The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee whose comments improved the flow, precision, and clarity of the paper. It is a pleasure to thank Tony Piro, Dan Kasen, E. Sterl Phinney, Eliot Quataert, Maryam Modjaz, Jim Fuller, Lars Bildsten, Udi Nakar, Paul Duffell, and Luc Dessart for helpful discussions. A.Y.Q.H. is particularly grateful to Tony Piro and the community at Carnegie Observatories for their hospitality on Tuesdays during the period in which this work was performed. Thank you to the staff at the SMA, AMI, the VLA, Swift , and Chandra for rapidly scheduling and executing the observations. Thank you to David Palmer (LANL) for his assistance in searching the pointing data for Swift /BAT. Thank you to Michael J. Koss (Eureka Scientific Int), Andrew Drake (Caltech), Scott Adams (Caltech), Matt Hankins (Caltech), Kevin Burdge (Caltech), and Kirsty Taggart (LJMU) for assisting with optical spectroscopic observations. Thank you to Erik Petigura and David Hogg for their advice on figure aesthetics. Thank you to David Alexander Kann (IAA-CSIC) for pointing out an error in an early version of the paper posted to the arXiv. D.A.G. thanks Stéfan van der Walt and Ari Crellin-Quick for assistance with skyportal, which enabled the search for pre-explosion emission. A.Y.Q.H. is supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under grant No. DGE1144469. This work was supported by the GROWTH project funded by the National Science Foundation under PIRE grant No. 1545949. A.G.-Y. is supported by the EU via ERC grant No. 725161, the ISF, the BSF Transformative program, and by a Kimmel award. Y.T. studied as a GROWTH intern at Caltech during the summer and fall of 2017. C.C.N. thanks the funding from MOST grant 104-2923-M-008-004-MY5. R.L. is supported by a Marie Skłodowska-Curie Individual Fellowship within the Horizon 2020 European Union (EU) Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (H2020-MSCA-IF-2017-794467). A.H. acknowledges support by the I-Core Program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Israel Science Foundation, and support by the ISF grant 647/18. This research was supported by a grant from the GIF, the German-Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development. This research was funded in part by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation through Grant GBMF5076, and a grant from the Heising-Simons Foundation. A.C. acknowledges support from the NSF CAREER award N. 1455090 and from the NASA/ Chandra GI award N. GO8-19055A. Research support to I.A. is provided by the GROWTH project, funded by the National Science Foundation under grant No 1545949. This work is based on observations obtained with the Samuel Oschin Telescope 48 inch and the 60 inch Telescope at the Palomar Observatory as part of the Zwicky Transient Facility project. Major funding has been provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation under grant No. AST-1440341 and by the ZTF partner institutions: the California Institute of Technology, the Oskar Klein Centre, the Weizmann Institute of Science, the University of Maryland, the University of Washington, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron, the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, and the TANGO Program of the University System of Taiwan. Partially based on observations made with the Nordic Optical Telescope, operated by the Nordic Optical Telescope Scientific Association at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain, of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. The Liverpool Telescope is operated by Liverpool John Moores University with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. LT is located on the island of La Palma, in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. The scientific results reported in this article are based in part on observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory . The data presented here were obtained in part with ALFOSC, which is provided by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA) under a joint agreement with the University of Copenhagen and NOTSA. The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. We acknowledge the support of the staff of the Xinglong 2.16 m telescope. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC grants 11325313 and 11633002), and the National Program on Key Research and Development Project (grant No. 2016YFA0400803). SED Machine is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under grant No. 1106171. This publication has made use of data collected at Lulin Observatory, partly supported by MoST grant 105-2112-M-008-024-MY3. The JEKYLL simulations were performed on resources provided by the Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing (SNIC) at Parallelldatorcentrum (PDC). Facilities: CFHT , Keck:I (LRIS) , Hale (DBSP) , AMI , Liverpool:2 m (IO:O , SPRAT) , DCT , Swift (UVOT , XRT) , Beijing:2.16 m , EVLA , SMA , LO:1 m , NOT (ALFOSC). Software: Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 , 2018 ), IPython (Pérez Granger 2007 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), numpy (Oliphant 2006 ), scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ), extinction (Barbary 2016 ) SkyPortal (Van der Walt et al. 2019 ).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Telescope O B-Telescope B-Observatory O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory B-Telescope O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person I-Person B-Organization B-Person I-Person B-Organization B-Person I-Person B-Organization B-Person I-Person B-Organization O B-Person I-Person B-Organization O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive B-Person O B-Person I-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Software O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Location O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Location I-Location B-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O B-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Survey O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Instrument I-Instrument O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Location I-Location I-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O O B-Location B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O B-Instrument O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Software I-Software O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Model I-Model O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O B-Telescope O B-Observatory B-Instrument O B-Telescope B-Instrument O B-Telescope O B-Observatory B-Telescope B-Instrument O B-Instrument O B-Telescope O B-Observatory B-Telescope O B-Telescope O B-Observatory B-Telescope O B-Telescope O B-Telescope O B-Observatory B-Telescope O B-Telescope B-Instrument O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O


This project has received funding from the US Department of Energy under grant DE-FG02-04ER54742, the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No. 795158, the Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation of Georgia (SRNSFG; grant number FR17-107), and the Space and Geophysics Laboratory at the University of Texas at Austin. G.M. acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (Germany). The simulations were performed at the Texas Advanced Computing Center in Austin (TX) and on the high-performance Linux cluster Hydra at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (Germany).

