We thank the referee for constructive comments that helped to improve the original manuscript. Y.J.-T. would like to thank Dr. Marc Postman for his support, help, and encouragement during her stay at the STScI, which made this work possible. We gratefully acknowledge the computational support of Dr. Fernando Roig. Y.J.-T. also acknowledges financial support from the Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ; fellowship Nota 10, PDR-10) through grant E-26/202.835/2016 and the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES; Science without Borders program, Young Talent Fellowship, BJT) through grant A062/2013. R.A.D. acknowledges support from the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) through BP grant 312307/2015-2 and the Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos (FINEP) grant REF. 1217/13-01.13.0279.00. Both Y.J.-T. and R.A.D. also acknowledge support from the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC; I-COOP+2016 program) through grant COOPB20263 and the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (MINECO) through grants AYA2013-48623-C2-1-P and AYA2016-81065-C2-1-P. K.U. acknowledges support from the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan (grant MOST 103-2628-M-001-003-MY3) and from the Academia Sinica Investigator Award. M.M. acknowledges support from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Directorate General for Country Promotion.

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Funding for the creation and distribution of the SDSS Archive has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS website is http://www.sdss.org/ . The results described in this paper are based on observations obtained with Herschel , an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. SPIRE has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by Cardiff Univ. (UK) and including: Univ. Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, Univ. Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); Stockholm Observatory (Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, Univ. Sussex (UK); and Caltech, JPL, NHSC, Univ. Colorado (USA). This development has been supported by national funding agencies: CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); STFC, UKSA (UK); and NASA (USA). This research has made use of data from the HerMES project ( http://hermes.sussex.ac.uk/ ). HerMES is a Herschel Key Programme utilizing Guaranteed Time from the SPIRE instrument team, ESAC scientists, and a mission scientist. HerMES is described in Oliver et al. ( 2012 ). The HerMES data presented in this paper are available through the Herschel Database in Marseille ( http://hedam.lam.fr/HerMES/ ). AF acknowledges support from the ERC via an Advanced Grant under grant agreement no. 321323 NEOGAL. This work makes extensive use of TOPCAT (Taylor 2005 ).

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Acknowledgements This work is partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC 11433004, U1738211, 11363006, and 11403019), the Applied Basic Research Projects Foundation of Yunnan Province (2014FD001) and Top Talents Program of Yunnan Province.

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This project is funded by DFG grant KE 1897/1-1, SPP 1681 grant WE2623/7-2, and FOR 1509 grant WE2623/13. We also thank the referee for a constructive review of the paper.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the Science and Technology Funding Council (UK) (ST/P000541/1) and (ST/PN002660/1). OJDF acknowledges the support of STFC (ST/N50404X/1). Horizon 2020: This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 730890. This material reflects only the author's views and the Commission is not liable for any use that may be made of the information contained therein. CC received support from A*MIDEX (project no. ANR-11- IDEX-0001- 02) funded by the ‘Investissements d’Avenir’ French Government program, managed by the French National Research Agency (ANR). This work was supported by the Action Spécifique Haute Résolution Angulaire (ASHRA) of CNRS/INSU co-funded by CNES. This research made use of python including Numpy and Scipy (van der Walt, Colbert Varoquaux 2011 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ) and A stropy , a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (Robitaille et al. 2013 ). We also made use of the Python AO utility library AOtools ( https://github. com/AOtools/aotools ).

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We thank B. Ochsendorf and K. Tchernyshyov for useful discussions. We thank the referee for the useful comments. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. SvV is supported by NASA through a Hubble Fellowship (HST-HF2-51350).

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Acknowledgements This work was supported by the European Research Council Advanced Grant HotMol (ERC-2011-AdG291659).

