Priority Research Program-The Emergence of Cosmological Structures of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no. XDB09000000), the innovative and interdisciplinary program by CAS (grant no. KJZD-EW-Z001), the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (grant no. BK20141509) and the Foundation of Minor Planets of Purple Mountain Observatory.

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We thank the anonymous referee for his/her very useful and constructive comments. We thank Y.-Y. Mao for providing the abundance matching code and for assistance. We thank Eric Jullo, Stéphane Arnouts, Olivier Ilbert, and Corentin Schreiber for their explanations. The Bolshoi-Planck simulation was performed by Anatoly Klypin within the Bolshoi project of the University of California High-Performance AstroComputing Center (UC-HiPACC) and was run on the Pleiades supercomputer at the NASA Ames Research Center. We acknowledge financial support from “Programme National de Cosmologie and Galaxies” (PNCG) funded by CNRS/INSU-IN2P3-INP, CEA and CNES, France. This work has been partially funded by the ANR under the contract ANR-15-CE31-0017. This work has been carried out thanks to the support of the OCEVU Labex (ANR-11-LABX-0060) and the A*MIDEX project (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) funded by the “Investissements d’Avenir” French government program managed by the ANR. H.W. acknowledges the support by the US National Science Foundation (NSF) grant AST1313037. Part of the research described in this paper was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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This research was supported by NSF grants AST-1515568 and AST-1140030. The Kitt Peak 12 m and the SMT are operated by the Arizona Radio Observatory (ARO), with partial support through the NSF University Radio Observatories (URO) program (AST-1140030).

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We are grateful to Andrej Dundovic for useful discussions as well as the comments of the unknown referee that helped to improve the original version of the paper. L.S., A.F., and B.E. acknowledge financial support from the MERCUR project An-2017-0009. Software: CRPropa3 (Alves Batista et al. 2016 ), NumPy (van der Walt et al. 2011 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), SymPy (Meurer et al. 2017 ), Pandas (McKinney 2010 ).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 088.D-0096(A) and 095.D-0973(A). This research has used the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, and of the NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. iraf is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Tom Marsh is thanked for developing and sharing his package molly . We thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments. MAPT and JC acknowledge support by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (MINECO) under grant AYA2017-83216-P. MAPT also acknowledges support via a Ramón y Cajal Fellowship (RYC-2015-17854). The work of SR was supported by the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA). PGJ and ZKR acknowledge support from European Research Council Consolidator grant 647208. RIH and CBJ acknowledge support from NASA through Chandra Award Number AR3-14002X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. The work of LW has been supported by the Polish National Science Centre grant no.DEC-2011/03/B/ST9/02573. The OGLE project has received funding from the National Science Centre, Poland, grant MAESTRO 2014/14/A/ST9/00121 and 2015/18/M/ST9/00544 to Andrzej Udalski. COH is supported by NSERC Discovery grant RGPIN-2016-04602, and a Discovery Accelerator Supplement. SR is thankful to Hagai Perets for his insights on the triple scenario.

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This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. This research has made use of data obtained with the NuSTAR mission, a project led by the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and funded by NASA. BDM acknowledges support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 798726, and grant agreement No. 665778 via the Polish National Science Center grant Polonez 2016/21/P/ST9/04025. TPA acknowledges support from Polish National Science Center grant Polonez 2016/21/P/ST9/04025 and Preludium 2016/21/N/ST9/0331. S. B. acknowledges financial support from ASI under grants ASI-INAF I/037/12/0 and n. 2017-14-H.O. AGM acknowledges partial support from Nardowe Centrum Nauki (NCN) award 2016/23/B/ST9/03123. JM is supported by STFC (UK) through the University of Strathclyde UK APAP network grant ST/R000743/1. D. J. W. acknowledges support from STFC in the form of an Ernest Rutherford fellowship. C. P. is supported by European Space Agency (ESA) Research Fellowship. POP thanks financial support from the CNES french agency and the CNRS/PNHE. AR was supported by Polish National Science Center grants No. 2015/17/B/ST9/03422 and 2015/18/M/ST9/00541. The authors thank the referee for their helpful comments.