O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-Location B-Location O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Location


We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments. We also thank Jarle Brinchmann, Anna Feltre, Brent Groves, Alba Vidal-García, Aida Wofford and the entire NEOGAL team for valuable discussions. We acknowledge support from the ERC via an Advanced Grant under grant agreement no. 321323-NEOGAL. GB acknowledges the hospitality and support from CNRS/IAP during different stages of this investigation, as well as support for this work from the National Autonomous University of México (UNAM) through grant PAPIIT IG100115. Funding for the creation and distribution of the SDSS Archive has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS website is http://www.sdss.org/ .

O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O B-URL O


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported in part by the bequest of William Herschel Womble in support of astronomy at the University of Denver. JG thanks the University of Denver Undergraduate Research Center for a Partners in Scholarship (PinS) grant, and the Native American Scholarship fund that helped his efforts in this research. An earlier version of this paper appeared as https://arxiv.org/abs/1612.05287 . The authors are grateful to the Astronomical Research Consortium (ARC) that operates the Apache Point Observatory 3.5 m telescopes and its ARCES and TripleSpec instruments that provided the bulk of the data reported in this paper. We thank Matthew Muterspaugh (Tennessee State University) for access to late-eclipse time-series data generated by Joel Eaton with their Automated Spectroscopy Telescope (AST), review of which led us to re-examine the ARCES data during third-contact (see section 3.4: Details of Stream Appearance). We also want to acknowledge observers and APO programme leaders including Alaina Bradley, Jack Dembicky, Suzanne Hawley, Joseph Huehnerhoff, Russet McMillan, Sarah Schmidt, Nicholas Ule, Donald G. York, George Wallerstein, the APO staff, and others for their contributions to the ARCES and TripleSpec data collection process. We appreciate helpful comments from the reviewer and editor.

O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-URL O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Collaboration O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O B-Instrument O B-Instrument O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O O O O O O B-Instrument O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Observatory O O O O O O O O B-Instrument O B-Instrument O O O O O O O O O O O O


We thank Monique Arnaud, Gabriel Pratt, Keiichi Umetsu, James Jee, Edo van Uitert, Anja von der Linden, Doug Applegate, Ken Rines and Douglas Scott for useful discussions. We are also grateful to Keiichi Umetsu and James Jee for providing some of their Subaru images, and to Anja von der Linden for sharing the WtG lensing catalogues. HH and MC were supported by the Netherlands organization for Scientific Research (NWO) Vidi grant 639.042.814; HH, RH and MV acknowledge support from the European Research Council FP7 grant number 279396. AB would like to acknowledge research funding from NSERC Canada through its Discovery Grant program. AM acknowledges support from NASA ADAP grant NNX12AE45G. This research used the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre operated by the National Research Council of Canada with the support of the Canadian Space Agency.

O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Telescope O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person I-Person O O O B-Dataset I-Dataset I-Dataset B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Location O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


We thank Laura Bonavera for assisting with the C2499 ATCA observations of this project. We wish also to thank Mark Wieringa for the support on the miriad data reduction and Piero Ullio for insightful discussions during the early stages of the project. SC acknowledges support by the South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation and by the Square Kilometre Array (SKA). SP is partly supported by the US Department of Energy, Contract DE-FG02-04ER41268. MR acknowledges support by the research grant TAsP ( Theoretical Astroparticle Physics ) funded by the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN). The ATCA is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO.

O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-CelestialObject B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Software O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Person I-Person I-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Telescope O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization


M.Ć. acknowledges support from NASA’s Outer Planets Research Program, awards NNX11AM48G and NNX14AOO38G. We thank an anonymous reviewer for very insightful comments that greatly improved the paper.

B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


We acknowledge the grants ASI n.I/023/12/0 ‘Attività relative alla fase B2/C per la missione Euclid’ and MIUR PRIN 2010-2011 ‘The dark Universe and the cosmic evolution of baryons: from current surveys to Euclid’. MB is supported by the Marie Curie Intra European Fellowship ‘SIDUN’ within the 7th Framework Programme of the European Commission. The numerical simulations presented in this work have been performed and analysed on the Hydra cluster at the RZG supercomputing centre in Garching, and on the BladeRunner cluster at the Bologna University, partly funded by the Marie Curie Intra European Fellowship ‘SIDUN’. We acknowledge financial support from PRIN INAF 2012 ‘The Universe in the box: multiscale simulations of cosmic structure.

