The authors would like to thank Adam Burgasser, Brendan Bowler, Kelle Cruz, Mike Cushing, Michael Liu, and Emily Rice for useful discussions on benchmark systems, data treatment, and various data-model comparison approaches. The authors thank Richard Freedman and Roxana Lupu for providing gas opacities and Caroline Morley for radiative transfer code comparisons and helpful discussions. We thank Jacob Lustig-Yeager and Kyle Luther for rewriting portions of the code in python and C for significant speed improvements and also Dan Foreman-Mackey for making EMCEE available to the community. Finally, we thank the anonymous referee and statistics consultant for useful and insightful comments. J.T. acknowledges financial support from the Carnegie Origins Postdoctoral Fellowship Program. B.B. acknowledges financial support from the European Commission in the form of a Marie Curie International Outgoing Fellowship (PIOF-GA-2013-629435). J.F. acknowledges funding support from NSF award AST-1312545. M.M. acknowledges support from the NASA Astrophysics Theory and Planetary Atmospheres programs. Facility: Magellan:Clay

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The authors would like to thank their numerous colleagues for the many hours of fruitful discussions on the complex subject of interstellar dust. In particular we wish to thank Alain Abergel for a careful reading of the manuscript. This research was, in part, made possible through the financial support of the Agence National de la Recherche (ANR) through the programmes Cold Dust (ANR-07-BLAN-0364- 01) and CIMMES (ANR-11-BS56-0029) and, currently, through the EU FP7 funded project DustPedia (grant No. 606847).

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Work by J.D.L. and G.A.W. has been supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. O.K. acknowledges financial support from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council, and the Swedish National Space Board. S.M. acknowledges funding by the European Research Council through ERC grant SPIRE 647383. S.M. thanks E. Bolmont for fruitful discussions on pseudo-synchronous states.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS GAMA is a joint European–Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The GAMA input catalogue is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is being obtained by a number of independent survey programs including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE, Herschel -ATLAS, GMRT, and ASKAP providing UV to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA website is http://www.gama-survey.org/ . This work is based in part on observations made with the Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX). GALEX is a NASA Small Explorer, whose mission was developed in cooperation with the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) of France and the Korean Ministry of Science and Technology. GALEX is operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology, under NASA contract NAS5-98034. This work made extensive use of topcat (Taylor 2005 ) software packages, which are supported by an STFC grant to the University of Bristol.

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I thank all three anonymous referees, who reviewed this manuscript at different stages. I am also grateful to AA editor Malcolm Walmsley for his contribution in improving the presentation. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for a useful and supportive report. It is a pleasure to thank Mike Irwin for discussions on multiregression analysis. NK acknowledges the financial support from the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge, the Nehru Trust for Cambridge University during the PhD, and the Schlumberger Foundation for the post-doctoral research. RM and MC acknowledge ERC Advanced Grant 695671 ‘QUENCH’ and support by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). This research has used the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; SAOImage DS9, developed by Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory; Astropy, a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ). Based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 095.B-0532(A), 096.B-0309(A), and 097.B-0165(A).

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We thank an anonymous referee for valuable comments that helped improve the paper. We thank Santiago García-Burillo for insightful discussions and Sebastian Hönig and Leonard Burtscher for making their fully reduced spectra available to us. We acknowledge financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through the Plan Nacional de Astronomía y Astrofísica grants AYA2012-31447 (AA-H and AH-C), and AYA2015-64346-C2-1-P (AA-H), which were partly funded by the FEDER programme, and AYA2015-70815-ERC and AYA2012-31277 (AH-C) and AYA2012-32295 (MP-S and LC). AA-H is also partly funded by CSIC/PIE grant 201650E036. RP acknowledges the Oxford University Summer Research Programme. IA and MM-P are partly supported by Mexican CONACyT through research grant CB-2011-01-167291. MM-P acknowledges support by the CONACyT PhD fellowship programme. CRA acknowledges the Ramón y Cajal Programme of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. NAL is supported by the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., on behalf of the international Gemini partnership of Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, and the United States of America. TD-S acknowledges support from ALMA-CONICYT project 31130005 and FONDECYT 1151239. Based on observations made with the GTC, installed in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, in the island of La Palma. This research has made use of the NED which is operated by JPL, Caltech, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work is based in part on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA.

