We thank S. Guilloteau and S. Bardeau for their help on the GILDAS software and J. M. Winters for helpful comments. This paper makes use of data from the following instruments: The Submillimeter Array (SMA project number 2011B-S052, 2012B-S004, and 2012B-S101), IRAM single dish telescope and interferometer (projects t020, v018), ALMA (ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.01215.S). The work was partly supported by the CNRS program “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire” (PCMI). M.G. also acknowledges support for travel by the SMA. We thank Spanish MICINN for funding support through grants AYA2006-14876, AYA2009-07304 and the CONSOLIDER program “ASTROMOL” CSD2009-00038, and the European Research Counil for funding support through the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program (FP/2007-2013)/ ERC Grant Agreement No. 610256 NANOCOSMOS.


This work is funded by the NSFC of China (grant Nos. 11333006 and 11521303).


The 1.5-m GREGOR solar telescope was built by a German consortium under the leadership of the Kiepenheuer-Institut für Sonnenphysik in Freiburg with the Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam, the Institut für Astrophysik Göttingen, and the Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung in Göttingen as partners, and with contributions by the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias and the Astronomical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic. We are very grateful to the engineering, operating and technical staff at the GREGOR Telescope: Andreas Fischer, Olivier Grassin, Roberto Simoes, Clements Halbgewachs, Thomas Kentischer, Thomas Sonner, Peter Caligari, Michael Wiessschädel, Frank Heidecke, Stefan Semeraro, and Oliver Wiloth. We are also indebted to Franz Kneer and an anonymous referee for their comments on the paper. A.A.R. acknowledges financial support by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through project AYA2014-60476-P and the Ramón y Cajal fellowships. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.


We thank Silvan Hunziker, Janis Hagelberg, and Jonas Kühn for valuable discussions, Dimitri Mawet for sharing the transmission profile of the AGPM coronagraph, and the referee for providing constructive comments that helped to improve the quality of this paper. TS acknowledges the support from the ETH Zurich Postdoctoral Fellowship Program. SPQ thanks the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) for financial support under grant number 200021_169131. Part of this work was carried out within the framework of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. SPQ acknowledges the financial support of the SNSF.


Acknowledgements We acknowledge the data from the Kepler Discovery mission, whose funding is provided by NASA's Science Mission Directorate. This work has also made use of data from the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia , 1 processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC 2 ). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. S.B. and Y.L. acknowledges the Joint Research Fund in Astronomy (U1631236) under cooperative agreement between the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) and Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), NSFC 11273007 and 10933002, and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities. EC has received fundings from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 664931.


We thank an anonymous referee for a prompt and positive report. We thank the Observatoire de Haute Provence for assistance with the T-193 telescope and the SOPHIE instrument. We warmly thank John Hillier for making the code CMFGEN available to the community and for constant help with it. L.M. acknowledges support from the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique (F.R.S.-F.N.R.S.) and through the ARC grant for Concerted Research Actions, financed by the French Community of Belgium (Wallonia-Brussels Federation).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank our colleagues, including but not limited to Alexandre Correia, Zhengwei Liu, and Rosanne Di Stefano for valuable discussion in the course of this work. This work was jointly supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 11521303), and the Science and Technology Innovation Talent Programme of Yunnan Province (Grant No. 2017HC018).


The authors thank Drs H. Hidaka and Y. Osamura for valuable discussion about reaction mechanisms. This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science ( JSPS; KAKENHI Grant Number JP26108501 ).


The authors thank the referee for their careful reading of the paper. CP acknowledges support of Australian Research Council (ARC) Future Fellowship FT130100041 and Discovery Project DP130100117. ASGR acknowledges support of a University of Western Australia Research Fellowship. Both CP and ASGR acknowledge support of an ARC Discovery Project DP140100198. CP thanks Alexander Hobbs and Justin Read for making this version of GADGET-SPHS available. The research presented in this paper is undertaken as part of the Survey Simulation Pipeline (SSimPL; http://ssimpl.org/ ). This work was supported by resources provided by the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre with funding from the Australian Government and the Government of Western Australia.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. These observations are associated with programme #12310,#11522. The authors gratefully thank Dr. R. Bouwens and Dr. E. Wisnioski for sharing their catalogues. The authors are also thankful to the anonymous referee for comments and suggestions that helped improve the manuscript. AA, GÖ, and MH acknowledge the support of the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet) and the Swedish National Space Agency (SNSA). MH acknowledges the continued support as a Fellow of the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for very helpful suggestions. Numerical calculations have been made possible through a CINECA-ISCRA project and a CINECA-INFN agreement, providing access to resources on MARCONI at CINECA. We acknowledge financial support from the Accordo Attuativo ASI-INAF no. 2017-14-H.0 Progetto: on the escape of cosmic rays and their impact on the background plasma and from the INFN Teongrav collaboration. MB acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC starting grant no. 7153 68 MagBURST).


