The authors would like to express special thanks to the Instituto de Fisica Teorica (IFT-UAM/CSIC in Madrid) for its hospitality and support, via the Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa Program under Grant No. SEV-2012-0249, during the three-week workshop ‘nIFTy Cosmology’ where this work developed. We further acknowledge the financial support of the University of Western 2014 Australia Research Collaboration Award for ‘Fast Approximate Synthetic Universes for the SKA’, the ARC Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO) grant number CE110001020, and the two ARC Discovery Projects DP130100117 and DP140100198. We also recognize support from the Universidad Autonoma de Madrid (UAM) for the workshop infrastructure. AK is supported by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) in Spain through grant AYA2012-31101 as well as the Consolider-Ingenio 2010 Programme of the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN) under grant MultiDark CSD2009-00064. He also acknowledges support from the Australian Research Council (ARC) grants DP130100117 and DP140100198. He further thanks France Gall for le coeur qui jazze. CP acknowledges support of the Australian Research Council (ARC) through Future Fellowship FT130100041 and Discovery Project DP140100198. WC and CP acknowledge support of ARC DP130100117. EP acknowledges support by the ERC grant ‘The Emergence of Structure during the epoch of Reionization’. STK acknowledges support from STFC through grant ST/L000768/1. RJT acknowledges support via a Discovery Grant from NSERC and the Canada Research Chairs program. Simulations were run on the CFI-NSRIT funded Saint Mary's Computational Astrophysics Laboratory. SB and GM acknowledge support from the PRIN-MIUR 2012 Grant ‘The Evolution of Cosmic Baryons’ funded by the Italian Minister of University and Research, by the PRIN-INAF 2012 Grant ‘Multi-scale Simulations of Cosmic Structures’, by the INFN INDARK Grant and by the ‘Consorzio per la Fisica di Trieste’. IGM acknowledges support from a STFC Advanced Fellowship. PJE is supported by the SSimPL program and the Sydney Institute for Astronomy (SIfA), DP130100117. JIR acknowledges support from SNF grant PP00P2 128540/1. CDV acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) through the 2011 Severo Ochoa Program MINECO SEV-2011-0187 and the AYA2013-46886-P grant. AMB is supported by the DFG Research Unit 1254 ‘Magnetisation of Interstellar and Intergalactic Media’ and by the DFG Cluster of Excellence ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’. RDAN acknowledges the support received from the Jim Buckee Fellowship. The arepo simulations were performed with resources awarded through STFCs DiRAC initiative. The authors thank Volger Springel for helpful discussions and for making arepo and the original gadget version available for this project. G3-PESPH simulations were carried out using resources at the Center for High Performance Computing in Cape Town, South Africa. The authors contributed to this paper in the following ways: FS, GY, FRP, AK, CP, STK and WC formed the core team that organized and analysed the data, made the plots and wrote the paper. AK, GY and FRP organized the nIFTy workshop at which this program was completed. GY supplied the initial conditions. PJE assisted with the analysis. All the other authors, as listed in Section 2 performed the simulations using their codes. All authors had the opportunity to proof read and comment on the paper. The simulation used for this paper has been run on Marenostrum supercomputer and is publicly available at the MUSIC website. 4 This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System (ADS) and the arXiv preprint server.

O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Event I-Event I-Event O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-ComputingFacility O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Model I-Model O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-Software O O O B-Software O O O O O B-Model I-Model O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-Location I-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O O O O O O O B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O B-Event I-Event O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive B-Archive O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive


This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) under grant AST-1211146 to C.W.M. We also gratefully acknowledge support by Chandra X-Ray Center award 1170050. C.S.K. is supported by NSF grant AST-1009756, and F.C. and G.M. are supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). This research made extensive use of the USNA high performance computing cluster. We thank the reviewer for valuable comments which improved the manuscript. Facilities: CTIO:2MASS (ANDICAM) , HST ( NICMOS , ACS ), Euler1.2 m , CXO (ACIS)

O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Instrument O B-Telescope O B-Instrument O B-Instrument O B-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Telescope B-Instrument


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for their useful comments, and we are grateful to Stefania Marassi and Luca Graziani for their suggestions. MCA and MM acknowledge financial support from the Austrian National Science Foundation through FWF standalone grant P31154-N27 ‘Unraveling merging neutron stars and black hole–neutron star binaries with population synthesis simulations’. MM acknowledges financial support by the European Research Council for the ERC Consolidator grant DEMOBLACK, under contract no. 770017. MS acknowledges funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie-Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 794393. We acknowledge the Virgo Consortium for making their simulation data available. The eagle simulations were performed using the DiRAC-2 facility at Durham, managed by the ICC, and the PRACE facility Curie based in France at TGCC, CEA, Bruyères-le-Châtel.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Person B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O O B-Model I-Model O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-Location O O O B-Organization O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-Location O B-Organization B-Organization B-Location


We thank S. Guilloteau and S. Bardeau for their help on the GILDAS software and J. M. Winters for helpful comments. This paper makes use of data from the following instruments: The Submillimeter Array (SMA project number 2011B-S052, 2012B-S004, and 2012B-S101), IRAM single dish telescope and interferometer (projects t020, v018), ALMA (ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.01215.S). The work was partly supported by the CNRS program “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire” (PCMI). M.G. also acknowledges support for travel by the SMA. We thank Spanish MICINN for funding support through grants AYA2006-14876, AYA2009-07304 and the CONSOLIDER program “ASTROMOL” CSD2009-00038, and the European Research Counil for funding support through the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program (FP/2007-2013)/ ERC Grant Agreement No. 610256 NANOCOSMOS.

