We thank the anonymous referee for her/his helpful and thorough reading of the manuscript, as well as for suggestions that improved the paper. B.G., E.A.C., and I.R.S. acknowledge support from the ERC Advanced Programme DUSTYGAL (321334) and STFC (ST/P0000541/1). I.R.S. also acknowledges support from a Royal Society Wolfson Merit Award. J.L.W. acknowledges support from a European Union COFUND/Durham Junior Research Fellowship (EU grant agreement number 609412) and from STFC (via an Ernest Rutherford Fellowship: ST/P004784/1, and additionally ST/P0000541/1) E.I. acknowledges partial support from FONDECYT through grant N° 1171710. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.00456.S ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), as well as KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the referee, Artie Hatzes, for carefully reading the manuscript and supporting its conclusions. We also thank the members of the EXPRES and HARPS-N GTO teams for useful input and fruitful discussions. Our simulations involved an extensive amount of coordinate transformations made possible with the excellent astropy.coordinates module 3 (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ; Price-Whelan et al. 2018 ). All figures were prepared with matplotlib 4 (Hunter 2007 ). The Center for Exoplanets and Habitable Worlds is supported by the Pennsylvania State University, the Eberly College of Science, and the Pennsylvania Space Grant Consortium.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work is supported by the Simons Foundation. JA was partially supported by the research project grant ‘Fundamental Physics from Cosmological Surveys’ funded by the Swedish Research Council (VR) under Dnr 2017-04212. BW acknowledges support by the Labex Institut Lagrange de Paris (ILP) (reference ANR-10-LABX-63) part of the Idex SUPER, and received financial state aid managed by the Agence Nationale de la Recherche, as part of the programme Investissements d’avenir under the reference ANR-11-IDEX-0004-02. TC is supported by the ANR BIG4 grant ANR-16-CE23-0002 of the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche and would like to thank NVIDIA for the donation of the Quadro P6000 used in building and testing pydelfi .

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is a pleasure to thank David Alonso, Philip Bull, and Laura Wolz for very useful discussions and feedback. We also extend our gratitude to the referee whose report improved the quality of this paper. SC is supported by the University of Portsmouth. AP’s work for this project was partly supported by a Dennis Sciama Fellowship at the University of Portsmouth. DB is supported by STFC consolidated grant ST/N000668/1.

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The authors thank Julian Carlin for assistance with the preparation of Figures 2 and 4 . This research was supported by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Gravitational Wave Discovery (OzGrav), grant number CE170100004. G.H. is the recipient of an Australian Postgraduate Award. This work was performed in part at the Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported by National Science Foundation grant PHY–1607611.

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The authors acknowledge the use of the Wind MFI magnetic field and SWE proton data. This work is supported by the Czech Grant Agency under contracts 19-18993S. A.P. thanks the Charles University Grant Agency, project No. 1484217. We appreciate the fruitful discussions with Owen Roberts, Simone Landi, Peter Hellinger, and Honghong Wu. This research was partially supported by the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) grant ST/P000622/. Facilities: Wind , Spektr-R .

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We thank the staff of the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT), who have made these observations possible. The GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. This research was partially supported by the grant DEC-2013/09/B/ST9/02177 of the Polish National Science Centre.

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Phoenix and Aquarius are projects of the Virgo Consortium. Most simulations were carried out on the Lenova Deepcomp7000 supercomputer of the Supercomputing Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China, and on Cosmology machine at the Institute for Computational Cosmology (ICC) at Durham. The Cosmology machine is part of the DiRAC facility jointly founded by STFC, the large facilities capital fund of BIS, and Durham University. LG acknowledges support from NSFC grants (nos. 11133003 and 11425312), MPG partner Group family, and an STFC Advanced Fellowship, as well as the hospitality of the Institute for Computational Cosmology at Durham University.

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Based on observations obtained with Planck and Herschel , ESA science missions with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States, NASA, and Canada. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. This research has made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ). This research has made use of TOPCAT, an interactive graphical viewer and editor for tabular data ( Taylor 2005 ).

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The scientific results reported in this article are based on observations obtained with the Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM–Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. This research has made use of software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application package ciao , and of softwares and tools provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. This research is based on observations with the NASA/UK/ASI Swift mission. We thank N. Schartel for approving the XMM–Newton 2014 November observation through the Director's Discretionary Time program and the staff of the XMM–Newton Science Operation Center for performing the Target of Opportunity observations. Similarly, we thank B. Wilkes for approving the Chandra 2014 August observation through the Director's Discretionary Time program and the Chandra staff for performing the Target of Opportunity observations. We thank the Swift duty scientists and science planners for making these observations possible. The Parkes radio telescope is part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. The authors warmly thank Phil Edwards for the prompt scheduling of the observations and John Reynolds for releasing part of the telescope time of his project. We thanks Jules Halpern for useful comments. NR is supported by an NWO Vidi Grant, and by grants AYA2012-39303 and SGR2014-1073. This work is partially supported by the European COST Action MP1304 (NewCOMPSTAR).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Telescope O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O B-Software O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive B-Archive O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Mission I-Mission O O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Observatory O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant


O B-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Location B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Organization O O O B-Grant B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant B-Organization O O O O O O B-Observatory B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We are grateful to Stephen Justham at National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), for discussions. R.X.X. acknowledges the support of National Key RD Program of China (No. 2017YFA0402602), National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) 11673002 and U1531243. W.Y.W. and X.L.C. acknowledge the support of MoST 2016YFE0100300, NSFC 11473044, 11633004, 11373030, CAS QYZDJ-SSW-SLH017. R.L. and K.J.L. are supported by NSFC U15311243 National Basic Research Program of China, 973 Program, 2015CB857101, XDB23010200, 11690024, 11373011, and funding from the Max-Planck Partner Group.