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This research was partially supported by the National Science Foundation under AST-1109288. G.G.K. acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council through the award of a Future Fellowship (FT140100933). We thank the referee for useful suggestions. We thank Mark Seibert for the discussion on GALEX photometry. We gratefully acknowledge conversations with Peng Oh and Andrey Kravtsov, which contributed to shaping our interpretation of these data. Most of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Some presented data are based on observations obtained with the Apache Point Observatory 3.5 m telescope, which is owned and operated by the Astrophysical Research Consortium. Facilities: Keck:I (LRIS) , Keck:II (NIRC2) , Gemini:Gillett (GMOS) , GALEX , ARC.

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We are indebted to the referee for very thoughtful advice that substantially improved the previous version of the paper. We wish to deeply thank Tomer Holczer for his tests to identify EB contamination, Gil Nachmani, Suzanne Aigrain and Simchon Faigler for illuminating and helpful discussions, and Eric Agol for useful comments. The research leading to these results has received funding to T.M. from the European Research Council under the EU's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/(2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement No. 291352). T.M. also acknowledges support from the Israel Science Foundation (grant No. 1423/11). T.M. and H.B.P. acknowledge support from the Israeli Centers of Research Excellence (I-CORE, grant No. 1829/12). H.B.P. acknowledges support from the European Union's—Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013]) under grant agreement No. 333644–MC–GRAND, as well as the “Minerva center for life under extreme planetary conditions.” T.M. is grateful to the Jesus Serra Foundation that enabled an extended visit to the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, and to his hosts, Hans Deeg and Rafael Rebolo in particular. The last phase of this work has been completed during this visit. This research has made use of the NASA Exoplanet Archive, which is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under the Exoplanet Exploration Program. All of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts.

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We used data from the DASCH project, which is supported by the NSF grant AST-1313370. The analysis was performed using the HPC Cluster Yeti at Columbia University.

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We acknowledge the anonymous referee for suggestions regarding the phase-connection analysis and the position accuracy. We thank Peng Wei and Eugene Magnier for helpful discussion about the search of the optical/IR counterpart. This work was supported by NSFC grants 11503008 and J1210039, and Top-notch Academic Programs Project of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions. P.Z. acknowledges the support from the NWO Veni Fellowship, grant No. 639.041.647, and NSFC grant 11233001. W.Y. was supported in part by NSFC grant No. 11333005 and by the National Program on Key Research and Development Project (grant No. 2016YFA0400804). X.L. was supported by the National Program on Key Research and Development Project (grant No. 2016YFA0400803), and NSFC grants 11133001 and 11333004. X.X. is grateful for the support of NSFC grant 11303015.

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Rosetta is a European Space Agency (ESA) mission with contributions from its member states and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). This study was supported by the Academy of Finland and, in part, by the Research Council of Norway grant No. 240000. The work on RPC-ICA was funded by the Swedish National Space Board under contracts 108/12 and 112/13. Work at the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy was supported by the Belgian Science Policy Office through the Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence and by PRODEX/ROSETTA/ROSINA PEA 4000107705. First selection of events in this study was performed with the AMDA science analysis system provided by the Centre de Données de la Physique des Plasmas (CDPP) supported by CNRS, CNES, Observatoire de Paris and Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse. G.G. is supported by the NASA Astrobiology Institute Grant NNX15AE05G and by the NASA HIDEE program Grant NNH15CO73C. C.S.W. thanks T.E. Cravens (University of Kansas, USA), W.J. Miloch (University of Oslo, Norway) and, last but not least, M. Simon Wedlund for useful discussions.

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This research was supported under the Australian Research Councils funding scheme (FT110100263). This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science.

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We would are deeply grateful to our colleagues who have provided us with valuable guidance. Special thanks to Professor Cui X. Q. (NIAOT) and Professor Granham J. Murray (Durham University) for productive discussions. Without their enlightening instruction, impressive kindness and patience, this paper could not have been completed. The Guoshoujing Telescope (the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope, LAMOST) is a National Major Scientific Project built by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Funding for the project has been provided by the National Development and Reform Commission. LAMOST is operated and managed by the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences.

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We wish to commemorate our colleague and friend Gregory Ruchti (1980–2019) who originally branched off this pipeline from the LUMBA-internal GIRAFFE pipeline. We thank the GES team for the work behind the M 67 spectra and for making them available to us. We thank Caroline Soubiran, Paula Jofré, and Maria Bergemann for contributions to the work behind the pipeline. AG, UH, and AJK acknowledge support from the Swedish National Space Agency and the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. PG thanks the European Science Foundation (ESF) for support in the framework of EuroGENESIS. KL acknowledges funds from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation in the framework of the Sofja Kovalevskaja Award endowed by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and funds from the Swedish Research Council (Grant no. 2015-00415_3 ) and Marie Skłodowska Curie Actions (Cofund Project INCA 600398). This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.