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We thank the anonymous referee for the constructive comments and suggestions, which helped to improve the manuscript. GAMA is a joint European-Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The GAMA input catalog is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is obtained by a number of independent survey programs including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE, Herschel-ATLAS, GMRT, and ASKAP, providing UV to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA web site is http://www.gama-survey.org/ . The Radio Semi-Analytic Galaxy Evolution (Radio-SAGE) model used in this study is a publicly available for download at https://github.com/mojtabaraouf/sage . The Millennium Simulation was carried out by the Virgo Supercomputing Consortium at the Computing Centre of the Max Plank Society in Garching.

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Work by J.K. is supported in part by a research project hosted by Waseda Research Institute for Science and Engineering, also by Institute for Advanced Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Waseda university. We thank anonymous referees for carefully reading our manuscript and for giving useful comments. Software: HEASoft (v6.19), CIAO (v4.8).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has been funded by VIALACTEA, a Collaborative Project under Framework Programme 7 of the European Union (Contract n. 607380). ADC acknowledges support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (under grant ST/N00706/1). This work is based on observations carried out under project number 133-15 with the IRAM 30-m telescope. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain).

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Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for the useful comments that improved the manuscript. L.D. thanks Jun Yang for answering some questions about the library of X-ray pulsars in SMC. This paper is based on data from observationswith, XMM-Newton , Swift , and Chandra X-ray observatory. XMM-Newton is an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. Chandra data were obtained from the Chandra Data Archive. This paper is based on data from observations with INTEGRAL, an ESA project with instruments and science data centre funded by ESA member states (especially the PI countries: Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland), Czech Republic, and Poland, and with the participation of Russia and the USA. This work is supported by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie through the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt (grant FKZ 50 OG 1602). P.R. acknowledges contract ASI-INAF I/004/11/0.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank an anonymous referee for helpful comments. SC acknowledge NCRA-TIFR for providing financial support. We acknowledge the THINGS collaboration for providing the data for galaxy NGC 628.

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We thank the referee for a valuable report that greatly helped us to clarify the paper. This work was supported by NSF grants AST/110897 and AST/12117937.

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We thank the anonymous referee for helpful suggestions that improved the quality of the paper. LZ and YS acknowledge support for this work from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant 11373021), the Strategic Priority Research Program ‘The Emergence of Cosmological Structures’ of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. XDB09000000), and Excellent Youth Foundation of Jiangsu Scientific Committee (grant BK20150014). LZ also thanks for the support by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. J1210039). AL is supported in part by NSF AST-1311804 and NASA NNX14AF68G. This research has made extensive use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work is based (in part) on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA.’ The Galaxy Evolution Explorer ( GALEX ) is a NASA Small Explorer, launched in 2003 April. We acknowledge NASA's support for construction, operation, and science analysis for the GALEX mission.

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This work is supported by Technology under State Key Development Program for Basic Research (973 program) No. 2012CB821802 and National Key Basic Research Program of China (973 Program) 2015CB857100, the China Ministry of Science, and the Guizhou Scientific Collaboration Program (#20130421). We are grateful to the anonymous referee for his/her constructive suggestions, which have greatly improved this paper. The authors would like to thank Pei Zuo for helping Delingha CO observations, John Dickey for discussing H i self-absorption, Xiaohu Li for discussing chemical evolutionary model. We thank the Pineda team for providing C and CO data. Part of CO data were observed with the Delingha 13.7 m telescope of the Qinghai Station of Purple Mountain Observatory. We appreciate the help of all the staff members of the observatory during the observations.

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H.B. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the Horizon 2020 Framework Program via the ERC Consolidator Grant CSF-648505. J.M.D.K. gratefully acknowledges funding from the German Research Foundation (DFG) in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group (grant number KR4801/1-1, PI Kruijssen), from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the ERC Starting Grant MUSTANG (grant agreement number 714907, PI Kruijssen), and from Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 “The Milky Way System” (subproject P1) of the DFG. E.R. is supported by a Discovery Grant from NSERC of Canada. T.P. acknowledges support from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG via the SPP (priority program) 1573 Physics of the ISM. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Software: CASA (McMullin et al. 2007 ), CLASS ( http://www.iram.fr/IRAMFR/GILDAS ), miriad (Sault et al. 1995 ), APLpy (Robitaille Bressert 2012 ). Facility: ATCA(CABB) .