O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Software I-Software O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope B-Proposal I-Proposal I-Proposal B-Proposal O B-Proposal B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Observatory B-Identifier O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O B-Location B-Organization O O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


This work is funded by the NSFC of China (grant Nos. 11333006 and 11521303).

O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant


The 1.5-m GREGOR solar telescope was built by a German consortium under the leadership of the Kiepenheuer-Institut für Sonnenphysik in Freiburg with the Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam, the Institut für Astrophysik Göttingen, and the Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung in Göttingen as partners, and with contributions by the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias and the Astronomical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic. We are very grateful to the engineering, operating and technical staff at the GREGOR Telescope: Andreas Fischer, Olivier Grassin, Roberto Simoes, Clements Halbgewachs, Thomas Kentischer, Thomas Sonner, Peter Caligari, Michael Wiessschädel, Frank Heidecke, Stefan Semeraro, and Oliver Wiloth. We are also indebted to Franz Kneer and an anonymous referee for their comments on the paper. A.A.R. acknowledges financial support by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through project AYA2014-60476-P and the Ramón y Cajal fellowships. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.

O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O B-Location O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive


We thank Silvan Hunziker, Janis Hagelberg, and Jonas Kühn for valuable discussions, Dimitri Mawet for sharing the transmission profile of the AGPM coronagraph, and the referee for providing constructive comments that helped to improve the quality of this paper. TS acknowledges the support from the ETH Zurich Postdoctoral Fellowship Program. SPQ thanks the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) for financial support under grant number 200021_169131. Part of this work was carried out within the framework of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. SPQ acknowledges the financial support of the SNSF.

O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Instrument I-Instrument O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O B-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization


Acknowledgements We acknowledge the data from the Kepler Discovery mission, whose funding is provided by NASA's Science Mission Directorate. This work has also made use of data from the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia , 1 processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC 2 ). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. S.B. and Y.L. acknowledges the Joint Research Fund in Astronomy (U1631236) under cooperative agreement between the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) and Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), NSFC 11273007 and 10933002, and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities. EC has received fundings from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 664931.

O O O O O O O B-Mission I-Mission I-Mission O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Mission I-Mission O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Person O B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We thank an anonymous referee for a prompt and positive report. We thank the Observatoire de Haute Provence for assistance with the T-193 telescope and the SOPHIE instrument. We warmly thank John Hillier for making the code CMFGEN available to the community and for constant help with it. L.M. acknowledges support from the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique (F.R.S.-F.N.R.S.) and through the ARC grant for Concerted Research Actions, financed by the French Community of Belgium (Wallonia-Brussels Federation).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O B-Instrument O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Software O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank our colleagues, including but not limited to Alexandre Correia, Zhengwei Liu, and Rosanne Di Stefano for valuable discussion in the course of this work. This work was jointly supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 11521303), and the Science and Technology Innovation Talent Programme of Yunnan Province (Grant No. 2017HC018).

O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


The authors thank Drs H. Hidaka and Y. Osamura for valuable discussion about reaction mechanisms. This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science ( JSPS; KAKENHI Grant Number JP26108501 ).

O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O


The authors thank the referee for their careful reading of the paper. CP acknowledges support of Australian Research Council (ARC) Future Fellowship FT130100041 and Discovery Project DP130100117. ASGR acknowledges support of a University of Western Australia Research Fellowship. Both CP and ASGR acknowledge support of an ARC Discovery Project DP140100198. CP thanks Alexander Hobbs and Justin Read for making this version of GADGET-SPHS available. The research presented in this paper is undertaken as part of the Survey Simulation Pipeline (SSimPL; http://ssimpl.org/ ). This work was supported by resources provided by the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre with funding from the Australian Government and the Government of Western Australia.

O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Software O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Software I-Software I-Software B-Software B-URL O O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. These observations are associated with programme #12310,#11522. The authors gratefully thank Dr. R. Bouwens and Dr. E. Wisnioski for sharing their catalogues. The authors are also thankful to the anonymous referee for comments and suggestions that helped improve the manuscript. AA, GÖ, and MH acknowledge the support of the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet) and the Swedish National Space Agency (SNSA). MH acknowledges the continued support as a Fellow of the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation.

O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Person O O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for very helpful suggestions. Numerical calculations have been made possible through a CINECA-ISCRA project and a CINECA-INFN agreement, providing access to resources on MARCONI at CINECA. We acknowledge financial support from the Accordo Attuativo ASI-INAF no. 2017-14-H.0 Progetto: on the escape of cosmic rays and their impact on the background plasma and from the INFN Teongrav collaboration. MB acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC starting grant no. 7153 68 MagBURST).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O B-Organization O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility O B-Organization O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


This work was supported by the National Basic Research Program of China (973 program, grant No. 2012CB821800), the talent team of science and technology innovation in Guizhou Province (Grant No. (2015) 4015) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant Nos 11373011, 11303069, 11225314, 11103021, 11565010, and 11165006). We would like to thank Dr. Dipanjan Mitra for sharing the 317 MHz pulse profile data observed with the GMRT and Dr. Ramesh Karuppusamy for sharing the 116.75–173.75 MHz pulse profile data observed with the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT). We would also like to thank the Kunming 40 m Radio Telescope and EPN teams for providing their pulse profiles. In particular, we would like to greatly thank Prof. Richard de Grijs for his kind help in carefully improving the language. We sincerely thank the anonymous referee for insightful suggestions and valuable comments.