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We thank Kevin Schlaufman, Saul Rappaport, Jens Jessen-Hansen, and the anonymous referee for helpful comments and suggestions that have significantly improved this manuscript. Part of this manuscript was written at MIT and V.V.E. appreciates the hospitality of the researchers and staff at the MIT Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research. Work by J..N.W. was partly supported by funding from the NASA Origins program (grant ID NNX11AG85G). Funding for the Stellar Astrophysics Centre is provided by The Danish National Research Foundation (grant agreement No. DNRF106). The research is supported by the ASTERISK project (ASTERoseismic Investigations with SONG and Kepler ) funded by the European Research Council (grant agreement No. 267864). We acknowledge ASK for covering travels in relation to this publication. Part of this work was supported by the Danish Council for Independent Research, through a DFF Sapere Aude Starting grant No. 4181-00487B.

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The authors thank J. Zibin for his useful comments on the letter. Partial financial support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad Projects AYA2012-39475-C02-01 and Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2010-00064 is acknowledged.

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We thank the authors of the atlas9 , marcs , phoenix and drift-phoenix model atmosphere grids to allow us to use their model results for this comparison study, and for their helpful suggestions. We thank Dr Tim-Oliver Husser (Institut für Astrophysik, Georg-August-Universitat Göttingen) for his support with the phoenix models. We also thank Sören Witte and our referee for constructive feedback. ChH highlights financial support of the European Community under the FP7 by an ERC starting grant. IB thanks the Physics Trust of the University of St Andrews for supporting her summer placement. Most literature search was performed using the ADS. Our local computer support is highly acknowledged.

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The authors thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments on the manuscript. The numerical simulations were performed on facilities hosted by the CSC-IT Center for Science in Espoo, Finland. A.R. acknowledges support from the MPA Garching Visitor Programme. A.R. is funded by the doctoral program of Particle Physics and Universe Sciences at the University of Helsinki. P.H.J. and A.R. acknowledge the support of Academy of Finland grant 274931. T.N. acknowledges support from the DFG Cluster of Excellence “Origin and Structure of the Universe.”

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The authors would like to thank Scott Tremaine for helpful discussions.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work is supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada through a Discovery Accelerator Supplement under Grant RGPAS-493042-2016.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Volker Springel for helpful comments, and Dylan Nelson for providing videos of the merging histories of galaxies in Illustris to help us understand the processes better. LW acknowledges support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China grants program (No.11573031), and the National Key Program for Science and Technology Research and Development (2017YFB0203300). QG is supported by two National Natural Science Foundation of China grants (Nos 11573033 and 11622325).

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D. Berdichevsky provided support in the difficult and lengthy process of calibrating the data. N.F.N. and L.F.B. were supported by the NASA Voyager Project under a cooperative agreement to the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. V.F. was supported by NASA grants NNX113AF99G and NNX17AB85G. He also acknowledges support from the International Space Science Institute in Bern in the framework of the team “The Physics of the Very Local Interstellar Medium.”

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Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Labex P2IO project A-JWST-01-02-01+LABEXP2IOPDO and the Programme National de Physique Stellaire (PNPS) of CNRS/INSU co-funded by CEA and CNES. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in Ochsenbein et al. (2000) .

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Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Jan-Uwe Ness, Karl Foster, Ignacio de la Calle and the rest of the XMM-Newton and NuSTAR scheduling teams for the support that made the coordinated observations possible. We would like to thank the referee for the helpful comments and careful reading of the paper. The GC XMM-Newton monitoring project is supported by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (BMWI/DLR, FKZ 50 OR 1408 and FKZ 50 OR 1408) and the Max Planck Society. SB acknowledges financial support from the Italian Space Agency under grant ASI-INAF I/037/12/0. TMD acknowledges support via a Ramón y Cajal Fellowship (RYC-2015-18148). BDM acknowledges support from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme and the Polish National Science Centre grant Polonez 2016/21/P/ST9/04025. These results are based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. This work made use of data from the NuSTAR mission, a project led by the California Institute of Technology, managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We thank the NuSTAR Operations, Software and Calibration teams for support with the execution and analysis of these observations. This research has made use of the nustardas jointly developed by the ASI Science Data Centre (ASDC, Italy) and the California Institute of Technology (USA). We thank the staff of the GMRT who have made these observations possible. The GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. Part of the funding for GROND (both hardware as well as personnel) was generously granted from the Leibniz-Prize to Prof. G. Hasinger (DFG grant HA 1850/28-1).

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The author is supported by the Royal Society as a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Cambridge, UK.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful for a careful reading of our paper and many helpful comments from an anonymous referee. The authors would like to thank Jay Lockman, Andrew Robinson, and Jeyhan Kartaltepe for helpful discussions. AL is supported by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory under the Student Observing Support program project GBT 16B-285. SC acknowledges support from National Science Foundation grant number 1517488. YS is partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) grant 11603032. The authors would like to thank the Sloan Digital Sky Survey for making all their data public and easily accessible and Barbara Catinella and the GASS collaboration for making their data public. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory and the Green Bank Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts.