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Acknowledgments J-SN and J-NF acknowledge the support from the Joint Fund of Astronomy of National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) and Chinese Academy of Sciences through the grant U1231202, the NSFC grant 11673003, the National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program 2014CB845700 and 2013CB834900) and the LAMOST FELLOWSHIP supported by the Special Funding for Advanced Users, budgeted and administrated by the Center for Astronomical Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAMS). J-SN thanks Nami Mowlavi for helpful discussions and useful advice.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for a constructive referee report which greatly improved this manuscript. The authors thank Glenn van de Ven, Morgan Fouesneau, Anna Lisa Varri, Gigi Leung, Diederik Kruijssen, Carme Gallart, and Matteo Monelli for useful discussions which improved the manuscript. Dedicated to BL. RL thanks AH. This work was made possible with funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada PDF award and supported by Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject A7 and A8) of the German Research Foundation (DFG), and Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) PPP project number 57316058 ‘Finding and exploiting accreted star clusters in the Milky Way’. TRL acknowledges support via grants AYA2014-56795-P and AYA2016-77237-C3-1-P from the Spanish Government. PB acknowledges financial support from a Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics (CITA) National Fellowship. MAB and JFB acknowledge support from grant AYA2016-77237-C3-1-P from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) and from the Severo Ochoa Excellence programme SEV-2015-0548.

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We thank the referee for his/her thoughtful comments. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013 Grant Agreement no. 614199 , project ‘BLACK’). This work was granted access to the HPC resources of TGCC under the allocations x2014046955, x2015046955 and c2015047012 made by GENCI. We thank Stéphane Rouberoul for smoothly running the horizon cluster in IAP, where the post-processing of the simulations has been done.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee for a very helpful report. The authors would like to thank the Argus instrument team from the Stanford University, Caltech, JPL, University of Maryland, University of Miami, and the Green Bank Observatory for their efforts on the instrument and software that have made this work possible. The Argus instrument construction was funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) ATI-1207825. Green Bank Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation and is operated by Associated Universities, Inc. CYC and ZYL acknowledge support from NSF AST-1815784. ZYL is supported in part by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 80NSSC18K1095 and NNX14AB38G and NSF AST-1716259. AIH and JL acknowledge support from NSF AST-1615647. This research made use of astropy , 7 a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 , 2018 ).

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This study has received financial support from the French State in the frame of the “Investments for the future” Programme IdEx Bordeaux, reference ANR-10-IDEX-03-02. Computer time for this study was provided in part by the computing facilities MCIA (Mésocentre de Calcul Intensif Aquitain) of the Université de Bordeaux and of the Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour. P.G. acknowledges support from the ERC Starting Grant (3DICE, grant agreement 336474). P.G.’s postdoctoral position is funded by INSU/CNRS. This paper includes data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. This research has made use of the Exoplanet Orbit Database and the Exoplanet Data Explorer at exoplanets.org.

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We thank Jos de Boer for the TYC 5259-446-1 dataset.

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The authors thank F. Israel for comments on the manuscript. The authors are indebted to F. Müller-Sánchez for providing the SINFONI H 2 gas emission map of NGC 1068, O. González-Martín for the Chandra data, J. Wang for the Chandra image of NGC 1068, L. Burtscher for the SINFONI data cubes, F. Combes for the ALMA image of NGC 1566, D. Espada for the ALMA image of CenA, and S. García Burillo for the ALMA image of NGC 1068. MM acknowledges financial support from AYA2011-25527 and NASA Chandra grant G05-16099X. The research leading to the results has received funding from the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement 312430. Research by JAFO was supported by Canary Islands CIE: Tricontinental Atlantic Campus. This research is based on ESO VLT programmes P71.B-0632A, 74.B-0722B and 86.B-0484. The research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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I acknowledge the NSF grant AST 1212096, NASA grant NNX14AJ53G and the NSF Center for Magnetic Self Organization (CMSO) as well as a distinguished visitor PVE/CAPES appointment at the Physics Graduate Program of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, the INCT INEspao, and Physics Graduate Program/UFRN. Productive and stimulating discussions with Jungyeon Cho and Gianfranco Brunetti as well as helpful comments of the anonymous referee are acknowledged.

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We would like to thank Atul Chhotray, Hirotaka Ito, and Hiro Nagataki for useful discussions. This work was supported in part by NASA Swift GI grant NNX15AG96G and ATP grant NNX17AK42G.