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This scientific work makes use of the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory, operated by CSIRO. We acknowledge the Wajarri Yamatji people as the traditional owners of the Observatory site. Support for the operation of the Murchison Widefield Array is provided by the Australian Government (NCRIS), under a contract to Curtin University administered by Astronomy Australia Limited. We acknowledge the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre which is supported by the Western Australian and Australian Governments and the Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), which is an Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence, funded by grant CE110001020. Parts of this research were conducted with the support of Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. This research also made use of Montage. Montage is funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number ACI-1440620, and was previously funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Earth Science Technology Office, Computation Technologies Project, under Cooperative Agreement Number NCC5-626 between NASA and the California Institute of Technology.

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This material is based upon work partially supported by the National Science Foundation under grant No. 1616538. The National Solar Observatory is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation. This work utilized the RMACC Summit supercomputer, which is supported by the National Science Foundation (awards ACI-1532235 and ACI-1532236), the University of Colorado Boulder, and Colorado State University. The Summit supercomputer is a joint effort of the University of Colorado Boulder and Colorado State University. The authors are grateful for the International Space Science Institute in Bern for hosting the International Team 335 “Toward New Models of Solar Spectral Irradiance Based on 3D MHD Simulations,” which helped motivate this work. Software: MURaM (Vögler et al. 2005 ; Rempel et al. 2009 ), RH (Uitenbroek 2001 ; Pereira Uitenbroek 2015 ), Stagger (Nordlund Galsgaard 1995 ), Scipy ndimage (Jones et al. 2001 ).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank John Pritchard of ESO Operations Support for his assistance with the wavelength calibration of the spectra. Based on observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO programme 095.B-0133(A). This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. This work makes use of PyAstronomy and emcee . DRW is supported by a fellowship from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. NFM acknowledges that this work has been published under the framework of the IdEx Unistra and benefits from a funding from the state managed by the French National Research Agency as part of the investments for the future programme. NFM also acknowledge support by the Programme National Cosmology et Galaxies (PNCG) of CNRS/INSU with INP and IN2P3, co-funded by CEA and CNES.

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O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Mission I-Mission O B-URL O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-URL O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O O B-Organization B-Location I-Location B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O B-Software I-Software I-Software O O B-Software I-Software I-Software O B-Person I-Person O B-Software I-Software O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Proposal I-Proposal I-Proposal B-Software I-Software O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ENM acknowledges support by an SIIP-UNCuyo grant.


Acknowledgements We acknowledge the substantial efforts of both the CFHT staff in implementing the Legacy Survey and of the CFHTLenS team in preparing catalogues of galaxy ellipticities and photometric redshifts. This work is based on observations obtained with MegaPrime/MegaCam, a joint project of CFHT and CEA/IRFU, at the CanadaFranceHawaii Telescope (CFHT) that is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de lUnivers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France and the University of Hawaii. This research used the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre operated by the National Research Council of Canada with the support of the Canadian Space Agency. CFHTLenS data processing was made possible thanks to significant computing support from the NSERC Research Tools and Instruments grant programme. MJH and MLB acknowledge support from NSERC.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was partially supported by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (grant NNX13AN25G) and the National Science Foundation (grant 1616992).

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We thank the reviewer for the very comprehensive and insightful report that helped improve the quality of the paper. We also thank Freeman Dyson and Corey Powell for valuable comments regarding the paper. This work was supported in part by the Breakthrough Prize Foundation, Harvard University’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences, and the Institute for Theory and Computation (ITC) at Harvard University.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to the anonymous referee for his/her valuable comments. This article is based on observations made in the Observatorios de Canarias del IAC with the William Herschel Telescope (WHT) operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos. This work is partly financed by the Spanish Ministry of Economics and Competitiveness through grants ESP2013-48391-C4-2-R and AYA2016-79425-C3-2-P.

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Support for this work was provided by the NASA through Chandra award number AR4-15013X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the NASA under contract NAS8-03060. SWA acknowledges support from the US Department of Energy under contract number DE-AC02-76SF00515. IZ and NW are partially supported from Suzaku grants NNX12AE05G and NNX13AI49G. PA acknowledges financial support from FONDECYT grant 1140304. EC and RS are partly supported by grant No. 14-22-00271 from the Russian Scientific Foundation.