This work was supported by the National Basic Research Program of China (973 program, grant No. 2012CB821800), the talent team of science and technology innovation in Guizhou Province (Grant No. (2015) 4015) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant Nos 11373011, 11303069, 11225314, 11103021, 11565010, and 11165006). We would like to thank Dr. Dipanjan Mitra for sharing the 317 MHz pulse profile data observed with the GMRT and Dr. Ramesh Karuppusamy for sharing the 116.75–173.75 MHz pulse profile data observed with the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT). We would also like to thank the Kunming 40 m Radio Telescope and EPN teams for providing their pulse profiles. In particular, we would like to greatly thank Prof. Richard de Grijs for his kind help in carefully improving the language. We sincerely thank the anonymous referee for insightful suggestions and valuable comments.


We thank IIT Indore for providing computing facilities necessary for the data analysis. We thank both the VLA and GMRT staff who made these radio observations possible. GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. R.R. is supported through ECR/2017/001296 grant awarded to A.D. by DST-SERB, India. M.R. would like to thank DST-India for INSPIRE fellowship program for financial support (IF160343). This research was supported in part by NASA ADAP grant NNX15AE17G. D.R. was supported by a NASA Postdoctoral Program Senior Fellowship at the NASA Ames Research Center, administered by the Universities Space Research Association under contract with NASA. Facilities: VLA , GMRT , CXO . Software: CASA (McMullin et al. 2007 ), SPAM (Intema et al. 2009 , 2017 ), XSPEC (Arnaud 1996 ), PyBDSF (Mohan Rafferty 2015 ), ClusterPyXT (Alden et al. 2019 ), CIAO (Fruscione et al. 2006 ), PROFFIT (Eckert et al. 2011 ).


The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments and suggestions that improved the manuscript. This work is supported in part by NSF grant AST-1412768, NASA ATP grant NNX11AE07G, NASA Chandra grants GO213004B and GO7-18121X, NASA ASTRO-H (Hitomi) Science Support grant NNX16AD55G, the Research Corporation, and by the facilities and staff of the Yale Center for Research Computing. M.G. is supported by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship Award Number PF5-160137 issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the SAO for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060. HPC resources were in part provided by the NASA/Ames HEC Program (SMD-16-7251). FLASH code was in part developed by the DOE NNSA-ASC OASCR Flash center at the University of Chicago. Part of the analysis were performed using the publicly-available yt package (Turk et al. 2011 ).


Acknowledgements The CoRoT space mission, launched on December 27 2006, has been developed and was operated by CNES, with the contribution of Austria, Belgium, Brazil, ESA, Germany, and Spain. T.S. warmly thanks Cyril Georgy and Sylvia Ekström for discussions on the evolutionary tracks and Sébastien Salmon for the discussions on the instability trips. We are also very grateful to the referee, Dr. D. Baade, whose critical reading of the manuscript helped to improve the presentation of our results.


This work was supported by NASA ADAP grant NNX09AC73G, Hubble Space Telescope grant HST-GO-13032, the IRD program at The Aerospace Corporation, and the University of Cincinnati Honors Program. We would like to thank Dr. Sascha Quanz, Dr. Munetake Momose, and the Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series for permission to reproduce the images from their original publications. We would also like to thank the anonymous journal referee whose comments greatly improved this article.


We, in particular FN, NB, VKP and IP, gratefully acknowledge financial support for this project provided by NASA through grant HST -GO-14069 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS526555. NB gratefully acknowledges financial support from the Royal Society (University Research Fellowship) and the European Research Council ( ERC-CoG-646928 , Multi-Pop). DG gratefully acknowledges support from the Chilean BASAL Centro de Excelencia en Astrofísica y Tecnologías Afines (CATA) grant PFB-06/2007 . MJC gratefully acknowledges support from the Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject A8) of the German Research Foundation (DFG) . We are grateful to Jay Anderson for sharing with us his ePSF software. We thank the anonymous referee for useful comments and suggestions. Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA HST , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS MBK and AF acknowledge support from NSF grant AST-1517226. MBK was also partially supported by NASA grants NNX17AG29G and HST -AR-13888, HST -AR-13896, HST -AR-14282, HST -AR-14554, HST -GO-12914, and HST -GO-14191 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. KNA is supported by NSF Theoretical Physics Grant No. PHY-1620638. DK was supported by NSF grant AST-1715101 and the Cottrell Scholar Award from the Research Corporation for Science Advancement. Support for SGK was provided by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF5-160136 awarded by the Chandra X-ray Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for NASA under contract NAS8-03060. CAFG was supported by NSF through grants AST-1412836, AST-1517491, AST-1715216, and CAREER award AST-1652522, by NASA through grant NNX15AB22G, and by a Cottrell Scholar Award from the Research Corporation for Science Advancement.


It is a pleasure to thank Luca Amendola, Matthias Bartelmann, Alan Heavens, Tom Kitching and Björn Malte Schäfer for support and helpful discussions. This work has received financial support through the RTG Particle Physics beyond the Standard Model (DFG fund 1904), and the transregional collaborative research centre TR 33 ‘ The Dark Universe ’ of the German Science Foundation.