O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-Location O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O B-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We would like to thank Gary Bernstein, Sarah Bridle, Jörg Dietrich, Mike Jarvis, Elisabeth Krause, Ravi Sheth, Yuanyuan Zhang, and especially Rachel Mandelbaum for helpful discussions and comments. We are very grateful to Erin Sheldon for the use of his SDSS shear catalogues and to Tomasz Kacprzak for related collaborative work. BJ and MT also thank the Aspen Center for Physics and NSF Grant #1066293, for their warm hospitality when part of this work was done. BJ and JC are partially supported by Department of Energy grant DE-SC0007901. MT is supported by World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI Initiative), MEXT, Japan, by the FIRST program ‘Subaru Measurements of Images and Redshifts (SuMIRe)’, CSTP, Japan, by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the JSPS Promotion of Science (No. 23340061 and 26610058), and by MEXT Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas (No. 15H05893 and 15K21733). HM was supported in part by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Research Fellowships for Young Scientists. HM was supported in part by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Survey O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Person O B-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Organization B-Location O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O B-Grant O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


Kohta Murase thanks Poonam Chandra, Boaz Katz, Eran Ofek, Todd Thompson, and Eli Waxman for useful discussions. We also thank internal referees in the Fermi -LAT Collaboration, especially Regina Caputo, Seth Digel, Nicola Omodei, and Nicolas Renault-Tinacci for reviewing the manuscript. The work of Kohta Murase is supported by NSF grant No. PHY-1620777 and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. He also acknowledges the Hubble Fellowship through NASA and STScI during the early stages of this work. A.F. was supported by the Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association. Keiichi Maeda acknowledges support by JSPS KAKENHI grant Nos. 18H04585, 18H05223, 17H02864. J.F.B. is supported by NSF grant No. PHY-1714479. The preliminary estimates and results were presented at the PCTS workshop at Princeton University in 2015, the AMON workshop at Penn State University in 2015, and the supernova workshop at ISSI in 2016. The Fermi -LAT Collaboration acknowledges generous ongoing support from a number of agencies and institutes that have supported both the development and the operation of the LAT, as well as scientific data analysis. These include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Department of Energy in the United States; the Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules in France; the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana and the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare in Italy; the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) in Japan; and the K. A. Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council, and the Swedish National Space Board in Sweden. Additional support for science analysis during the operations phase is gratefully acknowledged from the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica in Italy and the Centre National d’Études Spatiales in France. This work was performed in part under DOE Contract DE-AC02-76SF00515.

B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Organization O B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person I-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O B-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event O B-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event O O B-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant


Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for their helpful comments. We would also like to thank R. Davies and K. Pimbblet for discussion and suggestions which greatly improved the clarity of this paper. This publication made extensive use of the Tool for Operations on Catalogues And Tables (TOPCAT; Taylor 2005 ) that can be found at http://www.star.bris.ac.uk/mbt/topcat/ and the open source Python module astroPy ; 9 Astropy Collaboration etal. ( 2013 ). This research has also made use of NASAs ADS service and Cornells ArXiv. RJS would like to acknowledge funding from both the Science and Technology Facilities Council, Grant Code ST/K502236/1, and from the Ogden Trust. SJK would like to acknowledge the funding from STFC Grant Code ST/MJ0371X/1. The development of Galaxy Zoo was supported in part by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and by The Leverhulme Trust. Based on observations made with the NASA Galaxy Evolution Explorer. GALEX is operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology under NASA contract NAS5-98034. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory and the University of Washington.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O B-URL O O O O B-Software O B-Software O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Archive O O B-Organization B-Archive B-Person O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant O O O B-Software I-Software O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Grant O O O B-Survey O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O O B-URL O O B-Survey O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Telescope B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


Acknowledgements This research was supported in part by the US Department of Energy through grant GR523126, the National Science Foundation through grant GR506177 and the Space Telescope Science Institute through grant GR528562. AP would also like to acknowledge that partial salary support was provided by the Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics (CITA) National Fellowship.

O O O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship


I thank Chris Nixon and Stuart Muldrew for discussions and help in preparing the Letter, and the referee for a very perceptive report. This paper was completed during a visit to the Institut d'Astrophysique, Paris, and I am grateful to them for support. I particularly thank Jean-Pierre Lasota for discussions of accretion disc stability during my stay. Theoretical astrophysics research in Leicester is supported by an STFC Consolidated Grant.

O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant


We thank the referee, Sergei Nayakshin, for useful comments that improved the quality of the letter as well as D. Calderón, M. Habibi, and L. Oskinova for very useful comments and discussion. For the computations and analysis, we have made use of many open-source software packages, including R AMSES ( Teyssier 2002 ), yt ( Turk et al. 2011 ), NumPy, SciPy, matplotlib, hdf5, h4py. We thank everybody involved in the development of these for their contributions. MS acknowledges support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through grant no. BU 842/25-1. The computations were performed on the HPC system HYDRA of the Max Planck Computing and Data Facility.