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We want to thank the referee for his/her useful and constructive comments. This work is supported by ANPCyT (PICT 2012-00878). V.B-R. acknowledges financial support from MICINN and European Social Funds through a Ramón y Cajal fellowship. This research has been supported by the Marie Curie Career Integration Grant 321520. V.B-R. and G.E.R. acknowledge support by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) under grant AYA2013-47447-C3-1-P.

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C.D. is supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. Support for this work was provided through the NASA Kepler Mission Participating Scientist Program grants NNX09AB53G and NNX12AC77G, which were awarded to D.C. This publication was made possible through the support of a grant from the John Templeton Foundation. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the John Templeton Foundation. We thank the anonymous referee for providing feedback that improved the quality of this paper and the Kepler team for providing the community with a fantastic collection of data. We are grateful to Jonathan Irwin for sharing a fast implementation of the transit model (Mandel Agol 2002 ) and for providing valuable advice. We thank Jessie Christiansen for answering questions about the Kepler pipeline completeness and providing helpful suggestions. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. This publication made use of the Kepler Community Follow-Up Observing Program website ( https://cfop.ipac.caltech.edu ), the NASA Exoplanet Archive, and the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). The NASA Exoplanet Archive is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under the Exoplanet Exploration Program. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts.

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Acknowledgments We thank Christoph Behrens for providing the MDPL2 merger trees in the galacticus merger tree file format, and Shaun Cole and Yu Lu for helpful discussions. The author gratefully acknowledges the Gauss Centre for Supercomputing e.V. ( www.gauss-centre.eu ) and the Partnership for Advanced Supercomputing in Europe (PRACE, http://www.prace-ri.eu ) for funding the MultiDark simulation project by providing computing time on the GCS Supercomputer SuperMUC at Leibniz Supercomputing Centre (LRZ, http://www.lrz.de ). The CosmoSim data base used in this paper is a service by the Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam (AIP). The MultiDark data base was developed in cooperation with the Spanish MultiDark Consolider Project CSD2009-00064.

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LD and JS acknowledge support from the ESA PRODEX Programme “ Gaia -DPAC QSOs” and from the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office. AKM acknowledges the support from the Portuguese Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through grants SFRH/BPD/74697/2010 and PTDC/FIS-AST/31546/2017, from the Portuguese Strategic Programme UID/FIS/00099/2013 for CENTRA, from the ESA contract AO/1-7836/14/NL/HB, and from the Caltech Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy for hosting a research leave during 2017–2018, when this paper was prepared. OW is supported by the Humboldt Research Fellowship for Postdoctoral Researchers. SGD and MJG acknowledge partial support from the NSF grants AST-1413600 and AST-1518308, and the NASA grant 16-ADAP16-0232. The work of DS was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with NASA. We acknowledge partial support from “Actions sur projet INSU-PNGRAM”, and from the Brazil-France exchange programmes Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) – Comité Français d’Évaluation de la Coopération Universitaire et Scientifique avec le Brésil (COFECUB). This work has made use of the computing facilities of the Laboratory of Astroinformatics (IAG/USP, NAT/Unicsul), whose purchase was made possible by the Brazilian agency FAPESP (grant 2009/54006-4) and the INCT-A, and we thank the entire LAi team, especially Carlos Paladini, Ulisses Manzo Castello, Luis Ricardo Manrique, and Alex Carciofi for their support. This work has made use of results from the ESA space mission Gaia , the data from which were processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. The Gaia mission website is http://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia . Some of the authors are members of the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC).

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We thank A. Rubin, B. Katz, E. Ofek, and A. Gal-Yam for useful discussions and constructive comments. This research was partially supported by an ISF I-Core, an IMOS grant, and a Minerva grant.