The authors thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that significantly improved the paper. The authors also thank Phil Uttley for useful and constructive comments. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. G.P. acknowledges support via the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt (BMWI/DLR, FKZ 50 OR 1408) and the Max Planck Society. T.M.-D. acknowledges support by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y competitividad (MINECO) under grant AYA2013-42627. Facilities: XMM (EPIC pn) , RXTE (PCA).


We thank the useful comments for the anonymous referee who helped in substantially improving the manuscript. We also thank René Heller for the helpful discussion. V.D. has been supported by the Hungarian OTKA Grant K104607, the Hungarian National Research, Development and Innovation Office (NKFIH) grant K-115709, the Lendület-2009 Young Researchers Program of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the TÉT-14FR-1-2015-0012 project, and the ESA PECS Contract No. 4000110889/14/NL/NDe. Á.K. has been supported by the Astrophysical and Geochemical Laboratory and the COST TD 1308 project. P.A. has been supported by the LP2012-31 project.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for very useful comments that contributed to the clarity and overall improvement of the paper.


We thank Angela Bragaglia for valuable help and discussions and Alessio Mucciarelli for providing his results for potassium. This publication makes use of data products from the 2MASS, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This research has been funded by PRIN MIUR 2010-2011, project “The Chemical and Dynamical Evolution of the Milky Way and Local Group Galaxies” (PI F. Matteucci) . This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France and of NASA’s Astrophysical Data System.


Acknowledgements We thank an anonymous referee for a helpful review, as well as other anonymous referees, who commented on earlier versions of this manuscript. This work has been carried out in part within the frame of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. MRM and SPQ are pleased to acknowledge this financial support of the SNSF. M.R. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council Under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program (ERC Grant Agreement No. 337569) and from the French Community of Belgium through an ARC grant for Concerted Research Action.


AC acknowledges support from the University of Oxford. SAB acknowledges support from the Royal Society in the form of a Wolfson Research Merit Award. We would like to thank the anonymous referee for carefully reading our manuscript and giving in-depth comments which substantially helped improving the quality of the paper.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for critical comments that have improved this paper. RK acknowledges support through the DST-INSPIRE Faculty Award by the Government of India. We thank the staff of the GMRT that made these observations possible. GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration, 2018). The scientific results reported in this article are based in part on data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive.


The Fermi -LAT Collaboration acknowledges support for LAT development, operation and data analysis from NASA and DOE (United States), CEA/Irfu and IN2P3/CNRS (France), ASI and INFN (Italy), MEXT, KEK, and JAXA (Japan), and the K.A. Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council and the National Space Board (Sweden). Science analysis support in the operations phase from INAF (Italy) and CNES (France) is also gratefully acknowledged. This work was partially supported under the NASA contract No. NNG08FD60C, and made use of observations from the NuSTAR mission, a project led by California Institute of Technology, managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and funded by NASA. We thank the NuSTAR Operations, Software, and Calibration teams for support in the execution and analysis of these observations. This research has made use of the NuSTAR Data Analysis Software (NuSTARDAS) jointly developed by the ASI Science Data Center (ASDC, Italy) and the California Institute of Technology (USA). K.N. was supported by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF3-140130 awarded by the Chandra X-ray Center, and by the Polish National Science Centre grant 2015/18/E/ST9/00580. M.B. acknowledges support from NASA under the NASA Earth and Space Science Fellowship Program, grant NNX14AQ07H.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Phil Hopkins for providing us with the current version of gizmo , and are grateful to Alar Toomre and Scott Tremaine for illuminating discussions. This work has been partially supported by the Hubble Space Telescopr /STScI Theory grant AR-14584, and by JSPS KAKENHI grant number 16H02163 (to IS). IS is grateful for support from International Joint Research Promotion Program at Osaka University. The STScI is operated by the AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Simulations have been performed on the University of Kentucky DLX Cluster.


A.E.B., P.T., and M.S. receive financial support from the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada through a Discovery Grant and through the Alexander Graham Bell scholarship (P.T.). Research at the Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through Industry Canada and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Research and Innovation. A.E.B. thanks the Delaney family for their generous financial support via the Delaney Family John A. Wheeler Chair at Perimeter Institute. C.P., M.S., and M.W. acknowledge support by the European Research Council under ERC-CoG grant CRAGSMAN-646955. P.C. gratefully acknowledges support from NSF grant AST-1255469. A.L. receives financial support from an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship, NASA ATP grant NNX14AH35G, and NSF Collaborative Research Grant 411920 and CAREER grant 1455342. E.P. acknowledges support by the Kavli Foundation.