O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Software I-Software O B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Software B-Software B-Software B-Software O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility


Acknowledgements We thank an anonymous referee for very useful comments and suggestions, and Valerie Connaughton for providing us with the details of the Fermi GBM follow ups to the BBH merger events in runs O1 and O2. RP was partly supported by NSF award AST-1616157. KB acknowledges support from the Polish National Science Center (NCN) grant: Sonata Bis 2 (DEC-2012/07/E/ST9/01360). AC acknowledges support from the NSF CAREER award #1455090 and also partial support from the Swift Cycle 12 GI programme (Grant No. NNX17AF93G).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Observatory B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


This study is based on observations obtained in the framework of the ESO Prg. 092.D-0209(A). A.K. thanks Saint Petersburg State University for grant 6.38.18.2014.

O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory B-Proposal I-Proposal B-Person O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant


Acknowledgments I am grateful to Shahram Abbassi for helpful comments on this paper. I also thank the referee for his/her thoughtful and constructive comments that greatly helped me to improve this paper.

O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


Acknowledgements This work is based on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. This work has also made use of the Rainbow Cosmological Surveys data base, which is operated by the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), partnered with the University of California Observatories at Santa Cruz (UCO/Lick,UCSC) and used observations taken by the CANDELS Multi-Cycle Treasury Program with the NASA/ESA HST, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555.

O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Observatory O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O O B-Organization B-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant


O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-URL O


The authors thank W. Dziembowski for his contribution to the theoretical predictions for activity-related frequency shifts in Metcalfe et al. ( 2007 ). The authors thank D. Bossini for providing the evolutionary tracks shown in this paper. A.R.G.S. acknowledges the support from National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant NNX17AF27G. T.L.C. acknowledges support from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 792848 and from grant CIAAUP-12/2018-BPD. W.J.C., G.R.D., R.H., and Y.E. acknowledge the support of the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). M.S.C acknowledges support from FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia—through national funds and by FEDER through COMPETE2020—Programa Operacional Competitividade e Internacionalização—through the grants: UID/FIS/04434/2019; PTDC/FIS-AST/30389/2017 POCI-01-0145-FEDER-030389. C.K. is supported by the Villum Foundation. Funding for the Stellar Astrophysics Centre is provided by the Danish National Research Foundation (grant agreement No.: DNRF106). T.S.M. acknowledges support from a Visiting Fellowship at the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research. S.M. acknowledges the support from the Ramon y Cajal fellowship number RYC-2015-17697. R.A.G. acknowledges the support from PLATO and GOLF CNES grants. M.N.L. acknowledges the support of The Danish Council for Independent Research—Natural Science (grant DFF-4181-00415). R.K. acknowledges the support of the STFC consolidated grant ST/P000320/1. V.S.A. acknowledges support from the Independent Research Fund Denmark (Research grant 7027-00096B). Software: SciPy (Jones et al. 2001 ), NumPy (van der Walt et al. 2011 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), scikit-learn (Pedregosa et al. 2011 ), MESA (Paxton et al. 2011 , 2013 , 2015 , 2018 ).

O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Grant B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O B-Grant O B-Grant B-Organization O B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O B-Grant O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation O B-Citation O B-Citation O


We thank the authors of K16 , especially M. Kadler and F. Krauss for providing the data on PKS B1424-418. S.G. and M.P. acknowledge support by the Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP) funded by the Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association. W.W. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant No. 646623).

O O O O O B-Citation O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We thank the anonymous referee for very useful comments and suggestion to improve this work. We acknowledge support from CONICYT-Chile grants, Basal-CATA PFB-06/2007 (DC, FEB, SS), FONDECYT 1141218 (FEB), PCCI 130074 (FEB), ALMA-CONICYT 31100004 (FEB), Gemini-CONICYT 32120003 (FEB), ‘EMBIGGEN’ Anillo ACT1101 (DC, FEB), the Ministry of Economy, Development, Tourism's Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009 awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, MAS (FEB, SS), CONICYT-Chile through PCHA/Doctorado Nacional (2015-21151574) (DC), and by NASA through Herschel contracts 1427277 and 1454738 (SV). Optical observations were obtained with the Magellan/Baade as part of the program CN–2015A–129. We acknowledge NASA and Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST) for the use of data retrieved from MAST.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Person O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person B-Person B-Organization O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Fellowship B-Person O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Person B-Wavelength O O O O O B-Observatory O O O O B-Proposal I-Proposal O O B-Organization O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive B-Archive O O O O O O O B-Archive


This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under the grant Nos. 10878002, 11025314, 10673004, 10610099a, and 11533005, as well as NKBRSF under the grants 2011CB811402 and 2014CB744203. W.C. acknowledges the support of the US NSF (AGS-0847126 and AGS-1250818) and NASA (NNX13AG14G).