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We sincerely thank Dr. Clara Froment for her constructive comments that improved the paper significantly. We would like to thank Dr. Bart De Pontieu (LMSAL) for helpful comments on a previous version of the paper. IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by ESA and the Norwegian Space Centre. S.K.T. gratefully acknowledges support by the NASA contract NNG09FA40C (IRIS). AKS and MM acknowledge the support of the UGC-UKIERI grant to support the present research.

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We thank Yehuda Hoffman for making the CLUES initial conditions available. IMS-S, CBB and GY thank the MINECO (Spain) for the financial support through the AYA2012-31101 grant. CBB is funded through the Ramon y Cajal programme of the MINECO. The CLUES simulations were performed and analysed at the High Performance Computing Center Stuttgart (HLRS). We thank DEISA for access to computing resources through DECI projects SIMU-LU and SIMUGAL-LU and the generous allocation of resources from STFC's DiRAC Facility (COSMOS: Galactic Archaeology), the DEISA consortium, co-funded through EU FP6 project RI-031513 and the FP7 project RI-222919 (through the DEISA Extreme Computing Initiative), the PRACE-2IP Project (FP7 RI-283493).

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We thank Bill Paxton, Josiah Schwab, Pablo Marchant, Rich Townsend, Matteo Cantiello, and Lars Bildsten for engaging conversations about the MESA project. We also thank Michael Wiescher for initial discussions about this paper. This project was supported by NASA under the Theoretical and Computational Astrophysics Networks grant NNX14AB53G and the Astrophysics Theory Program grant 14-ATP14-0007, and by NSF under the Software Infrastructure for Sustained Innovation grant 1339600, and grant PHY 08-022648 for the Physics Frontier Center “Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics—Center for the Evolution of the Elements” (JINA-CEE). C.E.F. acknowledges support from Arizona State University under a 2015 CLAS Undergraduate Summer Enrichment Award, a 2015-2016 Norm Perrill Origins Project Undergraduate Scholarship, and a ASU/NASA Space Grant award. F.X.T. acknowledges sabbatical support from the Simons Foundation.

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The authors acknowledge the contribution of the FP7 SPACE project ASTRODEEP (Ref. No: 312725), supported by the European Commission. We thank the anonymous referee for the useful comments and suggestions that greatly helped us to improve the paper.

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The Liège team acknowledges support from the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (F.R.S/FNRS) including especially an F.R.S/FNRS Research Project (T.0100.15), as well as through an ARC grant for Concerted Research Actions financed by the French Community of Belgium (Wallonia-Brussels Federation), and an XMM PRODEX contract (Belspo). We are particularly grateful to Reinhold Haefner for having made his IBVS data available and to Ella Antokhina and Igor Antokhin for discussions on the photometric solution. EG is greatly indebted to Stephanie Wachter and Suzanne Tourtelotte for having spared no pains in facilitating the interaction with the YALO archives. We are grateful to I. Stevens, H. Sana, Y. Nazé, J.-M. Vreux, and M. da Silva Pires for taking some of the spectroscopic data or for discussions on earlier versions of this work. We thank John Hillier for making his code available.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DLL thanks the Robert A. Welch Foundation of Houston, Texas for support through grant F-634. We thank the referee for a constructive report.

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K.S.R. acknowledges the financial support from the Science Engineering Research Board (SERB), Department of Science Technology, India (PDF/2015/000393). K.S.R. acknowledges N. G. Kantharia and Eric Greisen for valuable suggestions related to AIPS and M. S. Santhanam for valuable data analysis advice. P.S. acknowledges support from ISRO RESPOND program. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. We thank the staff of the Gauribidanur observatory for their help with the observations and maintenance of the antenna and receiver systems there. We thank the anonymous referee for an insightful report that has helped us improve the paper substantially.

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H.J.Z. gratefully acknowledges the generous support of the Clay Postdoctoral Fellowship. M.J.G. and D.G.F. are supported by the Smithsonian Institution. We thank Scott Tremaine for carefully reading the manuscript and providing many useful comments. This work benefited from discussions with Ken Rines, Antonaldo Diaferio, Neta Bahcall, Mark Vogelsberger, and Paul Torrey. Masato Onodera kindly pointed out a mistake in Equation ( 5 ). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. Observations reported here were obtained at the MMT Observatory, a joint facility of the University of Arizona and the Smithsonian Institution. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.

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We thank the galform team for making the code publicly available. The work of ID and JS was supported by the ERC Project No. 267117 (DARK) hosted by Université Pierre et Marie Curie (UPMC) – Paris 6, PI J. Silk. JS acknowledges the support of the JHU by NSF grant OIA-1124403. The work of KAO was supported in part by DOE grant DE-SC0011842 at the University of Minnesota. This work has been carried out at the ILP LABEX (under reference ANR-10-LABX-63) supported by French state funds managed by the ANR within the Investissements d'Avenir programme under reference ANR-11-IDEX-0004-02.

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Acknowledgements We thank Paul Benni and Tom Kaye for providing a few of the light curves and for helpful discussions. SR and BLG acknowledge partial support from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Chandra grant GO7-18008X. AV was supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) Graduate Research Fellowship, grant no. DGE 1144152, and also acknowledges partial support from NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) mission under a sub-award from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Sponsor Contract Number 5710003554. This work was performed in part under contract with the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) funded by NASA through the Sagan Fellowship Program executed by the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute.