O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O B-Telescope O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Telescope O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


We thank IIT Indore for providing computing facilities necessary for the data analysis. We thank both the VLA and GMRT staff who made these radio observations possible. GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. R.R. is supported through ECR/2017/001296 grant awarded to A.D. by DST-SERB, India. M.R. would like to thank DST-India for INSPIRE fellowship program for financial support (IF160343). This research was supported in part by NASA ADAP grant NNX15AE17G. D.R. was supported by a NASA Postdoctoral Program Senior Fellowship at the NASA Ames Research Center, administered by the Universities Space Research Association under contract with NASA. Facilities: VLA , GMRT , CXO . Software: CASA (McMullin et al. 2007 ), SPAM (Intema et al. 2009 , 2017 ), XSPEC (Arnaud 1996 ), PyBDSF (Mohan Rafferty 2015 ), ClusterPyXT (Alden et al. 2019 ), CIAO (Fruscione et al. 2006 ), PROFFIT (Eckert et al. 2011 ).

O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O B-Telescope O O O O B-Wavelength O O B-Telescope O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O B-Grant O O O B-Person O B-Organization B-Location B-Person O O O O B-Organization O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Fellowship O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization O B-Telescope O B-Telescope O B-Telescope O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O


The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments and suggestions that improved the manuscript. This work is supported in part by NSF grant AST-1412768, NASA ATP grant NNX11AE07G, NASA Chandra grants GO213004B and GO7-18121X, NASA ASTRO-H (Hitomi) Science Support grant NNX16AD55G, the Research Corporation, and by the facilities and staff of the Yale Center for Research Computing. M.G. is supported by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship Award Number PF5-160137 issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the SAO for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060. HPC resources were in part provided by the NASA/Ames HEC Program (SMD-16-7251). FLASH code was in part developed by the DOE NNSA-ASC OASCR Flash center at the University of Chicago. Part of the analysis were performed using the publicly-available yt package (Turk et al. 2011 ).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant B-Organization B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Observatory O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility B-Software I-Software O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Software O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O


Acknowledgements The CoRoT space mission, launched on December 27 2006, has been developed and was operated by CNES, with the contribution of Austria, Belgium, Brazil, ESA, Germany, and Spain. T.S. warmly thanks Cyril Georgy and Sylvia Ekström for discussions on the evolutionary tracks and Sébastien Salmon for the discussions on the instability trips. We are also very grateful to the referee, Dr. D. Baade, whose critical reading of the manuscript helped to improve the presentation of our results.

O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O O B-Location B-Location B-Location B-Organization B-Location O B-Location B-Person O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


This work was supported by NASA ADAP grant NNX09AC73G, Hubble Space Telescope grant HST-GO-13032, the IRD program at The Aerospace Corporation, and the University of Cincinnati Honors Program. We would like to thank Dr. Sascha Quanz, Dr. Munetake Momose, and the Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series for permission to reproduce the images from their original publications. We would also like to thank the anonymous journal referee whose comments greatly improved this article.

O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


We, in particular FN, NB, VKP and IP, gratefully acknowledge financial support for this project provided by NASA through grant HST -GO-14069 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS526555. NB gratefully acknowledges financial support from the Royal Society (University Research Fellowship) and the European Research Council ( ERC-CoG-646928 , Multi-Pop). DG gratefully acknowledges support from the Chilean BASAL Centro de Excelencia en Astrofísica y Tecnologías Afines (CATA) grant PFB-06/2007 . MJC gratefully acknowledges support from the Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject A8) of the German Research Foundation (DFG) . We are grateful to Jay Anderson for sharing with us his ePSF software. We thank the anonymous referee for useful comments and suggestions. Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA HST , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA).

O O O B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Person O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Software O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Telescope O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS MBK and AF acknowledge support from NSF grant AST-1517226. MBK was also partially supported by NASA grants NNX17AG29G and HST -AR-13888, HST -AR-13896, HST -AR-14282, HST -AR-14554, HST -GO-12914, and HST -GO-14191 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. KNA is supported by NSF Theoretical Physics Grant No. PHY-1620638. DK was supported by NSF grant AST-1715101 and the Cottrell Scholar Award from the Research Corporation for Science Advancement. Support for SGK was provided by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF5-160136 awarded by the Chandra X-ray Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for NASA under contract NAS8-03060. CAFG was supported by NSF through grants AST-1412836, AST-1517491, AST-1715216, and CAREER award AST-1652522, by NASA through grant NNX15AB22G, and by a Cottrell Scholar Award from the Research Corporation for Science Advancement.

O B-Person O B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Grant O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Organization O O B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization O O B-Grant O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Location B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant B-URL O O B-Wavelength O B-Wavelength O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-URL O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O B-Person I-Person O B-EntityOfFutureInterest O O B-Wavelength I-Wavelength I-Wavelength O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software B-Identifier I-Identifier


It is a pleasure to thank Luca Amendola, Matthias Bartelmann, Alan Heavens, Tom Kitching and Björn Malte Schäfer for support and helpful discussions. This work has received financial support through the RTG Particle Physics beyond the Standard Model (DFG fund 1904), and the transregional collaborative research centre TR 33 ‘ The Dark Universe ’ of the German Science Foundation.