O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization B-Grant O B-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant


Acknowledgements We would like to kindly thank Michael Marks for useful discussions and suggestions. We would also like to thank an anonymous referee for numerous comments and suggestions. DB was supported by the CAPES foundation, Brazilian Ministry of Education through the grant BEX 13514/13-0 and by the National Science Centre, Poland, through the grant UMO-2016/21/N/ST9/02938. AA would like to acknowledge support from the National Science Centre, Poland, through the grant UMO-2015/17/N/ST9/02573 and partial support from Nicolaus Copernicus Astronomical Centre's grant for young researchers.

O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


The work was supported in part by the project NNX17AB74G of NASA’s HGI Program.

O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant


We would like to thank the referee for constructive comments that helped clarify the paper. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA #2015.1.01115.S, #2016.1.00544.S, and #2017.1.01301.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. M.N., F.W., B.V., and Ml.N. acknowledge support from ERC Advanced grant 740246 (Cosmic_Gas). D.R. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under grant No. AST-1614213.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory O B-Identifier I-Identifier B-Identifier O B-Identifier B-Observatory O O O O B-Observatory O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization B-Location B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O B-Observatory B-Organization O B-Observatory B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant


We thanks the anonymous referee for his/her comments and suggestions. This research has been funded by MINECO grant AYA2014-59084-P, by the AGAUR, by the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. 320964 (WDTracer), by Milenium Science Initiative, Chilean Ministry of Economy, Nucleus P10-022-F, by Fondecyt (1141269, 3140585) and by the National Key Basic Research Programme of China (2014CB845700). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington and Yale University.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant B-Grant O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O O B-URL O B-Survey O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization


This work is partially supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science through projects AYA2010-18029, AYA2011-24808, and AYA2014-55078-P. This work contributes to the deliverables identified in FP7 European Research Council grant agreement 277829, “Magnetic connectivity through the Solar Partially Ionized Atmosphere.”

O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O O O B-Grant B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


Acknowledgement We would like to thank Ivan Minchev for a very opportune question while we recently met at the Gaia meeting in Nice, and Benoit Famaey and Christian Boily for pertinent remarks.

O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O B-Event I-Event I-Event I-Event O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O


This work has been supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education through the program ‘Ideas Plus’ award No. IdP2012 000162. The OGLE project has received funding from the Polish National Science Centre grant MAESTRO no. 2014/14/A/ST9/00121. RS acknowledges support from the Polish National Science Centre grants no. DEC-2012/05/B/ST9/03932 and DEC-2015/17/B/ST9/03421.

O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Survey O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant O B-Grant


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the anonymous referee for their helpful comments that improved the presentation of this work. The authors thank Connor Bottrell, Greg Bryan, John Forbes, Shy Genel, Li-Hwai Lin, Nic Loewen, Ari Maller, Hsi-An Pan, David Patton, Rachel Somerville, Mallory Thorp, and Joanna Woo for their insightful comments and helpful discussions. MHH acknowledges the receipt of a Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarship. SLE acknowledges the receipt of an NSERC Discovery Grant. The data used in this work were, in part, hosted on facilities supported by the Scientific Computing Core at the Flatiron Institute, a division of the Simons Foundation.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization


We thank the anonymous referee for constructive suggestions that improved the quality of the manuscript. The authors wish to thank I.(K.) Lee, A. Stutz, B. Reipurth, J. Jorgensen, A. Kraus, and L. Tychoniec for useful discussions regarding this work. J.J.T. is currently supported by grant 639.041.439 from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO). J.J.T. acknowledges past support provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant #HST-HF-51300.01-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555. L.W.L. acknowledges support from the Laboratory for Astronomical Imaging at the University of Illinois and the NSF under grant AST-07-09206. Z.Y.L. is supported in part by NSF1313083 and NASA NNX14AB38G. C.M. acknowledges financial support from the U.S. National Science Foundation through award AST-1313428. M.M.D. acknowledges support from the Submillimeter Array through an SMA postdoctoral fellowship. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration, 2013, http://www.astropy.org ). This research made use of APLpy, an open-source plotting package for Python hosted at http://aplpy.github.com . This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Facility: VLA

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O O O O O B-Organization O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O B-Software O O O B-Software O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation B-URL O O O O O O B-Software O O O O O B-Software O O B-URL O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Telescope


We thank Nicolas Bouché, Max Pettini and Crystal Martin for inputs on the work presented here. We also thank the anonymous referee for many suggestions that have improved the paper. We would like to thank the Paranal and Garching staff at ESO for performing the observations in service mode and the instrument team for making a reliable instrument. CP thanks the ESO science visitor programme for support. SQ thanks CNRS and CNES (Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales) for support for his PhD. VPK acknowledges partial support from the US National Science Foundation grant AST/1108830 and NASA grant NNX14AG74G. Additional support from a NASA/STScI grant for programme 13733 is gratefully acknowledged. This work has been carried out thanks to the support of the OCEVU Labex (ANR-11-LABX-0060) and the A*MIDEX project (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) funded by the ‘Investissements d'Avenir’ French government programme managed by the ANR. L. A. S. acknowledges support from ERC Grant agreement 278594-GasAroundGalaxies.