P.R.W. acknowledges support from contracts from the Los Alamos (LANL) and Sandia National Laboratories and NSF PRAC grant OCI-0832618. The development of the PPB scheme for multifluid fractional volume advection was supported by PRW's LANL contract and DoE grant DEFG02-03ER25569. F.H. acknowledges NSERC Discovery Grant funding. The hydrodynamics simulations were performed on the LCSE workstation cluster, supported by NSF CRI grant CNS-0708822, on NSF's Kraken supercomputer at the National Institute for Computational Sciences (NICS), on the Itasca machine at the Minnesota Supercomputing Institute (MSI), and the Canadian WestGrid Lattice and Orcinus high-performance computers.


We thank Ivana Ebrová, Benedikt Diemer, and the anonymous referee for their valuable comments. SS acknowledges the support from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia through project no. 176021 “Visible and Invisible Matter in Nearby Galaxies: Theory and Observations”. FR acknowledges support from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. We acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). This research has made use of “Aladin sky atlas” developed at CDS, Strasbourg Observatory, France. The Digitized Sky Surveys were produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute under US Government grant NAG W-2166. The images of these surveys are based on photographic data obtained using the Oschin Schmidt Telescope on Palomar Mountain and the UK Schmidt Telescope. The plates were processed into the present compressed digital form with the permission of these institutions. We acknowledge support provided by the European Commission through project BELISSIMA (BELgrade Initiative for Space Science, Instrumentation and Modelling in Astrophysics, call FP7-REGPOT-2010-5, contract no. 256772) in the early stage of this project.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the IRAM 30-m staff for precious help during the observations. We thank the anonymous referee for his/her constructive comments. VMR and MP acknowledge the financial support received from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 664931. LC acknowledges support from the Italian Ministero dell’Istruzione, Università e Ricerca through the grant Progetti Premiali 2012 - iALMA (CUP C52I13000140001). PC acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC project PALs 320620).


The authors extend their thanks to the referee for important comments and suggestions. This research has been partly co-financed by the European Union (European Social Fund -ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program “Education and Lifelong Learning” of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) – Research Funding Program: “Thales. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund”. S.P. acknowledges support from an FP7 Marie Curie Grant (FP7-PEOPLE-2010-RG/268288). M.K.G. wishes to acknowledge support from the EU’s Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement no PIRG07-GA-2010-268245. The authors acknowledge the Variability of the Sun and Its Terrestrial Impact (VarSITI) international program.


Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Pedro Ferreira, Alan Heavens, Boris Leistedt, Jason McEwen, Anže Slosar and David Spergel for useful comments and discussions, and the Center for Computational Astrophysics, part of the Simons Foundation, for their hospitality. He also acknowledges support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council and the Leverhume and Beecroft Trusts.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In this study, we make use of the numpy, scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ), and Astropy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ) for python . The figures in this paper were produced using matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ) and inkscape ( https://inkscape.org ). CK and NCS acknowledge support by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), and from STFC grant ST/M001326/1. MK is funded by a Newton International Fellowship from the Royal Society. PS acknowledges support by the National Science Foundation (NSF) grant AST-1514737.


The results reported in this article are based in part on data obtained from the Chandra X-ray Observatory (NASA) Data Archive and from the Data Archive of XMM–Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. EC, IK, RS acknowledge partial support by grant No. 14-22-00271 from the Russian Scientific Foundation. GP acknowledges support by the German BMWI/DLR (FKZ 50 OR 1408 and FKZ 50 OR 1604) and the Max Planck Society.


GAPS acknowledges support from INAF through the “Progetti Premiali” funding scheme of the Italian Ministry of Education, University, and Research. L.M. acknowledges the financial support provided by the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under Grant agreement number 313014 (ETAEARTH). V.N. acknowledges partial support from INAF-OAPd through the grant “Analysis of HARPS-N data in the framework of GAPS project” (#19/2013) and “Studio preparatorio per le osservazioni della missione ESA/CHEOPS” (#42/2013). J.I.G.H. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under the 2013 Ramón y Cajal program MINECO RYC-2013-14875, and the Spanish ministry project MINECO AYA2014-56359-P. We made use of the SIMBAD database and VizieR catalogue access tool, operated at the CDS, Strasbourg, France. We wish to thank the anonymous referee for the valuable comments and suggestions.


AS and LFSR acknowledge useful discussions with the members of the International Team 323 of the International Space Science Institute in Bern. Useful comments of Diego Harari are gratefully acknowledged. APS would like to thank David Ruffolo and Wirin Sonsrettee for useful discussions. APS is grateful to the School of Mathematics and Statistics in Newcastle for hospitality. This work was supported by the Leverhulme Trust (Grant RPG-2014-427) and the STFC (Grant ST/L005549/1).