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The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for helping to improve the quality of this paper. SK, PMW, and CS received funding through BMBF Verbundforschung (grants 05A14BAC, 05A14MGA, ERASMUS-F, grant 05A08BA1, and ELT-MOS, grant 05A15BA1). SD acknowledges BMBF support through grant 05A14MGA, and from DFG through DR281/35-1. AMI acknowledges support from the Spanish MINECO through project AYA2015-68217-P. MMR acknowledges fruitful discussions with PER and TJR. The authors are thankful to A. Vazdekis for providing the (unpublished) MIUSCAT library. Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space TelescopevScience Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA), and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). This research has made use of the Spanish Virtual Observatory ( http://svo.cab.inta-csic.es ) supported from the Spanish MINECO/FEDER through grant AyA2014-55216.

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The research leading to the presented results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement no 338251 (StellarAges). E.B. undertook this research in the context of the International Max Planck Research School for Solar System Research. S.B. acknowledges partial support from NSF grant AST-1514676 and NASA grant NNX13AE70G. We thank Alexy Mints and the anonymous referee for their useful comments and discussions, which helped improve this manuscript. Software: Stellar models were calculated with Modules for Experiments in Stellar Astrophysics r8118 (MESA, Paxton et al. 2011 ) and stellar oscillations with the ADIPLS pulsation package 0.2 (Christensen-Dalsgaard 2008 ). Analysis in this manuscript was performed with python 3.5.1 libraries scikit-learn 0.17.1 (Pedregosa et al. 2011 ), NumPy 1.11.0 (Van Der Walt et al. 2011 ), matplotlib 1.5.1 (Hunter 2007 ), biokit 0.3.2 16 16 T. Cokelaer et al. 2016, (Version 0.3.2), https://github.com/biokit/biokit , and pandas 0.19.0 (McKinney 2010 ) as well as R 3.3.2 (R Core Team 2014 ) and the R libraries magicaxis 2.0.0 (Robotham 2015 ), RColorBrewer 1.1-2 (Neuwirth 2014 ), parallelMap 1.3 (Bischl Lang 2015 ), data.table 1.9.6 (Dowle et al. 2015 ), ggplot2 2.1.0 (Wickham 2009 ), GGally 1.2.0 (Schloerke et al. 2014 ), scales 0.4.0 (Wickham 2015 ) and Corrplot 0.77.

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We thank the anonymous referee for comments that significantly improved the manuscript. We additionally thank X. Bai, R. Fu, and J. Bryson for useful discussions. We gratefully acknowledge support from the NASA Emerging Worlds program (grant No. NNX15AH72G) , the U.S. Rosetta program (CREI 1576768), and Thomas F. Peterson Jr. Software: Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), NumPy (Van Der Walt et al. 2011 ), SciPy (Jones et al. 2001 ).

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This work has benefited from the discussions at the meeting “Solar UV bursts – a new insight to magnetic reconnection” at the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) in Bern. NASA’s Astrophysics Data System (ADS) and the 3D visualization tool Vapor were extensively used in this study.

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SDO is a mission of NASA’s Living With a Star Program. Hinode is a Japanese mission developed and launched by ISAS/JAXA, with NAOJ as a domestic partner and NASA and STFC (UK) as international partners. I thank the referee for specific comments and suggestions that improved the scientific presentation of the content. P.V. is supported by an INSPIRE grant of AORC scheme under the Department of Science and Technology. I am thankful to Prof. P. Venkatakrishnan for introducing me to this problem of net current neutralization.

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We appreciate Professor L. Perivolaropoulos for useful discussions. We are grateful to M.-H. Li, X. Li and S. Wang for meaningful suggestions. This work has been funded by the National Natural Science Fund of China under Grant no. 11375203.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank both Andrew Gilbert and the anonymous referee for their comments that greatly improved the content of the manuscript. AH is supported by his STFC Ernest Rutherford Fellowship grant number ST/L00397X/2 and by STFC grant ST/R000891/1. AB was supported by the Leverhulme Trust through the award of an Early Career Fellowship and by STFC Grant ST/R00059X/1. IA acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) through projects AYA2014-55456-P (Bayesian Analysis of the Solar Corona), AYA2014-60476-P (Solar Magnetometry in the Era of Large Telescopes), from FEDER funds, and through a Ramon y Cajal fellowship.