O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O B-Observatory B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Person O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Location O O O O O B-Organization B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We thank K. S. Cheng, C. W. Ng, K. L. Li, J. Takata, and A. K. H. Kong for valuable discussion. We acknowledge the use of data and software facilities from the FSSC, managed by the HEASARC at the Goddard Space Flight Center. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) through grants 11633007, 11661161010, and U1731136.

O O B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O B-Archive O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant


Financial support from the Academy of Finland Centre of Excellence ReSoLVE No. 272157 (MJK) and from the Vilho, Yrjö and Kalle Väisälä Foundation (EC) is gratefully acknowledged.

O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O


This publication is supported by NPRP grant no. X-019-1-006 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the authors. Based on observations obtained with the 1.52-m Cassini telescope at the OAB Observatory in Loiano (Italy), and with the 1.23-m and 2.2-m telescopes at the Centro Astronòmico Hispano Alemàn (CAHA) at Calar Alto (Spain), jointly operated by the Max-Planck Institut for Astronomy and the Instituto de Astrofìsica de Andalucìa (CSIC). We thank to TÜBİTAK for the partial support in using T100 telescope with project number 12CT100-378. OB acknowledges the support by the research fund of Ankara University (BAP) through the project 13B4240006.

O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O B-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Telescope O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location I-Location B-Location O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Organization O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant


Support comes from the ERC Synergy Grant “BlackHoleCam – Imaging the Event Horizon of Black Holes” (Grant 610058). M.P. acknowledges support by the Spanish “Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad” grants AYA2013-48226-C3-2-P and AYA2015-66899-P. Z.Y. acknowledges support from an Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship. E.R. acknowledges support from the grants AYA-2012-38491-C02-01, AYA2015-63939-C2-2-P, and PROMETEOII/2014/057. C.M.F. wants to thank Walter Alef and Helge Rottmann for support during the computation on the MPIfR cluster and Mariafelicia De Laurentis and Hector Olivares for fruitful discussion and helpful comments to the manuscript.

O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O


The authors thank the anonymous referee for their helpful comments that improved the data analysis and strengthened the conclusions. The authors further thank A. Strugarek and J. Varela for the use of their data, as well as S. Mathis for extensive discussions and helpful advice. The authors also thank S. Tobias for his helpful comments. K.C.A. acknowledges support from the ERC SPIRE 647383 grant. A.S.B. acknowledges funding by ERC WHOLESUN 810218 grant, INSU/PNST, and CNES Solar Orbiter. J.T. was partly supported by NASA through grants NNX14AB56G and NNX17AG22G.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization O B-Organization B-Instrument I-Instrument B-Person O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant


This work was partly supported by Campus France, by the Scientific Council of Paris Observatory, by IMCCE, and by IPSA. This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project No. 16-52-150005-CNRS-a.

O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O O B-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


M.M. wishes to acknowledge support from NASA under contract NAS8-03060. This research has made use of data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive and software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC). T.K. was supported in part by NASA grant 14-ATP14-0022 through the Astrophysics Theory Program.

B-Person O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


This paper is partially based on observations made with SOPHIE on the 1.93 m telescope at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence (CNRS), France. This paper includes data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. All of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the MAST. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. The team at LAM acknowledge support by CNES grants 98761 (SCCB), 426808 (CD) and 251091 (JMA). JMA and XB acknowledge funding from the European Research Council under the ERC Grant Agreement no. 337591-ExTrA. XB acknowledge the support of the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR), under the program ANR-12-BS05-0012 Exo-atmos. RFD acknowledge funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under Grant agreement no. 313014 (ETAEARTH), and the financial support of the SNSF in the frame of the National Centre for Competence in Research ‘PlanetS’. We thank S. Udry for discussions on the dynamics of this system, L. Kreidberg for her Mandel Agol code, and T. Fenouillet for his assistance with the LAM cluster.

O O O O O O O O O B-Instrument O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Organization B-Location O O O O O O O B-Mission I-Mission O O O B-Mission I-Mission O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive B-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Archive O O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person B-Grant B-Person O B-Grant B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O B-Software I-Software I-Software O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility


Acknowledgments We are grateful to the referee, Raffaele Gratton, whose comments greatly improved the paper. Support for this work (proposal number GO-10775) was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute that is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. This material is based upon work supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant NNX11AF34G issued through the Office of Space Science and through the University of Central Floridas NASA Florida Space Grant Consortium. DSs work was supported by NSF grants DMS 1208791. DvD was partially supported by a Wolfson Research Merit Award (WM110023) provided by the British Royal Society and by Marie-Curie Career Integration (FP7-PEOPLE-2012-CIG-321865) and Marie-Skodowska-Curie RISE (H2020-MSCA-RISE-2015-691164) Grants both provided by the European Commission.

