Acknowledgements The authors thank an anonymous referee for interesting comments and suggestions. We acknowledge financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through grants AYA2012-30789, AYA2015-66211-C2-1-P and AYA2015-66211-C2-2. CJB, ACS and PC thank CNPq for partially financing this work. LSJ acknowledges support from FAPESP (0800) and CNPq. We acknowledge the OAJ Data Processing and Archiving Unit (UPAD) for reducing and calibrating the OAJ data used in this work. Based on observations made with the JAST/T80 telescope at the Observatorio Astrofísico de Javalambre, in Teruel, owned, managed and operated by the Centro de Estudios de Física del Cosmos de Aragón. We acknowledge the OAJ Data Processing and Archiving Unit (UPAD) for reducing and calibrating the OAJ data used in this work. Funding for the J-PLUS Project has been provided by the Governments of Spain and Aragón through the Fondo de Inversiones de Teruel, the Aragón Government through the Reseach Groups E96 and E103, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO; under grants AYA2015-66211-C2-1-P, AYA2015-66211-C2-2, AYA2012-30789 and ICTS-2009-14), and European FEDER funding (FCDD10-4E-867, FCDD13-4E-2685). RAD acknowledges support from CNPq through BP grant 312307/2015-2, CSIC through grant COOPB20263, FINEP grants REF. 1217/13 – 01.13.0279.00 and REF 0859/10 – 01.10.0663.00 for partial hardware support for the J-PLUS project through the National Observatory of Brazil.

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The research of B.B. is supported by the NASA Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship.

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This research has made use of the following data and software packages: observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory, data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive, software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application package ciao , and software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center in the heasoft package. We acknowledge extensive use of the ADS and arXiv. AB thanks G.R. Sivakoff and T.J. Maccarone for helpful discussions. COH acknowledges financial support from NSERC Discovery Grants, an Alberta Ingenuity New Faculty Award, and an Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship. ND acknowledges support via an EU Marie Curie Intra-European fellowship under contract no. FP-PEOPLE-2013-IEF-627148. LC acknowledges support from a Chandra grant associated with Obs.ID 15761. WCGH acknowledges support from STFC in the UK. This work was partially supported by the NSF through grant AST-1308124.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the reviewer for the careful and thorough reading of this manuscript and for the thoughtful comments and constructive suggestions that help to improve the quality of this manuscript.

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We thank Kate Scholberg, André Rubbia, Masayuki Nakahata, and Lutz Köpke for useful conversations. We also thank Gabriel Martinez-Pinedo for providing us with tables for the 40 Ar cross sections. The authors acknowledge support provided by the NSF PetaApps program, under award OCI-0905046 via subaward no. 44592 from Louisiana State University to Princeton University, and by the Max-Planck/Princeton Center (MPPC) for Plasma Physics (NSF PHY-1144374). The authors employed computational resources provided by the TIGRESS high-performance computer center at Princeton University, which is jointly supported by the Princeton Institute for Computational Science and Engineering (PICSciE) and the Princeton University Office of Information Technology and by the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC), which is supported by the Office of Science of the US Department of Energy under contract DE-AC03-76SF00098. This work is part of the “Three Dimensional Modeling of Core-Collapse Supernovae” PRAC allocation support by the National Science Foundation (award number ACI-1440032). In addition, this research is part of the Blue Waters sustained-petascale computing project, which is supported by the National Science Foundation (awards OCI-0725070 and ACI-1238993) and the state of Illinois. Blue Waters is a joint effort of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and its National Center for Supercomputing Applications.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the A*MIDEX project (no. ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) funded by the ‘Investissements d’Avenir’ French Government programme, managed by the French National Research Agency (ANR). This work is also supported OPTICON H2020 WP10. NAB acknowledges UKRI STFC funding (ST/P000541/1).