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Support from the Junta de Extremadura (Research Group Grant GR15137) and from the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of the Spanish Government (AYA2014-57556-P) is gratefully acknowledged. I.U. acknowledges support by the Center of Excellence ReSoLVE (Academy of Finland Project No. 272157).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS C.A. would like to acknowledge support by the NSF research grant AST-1613472. M.D.S. acknowledges support by a research grant (13261) from VILLUM FONDEN. The work presented in this paper has been supported in part by NSF awards AST-1613472 (PI: E. Y. Hsiao), P. Hoeflich AST-1715133 (PI: P. Hoeflich), and AST-1613426 (PI: M. M. Phillips). We also acknowledge the Florida Space Grant Consortium. C.G. acknowledges support by the Carlsberg Foundation. The UCSC team is supported by NSF grant AST-1518052, the Gordon Betty Moore Foundation, and from fellowships from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation to R.J.F. Support for programme #GO–12592 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5–26555.

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E.C. acknowledges financial support from the Chinese Academy of Sciences Presidents’ International Fellowship Initiative, Grant No. 2015PM054. E.C., X.K., and A.R. acknowledge financial support by the 973 program (No. 2015CB857003, 2013CB834900), NSF of Jiangsu Province (No. BK20140050), and the NSFC (No. 11333008, 11550110182, 11550110183). E.C. and S.K.Y. acknowledge support from the Korean National Research Foundation (NRF-2017R1A2A1A05001116) and from the Brain Korea 21 Plus Program (21A20131500002). This study was performed under the umbrella of the joint collaboration between Yonsei University Observatory and the Korean Astronomy and Space Science Institute.

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This project has been funded by the BBVA Foundation under the Convocatoria 2015 de Ayudas Fundación BBVA a Investigadores y Creadores Culturales. We thank E. Vázquez-Semadeni and J. Alves for very useful comments, and R. Lorente and I.Yamamura for their help with the AKARI data. We are indebted to the Calar Alto Observatory staff for their excellent work taking the near-IR data under the Service Mode program. NH thanks the ALMA Science Center in Santiago for hosting her during 2.5 months. I.d.G. acknowledges support fromMICINN (Spain) AYA2011-30228-C03 grant (including FEDER funds). A.P. and L.Z. acknowledge the financial support from UNAM-DGAPA-PAPITT IA102815 grant (México). D.B. has been funded by Spanish grant AYA2012-38897-C02-01. H.B. is funded by the Ramón y Cajal fellowship program number RYC-2009-04497. A.B. acknowledges financial support from the Proyecto Fondecyt de Iniciación 11140572, and scientific support from the Millenium Science Initiative, Chilean Ministry of Economy, Nucleus RC130007. M.T.R. acknowledges partial support from CATA (PB06, CONICYT-Chile). C.E. is partly supported by Spanish Grant AYA 2014-55840-P. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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Based on observations made with the Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC), installed in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, in the island of La Palma. All the figures presented here were made using Matplotlib ( Hunter 2007 ).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are glad to thank the referee, Andrej Prša, for his valuable comments and recommendations that helped improve this work. B-CO would like to thank Kyle Conroy for his support with technical details in the implementation of phoebe .

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The imaging data used in this work was provided courtesy of the NASA/ SDO and the AIA and HMI science teams. The OMNI data were obtained from the GSFC/SPDF OMNIWeb interface at https://omniweb.gsfc.nasa.gov . The authors thank the Helioviewer project for providing easy browsing access to many solar imaging data sets. The authors are also grateful to the anonymous referee for numerous helpful comments that improved the final paper.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a constructive review. We thank Simon Radford and William Tan for help with the CSO observation and data reduction, and Junhao Liu for helpful discussions on RADEX modeling. X.L. acknowledges the support of a Smithsonian Predoctoral Fellowship and the program A for outstanding PhD candidate of Nanjing University. J.M.D.K. gratefully acknowledges support in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), grant number KR4801/1-1. C.B. is supported by the National Science Foundation under Award No. 1602583. Z.Y.Z. acknowledges support from the European Research Council in the form of the Advanced Investigator Programme, 321302, cosmicism . We acknowledge the support by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant No. 11629302). This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), and NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. This material is based upon work at the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory, which was operated by the California Institute of Technology. This publication is also based on data acquired with the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX). APEX is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Institut fur Radioastronomie, the European Southern Observatory, and the Onsala Space Observatory. Facilities: SMA , VLA , CSO , APEX , GBT . Software: CASA, MIRIAD, MIR, GILDAS/CLASS, Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), RADEX (van der Tak et al. 2007 ), myRadex, correl_images.pro.