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Acknowledgments WW is grateful for useful discussions of merger trees with John Helly and Yan Qu. WW also thank Azadeh Fattahi and Shi Shao about the useful information of apostle . This work was supported by the European Research Council [GA 267291] COSMIWAY and Science and Technology Facilities Council Durham Consolidated Grant [ST/F001166/1,ST/L00075X/1]. WW acknowledges a Durham Junior Research Fellowship (RF040353). The simulations for the Aquarius project were carried out at the Leibniz Computing Centre, Garching, Germany, at the Computing Centre of the Max-Planck-Society in Garching, at the Institute for Computational Cosmology in Durham and on the STELLA supercomputer of the LOFAR experiment at the University of Groningen. apostle project used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ), and also resources provided by WestGrid ( www.westgrid.ca ) and Compute Canada ( www.computecanada.ca ). The DiRAC system was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grants ST/H008519/1 and ST/K00087X/1, STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. Kavli IPMU was established by World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI), MEXT, Japan. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP17K14271.

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A.R.L. is grateful for partial support from DIULS Regular project PR15143. G.A.P.F. is partially supported by CNPq and FAPEMIG. We thanks the SOAR staff for the efficient support provided during the OSIRIS and Goodman observing runs. A.R.L. thanks Dr. Nolan Walborn for stimulating discussions about the optical spectra of O2 v stars. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. This work is based (in part) on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. This research has made use of data obtained from the Chandra Source Catalog, provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) as part of the Chandra Data Archive. This research has made use of the VizieR catalog access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS 143, 23 Facility : OSIRIS.

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The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for his/her careful reading and useful comments, which improved the content of this manuscript. I.D., V.S., J.D., M.N., and O.M. acknowledge the European Union’s Seventh Framework programme under grant agreement 337595 (ERC Starting Grant, “CoSMass”). N.B. acknowledges the European Union’s Seventh Framework programme under grant agreement 333654 (CIG, “AGN feedback”). C.L. is funded by a Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DE150100618). Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020. M.B. and P.C. acknowledge supports from the PRIN-INAF 2014. M.A. acknowledges partial support from FONDECYT through grant 1140099. A.K. acknowledges support by the Collaborative Research Council 956, sub-project A1, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). This work was partially supported by NASA Chandra grant number GO3-14150C and GO3-14150B (FC, S.M.). I.D. is grateful to B. Magnelli for useful suggestions and to Takamitsu Miyaji for his help with CSTACK.

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Acknowledgments I am most grateful to Ski Antonucci and Bill Mathews for numerous comments and discussions. I have also benefitted considerably from discussions of hydrogen-line ratios with Gary Ferland, and discussions of AGN reddening and dust issues with Victor Oknyansky, Clio Heard and Jonathan Stern.

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Acknowledgments The authors thank Thomas Bisbas, Tanio Diaz-Santos, Duncan Farrah, Munan Gong, Javier Gracia-Carpio and Eve Ostriker for providing both simulation and observational data that aided us when developing these models. DN thanks Aaron Evans, Thomas Greve, Rob Kennicutt, Dominik Riechers, J. D. Smith, Gordon Stacey, Dan Stark, Karen Olsen and Mark Wolfire for helpful conversations. Partial support for DN was provided by NSF AST-1009452, AST-1445357, NASA HST AR-13906.001 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of University for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA Contract NAS5-26555, and a Cottrell College Science Award, awarded by the Research Corporation for Science Advancement. MRK acknowledges support from US NSF grant AST-1405962 and Australian Research Council grant DP160100695.

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We thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments that helped us to improved the manuscript. This work was funded with grants from Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina and the Universidad Nacional de La Plata (Argentina).

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We thank Feng Yuan for his thoughtful and constructive comments. Amin Mosallanezhad is supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI), grant No. 2018PM0046. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant No. 11725312, 11421303), the Science Challenge Project of China (grant No. TZ2016002), and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (grant No. 2019M663665).

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We thank Peter Stetson for a copy of DAOPHOT as well as his helpful engagement on its usage. We also thank C. Gallart and M. Monelli of the LCID team for a copy of their IC 1613 photometric catalog for comparison to our own. We also thank Richard Kron for helpful comments in this research and preparation of this manuscript, Julia Kollmeier for helpful conversations, and Laura Sturch for the preparation of IMACS imaging. In addition, we thank the anonymous referee for numerous constructive suggestions. Authors M.G.L. and I.S.J. were supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea Government (MSIP) No. 2012R1A4A1028713. Support for program #13691 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5 m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. We thank the Carnegie Institution for its continued support of this program over the past 30 years. Facilities: HST (ACS/WFC , WFC3-IR) , Magellan-Baade (IMACS) . Software: DAOPHOT (Stetson 1987 ), ALLFRAME (Stetson 1994 ), Tiny Tim (Krist et al. 2011 ).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to the anonymous reviewer for justified, helpful, and clearly rationalized remarks that helped improve this paper.