We are grateful to Bernhard Müller for helpful discussions about various neutrino-transport issues, to Lorenz Hüdepohl for providing his vertex-prometheus data used for the test in Section 4.3.1 , to Bruno Peres for useful comments, and to the anonymous referee for helping to improve the clarity of the manuscript. We acknowledge support by the Max-Planck/Princeton Center for Plasma Physics (MPPC), by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through the Transregional Collaborative Research Center SFB/TR 7 ‘Gravitational Wave Astronomy’, by the Computational Center for Particle and Astrophysics (C2PAP) as part of the Cluster of Excellence EXC 153 ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’, by the European Research Council through ERC-AdG no. 341157-COCO2CASA at Garching and grant CAMAP-259276 at Valencia, and by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación through grant AYA2013-40979-P Astrofísica Relativista Computacional at Valencia. The computations were performed at the Rechenzentrum Garching, the Leibniz-Rechenzentrum, and at the cluster Lluisvives of the University of Valencia.


Acknowledgements We are very grateful to the anonymous referee for his/her helpful comments and suggestions. This paper has made use of information from the APEX Telescope Large Area Survey of the Galaxy. The ATLASGAL project is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, the European Southern Observatory (ESO) and the Universidad de Chile. This research made use of data products from the Millimeter Astronomy Legacy Team 90 GHz (MALT90) survey. The Mopra telescope is part of the Australia Telescope and is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as National Facility managed by CSIRO. This paper is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China under grants of 11503037.


We would like to thank the anonymous referee for his or her helpful contributions to the final paper. This work was supported by NASA grant number NNX15AV32G. We thank the NuSTAR Galactic Binaries Science Team for comments and contributions. This research made use of NuSTARDAS, developed by ASDC (Italy) and Caltech (USA).


The authors acknowledge their sincere thanks to Jordan M. Stone and Thayne Currie for their insightful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript. The results reported herein benefited from collaborations and/or information exchange within NASA’s Nexus for Exoplanet System Science (NExSS) research coordination network sponsored by NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. K.R.W. is supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under grant No. 2015209499. This research has made use of the NASA Exoplanet Archive, which is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under the Exoplanet Exploration Program.


We acknowledge M. Salvato and G. Hasinger and entire zCOSMOS, DEIMOS, VUDS, MOSFIRE, FORS2, FMOS, MOIRCS, LEGA-C, and the COSMOS teams for their effort in the COSMOS spectroscopic observations and their willingness to share the spectroscopic redshift catalogues. We wish to thank Kenneth P. K. Quek for his useful comments. The author acknowledges the usage of the following python packages, in alphabetical order: astropy ( Astropy Collaboration 2013 , 2018 ), chainConsumer ( Hinton 2019 ), emcee ( Foreman-Mackey et al. 2019 ), matplotlib ( Hunter 2007 ), numpy ( Oliphant 2006 ; van der Walt et al. 2011 ), and scipy ( Virtanen et al. 2019 ).


We want to thank the anonymous referee for constructive and useful comments. We acknowledge support by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO/FEDER, UE) under grants AYA2013-47447-C3-1-P, AYA2016-76012-C3-1-P, with partial support by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF/FEDER), MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia “María de Maeztu”), and the Catalan DEC grant 2017 SGR 643. N.T-A. acknowledges support from MINECO through FPU14/04887 grant.


We wish to thank our colleagues from the Observatoire de Paris-Meudon and the NRH staff for providing the original visibility data. The authors are grateful to the other members of the ARTEMIS group, C. Caroubalos, P. Preka-Papadema, X. Moussas, A. Kontogeorgos and P. Tsitsipis, for their support work. We also wish to thank A. Nindos and S. Patsourakos for useful discussions and comments. Data from TRACE, GOES, the RSTN network, MTI/HXRS and HXT were obtained from the respective data bases; we are grateful to all those who contributed to the operation of these instruments and made the data available to the community.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Jun Makino, Scott Tremaine, Matt Payne, Jack Wisdom, and the anonymous referees for comments that improved this work.


Resources supporting this work were provided by the NASA High-End Computing (HEC) Program through the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Division at Ames Research Center and by the High Performance Computing resources at New York University Abu Dhabi. We acknowledge support from NASA grant NNX11AE05G (to ZH and AM). We are grateful to Daniel D'Orazio, Andrei Gruzinov, and Aleksey Generozov for helpful comments and discussions.


Acknowledgments The first author would like to thanks Iran Science Elites Federation.


We wish to thank the anonymous referee for reading the original manuscript and providing useful suggestions. Financial support for this work was provided by NSF through AST-1313319 for H.N. and A.C. The UCI group also acknowledges support from HST -GO-14083.002-A, HST -GO-13718.002-A, and NASA NNX16AF38G grants. M.N. has received funding from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 707601. D.R. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under grant number AST-1614213 to Cornell University. G.D.Z. acknowledges financial support from ASI/INAF agreement n. 2014-024-R.0. H.D. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under the 2014 Ramón y Cajal program MINECO RYC-2014-15686. I.O. and R.J.I. acknowledge support from the European Research Council in the form of the Advanced Investigator Programme, 321302, cosmicism . J.L.W. is supported by a European Union COFUND/Durham Junior Research Fellowship under EU grant agreement number 267209, and acknowledges additional support from STFC (ST/L00075X/1). Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Data presented herein were obtained using the UCI Remote Observing Facility, made possible by a generous gift from John and Ruth Ann Evans. Support for CARMA construction was derived from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, the Kenneth T. and Eileen L. Norris Foundation, the James S. McDonnell Foundation, the Associates of the California Institute of Technology, the University of Chicago, the states of California, Illinois, and Maryland, and the National Science Foundation. Ongoing CARMA development and operations are supported by NSF grant ATI-0838178 to CARMA, and by the CARMA partner universities. The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica.