O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


The authors thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that significantly improved the paper. The authors also thank Phil Uttley for useful and constructive comments. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. G.P. acknowledges support via the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt (BMWI/DLR, FKZ 50 OR 1408) and the Max Planck Society. T.M.-D. acknowledges support by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y competitividad (MINECO) under grant AYA2013-42627. Facilities: XMM (EPIC pn) , RXTE (PCA).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O B-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Telescope B-Instrument I-Instrument O B-Telescope B-Instrument


We thank the useful comments for the anonymous referee who helped in substantially improving the manuscript. We also thank René Heller for the helpful discussion. V.D. has been supported by the Hungarian OTKA Grant K104607, the Hungarian National Research, Development and Innovation Office (NKFIH) grant K-115709, the Lendület-2009 Young Researchers Program of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the TÉT-14FR-1-2015-0012 project, and the ESA PECS Contract No. 4000110889/14/NL/NDe. Á.K. has been supported by the Astrophysical and Geochemical Laboratory and the COST TD 1308 project. P.A. has been supported by the LP2012-31 project.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for very useful comments that contributed to the clarity and overall improvement of the paper.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


We thank Angela Bragaglia for valuable help and discussions and Alessio Mucciarelli for providing his results for potassium. This publication makes use of data products from the 2MASS, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This research has been funded by PRIN MIUR 2010-2011, project “The Chemical and Dynamical Evolution of the Milky Way and Local Group Galaxies” (PI F. Matteucci) . This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France and of NASA’s Astrophysical Data System.

O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O O B-Organization B-Location I-Location O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive


Acknowledgements We thank an anonymous referee for a helpful review, as well as other anonymous referees, who commented on earlier versions of this manuscript. This work has been carried out in part within the frame of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. MRM and SPQ are pleased to acknowledge this financial support of the SNSF. M.R. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council Under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program (ERC Grant Agreement No. 337569) and from the French Community of Belgium through an ARC grant for Concerted Research Action.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


AC acknowledges support from the University of Oxford. SAB acknowledges support from the Royal Society in the form of a Wolfson Research Merit Award. We would like to thank the anonymous referee for carefully reading our manuscript and giving in-depth comments which substantially helped improving the quality of the paper.

B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for critical comments that have improved this paper. RK acknowledges support through the DST-INSPIRE Faculty Award by the Government of India. We thank the staff of the GMRT that made these observations possible. GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration, 2018). The scientific results reported in this article are based in part on data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database B-Database O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Software O O O B-Software O O O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive


The Fermi -LAT Collaboration acknowledges support for LAT development, operation and data analysis from NASA and DOE (United States), CEA/Irfu and IN2P3/CNRS (France), ASI and INFN (Italy), MEXT, KEK, and JAXA (Japan), and the K.A. Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council and the National Space Board (Sweden). Science analysis support in the operations phase from INAF (Italy) and CNES (France) is also gratefully acknowledged. This work was partially supported under the NASA contract No. NNG08FD60C, and made use of observations from the NuSTAR mission, a project led by California Institute of Technology, managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and funded by NASA. We thank the NuSTAR Operations, Software, and Calibration teams for support in the execution and analysis of these observations. This research has made use of the NuSTAR Data Analysis Software (NuSTARDAS) jointly developed by the ASI Science Data Center (ASDC, Italy) and the California Institute of Technology (USA). K.N. was supported by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF3-140130 awarded by the Chandra X-ray Center, and by the Polish National Science Centre grant 2015/18/E/ST9/00580. M.B. acknowledges support from NASA under the NASA Earth and Space Science Fellowship Program, grant NNX14AQ07H.

O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location I-Location B-Organization O B-Grant B-Location B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location B-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant O O O O O O O B-Mission I-Mission O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Software I-Software I-Software I-Software B-Software O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Fellowship O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Grant


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Phil Hopkins for providing us with the current version of gizmo , and are grateful to Alar Toomre and Scott Tremaine for illuminating discussions. This work has been partially supported by the Hubble Space Telescopr /STScI Theory grant AR-14584, and by JSPS KAKENHI grant number 16H02163 (to IS). IS is grateful for support from International Joint Research Promotion Program at Osaka University. The STScI is operated by the AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Simulations have been performed on the University of Kentucky DLX Cluster.

O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Software O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Person B-Person O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Grant O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility


A.E.B., P.T., and M.S. receive financial support from the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada through a Discovery Grant and through the Alexander Graham Bell scholarship (P.T.). Research at the Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through Industry Canada and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Research and Innovation. A.E.B. thanks the Delaney family for their generous financial support via the Delaney Family John A. Wheeler Chair at Perimeter Institute. C.P., M.S., and M.W. acknowledge support by the European Research Council under ERC-CoG grant CRAGSMAN-646955. P.C. gratefully acknowledges support from NSF grant AST-1255469. A.L. receives financial support from an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship, NASA ATP grant NNX14AH35G, and NSF Collaborative Research Grant 411920 and CAREER grant 1455342. E.P. acknowledges support by the Kavli Foundation.