C.-J.M. acknowledges support from ERC Advanced Investigator programme DUSTYGAL 321334. I.R.S. acknowledges support from STFC (ST/L00075X/1), the DUSTYGAL ERC programme, and a Royal Society/Wolfson Merit Award. A.M.S. acknowledges an STFC Advanced Fellowship through grant number ST/H005234/1 and the Leverhume Trust. The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope is operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the National Research Council of Canada, and (until 2013 March 31) the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. Additional funds for the construction of SCUBA-2 were provided by the Canada Foundation for Innovation. This work is based (in part) on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with NASA. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.

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We would like to thank the referee for constructive and valuable comments that improved the manuscript considerably. SDO is a mission for NASA’s Living With a Star (LWS) program. P. K. thanks Prof. Davina Innes for several fruitful discussions. We acknowledge the use of the Fermi Solar Flare Observations facility funded by the Fermi GI program. Hinode is a Japanese mission developed and launched by ISAS/JAXA, with NAOJ as a domestic partner and NASA and STFC (UK) as international partners. It is operated by these agencies in cooperation with the ESA and the NSC (Norway). This work was supported by the “Development of Korea Space Weather Center” of KASI and the KASI basic research funds. V. M. N. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the SeismoSun Research Project No. 321141, STFC consolidated grant ST/L000733/1, and the BK21 Plus Program through the National Research Foundation funded by the Ministry of Education of Korea.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a critical reading of the manuscript and highly appreciate the comments and suggestions, which significantly contributed to improving quality of the paper. We also thank the staff of GMRT, who made the radio observations possible. GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. We thank UKIRT staff for their assistance in observations. The UKIRT is supported by NASA and operated under an agreement among the University of Hawaii, the University of Arizona and Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center; operations are enabled through the cooperation of the Joint Astronomy Centre of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the UK. When the data reported here were acquired, UKIRT was operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the UK. We thank the Mt. Abu Infrared Observatory staff for assistance in the observations. We also thank M. T. Beltran for providing the 1.2 mm map of this region. We thank A. Sanchez-Monge for providing the ATCA maps. We also thank Varsha Ramachandran and Govind Nandakumar for their help in python programming. This research made use of NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Caltech under contract with NASA. This publication also made use of data products from Herschel (ESA space observatory). We use ATLASGAL [collaboration between the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, the European Southern Observatory (ESO) and the Universidad de Chile] data products for our research.

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The research was supported by NSFC under grant 41774179 and the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories of China. We acknowledge the use of data from SOHO , STEREO , SDO , GOES , Wind , and MAVEN , we thank M. Leila Mays, Christina O. Lee and Janet G. Luhmann for their help and discussions on the work, and we are grateful to R.-Y. Kwon for providing his ellipsoidal shock model. The ENLIL simulations were provided by CCMC through their public Runs on Request system ( http://ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov ).

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Thanks are due to R. Amorín, Y. Ascasibar, A. B. Morales-Luis, P. Papaderos, and J. Vílchez, who participated in the target selection and in some of the observing time proposals that produced the spectra analyzed in the paper. We also thank an anonymous referee whose comments helped to improve the readability of the paper. This article is based on observations made with the WHT operated by the ING in the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain. This work has been partly funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, projects Estallidos AYA2013–47742–C04–02–P and AYA2013–47742–C04–01–P. A.O.-G. thanks Fundación La Caixa for financial support in the form of a PhD contract. M.E.F. is partly funded by the Estallidos project, as well as by the Fundao para a Cincia e Tecnologia (FCTPortugal), through the research grant SFRH/BPD/107801/2015. J.M.-A. acknowledges support from the European Research Council Starting Grant (SEDmorph; P.I. V. Wild).