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P.D. thanks Philippe Laurent for his help in calculating elliptical integral numerical values. This research has made use of TOPCAT ( Taylor (2005) , http://www.starlink.ac.uk/topcat/ ) and SAOImage/DS9, developed by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory ( http://hea-www.harvard.edu/RD/ds9/ ). This work profits from data downloaded from the SIMBAD database, operated at the CDS, and the VizieR catalogue access tool (CDS, Strasbourg, France; Ochsenbein et al. 2000 ). SPIRE was developed by a consortium of institutes led by Cardiff Univ. (UK) and including Univ. Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, Univ. Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); Stockholm Observatory (Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, Univ. Sussex (UK); Caltech, JPL, NHSC, Univ. Colorado (USA). This development has been supported by national funding agencies: CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); STFC (UK); and NASA (USA). PACS was developed by a consortium of institutes led by MPE (Germany) and including UVIE (Austria); KU Leuven, CSL, IMEC (Belgium); CEA, LAM (France); MPIA (Germany); INAF-IFSI/OAA/OAP/OAT, LENS, SISSA (Italy); IAC (Spain). This development has been supported by the funding agencies BMVIT (Austria), ESA-PRODEX (Belgium), CEA/CNES (France), DLR (Germany), ASI/INAF (Italy), and CICYT/MCYT (Spain). T.H. was supported by a CEA/Marie-Curie Eurotalents Fellowship. Part of this work was supported by the ANR (Agence Nationale pour la Recherche) project “PROBeS”, number ANR-08-BLAN-0241.

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Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments and suggestions that helped to significantly increase the quality of this work.

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Acknowledgments We thank Mikoaj Jerzykiewicz for carefully reading the manuscript and language corrections. This work was financially supported by the Polish National Science Centre (grant 2015/17/B/ST9/02082). The calculations were carried out using resources provided by the Wrocaw Centre for Networking and Supercomputing ( http://wcss.pl ; grant 265).

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This work is a part of the project 176002 ‘Influence of collisional processes on astrophysical plasma line shapes’ supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of Serbia. It is also the result of Short term Scientific Mission CM0805 within COST programme on The Chemical Cosmos: Understanding Chemistry in Astronomical Environments. Partial financial support from project No 6572-20 Technical University – Sofia within Euroatom Programme is also acknowledged. This work has been supported as well, by the Paris Observatory, the CNRS and the PNPS (Programme National de Physique Stellaire, INSU-CNRS).

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This work has been financially supported by the Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES), the Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers (INSU), Airbus Group, Thales Alenia Space and the Région Limousin. We gratefully acknowledge Wolfgang Sohler for many helpful and stimulating discussions. Our thanks go also to A. Dexet for the development and his advices for all the specific mechanical components.

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We would like to thank the Department of Physics and Astronomy at BYU and the Departments of Physics at BYUI and UVU for support throughout this research. We are indebted to Kristin Chiboucas for many patient explanations of GMOS observing and to John Salzer for a helpful discussion. This report is based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnologa e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovaçäo (Brazil), for program GN-2015B-FT-15. This research is also based on observations at Kitt Peak National Observatory, National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO Prop. ID: 2013A-0106; PI: J.W. Moody), which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The authors are honored to be permitted to conduct astronomical research on Iolkam Du’ag (Kitt Peak), a mountain with particular significance to the Tohono O’odham. Facilities: Mayall (MOSAIC-1.1 wide-field camera) , Gemini:Gillett (GMOS).

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F.W. is supported by the National Science Foundation (USA) under Grant PHY-1411708. S.S. acknowledges access to the computer facilities of the CSC Frankfurt. R.N. acknowledges financial support from the CAPES and CNPq.

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We thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments and suggestions. This work is supported by the NSFC (grants 11103003, 11133005, 11573009 and U1431124), National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program, No. 2014CB8455800), and New Century Excellent Talents in University (NCET-13-0238).