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Acknowledgments We thank C. Lang and D. Ludovici for sharing their reduced, high resolution VLA data covering the position of PSR J17462850, and G. Desvignes, R. Eatough, P. Esposito, D. Schnitzeler and A. Siemion for useful discussions. JD was supported by a Sofja Kovalevskaja Award from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation of Germany. N. Degenaar acknowledges support via a Vidi grant from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific research (NWO) and a Marie Curie fellowship from the European Commission under contract no. FP-PEOPLE-2013-IEF-627148. J. Deneva was supported by the NASA Fermi program. MK and RK acknowledge the financial support by the European Research Council for the ERC Synergy Grant BlackHoleCam under contract no. 610058. The Parkes radio telescope is part of the Australia Telescope, which is funded by the Commonwealth Government for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO.

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O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O B-Telescope O B-Location I-Location O O B-Telescope O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O B-Instrument I-Instrument O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O B-Model I-Model I-Model I-Model B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O B-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion O O O O B-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O B-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion I-CelestialRegion O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O O O B-Software O O B-URL B-Software O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O


and wiggles a few times before ending at a hotspot 15′′ from the core. No corresponding features are detected in the X-ray band. Similarly, there are no clear knot associations in the HST image. 1116+128 (4C+12.39). The extended radio emission consists of a single knot at 25 northwest of the core. The knot is not detected in the Chandra data. No features are apparent in the HST image at the radio knot. 1303−827 (PKS 1302−82). The extended radio emission consists of a single knot at 65 southeast of the core and a knot pair about 16′′ north-northwest of the core. The X-ray jet searched was set to the southeast to include the closest knot. No knots are detected by Chandra . In the HST image, there is faint, resolved flux from the closer of the north-northwest knot pair, shown in a inset in Figure 6 . 1502+106 (B2 0954+25A). The VLBI jet is oriented at a PA of 120°, while the kpc-scale jet is at a PA of 160° (see Table 10 ) and is marginally detected. The VLA image of the jet published by Cooper et al. ( 2007 ) shows a continuous jet all the way to the termination, about 9′′ from the core. Lister et al. ( 2013 ) found a maximum apparent speed of VLBI knots of 17.5 c . The HST image shows no clear detection of any part of the kpc-scale jet. 1622−297 (PKS B1622−297). The kpc radio jet is weak and not detected with Chandra . There is a pc-scale jet at a PA of −70°, with a maximum apparent speed of 18.6 c (Lister et al. 2013 ). There are no apparent features in the HST image that are associated with radio or X-ray emission. 1823+568 (4C+56.27). There is a pc-scale jet at a PA of −160° with a maximum apparent speed of 26.17 c (Lister et al. 2013 ). The kpc-scale jet is first oriented almost due south, but bends about 1′′ from the core to the east, where it is clearly detected in the Chandra image at 25 from the core. There are no apparent features in the HST image that are associated with radio or X-ray emission, although the southern portion lies along a diffraction spike. 2201+315 (4C+31.63). The X-ray image was first published by Hogan et al. ( 2011 ). This quasar has VLBI components with apparent velocities up to 8.3 c along a PA of −145° (Lister et al. 2013 ). In the VLA image, the jet is −37′′ long at a PA of −110°, terminating in a hotspot (Cooper et al. 2007 ). To the northeast, there is a lobe about 45′′ from the core. The radio jet is detected in the Chandra data only out to about 4′′ from the core. The quasar was not part of our observing program, so we do not have an HST image of it. 2230+114 (CTA 102, 4C+11.69). There is a pc-scale jet at a PA of 160° with a maximum apparent speed of 8.6 c (Lister et al. 2013 ). There are radio-emitting knots to the northwest and southeast sides of the core but no clear association with X-ray emission. There are no apparent features in the HST image that are associated with the radio knots. 4. Discussion 4.1. Detection Statistics We detected 9 X-ray emitting jets among the 17 sources that complete our

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O B-CelestialObject B-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O B-Wavelength O B-CelestialObject B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Wavelength O B-Wavelength O B-CelestialObject B-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Wavelength O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject B-CelestialObject O B-Wavelength O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject B-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O