B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization


P.R.W. acknowledges support from contracts from the Los Alamos (LANL) and Sandia National Laboratories and NSF PRAC grant OCI-0832618. The development of the PPB scheme for multifluid fractional volume advection was supported by PRW's LANL contract and DoE grant DEFG02-03ER25569. F.H. acknowledges NSERC Discovery Grant funding. The hydrodynamics simulations were performed on the LCSE workstation cluster, supported by NSF CRI grant CNS-0708822, on NSF's Kraken supercomputer at the National Institute for Computational Sciences (NICS), on the Itasca machine at the Minnesota Supercomputing Institute (MSI), and the Canadian WestGrid Lattice and Orcinus high-performance computers.

B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Model I-Model I-Model I-Model I-Model I-Model I-Model O O O B-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Model I-Model O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility


We thank Ivana Ebrová, Benedikt Diemer, and the anonymous referee for their valuable comments. SS acknowledges the support from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia through project no. 176021 “Visible and Invisible Matter in Nearby Galaxies: Theory and Observations”. FR acknowledges support from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. We acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). This research has made use of “Aladin sky atlas” developed at CDS, Strasbourg Observatory, France. The Digitized Sky Surveys were produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute under US Government grant NAG W-2166. The images of these surveys are based on photographic data obtained using the Oschin Schmidt Telescope on Palomar Mountain and the UK Schmidt Telescope. The plates were processed into the present compressed digital form with the permission of these institutions. We acknowledge support provided by the European Commission through project BELISSIMA (BELgrade Initiative for Space Science, Instrumentation and Modelling in Astrophysics, call FP7-REGPOT-2010-5, contract no. 256772) in the early stage of this project.

O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O B-URL O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database O O B-Organization B-Observatory I-Observatory B-Location O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Location I-Location O O B-Telescope I-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the IRAM 30-m staff for precious help during the observations. We thank the anonymous referee for his/her constructive comments. VMR and MP acknowledge the financial support received from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 664931. LC acknowledges support from the Italian Ministero dell’Istruzione, Università e Ricerca through the grant Progetti Premiali 2012 - iALMA (CUP C52I13000140001). PC acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC project PALs 320620).

O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


The authors extend their thanks to the referee for important comments and suggestions. This research has been partly co-financed by the European Union (European Social Fund -ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program “Education and Lifelong Learning” of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) – Research Funding Program: “Thales. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund”. S.P. acknowledges support from an FP7 Marie Curie Grant (FP7-PEOPLE-2010-RG/268288). M.K.G. wishes to acknowledge support from the EU’s Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement no PIRG07-GA-2010-268245. The authors acknowledge the Variability of the Sun and Its Terrestrial Impact (VarSITI) international program.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Location O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O O O B-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey B-Survey O O


Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Pedro Ferreira, Alan Heavens, Boris Leistedt, Jason McEwen, Anže Slosar and David Spergel for useful comments and discussions, and the Center for Computational Astrophysics, part of the Simons Foundation, for their hospitality. He also acknowledges support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council and the Leverhume and Beecroft Trusts.

O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In this study, we make use of the numpy, scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ), and Astropy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ) for python . The figures in this paper were produced using matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ) and inkscape ( https://inkscape.org ). CK and NCS acknowledge support by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), and from STFC grant ST/M001326/1. MK is funded by a Newton International Fellowship from the Royal Society. PS acknowledges support by the National Science Foundation (NSF) grant AST-1514737.

O O O O O O O O O B-Software B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O B-Software O O O O O O O O O B-Software B-Citation I-Citation O O B-Software O B-URL O B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant


The results reported in this article are based in part on data obtained from the Chandra X-ray Observatory (NASA) Data Archive and from the Data Archive of XMM–Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. EC, IK, RS acknowledge partial support by grant No. 14-22-00271 from the Russian Scientific Foundation. GP acknowledges support by the German BMWI/DLR (FKZ 50 OR 1408 and FKZ 50 OR 1604) and the Max Planck Society.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O B-Organization B-Person B-Person B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


GAPS acknowledges support from INAF through the “Progetti Premiali” funding scheme of the Italian Ministry of Education, University, and Research. L.M. acknowledges the financial support provided by the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under Grant agreement number 313014 (ETAEARTH). V.N. acknowledges partial support from INAF-OAPd through the grant “Analysis of HARPS-N data in the framework of GAPS project” (#19/2013) and “Studio preparatorio per le osservazioni della missione ESA/CHEOPS” (#42/2013). J.I.G.H. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under the 2013 Ramón y Cajal program MINECO RYC-2013-14875, and the Spanish ministry project MINECO AYA2014-56359-P. We made use of the SIMBAD database and VizieR catalogue access tool, operated at the CDS, Strasbourg, France. We wish to thank the anonymous referee for the valuable comments and suggestions.

B-Survey O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Location O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Database I-Database O B-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database O O O B-Organization B-Location I-Location O O O O O O O O O O O O O


AS and LFSR acknowledge useful discussions with the members of the International Team 323 of the International Space Science Institute in Bern. Useful comments of Diego Harari are gratefully acknowledged. APS would like to thank David Ruffolo and Wirin Sonsrettee for useful discussions. APS is grateful to the School of Mathematics and Statistics in Newcastle for hospitality. This work was supported by the Leverhulme Trust (Grant RPG-2014-427) and the STFC (Grant ST/L005549/1).