The simulations in this Letter were run on the COSMOS Shared Memory system at DAMTP, University of Cambridge operated on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility. This equipment is funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/J005673/1 and STFC grants ST/H008586/1, ST/K00333X/1. VPD is supported by STFC Consolidated grant #ST/M000877/1.


Acknowledgments TH was supported by STFC grant ST/M503812/1 during the course of this work. VW, JM-A, MP and KR acknowledge support from the European Research Council Starting Grant SEDmorph (P.I. V. Wild). The table manipulation software, topcat , was extremely useful at various points in this project (Taylor 2005 ). This research made use of astropy , a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy-Collaboration 2013 ). The authors thank the anonymous referee for their enormously constructive comments.


The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for valuable suggestions. The data are used courtesy of the SDO and IRIS science teams. SDO is a mission of NASA’s Living With a Star Program. IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by ESA and the Norwegian Space Centre. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundations of China (11533008, 11790304, 11773039, 11673035, 11673034, 11873059, and 11790300), the Youth Innovation Promotion Association of CAS (2017078 and 2014043), and Key Programs of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (QYZDJ-SSW-SLH050).


SAW and ACF acknowledge support from ERC Advanced Grant FEEDBACK. This work is based on observations obtained with the Chandra observatory, a NASA mission. It is also based on observations with XMM–Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA.


The authors thank the helpful referee for constructive and important comments. B.V. also thanks E. van Groningen for helpful comments, Brad Peterson for showing the AGN black hole mass database and A. Magnard, F. Poulenc, G. von Rivia and J. Pianist for inspiring discussions. She also acknowledges A. Barth, H. Netzer and M. Elitzur for help with the intermediate line region. B.V. was funded and supported by the Centre of Interdisciplinary Mathematics (Uppsala Universitet) and Erik and Märta Holmbergs donation from Kungliga Fysiografiska Sällskapet. This research also heavily relies on the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). Funding for SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society.


E.B. thanks the New York University at Abu Dhabi for the kind hospitality during part of this work and Milvia Capalbi for her precious support during the analysis of some XRT observations. We thank Phil Evans for useful discussions. A.P. is supported by a Juan de la Cierva fellowship, and acknowledges grants AYA2012-39303, SGR2009-811, and iLINK2011-0303. P.R. acknowledges contract ASI-INAF I/004/11/0. We thank N. Schartel and the XMM-Newton team for having promptly performed the ToO observation analyzed in this paper. We are indebted to the Swift PI and operations team for the continuous support during the monitoring campaign of X-ray transients.


We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant No. U1831207).


This research was financed by the Swiss National Science Foundation project 200021_149865. V.d.F. and M.F. acknowledge the Department of Physics at the University of Basel and especially Friedrich-K. Thielemann. We also thank the International Space Science Institute in Bern for their support. V.d.F. is grateful to the International Space Science Institute in Beijing for the hospitality to carry out part of this work. L.S. acknowledges partial support under contract ASI INAF I/004/11/1.


The authors thank the referee for the many useful comments and suggestions which helped to improve this work. The WASP project is currently funded and operated by Warwick University and Keele University, and was originally set up by Queen’s University Belfast, the Universities of Keele, St. Andrews and Leicester, the Open University, the Isaac Newton Group, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the South African Astronomical Observatory and by STFC. This work has made use of the Vizier database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, the cross-match service provided by CDS, Strasbourg, and M. Skarka’s BlaSGalF online list of Blazhko effect stars ( http://www.physics.muni.cz/~blasgalf/ ).


Acknowledgments This work was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through national funds (UID/FIS/04434/2013) and by FEDER through COMPETE2020 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007672). A.C.S.R. acknowledges the support of an IA fellowship: CIAAUP-17/2015-BI in the context of the project (UID/FIS/04434/2013 POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007672). P.P.P. acknowledges the visitor’s programme grant from Instituto de Astrofisica e Ciências do Espaço, Portugal. This work has made use of the VALD database, operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow, and the University of Vienna.


I thank A. Hamers for providing data from his TPI code that was used in constraining the functional forms of the anomalous diffusion coefficients in Section 2 . This work was supported by the National Science Foundation under grant no. AST 1211602 and by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant no. NNX13AG92G.