form the Herschel maps, into radio signal at this frequency using the Bonzini et al. (2015) relation after scaling for the magnification factor does not discard the possibility that an AGN contribution might be responsible for the remaining emission. 3 <italic>Chandra</italic> X-ray observations The galaxies SDP.9 and SDP.11 were observed by Chandra in Cycle 16, with the ACIS-S3 CCD at the aimpoint, for a total exposure time of 55.3 ks (on January 10, 2015) and 19.8 ks (on February 28 and March 23, 2015), respectively. Very faint mode was used for the event telemetry format, and ASCA grade 0, 2, 3, 4, and 6 events were used in the analysis, which has been carried out using the ciao v4.7 software. Both sources are clearly detected, with 14 counts each in the 0.5–7 keV band within a circular region of 2 ′′ radius centered on the positions reported in Sect. 2 , and 8 counts in the observed 2–7 keV band. The 0.5–7 keV Chandra images of SDP.9 and SDP.11, centered on these positions, are shown in Fig. 1 . Remarkably, the 0.5 arcsec Chandra on axis resolution is able to resolve the X-ray emission from the lensed components. The X-ray emission better matches in position the SMA data than the HST images. Fig. 1 HST/WFC3 lens-subtracted F160W images (brightness scale in μ Jy arcsec −2 , left panel ) and Chandra 0.5/7 keV images ( right panel ) of SDP.9 and SDP.11, overlaid with signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) contours at 880 μ m from the SMA (in steps of 3, 6, and 9, Bussmann et al. 2013 ; Negrello et al. 2014 ). The lownumber of detected photons significantly limits the spectral constraints that can be obtained from the X-ray analysis. To provide basic information for both sources, however, we fit the spectra extracted from the Chandra data using simplemodels (within xspec v.12.9, Arnaud 1996 ) and the Cash statistics ( Cash 1979 ), which is appropriate for low-count spectra. Fitting the spectrum of SDP.9 with a power law provides Γ = 1.1 ± 1.0, which is suggestive of obscuration. When we fixed Γ to 1.8, as is typically observed in AGN and quasars (e.g., Piconcelli et al. 2005 ), we obtained a column density of ≈ 5.2 × 10 22 cm −2 at the source redshift (3 σ upper limit of ≈ 3.3 × 10 23 cm −2 ). The observed 2–10 keV flux is ≈ 3.6 × 10 −15 erg cm −2 s −1 , and the derived apparent rest-frame 2–10 keV luminosity (corrected for absorption but not for magnification) is ≈ 3.7 × 10 43 erg s −1 . The faint flux of SDP.9 explains the non-detection of the source (with an upper limit of ≈ 10 −14 erg cm −2 s −1 in the 0.5–8 keV band) in the XMM-ATLAS survey ( Ranalli et al. 2015 ). This survey covers a 6 deg 2 area with an average exposure of 3 ks. The non-detection of the AGN in XMM-Newton suggests that it is obscured, with an estimated column density of at least 10 23 cm −2 , as observed in other bright submm galaxies ( Johnson et al. 2013 ). For SDP.11, we combined the photons of the two observations into a single spectrum. As for SDP.9, a power-law model

O O B-Telescope O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Tag B-Wavelength O O O B-CelestialObject O B-CelestialObject O O O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Instrument O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Software B-Identifier O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength B-Telescope O O B-CelestialObject O B-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O B-Telescope O O O B-Telescope O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Wavelength B-Wavelength O O O O O O B-CelestialObject O B-CelestialObject O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O B-Software B-Identifier B-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O B-Survey I-Survey O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O B-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject O B-Model I-Model


values at the reference epoch at which the two timing models of Table 4 are defined, MJD 55655. The fit to the position at the median MJD of each aeon (the finely dotted orange line) returns μ α = 5.63 ± 0.10 mas yr − 1 and μ δ = 2.34 ± 0.28 mas yr − 1 while the dashed lilac line represents the values obtained from the BTX model, shown in Table 4 . Using an estimated distance of ≃1040 pc (from the NE2001 model of free-electron distribution in the Galaxy; Cordes Lazio 2003 ) and a total proper motion , a 2D transverse velocity of ν t = 30 ± 9 km s − 1 was calculated. This assumes an uncertainty of 30 per cent 4 in the DM-derived distance mentioned above. The measurement is in agreement with the value of 30 ± 20 km s − 1 measured by Stappers et al. ( 1998 ) and represents a twofold increase in precision, even though the uncertainty of the DM-derived distance is assumed to be much greater. It should be noted that this is significantly lower than the average value of 93 ± 13 km s − 1 reported in Desvignes et al. ( 2016 ) for the transverse velocities of binary MSPs. However, it agrees well with the value of 56 ± 3 km s − 1 reported for the binary MSPs with distance measurements from parallaxes. The proper motion values obtained from the BTX model appear to be inconsistent with those obtained from fitting to position measurements for every aeon using the respective ELL1 models. This is because the proper motion terms and the OFDs are strongly covariant and therefore the uncertainties in the values obtained from the BTX model are heavily underestimated, reinforcing the need for cautious usage of this model. 3.2 DM variations Since the DM is a measure of the density of the ionized interstellar medium (IISM) along the line of sight to the pulsar, both the motion of the pulsar and the dynamical evolution of the IISM affect this value. While it is possible to obtain the DM from timing, ‘JUMPS’ or instrumental offsets introduced to align the ToAs from the different backends are fully covariant with the DM and prevent an accurate measurement directly from the data set presented above. Therefore, a DM value of 20.7299(17) cm − 3 pc is adopted from the LOFAR measurements of Kondratiev et al. ( 2016 ). When simultaneous dual (or multi-) frequency observations are available, it is, however, possible to accurately estimate the variation in the DM. The WSRT PuMa-II backend provides observations centred at 345 and 1380 MHz, with a cadence of roughly three weeks. Observations between the two frequencies are sequential, which are separated by, at most, a few days and available for the MJD range ∼54600–56800. Since low-frequency observations are more sensitive to the DM variations, these are utilized to measure them instead of the two frequency-band observations of the PSRIX backend. To measure DM variations, the PuMa-II ToAs were fitted for DM using the ELL1 model presented in Table 4 . The ToAs were then split into 100 d long intervals, to ensure that enough