B-Person O B-Person O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant


We are grateful to Bernhard Müller for helpful discussions about various neutrino-transport issues, to Lorenz Hüdepohl for providing his vertex-prometheus data used for the test in Section 4.3.1 , to Bruno Peres for useful comments, and to the anonymous referee for helping to improve the clarity of the manuscript. We acknowledge support by the Max-Planck/Princeton Center for Plasma Physics (MPPC), by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through the Transregional Collaborative Research Center SFB/TR 7 ‘Gravitational Wave Astronomy’, by the Computational Center for Particle and Astrophysics (C2PAP) as part of the Cluster of Excellence EXC 153 ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’, by the European Research Council through ERC-AdG no. 341157-COCO2CASA at Garching and grant CAMAP-259276 at Valencia, and by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación through grant AYA2013-40979-P Astrofísica Relativista Computacional at Valencia. The computations were performed at the Rechenzentrum Garching, the Leibniz-Rechenzentrum, and at the cluster Lluisvives of the University of Valencia.

O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Location O B-Grant I-Grant O B-Location O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-ComputingFacility O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


Acknowledgements We are very grateful to the anonymous referee for his/her helpful comments and suggestions. This paper has made use of information from the APEX Telescope Large Area Survey of the Galaxy. The ATLASGAL project is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, the European Southern Observatory (ESO) and the Universidad de Chile. This research made use of data products from the Millimeter Astronomy Legacy Team 90 GHz (MALT90) survey. The Mopra telescope is part of the Australia Telescope and is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as National Facility managed by CSIRO. This paper is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China under grants of 11503037.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey O B-Survey O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory B-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey B-Survey O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We would like to thank the anonymous referee for his or her helpful contributions to the final paper. This work was supported by NASA grant number NNX15AV32G. We thank the NuSTAR Galactic Binaries Science Team for comments and contributions. This research made use of NuSTARDAS, developed by ASDC (Italy) and Caltech (USA).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Software O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location


The authors acknowledge their sincere thanks to Jordan M. Stone and Thayne Currie for their insightful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript. The results reported herein benefited from collaborations and/or information exchange within NASA’s Nexus for Exoplanet System Science (NExSS) research coordination network sponsored by NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. K.R.W. is supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under grant No. 2015209499. This research has made use of the NASA Exoplanet Archive, which is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under the Exoplanet Exploration Program.

O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O O O B-Archive I-Archive I-Archive O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We acknowledge M. Salvato and G. Hasinger and entire zCOSMOS, DEIMOS, VUDS, MOSFIRE, FORS2, FMOS, MOIRCS, LEGA-C, and the COSMOS teams for their effort in the COSMOS spectroscopic observations and their willingness to share the spectroscopic redshift catalogues. We wish to thank Kenneth P. K. Quek for his useful comments. The author acknowledges the usage of the following python packages, in alphabetical order: astropy ( Astropy Collaboration 2013 , 2018 ), chainConsumer ( Hinton 2019 ), emcee ( Foreman-Mackey et al. 2019 ), matplotlib ( Hunter 2007 ), numpy ( Oliphant 2006 ; van der Walt et al. 2011 ), and scipy ( Virtanen et al. 2019 ).

O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O B-Survey B-Survey B-Survey B-Instrument B-Instrument B-Instrument B-Instrument B-Survey O O B-Survey O O O O O O B-Survey O O O O O O O O B-Dataset I-Dataset I-Dataset O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Software O O O O B-Software O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation O B-Software O B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O B-Software O B-Citation I-Citation O B-Software O B-Citation I-Citation O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O O B-Software O B-Citation I-Citation I-Citation I-Citation O


We want to thank the anonymous referee for constructive and useful comments. We acknowledge support by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO/FEDER, UE) under grants AYA2013-47447-C3-1-P, AYA2016-76012-C3-1-P, with partial support by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF/FEDER), MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia “María de Maeztu”), and the Catalan DEC grant 2017 SGR 643. N.T-A. acknowledges support from MINECO through FPU14/04887 grant.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization O O B-Grant B-Grant O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant O B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Location B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization O B-Grant O


We wish to thank our colleagues from the Observatoire de Paris-Meudon and the NRH staff for providing the original visibility data. The authors are grateful to the other members of the ARTEMIS group, C. Caroubalos, P. Preka-Papadema, X. Moussas, A. Kontogeorgos and P. Tsitsipis, for their support work. We also wish to thank A. Nindos and S. Patsourakos for useful discussions and comments. Data from TRACE, GOES, the RSTN network, MTI/HXRS and HXT were obtained from the respective data bases; we are grateful to all those who contributed to the operation of these instruments and made the data available to the community.

O O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Telescope B-Telescope O B-Telescope O B-Telescope O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Jun Makino, Scott Tremaine, Matt Payne, Jack Wisdom, and the anonymous referees for comments that improved this work.

O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O


O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization O O B-Location O O O O O B-ComputingFacility O O O O B-URL O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Telescope O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Telescope O B-URL O O O O B-Telescope B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-URL O O O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Collaboration I-Collaboration I-Collaboration O O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O B-Observatory O B-Proposal B-Observatory O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


Resources supporting this work were provided by the NASA High-End Computing (HEC) Program through the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Division at Ames Research Center and by the High Performance Computing resources at New York University Abu Dhabi. We acknowledge support from NASA grant NNX11AE05G (to ZH and AM). We are grateful to Daniel D'Orazio, Andrei Gruzinov, and Aleksey Generozov for helpful comments and discussions.