We thank the anonymous referee for the careful reading and helpful suggestions that improved the paper. We would like to thank Louis Ho, Zhao-Yu Li, and the CGS team for kindly providing the , , , luminosity profiles derived form the Carnegie-Irvine Galaxy Survey. Paola Mazzei and Roberto Rampazzo acknowledge support from INAF through grant PRIN-2014-14 “Star formation and evolution in galactic nuclei”. We acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ).


The authors acknowledge support by Allegro, the European ALMA Regional Center node in the Netherlands, and expert advice from Yanett Contreras in particular. This work was supported by the Momentum grant of the MTA CSFK Lendület Disk Research Group. E.V. acknowledges support from the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) under research grant I2549-N27. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00870.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. Facility: ALMA.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank Bernard Delabre and Johan Kosmalski for useful discussions and suggestions.


WE and MJH acknowledge support from the UK's Science and Technology Facilities Council [grant numbers ST/M503514/1 and ST/M001008/1]. This work has made use of the University of Hertfordshire Science and Technology Research Institute high-performance computing facility. This work was supported by funding from Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft under DFG project number PR 569/10-1 in the context of the Priority Program 1573 ‘Physics of the Interstellar Medium’. We also thank an anonymous referee for useful and constructive comments that helped improve this paper.


We are grateful to Professor Perivolaropoulos L. for useful comments and suggestions. This work has been funded by the National Natural Science Fund of China under grants Nos. 11375203, 11305181, 11322545, 11335012 and 11575271.


Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Eric Linder for useful comments and Tamara Davis for many discussions on the content as well as useful comments. The Dark Cosmology Centre was funded by the Danish National Research Foundation.


AVM and CP acknowledge support from the Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject A2) of the German Research Foundation (DFG). We acknowledge the computational support from the THEO and HYDRA clusters of the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie at the Rechenzentrum in Garching. SAB thanks the C.I.F.S. (Consorzio Interuniversitario per la Fisica Spaziale) for its financial support.


The author thanks Hitoshi Miura, Taishi Nakamoto, Satoshi Okuzumi, and Hidekazu Tanaka for valuable comments. The author is also thankful to the anonymous reviewer for constructive comments. This work is supported by the Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellow (17J06861).


We thank the anonymous referee for a prompt and constructive report that has improved the paper. Support for HST program GO-12922 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. D.P. acknowledges support through the EACOA Fellowship from the East Asian Core Observatories Association, which consists of the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Science (NAOC), National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ), Korean Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI), and Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA). Research by A.J.B. is supported in part by National Science Foundation (NSF) grant AST-1412693. JHW acknowledges support by the National Research Foundation of Korea grant funded by the Korean government (No. 2010-0027910 and No. 2016R1A2B3011457). T.T. acknowledges support by the Packard Foundation through a Packard Research Fellowship and by the NSF through grant AST-1412315. V.N.B. gratefully acknowledges assistance from NSF Research at Undergraduate Institutions (RUI) grant AST-1312296. Note that the findings and conclusions do not necessarily represent the views of the NSF. R.J.A. was supported by FONDECYT grant number 1151408. We thank Jonelle L. Walsh for help with the STIS data reduction.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author thanks the observations provided by the Solar Dynamic Observatory , and the referee’s valuable suggestions and comments that highly improved the quality of the paper. This work is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (11773068, 11633008, 11403097, and 11533009), the Yunnan Science Foundation (2015FB191 and 2017FB006), the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories, and the Youth Innovation Promotion Association (2014047) of Chinese Academy of Sciences.


We thank the referee for their insightful comments that improved the paper quality. We thank Maïca Clavel for useful discussions about the X-ray data analysis. J.S. and I.O. acknowledge financial support from the Czech Science Foundation project No.17-06217Y. I.O. is grateful to Université Grenoble Alpes IPAG for their hospitality during the paper preparation. We have made use of the SDSS, ADS, and NED databases.


Acknowledgement We wish to thank L. Fletcher for providing us with the data of HD 189733 b. We acknowledge the support of the DFG priority program SPP-1992 “Exploring the Diversity of ExtrasolarPlanets” (DFG PR 3624 602/41 and RE 1664/16-1). This work made use of the GWDG IT infrastructure. The GWDG is a shared corporate facility of the Georg-August-University Göttingen and the nonprofit Max-Planck Society (Max-Planck Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften e. V.). We also acknowledge the use of electronic databases SIMBAD and NASA’s ADS.


J.Z.G. and R.P.K. acknowledge support by the National Science Foundation under grant AST-1108906 and the hospitality of the Munich University Observatory where part of this work was carried out. B.D. is supported by a fellowship from the Royal Astronomical Society. B.P. is supported in part by the Programme National de Physique Stellaire of the INSU CNRS. S.J.W. and A.Z.B. acknowledge funding by the European Union (European Social Fund) and National Resources under the ARISTEIA action of the Operational Programme Education and Lifelong Learning in Greece.


Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 60.A-9328 and 091.D-0823. We thank the referee for constructive and pertinent suggestions that helped to improve this paper. N.W., M.C., O.G., D.B., A.G., A.D., and M.M. acknowledge the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) for their support.