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We thank the reviewer for providing helpful comments that improved this paper. A.M.H. is supported by the DOE NNSA Stewardship Science Fellowship. P.M.R. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under grant AST 14-13367. Portions of this work were completed at the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics, where it was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under grant NSF PHY-1125915. We thank Vicky Kalogera, Frank Timmes, Krzysztof Belczynski, Grzegorz Wicktorowicz, Pablo Marchant, Imre Bartos, Daniel Siegel, Konstantin Postnov, Aleksandr Tutukov, Brian Fields, and Lars Bildsten for helpful comments and fruitful discussions. We also thank Samaya Nissanke for reviewing this work as an LVC reviewer. The LIGO document number for this work is P1700155. Software: MESA (V8845; Paxton et al. 2011 , 2013 , 2015 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), Numpy (Walt et al. 2011 ).

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We thank the anonymous referee for constructive criticism that helped to improve the readability of the paper. We thank A. Biviano, H. Böhringer, and J. Dietrich for their numerous suggestions that helped this work. Furthermore, we thank A. L. Serra and A. Diaferio for the communication on the caustic method and kindness to cross-check our results with their code, as well as Heinz Andernach for his hint on a case with a lack of clearity. The Guide Star Catalogue-II is a joint project of the Space Telescope Science Institute and the Osservatorio Astronomico di Torino. Space Telescope Science Institute is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under contract NAS5-26555. The participation of the Osservatorio Astronomico di Torino is supported by the Italian Council for Research in Astronomy. Additional support is provided by European Southern Observatory, Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility, the International GEMINI project and the European Space Agency Astrophysics Division. We have made use of VLT/VIMOS observations taken with the ESO Telescope at the Paranal Observatory under programme 087.A-0096 and WFI observations partially supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) through Transregional Collaborative Research Centre TRR 33. The XMM-Newton project is an ESA Science Mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and the USA (NASA). The XMM-Newton project is supported by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (BMWI/DLR, FKZ 50 OX 0001) and the Max-Planck Society. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We used the version 13SEPpl1.4 of ESO-MIDAS for data reduction and STILTS 1 for table processing and plotting of figures. Y.Y.Z. acknowledges support by the German BMWi through the Verbundforschung under grant 50 OR 1506. T.H.R. acknowledges support from the DFG through the Heisenberg research grant RE 1462/5.

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This work was supported by NSF grants AST-1105835 and AST-1440343. AL acknowledges support from the University of California Office of the President Multicampus Research Programs and Initiatives through award MR-15-328388, and from NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51363.001-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. The NASA funding for the eGSM is NASA grant no. NNX16AF55G. We acknowledge the use of the Legacy Archive for Microwave Background Data Analysis (LAMBDA), part of the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Center (HEASARC). HEASARC/LAMBDA is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. This research has made use of the NASA/ IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We wish to thank Jacqueline Hewitt, Gianni Bernardi, Douglas Finkbeiner, Aaron M. Meisner for helpful comments and suggestions, and Angelica de Oliveira-Costa for pioneering the GSM approach. We also wish to thank our anonymous referee for extremely helpful and detailed feedback.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the anonymous referee and also Jeff J. Andrews, Deepto Chakrabarty, Pat Slane, Bradford Snios, and Johan Samsing for useful comments and discussions. Financial support was provided from NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship award number PF6-170151 (DJD) and also through the Smithsonian Institution.

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This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant Nos. 11321064, 11233004, 11390371, 11473033, U1331122, and by National Key Basic Research Program of China 2014CB845700.

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The authors would like to thank G. Aarts and M. Hanauske for helpful discussions and M. Strickland for carefully reading the manuscript. The authors also acknowledge the support from NewCompStar COST Action MP1304, from GSI, HIC for FAIR, and from BMBF. The computational resources were provided by the Frankfurt Centre for Scientific Computing (CSC) and Center for Nuclear Research (Kent State University). In addition, the authors acknowledge the insights and comments of the referee who took the time to review this paper.