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O B-Model I-Model O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Software I-Software O O O O O B-CelestialObject B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Model I-Model O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Model I-Model O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Model I-Model O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Instrument O O O O O B-Wavelength O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Instrument O O O O O O B-Instrument O O O O O O O B-Model I-Model O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


shorter than the radiative length-scale, over which substantial radiative energy losses would occur. These results are independent of black hole mass. Figure 5. Figures (a–f) show the distance travelled by the jet before reaching equipartition for a range of values of the reconnection parameters A rec and d , from ( 97 ) and fractional Eddington jet power f Edd . We stop integration of the jet evolution equations at a distance of 10 8 r s if the jet plasma has not yet reached equipartition, since radiative energy losses at larger distances than this are insignificant. The jet parameters used to obtain these results are shown under Model C in Table 2 and the radiative losses corresponding to these models are shown in Fig. 4 . We find that the dimensionless distance to equipartition, X equi = z equi / r s , depends weakly on the fractional Eddington accretion rate, f Edd . The distance to equipartition decreases slowly with increasing f Edd . These results are independent of black hole mass, M . Figure 6. The desirable region of parameter space for jets with different fractional Eddington luminosities and reconnection parameters from Figs 4 and 5 . Here, ‘desirable’ means that the jet reaches equipartition at a distance, z equi , between 100 and 10 8 r s , whilst not radiating more than 95 per cent of its initial energy in reaching this point. The unfavoured regions of parameter space which do not fulfill these criteria are coloured in black. The jet parameters used to obtain these results are shown under Model C in Table 2 . Due to more severe radiative losses at higher fractional Eddington jet powers ( f Edd ), the desirable region becomes more restrictive for higher values of f Edd . This means that lower power jets are able to reach equipartition at smaller distances whilst retaining at least 5 per cent of their initial energy. For jet powers close to the Eddington luminosity ( f Edd > 0.1), the strong radiative losses essentially prohibit the jet from coming into equipartition at a distance smaller than ∼10 4 r s , since otherwise, the jet radiates away more than 95 per cent of its initial power in the compact base region with high magnetic field strengths. This is consistent with our earlier results in Fig. 3 , in which we found that the base of the jet must be highly magnetized in order not to suffer from devastating radiative energy losses. We also see that large negative values of the reconnection power-law d are effectively prohibited, since reconnection occurring predominantly at the base of the jet will result in heavy radiative losses in the strong magnetic fields. These results are independent of black hole mass. In terms of the equipartition fraction or magnetization, which we define as σ = U B / U e ± , the equation becomes It can be more convenient to use this expression when solving the evolution equations numerically, if U B / U e ± becomes very large. 8.1 Constraining the rate of reconnection in the jet Finally, we try to

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


left-hand panel of Fig. 3 ). Despite such significant perturbations, the presence of a DM filament potential well coupled to the relatively high density of the gas ensures that the cooling time within the filament remains short. As a result, the filament is still visible as a cold stream cutting through the hot superbubble in the middle right-hand panel of Fig. 3 . Due to these consequent perturbations induced by the stellar feedback, we cannot use either the temperature or vorticity to define the gas filament truncation radii in the feedback run. It should also be noted that our assumption of isothermality of the filaments becomes less valid than in the no stellar feedback case as stronger temperature gradients develop between core and outer envelope. To be more specific, in the no feedback case, the temperature varies between core and truncation radius by about a factor of 2, but in the feedback case in can reach an order of magnitude. However, most of this gradient is localized in the outer parts of the filament, so that the central region retains a significantly large isothermal core. This can be understood by performing the following simple calculation. Neglecting the presence of the wall, we may integrate both the gas and DM density profiles (from equation 4 ) to obtain the filament mass per unit length, μ , and its half-mass radius The fact that the (small) core radius contains half of the mass makes the filamentary material relatively impervious to the stellar feedback/filament interaction: provided the core is shielded from it, there can only be a minor change in the amount of gas mass that the filament carries. It has been suggested in the literature that Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities could be triggered at the interface between cold filament gas and the feedback powered, hot, galactic wind (e.g. Mandelker et al. 2016 and subsequent work). These will depend non-trivially on redshift and the distance of a filament segment to the central galaxy, so it is quite difficult to define a unique characteristic time-scale, t KH . Nevertheless, writing , where v w is the relative velocity between the wind and the gas filament and ρ w the density of the wind, we can see that given the steepness of the filament density profile that we measure, t KH becomes larger as the perturbation progresses deeper in the filament. This means that the time-scale is ultimately set by t KH ( r 0 ). Plugging in typical numbers for our feedback run at z = 4, i.e. r 0 ∼ 5 kpc, ρ ( r 0 ) ∼ 3 × 10 −27 g cm −3 , v w ∼ 100 km s –1 , and ρ w ∼ 3 × 10 −28 g cm −3 , we, thus, get t KH ∼ 20 Myr which is about an order of magnitude shorter than the infall time from the virial radius of the embedded halo. The conclusion is, thus, that our gas filaments should not survive the interaction. Notwithstanding that this does not happen in our simulations, which might admittedly be of too low a resolution to capture the instability properly, the calculation ignores both the