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The simulations have been carried out either on a work station with multicore processors or/and on the CFCA cluster (XC30) of National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. We make 2D visualization and analysis using package visit (Childs et al. 2012 ) and octave . SSK acknowledges support by STFC under the standard grant EP/N023986/1. BMV acknowledge partial support by JSPS (Japan Society for the Promotion of Science): No.2503786, 25610056, 26287056, 26800159. BMV also MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology): No.26105521 and RFBR grant 12-02-01336-a.

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Acknowledgments We thank Simon White and Philipp Busch for helpful input to the analysis.

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The authors thank an anonymous referee for constructive comments that improved the clarity of the paper. This research is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA, and AKARI , a JAXA project with the participation of ESA. This research made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). Facilities: XMM-Newton , AKARI

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We wish to thank an anonymous referee for his/her many interesting comments and suggestions. Based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under program ID 188.B-3002. These data products have been processed by the Cambridge Astronomy Survey Unit (CASU) at the Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, and by the FLAMES-UVES reduction team at INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri. These data have been obtained from the Gaia -ESO Survey Data Archive, prepared and hosted by the Wide Field Astronomy Unit, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, which is funded by the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 program through ERC grant number 320360 and by the Leverhulme Trust through grant RPG-2012-541. We acknowledge the support from INAF and Ministero dell’ Istruzione, dell’ Università’ e della Ricerca (MIUR) in the form of the grant “Premiale VLT 2012”. T.Z. acknowledges support from the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding No. P1-0188). F.J.-E. acknowledges financial support from the Spacetec-CM project (S2013/ICE-2822). M.T.C. acknowledges the financial support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, through grant AYA2016-75931-C2-1-P. The results presented here benefit from discussions held during the Gaia -ESO workshops and conferences supported by the ESF (European Science Foundation) through the GREAT Research Network Programme. This work is also based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under program ID 177.D-3023, as part of the VST Photometric H Survey of the Southern Galactic Plane and Bulge (VPHAS, www.vphas.eu ). This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study uses data provided by the Calar Alto Legacy Integral Field Area (CALIFA) survey ( http://califa.caha.es/ ). Based on observations collected at the Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA) at Calar Alto, operated jointly by the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (CSIC). IMC acknowledges the support of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias via an Astrophysicist Resident fellowship. BGL acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO) by the grant AYA2015-68217-P. CRA acknowledges the Ramón y Cajal Program of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through project RYC-2014-15779 and the Spanish Plan Nacional de Astronomía y Astrofisíca under grant AYA2016-76682-C3-2-P. TRL acknowledges support via grants AYA2014-56795-P and AYA2016-77237-C3-1-P from the Spanish Government. JFB acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO) by the grant AYA2013-48226-C3-1P. SFS thanks the CONACyT programs CB-285080 and DGAPA IA101217 grants for their support. IMP and JM acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad(MINECO) by the grant AYA2016-76682-C3-1-P. This paper makes use of python ( http://www.python.org ); Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), a suite of open-source python modules that provide a framework for creating scientific plots; and Astropy, 6 a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 , 2018 ). Finally, we thank the anonymous referee for useful suggestions and comments that have improved this paper.

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The authors wish to thank Julia Lawless for useful discussions and the anonymous referee for very detailed suggestions that helped clarify the manuscript. D.M.L. acknowledges support from the European Commission’s H2020 Programme under the following Grant Agreements: GREST (No. 653982) and Pre-EST (No. 739500) as well as support from the Leverhulme Trust for an Early Career Fellowship (ECF-2014-792) and is grateful to the Science Technology and Facilities Council for the award of an Ernest Rutherford Fellowship (ST/R003246/1). G.V. was funded by the Leverhulme Trust under grant 2014-051. J.M.J. thanks the STFC for support via funding given in his PhD Studentship. Facilities: SDO , GONG. Software: SolarSoftWare (Freeland Handy 1998 ).

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Acknowledgements This work is supported by Labex ESEP (ANR N 2011-LABX-030) and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project no. 16-52-150005-CNRS-a. The work of RSS was carried out while he was working at Université de Lille – Laboratoire Paul Painlevé.