O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility B-ComputingFacility O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O


Acknowledgments The first author would like to thanks Iran Science Elites Federation.

O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


We wish to thank the anonymous referee for reading the original manuscript and providing useful suggestions. Financial support for this work was provided by NSF through AST-1313319 for H.N. and A.C. The UCI group also acknowledges support from HST -GO-14083.002-A, HST -GO-13718.002-A, and NASA NNX16AF38G grants. M.N. has received funding from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 707601. D.R. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under grant number AST-1614213 to Cornell University. G.D.Z. acknowledges financial support from ASI/INAF agreement n. 2014-024-R.0. H.D. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under the 2014 Ramón y Cajal program MINECO RYC-2014-15686. I.O. and R.J.I. acknowledge support from the European Research Council in the form of the Advanced Investigator Programme, 321302, cosmicism . J.L.W. is supported by a European Union COFUND/Durham Junior Research Fellowship under EU grant agreement number 267209, and acknowledges additional support from STFC (ST/L00075X/1). Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Data presented herein were obtained using the UCI Remote Observing Facility, made possible by a generous gift from John and Ruth Ann Evans. Support for CARMA construction was derived from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, the Kenneth T. and Eileen L. Norris Foundation, the James S. McDonnell Foundation, the Associates of the California Institute of Technology, the University of Chicago, the states of California, Illinois, and Maryland, and the National Science Foundation. Ongoing CARMA development and operations are supported by NSF grant ATI-0838178 to CARMA, and by the CARMA partner universities. The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica.

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O B-Grant O B-Person O B-Person O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant O B-Person O O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Organization B-Grant B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Person O O O O B-Location I-Location B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O B-Location B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O O B-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization B-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest I-EntityOfFutureInterest O O O O O O O B-Person O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O B-Telescope O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Location B-Location O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Telescope O O O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O B-Telescope O O O B-Telescope O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O O O O O O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization


The simulations in this Letter were run on the COSMOS Shared Memory system at DAMTP, University of Cambridge operated on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility. This equipment is funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/J005673/1 and STFC grants ST/H008586/1, ST/K00333X/1. VPD is supported by STFC Consolidated grant #ST/M000877/1.

O O O O O O O O O B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O B-ComputingFacility B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Organization B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O O B-Organization B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


Acknowledgments TH was supported by STFC grant ST/M503812/1 during the course of this work. VW, JM-A, MP and KR acknowledge support from the European Research Council Starting Grant SEDmorph (P.I. V. Wild). The table manipulation software, topcat , was extremely useful at various points in this project (Taylor 2005 ). This research made use of astropy , a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy-Collaboration 2013 ). The authors thank the anonymous referee for their enormously constructive comments.

O B-Organization O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-Person B-Person B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Software O O O O O O O O O O B-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O B-Software O O O O B-Software O O O B-Citation I-Citation O O O O O O O O O O O O


The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for valuable suggestions. The data are used courtesy of the SDO and IRIS science teams. SDO is a mission of NASA’s Living With a Star Program. IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by ESA and the Norwegian Space Centre. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundations of China (11533008, 11790304, 11773039, 11673035, 11673034, 11873059, and 11790300), the Youth Innovation Promotion Association of CAS (2017078 and 2014043), and Key Programs of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (QYZDJ-SSW-SLH050).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Observatory O B-Telescope O O B-Observatory O O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Telescope O O B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant O B-Grant O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant


SAW and ACF acknowledge support from ERC Advanced Grant FEEDBACK. This work is based on observations obtained with the Chandra observatory, a NASA mission. It is also based on observations with XMM–Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA.

B-Person O B-Person O O O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope I-Telescope O B-Organization O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O B-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Organization O O O B-Organization


The authors thank the helpful referee for constructive and important comments. B.V. also thanks E. van Groningen for helpful comments, Brad Peterson for showing the AGN black hole mass database and A. Magnard, F. Poulenc, G. von Rivia and J. Pianist for inspiring discussions. She also acknowledges A. Barth, H. Netzer and M. Elitzur for help with the intermediate line region. B.V. was funded and supported by the Centre of Interdisciplinary Mathematics (Uppsala Universitet) and Erik and Märta Holmbergs donation from Kungliga Fysiografiska Sällskapet. This research also heavily relies on the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). Funding for SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society.

O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database I-Database O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Person O B-Person I-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey I-Survey B-Survey O O B-Survey O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Organization O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


E.B. thanks the New York University at Abu Dhabi for the kind hospitality during part of this work and Milvia Capalbi for her precious support during the analysis of some XRT observations. We thank Phil Evans for useful discussions. A.P. is supported by a Juan de la Cierva fellowship, and acknowledges grants AYA2012-39303, SGR2009-811, and iLINK2011-0303. P.R. acknowledges contract ASI-INAF I/004/11/0. We thank N. Schartel and the XMM-Newton team for having promptly performed the ToO observation analyzed in this paper. We are indebted to the Swift PI and operations team for the continuous support during the monitoring campaign of X-ray transients.

B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O B-Telescope O O O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Person O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant B-Person O O B-Organization B-Grant O O B-Person I-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O O O O B-Wavelength O


We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant No. U1831207).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


This research was financed by the Swiss National Science Foundation project 200021_149865. V.d.F. and M.F. acknowledge the Department of Physics at the University of Basel and especially Friedrich-K. Thielemann. We also thank the International Space Science Institute in Bern for their support. V.d.F. is grateful to the International Space Science Institute in Beijing for the hospitality to carry out part of this work. L.S. acknowledges partial support under contract ASI INAF I/004/11/1.