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Acknowledgement SPIRE has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by Cardiff University (UK) and including University of Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, University of Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); Stockholm Observatory (Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, University of Sussex (UK); and Caltech, JPL, NHSC, University of Colorado (USA). This development has been supported by national funding agencies: CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); STFC, UKSA (UK); and NASA (USA). PACS has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by MPE (Germany) and including UVIE (Austria); KU Leuven, CSL, IMEC (Belgium); CEA, LAM (France); MPIA (Germany); INAF-IFSI/OAA/OAP/OAT, LENS, SISSA (Italy); IAC (Spain). This development has been supported by the funding agencies BMVIT (Austria), ESA-PRODEX (Belgium), CEA/CNES (France), DLR (Germany), ASI/INAF (Italy), and CICYT/MCYT (Spain). This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. K.L.J.R. acknowledges financial support by the Italian Ministero dell’Istruzione Università e Ricerca through the grant Progetti Premiali 2012-iALMA (CUP C52I13000140001). N.S. and S.B. acknowledge support by the french ANR and the german DFG through the project “GENESIS” (ANR-16-CE92-0035-01/DFG1591/2-1). GLW gratefully acknowledges support from The Leverhulme Trust. We acknowledge financial support from “Programme National de Physique Stellaire” (PNPS) and programme “Physique et Chime du Milieu Interstellaire” (PCMI) of CNRS/INSU, France. A.Z. thanks the support of the Institut Universitaire de France.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors acknowledge support from the PRIN-MIUR project Multi-scale Simulations of High-Energy Astrophysical Plasmas (Prot. 2015L5EE2Y). We would also grateful to the referee for his/her constructive comments which helped to improve the quality of this manuscript. We wish to thank L. Pareschi for valuable comments on the development of the Riemann solver in the context of IMEX schemes.

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The authors thank the anonymous referee for important suggestions and comments that led to an improvement in the presentation of the paper. IP acknowledges the support from the Leibniz-DAAD research fellowship. NIL is supported by the DFG. ET is supported by the grants IUT26-2, IUT40-2 of the Estonian Ministry of Education and Research. JGS acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt foundation.

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This research was supported by the FFG ASAP-12 project JetPro* (FFG-854025) and in part by the EU FP7-2011 project under Grant Agreement No. 284405.

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Acknowledgments It is a pleasure to thank Martin Sparre for providing data for the figures. We thank the anonymous referee for suggestions that improved this paper. We thank Gary Mamon for constructive comments. This project is partially funded by the Danish Council for Independent Research, under the project Fundamentals of Dark Matter Structures, DFF - 6108-00470.

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The research presented in this paper was financed by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) with the research project STiMulUs , ERC Grant agreement no. 278267. The authors are also very grateful for the subsequent financial support of the present research, already granted by the European Commission under the H2020-FETHPC-2014 programme with the research project ExaHyPE , grant agreement no. 671698. We are grateful to Bruno Giacomazzo and Luciano Rezzolla for providing the numerical code for the exact solution of the Riemann problem in RMHD. We would also like to acknowledge PRACE for awarding access to the SuperMUC supercomputer based in Munich, Germany at the Leibniz Rechenzentrum (LRZ), and ISCRA, for awarding access to the FERMI supercomputer based in Casalecchio (Italy).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee who reviewed the previous version carefully and help us to strengthen the results in this version. This work was partially supported by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología México under grants CB-2011 No. 166212, CB-2014-01 No. 240512, Project No. 269652, and Fronteras Project 281; Xiuhcoatl and Abacus clusters at Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, Instituto Politécnico Nacional; I0101/131/07 C-234/07 of the Instituto Avanzado de Cosmología (IAC) collaboration ( http://www.iac.edu.mx ). AAA and LEP acknowledge financial support from CONACyT fellowships.

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Acknowledgements We thank Ross Parkin, Cornelia Lang, Naomi McClure-Griffiths, and Helga Denés for insightful discussions on the numerical setups and on the potential applications of the simulations presented here, and the anonymous referee for their comments which helped improve this work. WBB thanks the National Secretariat of Higher Education, Science, Technology, and Innovation of Ecuador (SENESCYT) for funding this project through a doctoral scholarship (CI:1711298438), and the Ecuadorian Network for Research and Education (RED CEDIA) for providing access to local computational resources. WBB is the recipient of the Olin Eggen Scholarship at Mount Stromlo Observatory. CF acknowledges funding provided by the Australian Research Council's Discovery Projects (grants DP130102078 and DP150104329). RMC is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT110100108). This research was supported by the National Computational Infrastructure at Australian National University and the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre, with funding from the Australian Government and the Government of Western Australia, through grants n72 and ek9. CF thanks for high-performance computing resources provided by the Leibniz Rechenzentrum and the Gauss Centre for Supercomputing (grants pr32lo, pr48pi, and Gauss Centre for Supercomputing Large-scale project 10391), and the Partnership for Advanced Computing in Europe (PRACE grant pr89mu). The 3D plots and movies reported in this series of papers were generated using the VisIt visualization software (Childs et al. 2012 ).