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Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for comments and suggestions which have improved this paper. This work is based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the Science and Technology Facilities Council (United Kingdom), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia (Brazil) and south-eastCYT (Argentina). This work has been partially supported by the Brazilian institution CNPq.

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This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant Nos. 11473024, 11363005, 11763007, 11503008, and 11365022 and the XinJiang Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars under grant No. QN2016YX0049.

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We thank Jie Wang and Liang Gao for helpful discussion. QG acknowledges support from the NSFC grant (No. 11133003), the Strategic Priority Research Program ‘The Emergence of Cosmological Structure’ of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. XDB09000000), the ‘Recruitment Program of Global Youth Experts’ of China, the NAOC grant (Y434011V01), MPG partner Group family and a Royal Society Newton International Fellowship, as well as the hospitality of the Institute for Computational Cosmology at Durham University. APC is supported by a COFUND/Durham Junior Research Fellowship under EU grant [267209] and thanks Liang Gao for support in the early stages of this work under a CAS International Research Fellowship and NSFC grant [11350110323]. CF acknowledges an ERC Advanced Investigator grant COSMIWAY (GA 267291). This work was supported in part by the Science and Technology Facilities Council Consolidated Grant for Durham Astronomy (grant number ST/I00162X/1). This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008519/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. The COCO simulations were run at the University of Warsaw HPC centre and we would like to thank Maciej Cytowski and Arkadiusz Niegowski for their help with these simulations.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee for the useful and constructive comments that improved the presentation of the results.This work is based on observations carried out at the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) under program ID 2015_2016_28. The LBT is an international collaboration among institutions in the US, Italy and Germany. We acknowledge the support from the LBT-Italian Coordination Facility for the execution of the observations, the data distribution and for support in data reduction. We thank D. Thomas and J. Lian for having provided us with the median metallicity values of eBOSS galaxies from Comparat et al. ( 2017 ). PS would like to thank T. Durden for the useful suggestions.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author AKS acknowledges IUCAA and IIA, India, for providing funds and telescope facilities for cometary observation.

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The authors thank the anonymous referee for the enlightening suggestions, which helped to improve the quality of this manuscript. This work is based on observations taken at ESO/VLT in Paranal, and we would like to thank the ESO staff for their assistance and support during the MUSE GTO campaigns. This work was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. We thank Amanda Bluck for proofreading the manuscript. We thank J. Woo and M. Maseda for their comments on the draft. S.C. gratefully acknowledges support from Swiss National Science Foundation grant PP00P2_163824. R.B. acknowledges support from the ERC advanced grant 339659-MUSICOS. J.R. acknowledges support from the ERC starting grant 336736-CALENDS. J.B. acknowledges support by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through national funds (UID/FIS/04434/2013) and Investigador FCT contract IF/01654/2014/CP1215/CT0003., and by FEDER through COMPETE2020 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007672). T.C. acknowledges support of the ANR FOGHAR (ANR-13-BS05-0010-02), the OCEVU Labex (ANR-11-LABX-0060), and the A*MIDEX project (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) funded by the “Investissements davenir” French government program managed by the ANR. J.S. and S.M. acknowledge support from European Research Council (ERC), grant agreement 278594-GasAroundGalaxies. J.S. acknowledges support from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) VICI grant 639.043.409. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for astronomy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), NumPy and SciPy (Oliphant 2007 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), IPython (Perez Granger 2007 ), and of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services.

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This research was supported by NNSFC grants 41674146, 41731070, and 41574159, in part by the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories of China and NSSC research fund for key development directions, and by the Strategic Pioneer Program on Space Science of CAS grant XDA15052500, and by NASA grants NNX13AF99G, QYZDJ-SSW-JSC028 and NNX17AB85G.