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This work was initiated during the International Summer Institute for Modelling in Astrophysics (ISIMA) in 2014, hosted at CITA at the University of Toronto. This work was in part supported by NASA grant NNX13AI27G. We also thank Kristen Menou, Linda Strubbe, Pascale Garaud, Jeremy Leconte, Yanqin Wu, Subu Mohanty, Man-Hoi Lee, Eric Lopez, John Papaloizou, Dan Fabrycky and Arieh Konigl for helpful discussions and correspondence. We also thank the anonymous referee for helpful suggestions. JT is supported by STFC through grant ST/L000636/1. JEO acknowledges support by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51346.001-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the reviewer for helpful suggestions that improved the manuscript. MRJ is funded by the President’s PhD scholarship of the Imperial College London and the ‘Dositeja’ stipend from the Fund for Young Talents of the Serbian Ministry for Youth and Sport. TJH is funded by an Imperial College Junior Research Fellowship. JDI gratefully acknowledges support from the DISCSIM project, grant agreement 341137, funded by the European Research Council under ERC-2013-ADG and support from the STFC (grant number ST/R000549/1). DF gratefully acknowledges support from the ECOGAL project, grant agreement 291227, funded by the European Research Council under ERC-2011-ADG. CJC acknowledges support from the STFC (grant number ST/M001296/1). CW acknowledges financial support from the University of Leeds. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.

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S.G. acknowledges support from the European Commission via the Marie Curie Actions—Intra-European Fellowships Project No. 328138. D.H.M. acknowledges financial support from the STFC, the Leverhulme Trust, and NASA. The simulations in the present paper use the STFC funded UKMHD supercomputer in St Andrews.

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This research was partially supported by the Munich Institute for Astro- and Particle Physics (MIAPP) of the DFG cluster of excellence “Origin and Structure of the Universe”. S.L., A.S., E.C., A.B. acknowledge partial support from PRIN-MIUR 2010-2011 PI Francesca Matteucci Evoluzione chimica e dinamica della nostra galassia e delle galassie del gruppo locale. E.V. acknowledges support by grants NASA-NNX13AF45G and HST-12830.01-A.

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MCPB acknowledges support from Maja Vučković and the Joint Committee ESO-Government of Chile (grant 2014). TRM, EB, VSD, SPL, TB and RWW are grateful to the Science and Technology Facilities Council for financial support in the form of grant nos ST/L000733, ST/L00075X/1 and ST/M001350/1. SGP and CC acknowledge support from CONICYT FONDECYT grants 3140585 and 3140592, respectively. CC also acknowledges support from the Millennium Nucleus RC130007 (Chilean Ministry of Economy). JJH acknowledges support from NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant no. HST-HF2-51357.001-A, awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. DK is partially funded by the University of the Western Cape and the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa. The research leading to these results has also received funding from the European Research Council under ERC Grant Agreement n. 320964 (WDTracer).

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We acknowledge Bruce Elmegreen for useful discussions. We thank the referee for helping us to polish the results section. S.C. and H.S. acknowledge support from the Academy of Finland. J.H.K. acknowledges financial support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 721463 to the SUNDIAL ITN network, and from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under grant number AYA2016-76219-P. We acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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We warmly thank the anonymous referee for his/her helpful comments and suggestions. AS acknowledges the PRIN INAF 2011 ‘Multiple populations in globular clusters: their role in the Galaxy assembly’ (PI E. Carretta) and the PRIN INAF 2014 ‘Probing the internal dynamics of globular clusters. The first one is comprehensive radial mapping of individual star kinematics with the generation of multi-object spectrographs’ (PI: L. Origlia). ED and CP acknowledge support from the European Research Council (ERC-2010-AdG-267675, COSMIC-LAB). Based on FOcal Reducer and low dispersion Spectrograph (FORS) observations collected with the Very Large Telescope of the European Southern Observatory, Cerro Paranal, Chile, within the observing programmes 091.D-0562(A) and 093.D-0228(A) (PI: Dalessandro), and on observations made with the Large Binocular Camera at the Large Binocular Telescope within program INAF.D07-2010A (PI: Ferraro) and with the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) on board to the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope under programs GO-10775 (PI: Sarajedini).

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We thank the referee for his/her very helpful comments. We appreciate Jian Li, Feifei Kou, Xian Hou, and Shanshan Weng for their useful suggestions and discussions. We thank the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center and Fermi Science Support Center for maintaining its online archive service that provided the data used in this research. This work is supported by the National Key RD Program of China (2016YFA0400803, 2016YFA0400800), National Science Foundation of China (11233001, 11503027 and 61471003), the Strategic Pionner Program on Space Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, grant No. XDA15051400, and Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Intelligent Building Building Energy Saving.