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The authors are very grateful to Ulrike Heiter for writing and maintaining SME documentation, to Thomas Nordlander for contributing NLTE tools and testing the model atmosphere grid interpolation, and to Paul Barklem and Remo Collet for contributing the partition functions for atoms, molecules and negative ions as part of our collaboration on the EOS package. We would also like to thank all SME users for continuous and useful feedback on the package.

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We thank the referee for their helpful comments. This work was supported by the BK21 plus program through the National Research Foundation (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education of Korea, the Basic Science Research Program through the NRF funded by the Ministry of Education (NRF-2016R1A2B4013131, NRF-2016R1A6A3A11932534, NRF-2019R1A2C1002634), the NRF of Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF-2013M1A3A3A02042232), the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute under the RD program supervised by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning, the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute under the RD program Development of a Solar Coronagraph on International Space Station (Project No. 2019-1-850-02) supervised by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning, and the Institute for Information communications Technology Promotion (IITP) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIP) (2018-0-01422, Study on analysis and prediction technique of solar flares). The data used here are provided courtesy of NASA/ SDO and the HMI science team, as well as the GOES team.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the California- Kepler Survey team for making their data publicly available. We thank James Owen for valuable comments that helped to improve the manuscript. AG also thanks Erik Petigura and B.J. Fulton for useful discussions related to this work. HES gratefully acknowledges support from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant No. 17 XRP17_2 – 0055 issued through the Exoplanet Research Program.

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We thank an anonymous referee for detailed comments that substantially improved both the scientific content and the presentation of our results. We also thank Erez Michaely, Hagai Perets and Robert Izzard for very valuable discussions and suggestions. This research was supported by a generous grant from the president of the Technion Professor Peretz Lavie, and by the Asher Fund for Space Research at the Technion.

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We thank Alister Graham, Anne Samson, and the anonymous referee for helpful comments on this manuscript. SPD and AJM acknowledge funding support from the Australian Research Council under Discovery Project 130103505. GAMA is a joint European–Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the Anglo–Australian Telescope. The GAMA input catalogue is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is being obtained by a number of independent survey programmes including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE , Herschel -ATLAS, GMRT and ASKAP providing UV to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA website is http://www.gama-survey.org/ . Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U. S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. The VIKING survey is based on observations with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under the programme ID 179.A-2004.

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The work was supported by European FP7-PEOPLE-2010-IRSES-269299 project – SOLSPANET. The work was also supported by Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation grant DI/14/6-310/12. B.M.S. and M.K. acknowledge the support by the Austrian Fonds zur Foerderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung within the project P25640-N27 and T.Z. – under project FWF26181-N27. We are grateful to the anonymous referee for the constructive comments on our manuscript that led to significant improvements.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Ainulnabilah B. Nasirudin and the anonymous referee for their clear and constructive comments. We would also like to thank Lucie Bakels for the helpful comments and discussions. RP is supported by a University of Western Australia Scholarship. PJE is supported by the ARC Centre of Excellence ASTRO 3D through project number CE170100013 Part of this research was undertaken on Raijin, the NCI National Facility in Canberra, Australia, which is supported by the Australian commonwealth Government. Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. This research was undertaken with the assistance of resources from the National Computational Infrastructure (NCI Australia), an NCRIS enabled capability supported by the Australian Government.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has been supported by grant no. 366/15 of the Israel Science Foundation. The authors thank an anonymous reviewer whose insightful comments helped improve and clarify this manuscript.

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CA would like to thank the University of Kent for her 50th Anniversary PhD scholarship and Timothy Kinnear and Victor Ali-Lagoa for fruitful discussions. MCP and MJC thank the STFC, UK for funding this work. MD acknowledges support from the French Agence National de la Recherche (ANR) SHOCKS.