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Acknowledgements We thank the SN community, both professional and amateur, for its tireless efforts discovering and classifying SNe. We especially thank those who make discoveries, classifications, and data immediately public. Timely, public access to this information was both critical for this work and a significant benefit for all of science. We especially thank A. Castro-Tirado, R. Chornock, A. Gal-Yam, B. Shappee, I. Shivvers, J. Strader, and O. Yaron for providing additional information about their observations. We thank S. Downing, A. Duarte, M. Garcia, R. Hounsell, A. Kniazev, M. Kotze, B. Miszalski, B. Patel, E. Romero Colmenero, R. Skelton, and J. Tonry for assisting in some of the observations presented here. We thank C. Stubbs for his continued support of this project and other intellectual contributions. This manuscript is based upon work supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Contract No. NNG16PJ34C issued through the WFIRST Science Investigation Teams Programme. RJF and DS were supported in part by NASA grant 14-WPS14-0048. The UCSC group is supported in part by NSF grant AST-1518052, the Gordon Betty Moore Foundation, and from fellowships from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation to RJF. DS acknowledges support from NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51383.001 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555 and the Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago through grant NSF PHY-1125897 and an endowment from the Kavli Foundation and its founder Fred Kavli. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC Grant agreement no. [291222] (PI: SJS). Pan-STARRS is supported in part by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grants NNX12AT65G and NNX14AM74G. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen's University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST–1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. This paper is based on observations (NOAO Prop. IDs: 2015A-0253 and 2015B-0313; PI: RJF) obtained at the Southern Astrophysical Research (SOAR) telescope, which is a joint project of the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, e Inovação (MCTI) da República Federativa do Brasil; the U.S. National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO); the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC); and Michigan State University (MSU), and at Kitt Peak National Observatory, NOAO, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The authors are honoured to be permitted to conduct astronomical research on Iolkam Du'ag (Kitt Peak), a mountain with particular significance to the Tohono O'odham. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Research at Lick Observatory is partially supported by a generous gift from Google. Some of the observations reported in this paper were obtained with the Southern African Large Telescope (SALT), and we thank the SALT Astronomers for assistance. Based on observations obtained with the Apache Point Observatory 3.5-m telescope, which is owned and operated by the Astrophysical Research Consortium. We acknowledge use of some data collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere, Chile as part of PESSTO, (the Public ESO Spectroscopic Survey for Transient Objects Survey) ESO programme 188.D-3003, 191.D-0935. This manuscript was initiated during the ‘Dynamic Universe: Understanding ExaScale Astronomical Synoptic Surveys’ workshop at the Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported in part by the NSF under grant No. PHYS-1066293. RJF and DS thank the Aspen Center for Physics for its hospitality during the ‘Dynamic Universe’ workshop in 2015 June. Facility: Pan-STARRS-1 (GPC1); SOAR (Goodman spectrograph); Mayall (KOSMOS spectrograph); FLWO:1.5m (FAST); ARC (DIS); SALT (RSS); Keck:I (LRIS); Keck:II (DEIMOS) Shane (Kast)

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We are grateful to the referee’s constructive comments. BBSO operation is supported by NJIT, US NSF AGS-1250818, NASA NNX13AG14G, AFOSR-FA9950-15-1-0322, and NST operation is partly supported by the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute and Seoul National University, and by stategic priority research program of CAS with Grant No. XDB09000000. IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by ESA and the Norwegian Space Centre. The SDO data were (partly) provided by the Korea Data Center (KDC) for SDO in cooperation with NASA and SDO /HMI Team, which is operated by the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute. This work was conducted as a part of the effort of NASA’s Living with a Star Focused Team “Jets” funded by NASA LWS NNX11A073G grant. V. Yu also acknowledges support from AFOSR FA9550-12-0066 and NSF AGS-1146896 grants and the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute. This work was supported by a grant from the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, under agreement number FA 2386-14-1-4078 and by the planetary system research for space exploration from KASI. This work was also supported by the Maintenance of Korean Space Weather Center, a project of KASI, and the KASI basic research fund.

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This paper is based on observations collected with the 2.2 m telescope at the Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA) in Calar Alto (Spain) and the publicly available data obtained with the NASA space satellite Kepler . Operations at the Calar Alto telescopes are jointly performed by the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie (MPIA) and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (CSIC). This research was partially funded by Spanish grant AYA2012-38897-C02-01. J.L.-B. thanks the CSIC JAE-predoc programme for Ph.D. fellowship support. R.B. is supported by CONICYT-PCHA/Doctorado Nacional. R.B. acknowledges additional support from project IC120009 “Millenium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS)” of the Millennium Science Initiative, Chilean Ministry of Economy. We wish to thank Ennio Poretti for very helpful comments. We acknowledge the use of the following internet-based resources: the ESO Digitized Sky Survey; the TEPCat catalogue; the SIMBAD database operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France; and the arXiv scientific paper preprint service operated by Cornell University.