O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Proposal I-Proposal I-Proposal O O O B-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization


We thank the anonymous referee for his/her constructive comments. This work is supported by the National Basic Research Program (“973” Program) of China under grant no. 2014CB845800 and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. U1331202, 11533033, U1331101, 11573014, 11422325, and 11373022). D.X. acknowledges support from the One-Hundred-Talent Program of the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant O B-Location O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research has made use of the NASA/ IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work was partly supported by Kepler grants NNX12AC89G and NNX11AG95G. D.K. is supported by a DOE office of nuclear physics early career award.

O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database B-Database O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


The authors are much indebted to Ke-Jun Li for his constructive proposals and helpful suggestions. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (11573065, 11633008, 11273057, 11603071, and 11603069), the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O


We are thankful to the helpful comments about star formation rate estimation and the implications of MIR neon emission lines from an anonymous referee on this paper. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC-11573024, 11903029, 11473025, 11421303) and the National Basic Research Program of China (2013CB834905). W.L. acknowledges supports from the Natural Science Foundation of China grant (NSFC-11703079) and the 'Light of West China' Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). P.J. is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC-11973037), and H.W. is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC-11890693). We acknowledge the use of the Hale 200-inch Telescope at Palomar Observatory through the Telescope Access Program (TAP), as well as the archival data from the SDSS, 2MASS, and WISE surveys. TAP is funded by the Strategic Priority Research Program, the Emergence of Cosmological Structures (XDB09000000), National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the Special Fund for Astronomy from the Ministry of Finance. Observations obtained with the Hale Telescope at Palomar Observatory were obtained as part of an agreement between the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the California Institute of Technology. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ .

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O O O O O O B-Survey B-Survey O B-Telescope O B-Grant O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O B-URL O


We thank the referee for a constructive report. This paper includes data collected by the K2 mission, funded by the NASA Science Mission directorate. The work was supported in part by NSERC grants to R.J. A.S. received funding from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (ST/R000824/1). S.A. gratefully acknowledges support from the Leverhulme Trust (RPG-2012-661) and the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (ST/K00106X/1,ST/N000919/1). D.P.’s work was supported by NASA grant NNX17AI61G. Facility: Kepler / K2 . Software: astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), numpy (Van Der Walt et al. 2011 ), scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ), K2SC (Aigrain et al. 2016 ), PyAstronomy ( https://github.com/sczesla/PyAstronomy ).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Mission I-Mission O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O B-Organization O O B-Person B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Telescope O B-Mission O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software O B-URL O


We thank Dave Campbell, Will Cowley and Peder Norberg for their contributions to this work. We thank Claudia Maraston for supplying versions of her stellar population model for different IMFs. We thank Rychard Bouwens, Ignacio Ferreras and Ian Smail for comments on the paper. Finally, we thank the referee Bruno Henriques for a detailed and constructive report that helped improve the paper. This work was supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council grants ST/F001166/1 and ST/L00075X/1, and by European Research Council grant GA 267291 (Cosmiway). This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008519/1, and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. CMB acknowledges receipt of a Research Fellowship from the Leverhulme Trust. Galaxy catalogues calculated using the model described in this paper will be made available on a relational data base accessible from http://virgodb.dur.ac.uk/ .

O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-URL O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization B-ComputingFacility O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-URL O


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is co-financed by Greece and the European Union (European Social Fund–ESF) through the Operational Programme ‘Human Resources Development, Education and Lifelong Learning’ in the context of the project ‘Strengthening Human Resources Research Potential via Doctorate Research’ (MIS-5000432), implemented by the State Scholarships Foundation (IKY). We acknowledge Davide de Martin James Long (ESA/Hubble) for use of the HST image of A2218, as well as Prof. Gustavo Yepes for providing access to the Cosmological N -body Simulation data used in this work. We also wish to thank Dr. Angel-Ruiz Camuñas for his help in using the photutils package. This research made use of photutils , an astropy package for detection and photometry of astronomical sources. Finally, we would like to thank the anonymous referee for suggestions that improved significantly the work presented in our manuscript.

O O O O O O B-Location O O B-Location I-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O B-Person I-Person I-Person I-Person I-Person B-Organization O O O O B-Telescope O O B-CelestialObject O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Model I-Model I-Model I-Model O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-Software O O O O O O B-Software O O B-Software O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


D. V. Bisikalo and V. I. Shematovich were partially supported by the Russian Academy of Sciences (Program-22), and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Project 14-02-00838). B. Hubert, D. Hutsemékers, and E. Jehin are supported by the Belgian FRS-FNRS. This work was supported by the FRFC grant no. 2.4541.11. A. Decock acknowledges the support of the Belgian National Science Foundation F.R.I.A., Fonds pour la formation à la Recherchedansl'Industrie et l'Agriculture. The authors thank the reviewer for very helpful comments.