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Acknowledgments The support of the Namibian authorities and of the University of Namibia in facilitating the construction and operation of H.E.S.S. is gratefully acknowledged, as is the support by the German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), the Max Planck Society, the German Research Foundation (DFG), the French Ministry for Research, the CNRS-IN2P3 and the Astroparticle Interdisciplinary Programme of the CNRS, the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the IPNP of the Charles University, the Czech Science Foundation, the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education, the South African Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation, the Australian Research Council and by the University of Namibia. We appreciate the excellent work of the technical support staff in Berlin, Durham, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Palaiseau, Paris, Saclay, and in Namibia in the construction and operation of the equipment.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank an anonymous referee for valuable suggestions which helped to improve the paper and acknowledge useful discussions with Chris Fragile, Matthew Liska, and Anderson Caproni. We thank an anonymous referee for valuable suggestions which helped to improve the paper. This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), and Fundação de Amparo à pesquisa do Estado do RS (FAPERGS). RN acknowledges funding by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) through grant 2017/01461-2. Based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the Science and Technology Facilities Council (United Kingdom), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia (Brazil) and Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina). SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU) / University of Tokyo, the Korean Participation Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Leibniz Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik (MPA Garching), Max-Planck-Institut für Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), National Astronomical Observatories of China, New Mexico State University, New York University, University of Notre Dame, Observatório Nacional / MCTI, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, University of Arizona, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford, University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and Yale University.

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The authors are thankful for the referee’s kind and valuable comments on this manuscript. This work is supported by NSFC grants 11433006, 11790301, 11661161015, and 11573039, and by a Science Technology Facilities Council (STFC) consolidated grant ST/L000741/1. This work was also partly supported by the joint research program of the Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research at Nagoya University and the International Space Science Institute-Beijing (ISSI-BJ).

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Acknowledgments JAP would like to thank the University of Surrey for the computational resources required to perform the simulations used in this paper. We are grateful to Sverre Aarseth and Keigo Nitadori for making nbody6 publicly available; we also thank Mr David Munro of the University of Surrey for hardware and software support.

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This work was supported in part by the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories, NSFC under grants 41874201, 41531071, 11873018, 11790302, and 11761131007. We thank the STEREO /PLASTIC team and NASA’s CDAWeb for making these data available. The authors also would like to thank Drs. L. Xiang, Y. F. Hao, and H. Y. Sun for their useful suggestions and discussions.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank N. Schartel for providing us with the possibility to perform the ToO observation in the Director Discretionary Time, and the XMM–Newton team for the technical support. We also use Director Discretionary Time on NuSTAR , for which we thank Fiona Harrison for approving and the NuSTAR team for the technical support. We acknowledge financial contribution from the agreements ASI-INAF I/037/12/0 and ASI-INAF 2017-14-H.O. This work was partially supported by the Regione Autonoma della Sardegna through POR-FSE Sardegna 2007-2013, L.R. 7/2007, Progetti di Ricerca di Base e Orientata, Project N. CRP-60529. AP acknowledges funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement 660657-TMSP-H2020-MSCA-IF-2014, as well as the International Space Science Institute (ISSIBern) which funded and hosted the international team ‘The disc magnetosphere interaction around transitional millisecond pulsar’.

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We thank the referee for the useful comments on the manuscript. F.C. acknowledges financial contribution from the agreement ASI-INAF n.2017-14-H.0 and PRIN MIUR 2015 Cosmology and Fundamental Physics: Illuminating the Dark Universe with Euclid.

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Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge help of Derek Homeier and France Allard with Phoenix format. We thank Ingo Waldmann and Marco Rocchetto for testing E XO C ROSS . E XO C ROSS uses the Fortran 90 input parsing module input.f90 supplied by Anthony J. Stone, which is gratefully acknowledged. This work was supported by the UK Science and Technology Research Council (STFC) No. ST/M001334/1 and the COST action MOLIM No. CM1405. This work made extensive use of UCL’s Legion and STFC’s DiRAC@Darwin high performance computing facilities.

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We are grateful to the referee, Prof. Takeuchi, for his helpful comments. We thank Bade Uzgil for insightful discussions. Support for R.D. was provided by the DFG priority program 1573 “The physics of the interstellar medium.” F.W., B.P.V., and E.P.F. acknowledge support through ERC grant Cosmic_Dawn. D.R. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under grant number AST-1614213 to Cornell University. Facility: ALMA data: 2015.1.01115.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ.