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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 through their Research Fellowship scheme (A.J.B.R.), the European Commission through HESPE (FP7-SPACE-2010-263086) (P.J.A.S., L.F.) and the Science and Technology Facilities Council through grants ST/I001808 (P.J.A.S., L.F.) and ST/L000741/1 (L.F.) to the University of Glasgow, as well as ST/K000993/1 (A.J.B.R.) to the University of Dundee. AIA data were supplied courtesy of SDO (NASA) and the AIA science team.

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This study makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00033.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. The authors are grateful to Koichiro Nakanishi and Hiroshi Nagai for their valuable comments and useful website for ALMA data reduction. T.I. wishes to thank Mitaro Namiki of the Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology and staff of the Information Technology Center of the University of Tokyo for their dedicated work and suggestions for the computing and understanding of the entire research works. The authors are grateful to an anonymous reviewer who gave important comments on manuscript from the professional point of view. This work was financially supported by a Telecommunications Advancement Foundation (T.I.), the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Kakenhi grant (17K14420 and 19K14782, T.I.), and an Astrobiology Center Program of National Institutes of Natural Sciences (NINS) grant.

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Acknowledgements LGQ is grateful to the Institute of Astronomy for hospitality during his stay. CAT thanks Churchill college for his fellowship. We thank the reviewer for helpful comments.

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We thank the anonymous referee for insightful comments which greatly improved the quality of this manuscript. This work is based on observations at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among Caltech, the University of California and NASA. S.H. wishes to thank B. Siana for very constructive comments and I. Shivaei for useful discussions. D.S. acknowledges financial support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific research (NWO) through a Veni fellowship, from FCT through a FCT Investigator Starting Grant and Start-up Grant (IF/01154/2012/CP0189/CT0010) and from FCT grant PEst-OE/FIS/UI2751/2014.

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We dedicate this work to the memory of our dear colleague and co-author Dennis Lindle, who passed away during the writing of this paper. The authors thank J. Kaastra, T. R. Kallman, R. K. Smith, and E. M. Gullikson for stimulating conversations. W.C.S. and D.W.L. wish to acknowledge support by the National Science Foundation under NSF Grant No. PHY-09-70125. V.J. was funded by the European Social Fund under the Global Grant Measure (No. VP1-3.1-ŠMM-07-K-02-015). M.M.S. was supported by the CNPq-Brazil. D.W.S. was supported in part by the NASA Astrophysics Research and Analysis Program and the NASA Heliophysics Supporting Research Program. The experimental portion of this work was performed at the Advanced Light Source, which is supported by DOE (DE-AC03-76SF00098).

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Acknowledgements The authors thank the anonymous referee for their constructive comments that have improved the quality of the paper. The authors also thank Ana Duarte-Cabral, Paul Clark and Camilo Peñaloza for many helpful discussions relating to this work. A.J.R. would like to thank the STFC for postdoctoral support under the consolidated grant number ST/N000706/1, as well as funding for a Ph.D. studentship. S.E.R. acknowledges support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement # 706 390. This research made use of Astropy ( https:// astropy.org/ ), a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration 2013 , 2018 ), as well as iPython ( https://ipython.org/ ), an enhanced interactive Python ( Perez Granger 2007 ), and the Python packages NumPy ( https://numpy.org/ ; Oliphant 2006 ), SciPy ( https://scipy.org/ ; Jones et al. 2001 ), and Matplotlib ( https://matplotlib.org/ ; Hunter 2007 ). This publication has also made use of TOPCAT ( http://www.star.bris.ac.uk/~mbt/topcat/ ), an interactive graphical viewer and editor for tabular data software ( Taylor 2005 ), and SAOImageDS9 ( http://ds9.si.edu/ ; Joye Mandel 2003 ), an astronomical imaging and data-visualization application. The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope has historically been operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the National Research Council of Canada and the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. This research used the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre operated by the National Research Council of Canada with the support of the Canadian Space Agency, and has made use of the NASA Astrophysical Data System. The Starlink software ( Currie et al. 2014 ) is currently supported by the East Asian Observatory.