O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant B-Person O B-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O O B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O O O O O O O O O B-Person O O O O O B-Organization B-Organization B-Grant


The authors thank the referee for the many useful comments and suggestions which helped to improve this work. The WASP project is currently funded and operated by Warwick University and Keele University, and was originally set up by Queen’s University Belfast, the Universities of Keele, St. Andrews and Leicester, the Open University, the Isaac Newton Group, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the South African Astronomical Observatory and by STFC. This work has made use of the Vizier database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, the cross-match service provided by CDS, Strasbourg, and M. Skarka’s BlaSGalF online list of Blazhko effect stars ( http://www.physics.muni.cz/~blasgalf/ ).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Survey O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O O B-Organization B-Location I-Location O O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Person I-Person B-Dataset I-Dataset I-Dataset I-Dataset I-Dataset I-Dataset I-Dataset O B-URL O


Acknowledgments This work was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through national funds (UID/FIS/04434/2013) and by FEDER through COMPETE2020 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007672). A.C.S.R. acknowledges the support of an IA fellowship: CIAAUP-17/2015-BI in the context of the project (UID/FIS/04434/2013 POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007672). P.P.P. acknowledges the visitor’s programme grant from Instituto de Astrofisica e Ciências do Espaço, Portugal. This work has made use of the VALD database, operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow, and the University of Vienna.

O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O B-Grant O O B-Organization O B-Grant B-Grant B-Person O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship O O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Person O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Location O O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


I thank A. Hamers for providing data from his TPI code that was used in constraining the functional forms of the anomalous diffusion coefficients in Section 2 . This work was supported by the National Science Foundation under grant no. AST 1211602 and by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant no. NNX13AG92G.

O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O B-Software I-Software O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant


We thank the anonymous referee for the careful reading and helpful suggestions that improved the paper. We would like to thank Louis Ho, Zhao-Yu Li, and the CGS team for kindly providing the , , , luminosity profiles derived form the Carnegie-Irvine Galaxy Survey. Paola Mazzei and Roberto Rampazzo acknowledge support from INAF through grant PRIN-2014-14 “Star formation and evolution in galactic nuclei”. We acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ).

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O O B-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-TextGarbage I-TextGarbage I-TextGarbage O O O O O B-Survey I-Survey I-Survey B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O B-Organization O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O B-Database I-Database O B-URL O


The authors acknowledge support by Allegro, the European ALMA Regional Center node in the Netherlands, and expert advice from Yanett Contreras in particular. This work was supported by the Momentum grant of the MTA CSFK Lendület Disk Research Group. E.V. acknowledges support from the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) under research grant I2549-N27. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00870.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. Facility: ALMA.

O O O O O B-Organization O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O B-Location O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Person O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O B-Observatory O B-Identifier B-Observatory O O O O B-Observatory O O O O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location O O B-Organization B-Location B-Organization O B-Organization B-Location O B-Organization B-Location I-Location I-Location O O O O B-Location I-Location I-Location O B-Observatory I-Observatory I-Observatory O O O B-Observatory B-Organization O B-Observatory O B-Observatory


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank Bernard Delabre and Johan Kosmalski for useful discussions and suggestions.

O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O


WE and MJH acknowledge support from the UK's Science and Technology Facilities Council [grant numbers ST/M503514/1 and ST/M001008/1]. This work has made use of the University of Hertfordshire Science and Technology Research Institute high-performance computing facility. This work was supported by funding from Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft under DFG project number PR 569/10-1 in the context of the Priority Program 1573 ‘Physics of the Interstellar Medium’. We also thank an anonymous referee for useful and constructive comments that helped improve this paper.

B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Location B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O B-Grant O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility I-ComputingFacility O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization O B-Organization B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O


We are grateful to Professor Perivolaropoulos L. for useful comments and suggestions. This work has been funded by the National Natural Science Fund of China under grants Nos. 11375203, 11305181, 11322545, 11335012 and 11575271.

O O O O B-Person I-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant B-Grant B-Grant O B-Grant


Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Eric Linder for useful comments and Tamara Davis for many discussions on the content as well as useful comments. The Dark Cosmology Centre was funded by the Danish National Research Foundation.

O O O O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization


AVM and CP acknowledge support from the Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject A2) of the German Research Foundation (DFG). We acknowledge the computational support from the THEO and HYDRA clusters of the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie at the Rechenzentrum in Garching. SAB thanks the C.I.F.S. (Consorzio Interuniversitario per la Fisica Spaziale) for its financial support.

B-Person O B-Person O O O O B-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant I-Grant B-Grant I-Grant O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization B-Organization O O O O O O O B-Database O B-Database I-Database O O B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O B-Location B-Person O O B-Organization B-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization I-Organization O O O O


The author thanks Hitoshi Miura, Taishi Nakamoto, Satoshi Okuzumi, and Hidekazu Tanaka for valuable comments. The author is also thankful to the anonymous reviewer for constructive comments. This work is supported by the Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellow (17J06861).

O O O B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person B-Person I-Person O B-Person I-Person O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship I-Fellowship B-Fellowship