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This work is partially supported by programmes number HST/GO 11700, 12587, 12905 and 13767 from NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. JSBW acknowledges the support of an Australian Research Council Laureate Fellowship. MT acknowledges the support of an Australia Research Council Future Fellowship. We would like to acknowledge the anonymous referee for their helpful comments, Sharon Rapoport for her initial lens modelling of the system and Stephanie Bernard for her help with the BoRG data.

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Acknowledgments This paper has gone through internal review by the DES collaboration. Funding for the DES Projects has been provided by the US Department of Energy, the US National Science Foundation, the Ministry of Science and Education of Spain, the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Kavli Institute of Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago, the Center for Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Mitchell Institute for Fundamental Physics and Astronomy at Texas AM University, Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos, Fundao Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientfico e Tecnolgico and the Ministrio da Cincia, Tecnologia e Inovao, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Collaborating Institutions in the DES. The DES data management system is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number AST-1138766. The DES participants from Spanish institutions are partially supported by MINECO under grants AYA2012-39559, ESP2013-48274, FPA2013-47986 and Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa SEV-2012-0234, some of which include ERDF funds from the European Union. The Collaborating Institutions are Argonne National Laboratory, the University of California at Santa Cruz, the University of Cambridge, Centro de Investigaciones Enrgeticas, Medioambientales y Tecnolgicas-Madrid, the University of Chicago, University College London, the DES-Brazil Consortium, the University of Edinburgh, the Eidgenssische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zrich, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Institut de Cincies de lEspai (IEEC/CSIC), the Institut de Fsica dAltes Energies, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the Ludwig-Maximilians Universitt Mnchen and the associated Excellence Cluster Universe, the University of Michigan, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, the University of Nottingham, the Ohio State University, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Portsmouth, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford University, the University of Sussex and Texas AM University. The DES data management system is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number AST-1138766. The DES participants from Spanish institutions are partially supported by MINECO under grants AYA2012-39559, ESP2013-48274, FPA2013-47986 and Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa SEV-2012-0234. Research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Unions Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) including ERC grant agreements 240672, 291329 and 306478. EB acknowledges financial support from the European Research Council (ERC-StG-335936, CLUSTERS).

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We thank John Beacom, Keith Bechtol, Chris Belczynski, Michal Dominik, Alex Drlica-Wagner, Jennifer Johnson, Vicky Kalogera, Paul Lasky, Adam Martin, Grant Mathews, Annika Peter, Kris Sigurdson, Rebecca Surman, Todd Thompson, and MacKenzie Warren for helpful discussions, and the ABHM Workshop for their hospitality while this work was completed. J.B. thanks the Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported by National Science Foundation grant PHY-1066293. T.L. is supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship Award No. PF3-140110.

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Acknowledgements This work was supported by the UK Science and Technology Research Council (STFC) No. ST/M001334/1 and the COST action MOLIM No. CM1405. This work made extensive use of UCL’s Legion high performance computing facility.