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Model I-Model I-Model I-Model O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Model I-Model O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive O O B-URL O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O B-Wavelength O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Model O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O B-Model I-Model O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O B-TextGarbage I-TextGarbage O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Model O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation O B-Citation O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O B-Wavelength O


nearby neighbors or from morphologically different galaxies. If we ignore the contamination (which is significant), the SFR efficiencies determined in Section 3.2.3 would be increased by a factor of about two. This sets an upper limit on the any potential biases in sample selection on the radial surface brightness and the resultant SFR efficiencies. 2.5. Effects of Ly<italic>α</italic> on the Surface Brightness Profiles The Ly α emission line falls into the rest-frame FUV bandpass and could potentially contaminate the measured flux. We consider whether Ly α could be contaminating our stacks, and thereby the resulting surface brightness profiles. Previously, Rafelski et al. ( 2011 ) conducted a test to see whether a typical SFG Ly α line would significantly affect the measured photometry by using the stacked LBG spectrum from Shapley et al. ( 2003 ) to estimate the effect, and found it to be negligible. However, it is possible that a subset of our sample has much stronger Ly α emission than a typical LBG, such as the green peas (Henry et al. 2015 ), which could bias the SFRs obtained from the rest-frame FUV continuum high. To test for this possibility, in particular in the galaxy outskirts, we conduct the following tests. First, for the and samples we create a smaller sample including about half of the galaxies for which Ly α does not fall in the FUV bandpass by constraining the redshift, and compare the radial surface brightness profile of that stack to the full subsample stacks. We find no evidence of a decrease in the flux in the outskirts of the galaxies within their uncertainties. Second, we compare the radial surface brightness profiles for the FUV and NUV bands, since the NUV bands will not include the Ly α line. Again, we find no evidence of a change in the radial surface brightness profile in the outskirts. The fact that the galaxies have the same radial surface brightness profile shapes in both bands suggests that the Ly α line has little to no effect on the radial surface brightness profiles. We note that this is not in conflict with the results by Steidel et al. ( 2011 ), who find extended Ly α halos around SFGs. First, that study samples a different galaxy population of brighter SFGs. Second, the Steidel et al. ( 2011 ) study goes out to ∼80 kpc using ground-based observations, while we limit ourselves to the central ∼10 kpc, which is barely resolved in that ground-based study. Third, Steidel et al. ( 2011 ) use narrowband filters to find the Ly α , while our stacks are in very broad filters, and thus the Ly α would not contribute except in the extreme emitter cases, and then only in the FUV bands for part of the redshift range. 3. SFR EFFICIENCY The radial surface brightness profiles of the SFGs show spatially extended star formation in the galaxy outskirts. Star formation is expected in the outskirts of high-redshift galaxies, as it is measured in atomic-dominated hydrogen gas at low redshift (Thilker et al. 2007 ; Boissier et

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Tag O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O B-Wavelength O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O


(5) predicted H i mass derived using equation ( 1 ); and (6) calculated H i deficiencies. 3.2 H <sc>i</sc> kinematics of the NGC 7232/3 triplet Although the coarse velocity resolution of our observations does not allow for the detailed analysis of the kinematics of the triplet galaxy group and its surroundings, it is clear from the Fig. 5 that NGC 7232B has higher velocities and is kinematically different from NGC 7232 and NGC 7233 (velocity difference of up to 400 km s −1 ). The H i debris appears to have similar velocities to NGC 7233 and NGC 7232 within ∼200 km s −1 , which could indicate that most of this gas is coming from the interaction between the galaxy pair and not NGC 7232B. Figure 5. MeerKAT-64 H i velocity field map of the NGC 7232/3 triplet. The black stars indicate the optical centres of the triplet galaxies. 3.3 H <sc>i</sc> deficiency equation of the NGC 7232/3 triplet We determine the H i deficiency of each galaxy in the NGC 7232/3 triplet group to determine if the group spirals are H i -deficient or H i -rich. The H i deficiency is derived by comparing the observed H i mass to the expected H i mass for an isolated galaxy. The expected H i masses () are derived from the absolute B -magnitudes obtained from HyperLeda 4 (Makarov et al. 2014 ). We have used the scaling relation derived in (Jones et al. 2018 ) based on measurements or constraints on the H i masses of 844 isolated galaxies compiled by the AMIGA project (Analysis of the interstellar Medium in Isolated GAlaxies; Verdes-Montenegro et al. 2005 ): where log [ L B / L ⊙ ] is derived by where M bol, ⊙ is the Sun's bolometric absolute magnitude, we adopt M bol, ⊙ = 4.88 (Lisenfeld et al. 2011 ), D is the distance in Mpc, and B c is the absolute B -magnitude corrected for extinction. The H i deficiency is then defined by where is the H i mass derived from the observations. Positive values of DEF indicate H i deficiency while negative values indicate H i excess. We compare the expected H i mass for each galaxy to its H i mass derived from our observations (see Table 2 ). NGC 7232 and NGC 7233 are H i -deficient while NGC 7232B is found to have excess H i . Taking into account the uncertainties in B -magnitudes and the scatter in the scaling relation, we consider a galaxy to be H i -deficient when DEF > 0.2 and H i excess if DEF −0.2. The total H i mass of the NGC 7232/3 triplet including all the H i debris (i.e. H i streams and clouds) is ] = 9.84 ± 0.002. Comparing the total derived H i mass to the expected H i mass of , we find a total DEF of −0.23 ± 0.11, which indicates that the NGC 7232/3 galaxy triplet has an overall H i excess compared to field galaxies. 4 DISCUSSION One of the questions coming from our data is the possible origin of the H i debris observed. In this work, we search for signs of interaction within the NGC 7323/3 galaxy triplet and its surrounding environment. The detection of wide-spread H i debris around the galaxy triplet demonstrates the need for