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Acknowledgements The SAMI Galaxy Survey is based on observations made at the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The Sydney/AAO Multi-object Integral-field spectrograph (SAMI) was developed jointly by the University of Sydney and the Australian Astronomical Observatory. The SAMI input catalogue is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, the GAMA survey, and the VST ATLAS survey. The SAMI Galaxy Survey is funded by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020, and other participating institutions. The SAMI Galaxy Survey website is http://sami-survey.org/ . JTA acknowledges the award of a SIEF John Stocker Fellowship. MSO acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship (FT140100255). BG is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT140101202). NS acknowledges support of a University of Sydney Postdoctoral Research Fellowship. SB acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship (FT140101166). JvdS is funded under Bland-Hawthorn's ARC Laureate Fellowship (FL140100278). SMC acknowledges the support of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT100100457). Support for AMM is provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant #HST-HF2-51377 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. CF gratefully acknowledges funding provided by the Australian Research Council's Discovery Projects (grants DP150104329 and DP170100603). BC is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT120100660). Author contributions .AWG and SMC oversaw DR1 and edited the paper. SMC is the survey's Principal Investigator. JBH and SMC wrote the introduction. JB oversaw the target selection and wrote those parts of the paper. NS wrote sections on the changes to the data reduction, and oversaw the data reduction with JTA and RS. ITH oversaw the emission-line fits and produced Figs 11 and 12 , with BG providing additional clarifying text. AMM ran quality control on the emission-line fits, produced the higher order value-added data products, and coordinated ingestion of these to the data base. BG helped coordinate preparation of value-added products for release. MJD and LC oversaw the formatting and preparation of all data for inclusion in the online data base. JvdS prepared the survey overview diagram, Fig. 4 . SMC checked the flux calibration accuracy and wrote Section 3.4.3 and prepared Fig. 7 . ADT and SMC measured the accuracy of the WCS information and wrote the corresponding Section 3.4.4 . RMM provided heliocentric velocity corrections. FDE and JTA created Figs 6 and 7 and contributed to the data reduction software and to the assessment of the data quality, Section 3.4 . AWG, EM, LH, SO, MV, KS, and AMH built the online data base serving the data. Remaining authors contributed to overall team operations including target catalogue and observing preparation, instrument maintenance, observing at the telescope, writing data reduction and analysis software, managing various pieces of team infrastructure such as the website and data storage systems, and innumerable other tasks critical to the preparation and presentation of a large data set such as this DR1.

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We thank the anonymous referee for a thoughtful and constructive report. This work is based on observations carried out with the IRAM NOEMA Interferometer and the IRAM 30 m telescope. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). This work was carried out as part of the PHANGS collaboration (formerly SFNG) and the PAWS collaboration. The work of A.K.L., M.G., and J.S. is partially supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Nos. 1615105, 1615109, and 1653300. E.S. acknowledge financial support to the DAGAL network from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013/ under REA grant agreement number PITN-GA-2011-289313. E.S. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 694343). A.H. acknowledges support from the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES). J.M.D.K. and M.C. gratefully acknowledge financial support in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), grant number KR4801/1-1 (PI: Kruijssen). J.M.D.K. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the ERC Starting Grant MUSTANG (grant agreement number 714907, PI Kruijssen). G.B. is supported by CONICYT/FONDECYT, Programa de Iniciacion, Folio 11150220. A.U. acknowledges support from Spanish MINECO grants AYA2012-32295 and FIS2012-32096. F.B. ac- knowledges support from DFG grant BI1546/1-1. S.G.B. thanks economic support from grants ESP2015-68964-P and AYA2016-76682-C3-2-P.

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We thank the anonymous referee for the insightful comments. EC and RS acknowledges partial support from the Russian Science Foundation grant 19-12-00369. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00760.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. Basic research in radio astronomy at the US Naval Research Laboratory is funded by 6.1 Base funding, supporting T. Clarke. The scientific results reported in this article are obtained using the following softwares: AstroPy , a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration et al. 2018 ); dynesty ( Speagle 2019 ); galario ( Tazzari et al. 2018 ).

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The authors are particularly grateful to Mohsen Shadmehri, De-Fu Bu and Richard Lovelace for their help and useful suggestions. We also appreciate the thoughtful and constructive comments of the referees, which clarified some points in the early version of the article. S. Abbassi acknowledges support from the International Center for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) for a visit through the regular associateship scheme. This work was supported by the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad under the grant 2/29823 (1393/1/19).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS J.J. acknowledges support by the Cambridge Trust and the Chinese Scholarship Council Joint Scholarship Programme (201604100032). D.J.W. acknowledges support from an Science and Technology Facilities Council Ernest Rutherford fellowship. M.L.P. is supported by a European Space Agency (ESA) research fellowship. A.C.F. acknowledges support by the European Research Council Advanced Grant 340442. This work made use of data from the NuSTAR mission, a project led by the California Institute of Technology, managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and funded by NASA, and data obtained from the Suzaku satellite, a collaborative mission between the space agencies of Japan (JAXA) and the USA (NASA). This research has made use of the NuSTAR Data Analysis Software ( nustardas ) jointly developed by the ASI Science Data Center and the California Institute of Technology.