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We thank our anonymous referee for the useful comments and suggestions. This work has been supported by PRA Università di Pisa 2018-2019 ( Le stelle come laboratori cosmici di Fisica fondamentale , PI: S. Degl’Innocenti) and by INFN ( Iniziativa specifica TAsP ).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Kyle Dawson and Xiaohu Yang for useful discussions. HX acknowledges the support by a fellowship from the Willard L. and Ruth P. Eccles Foundation. IZ is supported by NSF grant AST-1612085. During the final stage, this project has been supported by a grant from Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality (Grants No.16DZ2260200) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants No.11655002). We gratefully acknowledge the High Performance Computing Resource for Advanced Research Computing at Shanghai Astronomical Observatory. The support and resources from the Center for High Performance Computing at the University of Utah are gratefully acknowledged. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Gauss Centre for Supercomputing e.V. ( www.gauss-centre.eu ) and the Partnership for Advanced Supercomputing in Europe (PRACE, http://www.prace-ri.eu ) for funding the MultiDark simulation project by providing computing time on the GCS Supercomputer SuperMUC at Leibniz Supercomputing Centre (LRZ, http://www.lrz.de ). The CosmoSim database used in this paper is a service by the Leibniz-Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam (AIP). The MultiDark database was developed in cooperation with the Spanish MultiDark Consolider Project CSD2009-00064. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Parkes Observatory is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility which is funded by the Australian Government for operation as a National Facility managed by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. The Green Bank Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation (NSF) operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Pulsar research at the Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics and the observations using the Lovell Telescope are supported by a consolidated grant from the Science and Technology Facilities Council in the UK. This work is also based on observations with the 100-m telescope of the Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie at Effelsberg. This work is supported by the ARC Centres of Excellence CE110001020 (CAASTRO) and CE170100004 (OzGrav). Survey processing was conducted in association with CAASTRO at the Australian National Computational Infrastructure high-performance computing centre at the Australian National University. The authors wish to thank Marina Berezina, Eleni Graikou, Alex Kraus, and Laura Spitler for their assistance with observations at Effelsberg, along with Natalia Lewandowska and Ryan Lynch for their assistance with observations at the GBT. We also thank West Virginia University for its financial support of GBT operations, which enabled some of the observations for this project. ADC acknowledges the support of both the International Max Planck Research School for Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Universities of Bonn and Cologne, and the Bonn-Cologne Graduate School of Physics and Astronomy. PCCF and AR gratefully acknowledge financial support by the European Research Council (ERC) for the ERC Starting grant BEACON under contract No. 279702, and continued support from the Max Planck Society. MK, RK, and RPE gratefully acknowledge support from ERC Synergy Grant ‘BlackHoleCam’ Grant Agreement Number 610058. MAM was supported by NSF award number AST-1517003. DRL was supported by NSF award number OIA-1458952.

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This work was supported by Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (sub-projects B1, B2, B5 and B8) of the German Research Foundation (DFG) and SPP 1573, ‘Physics of the Interstellar Medium’ (grant number GL 668/2-1). In addition, RSK acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) via the ERC Advanced Grant STARLIGHT (project number 339177). The numerical simulations presented in this work were performed on the Milky Way supercomputer, which is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) through the Collaborative Research Center (SFB 881) ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject Z2) and hosted and co-funded by the Jülich Supercomputing Center (JSC). The authors thank the anonymous referee for helpful and constructive comments. CBM thanks Patrick Hennebelle, Pavel Kroupa, Tilman Hartwig and Scott Trager for helpful discussions.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS JET and SC acknowledge support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada through respective Discovery Grants. NNQO acknowledges support from NSERC through a PGS D scholarship. We thank the anonymous referee for several comments and questions that improved the paper significantly. We also thank B. Tully, M. Hudson, N. Dalal, and the participants of the conference ‘The Physics of Galaxy Scaling Relations and the Nature of Dark Matter’ held at Queen’s University in July 2018 for many useful comments on a preliminary version of this work. This work made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France (DOI : 10.26093/cds/vizier; https://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/vizier ). The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS 143, 23.

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We are indebted to the staff of the W.M. Keck Observatory who keep the instruments and telescopes running effectively. We also wish to extend thanks to those of Hawaiian ancestry on whose sacred mountain we are privileged to be guests. This work has been supported in part by the US National Science Foundation through grants AST-0908805 and AST-1313472. We thank Mariska Kriek and Eliot Quataert for many useful discussions as well as the anonymous referee for comments and suggestions that significantly improved this work. R.F.T. also acknowledges support from Dennis and Carol Troesh and from the Miller Institute for Basic Research in Science at the University of California, Berkeley.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ARG-J thanks the financial support of Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – Brasil (CAPES), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) (proc. 2018/11239-8). MA thanks CNPq (Grants 427700/2018-3, 310683/2017-3, and 473002/2013-2) and Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) (grant E-26/111.488/2013). FB-R acknowledges CNPq grant 309578/2017-5. GB-R is thankful for the support of CAPES/Brazil and FAPERJ (grant E26/203.173/2016). BM thanks the CAPES/Cofecub-394/2016-05 grant. RV-M acknowledges grants CNPq: 304544/2017-5, 401903/2016-8, Faperj: PAPDRJ-45/2013 and E-26/203.026/2015, CAPES/Cofecub: 2506/2015. JIBC acknowledges CNPq grant 308150/2016-3. Based on observations obtained at the SOAR telescope, which is a joint project of the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, Inovações e Comunicações do Brasil, the U.S. National Optical Astronomy Observatory, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC), and Michigan State University (MSU). Based on data obtained at Complejo Astronómico El Leoncito, operated under agreement between the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientf́icas y Técnicas de la República Argentina and the National Universities of La Plata, Córdoba and San Juan. The work was based on observations made at the Laboratório Nacional de Astrofísica (LNA), Itajubá-MG, Brazil. TRAPPIST-South is funded by the Belgian Fund for Scientific Research under the grant FRFC 2.5.594.09.F. EJ is a Belgian FNRS Senior Research Associates. The work was based on observations made by MiNDSTEp from the Danish 1.54 m telescope at ESO’s La Silla observatory. This collaboration, as part of the Encelade working group ( http://www.issibern.ch/teams/encelade/ ), has been supported by the International Space Sciences Institute in Bern, Switzerland. Part of the research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Communitys H2020 (2014–2020/ERC grant 669416 ‘LUCKY STAR’)