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We acknowledge the anonymous referee for her/his helpful comments and suggestions that improved the presentation of this paper. This project was partially financed by CONICET of Argentina under projects PIP 00356, and PIP00107, and from UNLP, 2012-2014 PPID/G002 and 11/G120. L.B. acknowledges support by CONICYT project PFB-06. Support for J.B. is provided by the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourism’s Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, MAS. M.A.K. was supported by a Chilean FONDECYT fellowship grant (No. 3150319) from the Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (CONICYT) and the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourism’s Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work is supported in part by the NSF grant AST-1715246 and NASA grant NNX14AP31G. BL is also supported in part by grants from NSFC (No. 11703068 and No. 11661161012). This work made use of the High Performance Computing Resource in the Core Facility for Advanced Research Computing at Shanghai Astronomical Observatory.

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We would like to thank the referee for her/his useful comments. We also thank the SMA staff for their support, which makes these studies possible. The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. We thank Mauricio Tapia for thoughtful discussions about the origin of the infrared emission in NGC 6334 V. We thank Marco Padovani for his valuable support with ARTIST and Gilberto Zavala Pérez and Alfonso H. Ginori González for their computational support. C.J. acknowledges support from MINECO (Spain) grant No. BES-2012-052481. C.J. and J.M.G. acknowledge support from MICINN (Spain) grant No. AYA2014-57369-C3. J.M.G. also acknowledges the support from the MECD (Spain) PRX15/00435 travel grant. A.P. and M.Z.-A. acknowledge financial support from the UNAM-DGAPA-PAPIIT IA 102815 grant (Mexico). M.Z.-A. also acknowledges CONACyT for a postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Michigan. P.M.K. acknowledges support from the Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan through grant MoST 103-2119-M-001-009 and an Academia Sinica Career Development Award. J.B.-P. acknowledges UNAM-PAPIIT grant No. IN110816 and UNAM’s DGAPA-PASPA Sabbatical program. He also is indebted to the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung for its invaluable support. K.Q. acknowledges the support from National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) through grants NSFC 11473011 and NSFC 11590781.

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The authors would like to thank Charles Danforth and John Stocke for very helpful discussions and for assistance with reducing and co-adding COS data and the anonymous referee for thoughtful reports which helped to improve this work. Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA HST , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). STScI is operated by the association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under the NASA contract NAS 5-26555.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for their work which much improved the paper. We also thank Stephen Kane for his useful feedback and advice. This work was funded in part by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Discovery Grants program.

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An anonymous referee is gratefully acknowledged for the suggestions/comments which improved the paper. MP and PKP gratefully acknowledge support by the CSIR, New Delhi under the NET fellowship programme. This research has made use of (i) NASA's Astrophysics Data System, (ii) the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, (iii) observations obtained with XMM–Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA, and (iv) data, software and/or web tools obtained from the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory's High Energy Astrophysics Division.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has made use of light curves provided by the University of California, San Diego Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences, X-ray Group (R.E. Rothschild, A.G. Markowitz, E.S. Rivers, and B.A. McKim), obtained at http://cass.ucsd.edu/rxteagn/ .

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This paper is based in part on data collected at Subaru Telescope, which is operated by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. A.F. thanks Oscar A. Gonzalez for kindly providing VVV data. A.F. was supported by the Astrobiology Project of the Center for Novel Science Initiatives (CNSI), National Institutes of Natural Sciences (NINS; Grant Number AB261005). T.S. acknowledges the financial support from the JSPS, JSPS23103002, JSPS24253004, and JSPS26247023. The MOA project is supported by grants JSPS25103508 and 23340064. NJR is a Royal Society of New Zealand Rutherford Discovery Fellow. Work by C.H. was supported by Creative Research Initiative Program (2009-0081561) of National Research Foundation of Korea. S.D. is supported by “the Strategic Priority Research Program—The Emergence of Cosmological Structures” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. 09000000). The OGLE project has received funding from the National Science Centre, Poland, grant MAESTRO 2014/14/A/ST9/00121 to A.U. C.S. received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under grant agreement No. 268421. K.A., D.M.B., M.D., K.H., M.H., C.L., C.S., R.A.S., and Y.T. would like to thank the Qatar Foundation for support from QNRF grant NPRP-09-476-1-078. Facilities : Subaru (IRCS) , FTN , FTS , Liverpool:2m , LCOGT .

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