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We thank the anonymous referee, whose comments improved the clarity of the manuscript. M.N. acknowledges the support from the Vacation Scholarship program at the Centre for Astrophysics Supercomputing at Swinburne University of Technology. N.M.N. and G.G.K. acknowledge the support of the Australian Research Council through a Discovery Project DP170103470. S.K.P. acknowledges support through the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. Parts of this research were supported by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project No. CE170100012. S.M. acknowledges support from European Research Council (ERC), Grant Agreement 278594-GasAroundGalaxies. C.W.C. and J.C.C. acknowledge the support from award 1517831 from the National Science Foundation. J.C.C. is also supported by National Science Foundation grant AST-1312686. This work made use of Python packages NumPy and SciPy (Oliphant 2007 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), IPython (Pérez Granger 2007 ), tqdm (da Costa-Luis et al. 2018 ), and Numba (Lam et al. 2015 ) and of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. Galaxy data presented here were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. Observations were supported by Swinburne Keck programs 2014A_W178E, 2014B_W018E, 2015_W018E, and 2016A_W056E. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Facility: Keck:II (ESI).

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Acknowledgements We are grateful to Mark Booth for commenting on the manuscript and Hiroshi Kobayashi for providing us with the details of his planetesimal growth simulations. A speedy and insightful referee report by an anonymous reviewer is very much appreciated. AVK, TL, and JB thank the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) for financial support through grants Kr 2164/13-1, Lo 1715/2-1, and Bl 298/24-1, respectively. AJ thanks the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (grants 2012.0150, 2014.0017, 2014.0048), the Swedish Research Council (grant 2014-5775) and the European Research Council (ERC Consolidator Grant 724687-PLANETESYS) for their financial support.

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Acknowledgements I would like to thank Charalampos Markakis, Volker Perlick and Pavel Jefremov for useful discussions on this topic. I am also grateful for the support from a PhD grant of the German Research Foundation within its Research Training Group 1620 Models of Gravity .

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Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for very helpful comments and suggestions. The ASTE project is led by Nobeyama Radio Observatory (NRO), a branch of National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ), in collaboration with University of Chile and Japanese institutes including University of Tokyo, Nagoya University, Osaka Prefecture University, Ibaraki University, Hokkaido University and the Joetsu University of Education. The INT is operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. SP, MO and AP are members of the Carrera del investigador científico of CONICET, Argentina. MCP is a doctoral fellow of CONICET, Argentina. This work was partially supported by grants awarded by CONICET, ANPCYT and UBA (UBACyT) from Argentina. AP acknowledges support from the Varsavsky Foundation. MR acknowledges support from FONDECYT(CHILE) grant No. 1140839. SP and AP are grateful to Dr Takeshi Okuda for the support received during the ASTE observations.

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Acknowledgments EP acknowledges the Jeremiah Horrocks Institute of the University of Central Lancashire for the hospitality while this paper was in progress. EP was partially supported by Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei and Fondazione Ing. Aldo Gini. Additional support while the paper was completed was provided by the Italian Ministry for Education University and Research (MIUR). VPD was supported by STFC Consolidated grants no. ST/J001341/1 and no. ST/M000877/1. VPD acknowledges being a part of the network supported by the COST Action TD1403 Big Data Era in Sky and Earth Observation. DRC was supported by STFC Consolidated grant no. ST/J001341/1. EMC, EDB, LM and AP are supported by Padua University through grants 60A02-5857/13, 60A02-5833/14 and 60A02-4434/15 and BIRD 164402/16. The simulation was run at the DiRAC Shared Memory Processing system at the University of Cambridge, operated by the COSMOS Project at the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/J005673/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008586/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K00333X/1. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. EP would like to thank R. Ragazzoni for his support while this work was in progress.

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This work was supported by NASA through grants NNX14AG05G, NNX14AC05G, and NNX09AB04G. We thank the SDO team for the use of AIA/SDO data. R.J. would like to acknowledge the support of the University of Sheffield (UK) and thanks R. Maurya for discussions regarding AIA/SDO images.

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We acknowledge the financial support by the Academy of Finland to the ReSoLVE Centre of Excellence (project no. 307411). The National Solar Observatory (NSO) is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, AURA Inc under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation (NSF). The data used in this work were produced in the framework of the NSO synoptic program. HMI data are courtesy of the Joint Science Operations Center (JSOC) Science Data Processing team at Stanford University. This work was partially supported by the International Space Science Institute (Bern, Switzerland) via International Team 420 on Reconstructing Solar and Heliospheric Magnetic Field Evolution over the Past Century.