O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O B-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O B-Organization B-Grant B-Grant B-Organization B-Grant O B-Grant B-Organization B-Grant B-Person O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O B-Location B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Location I-Location B-Survey O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O O O O B-Instrument O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Observatory B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-URL O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location I-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We are grateful to the people responsible for the Bolshoi and MultiDark simulations for making their halo catalogues publicly available, to the anonymous referee for an insightful report that greatly helped to improve the presentation, and to the following individuals for their advice and assistance: Peter Behroozi, Mike Boylan-Kolchin, Carlo Giocoli, Andrew Hearin, Anatoly Klypin, Alexander Knebe, Surhud More, Nikhil Padmanabhan, Tomomi Sunayama, and Bepi Tormen.

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We thank the referee for their comments and criticisms that have significantly improved this work. We are grateful to David Bacon, Bob Nichol, Dominique Sluse, Kenneth Wong and Phil Marshall for insightful comments on the original manuscript. We thank Tommaso Treu and Paul Schechter for helpful discussions. SDC acknowledges funding from the SEPNet summer placement scheme and is grateful to the ICG for hosting the placement. This project made use of the lenspop code which is freely available from github.com/tcollett/LensPop. Numerical computations were done on the Sciama High Performance Compute (HPC) cluster which is supported by the ICG, SEPNet and the University of Portsmouth.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O B-Software I-Software O O O O O B-URL O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O O O O O B-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is a pleasure to thank Simon White and Adriano Agnello for inspiring discussions.

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MGBA acknowledges the financial support from FAPESP 2011/23996-9 and from the FAPESP Thematic Project 2013/26258-4. MGBA is also grateful to the Kapteyn Astronomical Institute for the hospitality and to R. Misra, M. Linares, P. Bult and T. Strohmayer for the useful comments. DA acknowledges support from the Royal Society. The authors are grateful to the unknown referee for his/her meticulous review of this paper whose comments significantly increased the value of our work.

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This research has made use of the GOLDmine database (Gavazzi et al. 2003, 2014b) and of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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We thank Martin Haehnelt, Daniel Mortlock and Steve Warren for their helpful comments on the manuscript, as well as Paul Hewett for assistance in the early stages of this work. We also thank the referee, Xiaohui Fan, for comments which helped to improve the manuscript. SEIB acknowledges a Graduate Studentship from the Science and Technology Funding Council (STFC) and is grateful for funding through the ERC grant LGAG/209 RG66659. GDB has been supported by STFC through an Ernest Rutherford Fellowship.

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We warmly thank Diana Valencia for interesting discussions on the internal composition of planets, Florentin Millour for explanations concerning the Hipparcos catalog, Georges Kordopatis, Orlagh Creevey and Mathias Schultheis for insights on stellar models and populations. R.L. is funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement n. 664931. C.D. is funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation under the Ambizione grant PZ00P2_174028.

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We thank the US National Science Foundation (AST-1505502) for support in conducting the present experiments. The authors acknowledge the W. M. Keck Foundation for financing the experimental setup.