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Tag O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Tag O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


degrees of freedom. The nonrelativistic Model 1 already gives a good fit to the X-ray spectra of Fairall 9. In addition, we do not clearly detect the signature of a broad iron line in Figures 1 and 2 . All these considerations lead us to conclude that the relativistic reflection component in the spectra of Fairall 9, if present, is weak. To constrain possible deviation from Kerr spacetime around the black hole in Fairall 9, we replace the component relxill in Model 3 with its non-Kerr extension relxill _ nk v1.3.2 (Bambi et al. 2017 ; Abdikamalov et al. 2019a ). Similar to the results with relxill , we also find three solutions. The best-fit parameters are shown in Table 5 and the constraints of the deformation parameters in Figure 6 . We only show the results corresponding to solution 1 (Model 3.1) because the deformation parameters are totally unconstrained in the other two solutions. This is easy to understand since both negative spin and truncated disk result in a large distance between the black hole and the inner edge of the accretion disk. In this case, the effect on the reflected spectrum due to deviations from the Kerr background are not strong enough to be detected with current data. When assuming solution 1, we find from Figure 6 that the deformation parameters can recover 0, which means the Kerr solution is recovered. Figure 6. Confidence contour plot for spin parameter and deformation parameters. The red, green, and blue lines correspond to 68%, 90%, and 99% confidence levels respectively. The gray region is not included in our analysis because the spacetime there has pathological properties. Table 5 Best-fit Values with Model relxill_nk Note. Model: Tbabs ∗ (nthComp + relxill _ nk + xillver + zCutoffpl) . The parameters with * are fixed at given values in the fit. Uncertainties are given at the 90% confidence level. 4. Discussion and Conclusions Fairall 9 has a number of interesting properties (listed at the beginning of this paper) that make it a promising source for testing the Kerr black hole hypothesis using X-ray reflection spectroscopy. Unfortunately, the relativistic reflection component, if present, is weak, which makes the selection of the correct astrophysical model with the available data challenging. However, we should stress that the ideal source with all the nice properties for testing general relativity and no bad properties probably does not exist, so we have to try to do our best with the available sources and data. Moreover, in the case of Fairall 9 we can expect (see Section 4.3 below) that future observations with a higher energy resolution near the iron line can solve the degeneracy and be capable of selecting the astrophysical model and the physical best-fit solution. 4.1. General Considerations We studied a simultaneous XMM+NuSTAR observation of Fairall 9. The soft excess in the spectra can be described by a Comptonization component (Model 1) and the fit is already good. When we add a blurred reflection

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taking its place. It is only when m 3 ∼ m 2 that genuinely chaotic dynamics can take place, in some cases leading to coalescence. Finally, Fig. 5 shows the merger fraction as a function of the initial eccentricity of the inner and outer binary. We note that the merger fraction increases with increasing e in , while it decreases with increasing e out . The dependence upon e in is readily understood, since highly eccentric inner binaries are closer to the efficient GW-emission stage and can easily be driven to coalescence by a relatively mild perturbation from a third body. The dependence upon e out is likely due to the fact that quasi-circular outer binaries form a stable hierarchical triplet for a comparatively longer time during the inspiral of m 3 , hence leaving more room to the development of K–L resonances, which are efficient at driving the inner binary to coalescence. Conversely, in very eccentric outer binaries, m 3 soon interacts with the inner binary at pericentre, entering the chaotic phase. Chaotic interactions are more likely to result in ejections rather than mergers, hence suppressing the overall merger fraction. Figure 5. Merger fraction (colour coded) as a function of the initial inner ( e in ) and outer ( e out ) binary eccentricities. 3.1.1 Importance of PN corrections As pointed out in the previous section, the K–L mechanism can be suppressed by general relativistic effects. In particular, relativistic precession tends to destroy the coherent pile-up of the perturbation that the third body induces on the inner binary, hence effectively damping the K–L resonances. 5 In order to quantify the impact of the relativistic precession on the merger fraction and to compare our results with previous work that neglected this effect (e.g. Iwasawa, Funato Makino 2006 ; Hoffman Loeb 2007 ), in Table 3 and in Fig. 6 we compare, only for the case m 1 = 10 9 M ⊙ , the merger fraction obtained with and without 1PN corrections. Overall, the merger fraction is substantially higher in the case without 1PN terms (right-hand panel of Fig. 6 ). As can be seen, the largest differences compared to the full case occur for q in ≪ 1, where, because of octupole-order terms, the K–L mechanism is maximally effective. On the contrary, for large q in the merger fractions with or without 1PN corrections are similar, because, as previously discussed, coalescences are mainly due to chaotic strong encounters, rather than to K–L oscillations. Our results highlight the importance of K–L resonances in inducing MBH mergers in triple systems, and the need to account at least for 1PN corrections. Figure 6. Comparison between the merger fraction in the case m 1 = 10 9 M ⊙ , when the dynamics is evolved with (left-hand panel) and without (right-hand panel) 1PN term. The suppression of the merger fraction for low q in , due to 1PN precession, is clearly visible (see discussion in the main text). Table 3. Comparison of the merger fraction from the simulations with m 1 =

O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-EntityOfFutureInterest O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula I-Formula O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Formula I-Formula I-Formula