B-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Based on data collected under the NGTS project at the ESO La Silla Paranal Observatory. The NGTS facility is operated by the consortium institutes with support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) project ST/M001962/1. This paper includes data collected by the TESS mission. Funding for the TESS mission is provided by the NASA Explorer Program. This paper uses observations made at the South African Astronomical Observatory (SAAO). PE and AC. JIV acknowledges support of CONICYT-PFCHA/Doctorado Nacional-21191829, Chile. JSJ acknowledges support by Fondecyt grant 1161218 and partial support by CATA-Basal (PB06, CONICYT). Contributions at the University of Geneva by DB, FB, BC, LM, and SU were carried out within the framework of the National Centre for Competence in Research ‘PlanetS’ supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). The contributions at the University of Warwick by PJW, RGW, DLP, FF, DA, BTG, and TL have been supported by STFC through consolidated grants ST/L000733/1 and ST/P000495/1. The contributions at the University of Leicester by MGW and MRB have been supported by STFC through consolidated grant ST/N000757/1. TL was also supported by STFC studentship 1226157. MNG is supported by the STFC award reference 1490409 as well as the Isaac Newton Studentship. EG gratefully acknowledges support from Winton Philanthropies in the form of a Winton Exoplanet Fellowship. SLC acknolwedges support from an STFC Ernest Rutherford Fellowship. PE, ACh, and HR acknowledge the support of the DFG priority program SPP 1992 ‘Exploring the Diversity of Extrasolar Planets’ (RA 714/13-1). This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 681601). The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) / ERC Grant Agreement n. 320964 (WDTracer). We thank Marissa Kotze (SAAO) for developing the SHOC camera data reduction pipeline We thank the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) and the Geneva University for their continuous support to our planet search programs. This work has been in particular carried out in the frame of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). This publication makes use of The Data Analysis Center for Exoplanets (DACE), which is a facility based at the University of Geneva (CH) dedicated to extrasolar planets data visualization, exchange and analysis. DACE is a platform of the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) PlanetS, federating the Swiss expertise in Exoplanet research. The DACE platform is available at https://dace.unige.ch . The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen’s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

O O O O O O O B-Survey O O O B-Observatory B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Survey O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O B-Mission I-Mission O O O B-Mission I-Mission O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Observatory B-Person O B-Person B-Person O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Location B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Organization B-Grant B-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O B-Person B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O B-Person I-Person B-Observatory O O O B-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O B-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software B-Software O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O O O O O O B-Software O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization O O B-Location O O O O O B-Software I-Software O O O B-URL O O B-Survey I-Survey B-Survey O O B-Survey O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has been partially supported by UNAM-PAPIIT IN-107518. RP thanks Carl Knight and Anal Wnsche for nicely providing information about the observations of WASP-19b published in the ETD. RP and EJ acknowledge DGAPA for their postdoctoral fellowships and Drs. L. Hebb, C. Hellier, J. Tregloan-Reed, D. Dragomir, J. Bean, E. Sedaghati, and N. Espinoza for kindly providing the new transits presented in their studies. RP and EJ are also grateful to the operators of the 1.54-m telescope at EABA, Cecilia Quiones and Luis Tapia, for their support during the observing runs. All the authors thank the anonymous referee for useful comments and suggestions. We would also like to thank the Pierre Auger Collaboration for the use of its facilities. The operation of the robotic telescope FRAM is supported by the grant of the Ministry of Education of the Czech Republic LM2015038. The data calibration and analysis related to FRAM telescope is supported by the Ministry of Education of the Czech Republic MSMT-CRLTT18004 and MSMT/EU funds CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001402. This research has made use of the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France and NASAs Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services (Wenger et al. 2000 ). This work is partially based on observations obtained with the 1.54-m telescope at Estacin Astrofsica de Bosque Alegre dependent on the National University of Crdoba, Argentina. Based on data acquired at Complejo Astronmico El Leoncito, operated under agreement between the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientficas y Tcnicas de la Repblica Argentina and the National Universities of La Plata, Crdoba and San Juan (Programme ID: JS-2019A-06, PI: E. Jofr).

O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject O O O O B-Person O B-Person O B-Organization O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Organization B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant O B-Organization O B-Grant O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database O O B-Organization B-Location I-Location O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Proposal O B-Person I-Person


X.H. thanks Myriam Benisty and Gilles Duvert for their work on the reduction package amdlib, the AMBER data reduction package of the Jean-Marie Mariotti Center 2 . For quick-look analysis, this work has made use of LITPro ( Tallon-Bosc et al. 2008 ). CNRS is acknowledged for having supported this work with allocation of 14 h in Guaranteed Time Observations. Support for this work was provided by NASA through grant number HST-GO-12610.001-A from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555.

B-Person O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Software O B-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O B-Software O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We thank two anonymous referees for helpful comments and suggestions that improved this work. RVV thanks the STFC for support. ACF and JA acknowledge ERC Advanced Grant FEEDBACK. CSR is grateful for financial support from the Simons Foundation (through a Simons Fellowship in Theoretical Physics), a Sackler Fellowship (hosted by the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge), and NASA under grant NNX14AF86G. CSR thanks the Institute of Astronomy at the University of Cambridge for their hospitality during an extended visit while this work was being performed. We thank Dom Walton for useful discussions on this work.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O B-Organization O O B-Person O B-Person O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O