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Acknowledgments The authors thank Clive Dickinson and Patrick Leahy for useful discussions and comments on the manuscript. We also acknowledge useful discussions with Pascal Rideau and Joel Michaud concerning practical constraints related to data transfer and to attitude and orbit control. CGRW acknowledges the award of an STFC quota studentship the support of the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (grant no. EP/M011852/1). MLB acknowledges the European Research Council for support through the award of an ERC Starting Independent Researcher Grant (EC FP7 grant no. 280127). MLB also thanks the STFC for the award of Advanced and Halliday fellowships (grant no. ST/I005129/1). Some of the results in this paper have been derived using the healpix (Grski etal. 2005 ) package.

O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O


We would like to thank Daniel Foreman-Mackey (NYU), Morgan Fouesneau (MPIA), Jon Holtzman (NMSU), Keivan Stassun (Vanderbilt University), Jennifer Johnson (OSU), and David Sontag (NYU) for valuable discussions. D.W.H. was partially supported by the NSF (grant IIS-1124794), NASA (grant NNX08AJ48G), and the Moore–Sloan Data Science Environment at NYU. The research has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP 7) ERC Grant Agreement No. [321035]. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.

O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Organization B-Person I-Person B-Organization B-Person I-Person B-Organization B-Person I-Person B-Organization I-Organization B-Person I-Person B-Organization O B-Person I-Person B-Organization O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant B-Organization O B-Grant O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant B-Organization O O O B-Grant O O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O O B-URL O B-Survey O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization


This paper made use of spectroscopic data that were obtained at the FLWO-1.5 m with FAST, which is operated by Harvard-Smithsonian Centre for Astrophysics. In particular we want to thank Perry Berlind and Mike Calkins for their role in obtaining most of the FLWO-1.5 m/FAST data. The paper also makes use of data obtained as part of the INT Photometric H Survey of the Northern Galactic Plane (IPHAS) carried out at the Isaac Newton Telescope (INT). The INT is operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. All IPHAS data are processed by the Cambridge Astronomical Survey Unit, at the Institute of Astronomy in Cambridge. We also acknowledge the use of data obtained at the INT and the Nordic Optical Telescope as part of a CCI International Time Programme. The work of L.G. and J.F. is supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, and FEDER, under contracts AYA2010-18352 and AYA2013-48623-C2-2-P, and by the Generalitat Valenciana project of excellence PROMETEOII/2014/060. R.R. received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement No. 320964 (WDTracer). N.J.W. was supported by a Royal Astronomical Society fellowship. Finally, we are grateful to Dr. Pablo Reig for his assistance in the classification in the MK system.

O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory B-Telescope O B-Instrument O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Observatory B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey B-Survey O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O B-Telescope O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O


Acknowledgments The observational data for PSR J0738-4042 (at 1375 MHz) and PSR J1022+1001 (at 728 MHz) were obtained from the EPN data base under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence. The numerical code that supports the plots and diagrams within this paper, as well as the relevant parameters of modelling, is available from the authors upon reasonable request. We thank Ya.N. Istomin, B. Stappers and P. Weltevrede for their interest and useful discussions and the anonymous referee for instructive comments that helped us to improve the manuscript. This work was partially supported by Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Grant no. 14-02-00831). AAP is supported by Porter Ogden Jacobus Fellowship, awarded by the graduate school of Princeton University.

O O O O O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O B-CelestialObject I-CelestialObject O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database O O B-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization


O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Observatory B-Observatory B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O O O O O O B-Observatory O B-Identifier I-Identifier B-Identifier I-Identifier B-Observatory O O O O B-Observatory O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization B-Location B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O B-Observatory B-Organization O B-Observatory O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory B-Proposal I-Proposal O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive B-Archive B-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Mission I-Mission O B-URL O O O O B-Telescope B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-URL O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Software O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the referee for their insightful comments that improved the quality of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to Jo Bovy and Alice Quillen for useful conversations, Jacob Bauer for his assistance with the simulations, and Eugene Vasiliev for his help with an early version of agama and comments on the original manuscript. We also acknowledge the use of computational resources at Compute Canada and the Centre for Advanced Computing. This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada through the Postgraduate Scholarship Program (MHC) and Discovery Grant Program (LMW).

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