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This research has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 682462) and is supported by the Research Council of Norway through its Centres of Excellence scheme, project number 262622. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2011.0.00020.SV. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by ESA and the Norwegian Space Centre. The AIA and HMI data are courtesy of the NASA/SDO, as well as AIA and HMI science teams. SJ is grateful to L. Rouppe van der Voort, S.K. Solanki, T.M.D. Pereira, and L. Mas-Ribas for useful discussions.

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Construction of the LWA has been supported by the Office of Naval Research under Contract N00014-07-C-0147. Support for operations and continuing development of LWA-1 is provided by the National Science Foundation under Grant AST-1139974 of the University Radio Observatory program. Thanks are due to NASA and NRL for their maintenance and provision of the SOHO and SDO data sets and to C. de Koning for producing the base-difference images in Figure 1 . T.A.H. is supported in part by the NSF SHINE Competition (Grant AGS-1260321), the NASA H-GI program (Grant NNX13AE01G), and the AFOSR program (Grant FA9550-14-0296).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. R. Matsumoto, Dr. K. Takahashi, and Dr. S. Ideguchi for useful discussion. We thank to Mr. Y. Morita who helped us a part of the visualization. We also thank to anomalous referee whose comments are very useful to improve our manuscript. Numerical computations were carried out on SX-9 and XC30 at the Center for Computational Astrophysics, CfCA of NAOJ (P.I. MM). A part of this research used computational resources of the HPCI system provided by (FX10 of Kyushu University) through the HPCI System Research Project (Project ID:hp140170).This work is financially supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) from JSPS (P.I. MM:23740153, 16H03954, TA:15K17614, 15H03639).

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We thank J. Bernal, L. Verde, and D. Scolnic for useful conversations and E. Calabrese for providing the ACTpol r s constraint in Figure 3 . We use the CosmoSlik package Millea ( 2017 ) to sample our results. The work of K.A. and L.K. was supported in part by NSF support for the South Pole Telescope collaboration via grant OPP-1248097. The work of M.J. was supported via the NSF REU program at UC Davis via grant PHY-1560482. S.R. is supported by the Australian Research Council’s Discovery Projects scheme via grant DP150103208. W.L.K.W. was supported in part by the Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago through an endowment from the Kavli Foundation and its founder, Fred Kavli.

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We are grateful to A. Montero-Dorta for helpful discussions about his work, and the staff of the LYTE centre for its hospitality when this work was completed.

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We thank the anonymous referee for detailed comments. This work is supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, through grants MOST 105-2119-M-007-029-MY3 and 106-2112-M-007-006-MY3. Software: IPython (Pérez Granger 2007 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), NumPy (van der Walt et al. 2011 ), SciPy (Jones et al. 2001 ), SymPy (Meurer et al. 2017 ).

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Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for his useful comments and suggestions. The authors acknowledge support from the Swiss NCCR PlanetS and the Swiss National Science Foundation. We thank Juan Cabrera for useful discussions. J.S. is grateful to Françoise Roques for preliminary discussions. P. R. acknowledges financial support from the Programme National de Planétologie (INSU-CNRS). A.C. acknowledges support from projects UID/FIS/04564/2019, POCI-01-0145-FEDER-022217, and POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029932, funded by COMPETE 2020 and FCT, Portugal. This work was granted access to the HPC resources of MesoPSL financed by the Region Ile de France and the project Equip@Meso (reference ANR-10-EQPX-29-01) of the programme Investissements d’Avenir supervised by the Agence Nationale pour la Recherche.

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The Fermi -LAT Collaboration acknowledges support from a number of agencies and institutes for both development and the operation of the LAT as well as scientific data analysis. These include NASA and DOE in the United States, CEA/Irfu and IN2P3/CNRS in France, ASI and INFN in Italy, MEXT, KEK, and JAXA in Japan, and the K. A. Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council, and the National Space Board in Sweden. Additional support from INAF in Italy and CNES in France for science analysis during the operations phase is also gratefully acknowledged. W.L. was supported by NASA HGI grant NNX16AF78G and LWS grant NNX14AJ49G. V.P., W.L., and F.R.d.C. are supported by NASA grants NNX14AG03G, NNX13AF79G, and NNX12AO70G. V.P. and L.K. are grateful for RFBR grant 15-02-03717. We thank Nariaka Nitta and Meng Jin for friutful discussions on SEPs and magnetic connectivity.

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