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We acknowledge the SVT team at ESO HQ for their help during the preparation of the OBs and the VLT team for conducting the observations. We thank C. P. Dullemond, G. Lesur, M. Min, and M. Tauras for fruitful discussions, and the referee for providing useful comments. M.B. acknowledges financial support from “Programme National de Physique Stellaire” (PNPS) of CNRS/INSU, France. C.G. was supported under the NASA Origins of Solar Systems program on NNG13PB64P. T.B. acknowledges support from NASA Origins of Solar Systems grant NNX12AJ04G.

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The NANOGrav Project receives support from NSF Physics Frontiers Center award number 1430284. Pulsar research at UBC is supported by an NSERC Discovery Grant and by the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research. The Arecibo Observatory is operated by SRI International under a cooperative agreement with the NSF (AST-1100968) and in alliance with Ana G. Méndez-Universidad Metropolitana and the Universities Space Research Association. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory and the Green Bank Observatory are facilities of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. W.W.Z. is supported by the CAS Pioneer Hundred Talents Program and the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, grant No. XDB23000000. Author Contributions. M.T.L. developed the mathematical framework for this work, created the modified set of profiles and short-term residuals, performed the analysis, and prepared the majority of the manuscript. M.A.M. assisted with the preparation of the manuscript. All authors performed observations and/or helped produce the initial pulse-profile data set. Additional specific contributions will be described in the future NANOGrav 12.5 yr data set paper. Software: PSRCHIVE (Hotan et al. 2004 ; van Straten et al. 2012 ), nanopipe (Demorest 2018 ), PyPulse (Lam 2017 ).

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We are grateful to M. Mori, K. Yoshikawa, A. Y. Wagner, A. Burkert, F. Nakamura, H. Yajima, and A. Inoue for fruitful discussion. The numerical simulations have been performed with coma provided by Interdisciplinary Computational Science Program in Center for Computational Sciences, University of Tsukuba, and with cray xc30 at Center for Computational Astrophysics, NAOJ. This research was supported in part by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) by JSPS (15H03638) (MU) and a grant from NAOJ (KH).

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RCN acknowledges the financial support from CAPES Scholarship Box 13222/13-9. SP acknowledges the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Govt. of India, for a Post-Doctoral grant (File No. 2/40(60)/2015/RD-II/15420). SP also acknowledges the Department of Mathematics, Jadavpur University, where the work was initiated and some of the parts were carried out. The authors are very grateful to Diego Pavón for his useful comments. The authors are also very grateful to the anonymous referee for many illuminating comments which improved the manuscript considerably. Lastly, we must acknowledge the assistant editor for pointing out some setting problems in the figures.

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We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that improved the presentation of the work. We also thank Mauro Sereno, Marco De Petris and Dominique Eckert for discussion and comments on the manuscript. We acknowledge the financial contribution from contracts ASI-INAF I/009/10/0 and PRIN-INAF 2012.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for insightful comments. We acknowledge support from NSF AST 16-15688, the NASA/NY Space Grant fellowship, and contributions made by The Marvin Clan, Babette Josephs, Manit Limlamai, and the 2015 Crowd Funding Campaign to Support Milky Way Research. JLC acknowledges support from AST 11-51462. TCB acknowledges partial support for this work from grant PHY 14-30152; Physics Frontier Center/JINA Center for the Evolution of the Elements (JINA-CEE), awarded by the US National Science Foundation. PD acknowledges partial funding from a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada grant to D. VandenBerg. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III Website is http://www.sdss3.org/ .

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The Parkes Observatory is part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. We thank the reviewer, Dipankar Bhattacharya, for suggestions which helped improve the manuscript.

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This research has made use of data obtained from the Suzaku satellite, a collaborative mission between the space agencies of Japan (JAXA) and the USA (NASA). We acknowledge the use of public data from the Swift data archive. This research is also based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. It has made use of data and/or software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. We appreciate constructive advice and comments by the referee. A.C.F. acknowledges ERC Advanced Grant 340442. S.T. and A.C.L. are supported by NASA grant NNX16AF82G. Facilities: Suzaku , Swift , XMM-Newton . Software: SAS, HEASoft.

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