Acknowledgments MAP was funded by the International Research Fellowship programme of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (PE15024). MAP and TMD acknowledge the hospitality of the Kyoto University, where part of this work was carried out. MAP acknowledge the hospitality on her visit to RIKEN, and thanks the valuable discussion with K. Makishima, T. Mihara and the other members of the MAXI team. MAPs research is funded under the Juan de la Cierva Fellowship Programme of the Ministry of Science and Innovation (MINECO) of Spain. MAP and TMD acknowledge support by the Spanish MINECO grant AYA2013-42627. MS acknowledges support by the Special Postdoctoral Researchers Program at RIKEN. This research has made use of data obtained from the Suzaku satellite, a collaborative mission between the space agencies of Japan (JAXA) and the USA (NASA).


We acknowledge support from the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF); the U.S. Department of Energy Office of High-Energy Physics; the Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program of Los Alamos National Laboratory; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT), México (grants 271051, 232656, 260378, 179588, 239762, 254964, 271737, 258865, 243290, 132197), Laboratorio Nacional HAWC de rayos gamma; L’OREAL Fellowship for Women in Science 2014; Red HAWC, México; DGAPA-UNAM (grants IG100317, IN111315, IN111716-3, IA102715, 109916, IA102917); VIEP-BUAP; PIFI 2012, 2013, PROFOCIE 2014, 2015; the University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation; the Institute of Geophysics, Planetary Physics, and Signatures at Los Alamos National Laboratory; Polish Science Centre grant DEC-2014/13/B/ST9/945; and Coordinación de la Investigación Científica de la Universidad Michoacana. Thanks to Luciano Díaz and Eduardo Murrieta for technical support.


We are grateful to Dr. Itsuki Sakon, Dr. Chris Packham, Dr. Hiroshi Shibai, Dr. Takao Nakagawa, Dr. Satoshi Okuzumi, and Dr. Inga Kamp for useful comments. We thank the referee for many important suggestions and comments. The numerical calculations in this study were carried out on SR16000 at Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics (YITP) and computer systems at Kwasan and Hida Observatory (KIPS) in Kyoto University. This work is supported by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research, 23103005, 25108004, 25400229, and 16J06887. S.N. is grateful for the support from the educational program organized by Unit of Synergetic Studies for Space, Kyoto University. C.W. acknowledges support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO, program number 639.041.335). Astrophysics at Queen’s University Belfast is supported by a grant from the STFC.


It is a pleasure to thank Maria Bergemann (MPIA) John Bochanski (Rider), Morgan Fouesneau (MPIA), Ricardo Schiavon (Liverpool John Moores University), Dan Foreman-Mackey (UW), Amelia Stutz (MPIA), and Ben Weiner (Arizona State) for valuable discussions and contributions. This project made use of the NASA Astrophysics Data System and open-source code in the numpy and scipy packages. The research has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP 7) ERC Grant Agreement n. [321035]. We thank the Kavali Institute Theoretical Physics Galactic Archeology Program: this research was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. NSF PHY11-25915. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the participating institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the participating institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration, including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, the University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, the University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, the University of Tokyo, the University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, the University of Virginia, the University of Washington, and Yale University.


We would like to thank the anonymous referee for instructive comments. This work is partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC 11433004, 11103016, 11173020), the Doctoral Fund of the Ministry of Education of China (RFDP 20115301110005), the Key Project of the Chinese Ministry of Education (212160), the Top Talents Programme of Yunnan Province, the Applied Basic Research Project of Yunnan Province (2011FB012) and the Light of the Western Talent Training Project (W8090303).


We would like to acknowledge the helpful comments of the anonymous referee, as these greatly helped to improve the manuscript. This work has been supported by NASA EPSCoR grant NNX13AD28A.


SG thanks the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) for the award of a studentship. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. 308024 .


The authors thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments and suggestions. The authors also thank Dr. R. Kale for providing the VLA radio data. I.U. thanks H. Martínez-Rodríguez for his support in the initial stage of this work. H.A. acknowledges the support of NWO via Veni grant. T.O. and Y.I. acknowledge support by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers 26220703 and 15H03642. SRON is supported financially by NWO, the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA member states and the USA (NASA).


I thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that improved the paper. I also thank Feng Chen and Sarah Gibson for reading the paper and for helpful comments. This work is supported in part by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research grant FA9550-15-1-0030 to NCAR. NCAR is sponsored by the National Science Foundation. The numerical simulations were carried out on the Cheyenne supercomputer at NWSC under the NCAR Strategic capability project NHAO0011 and also on the DOD supercomputers Thunder at AFRL and Topaz at ERDC under the project AFOSR4033B701.


We acknowledge Susan Agrain, Tim Bedding, Karsten Brogaard, Hans Kjeldsen, Daniel Huber, Marc Pionsonneault, and Jie Yu for fruitful discussions and helpful comments. Funding for the Stellar Astrophysics Centre is provided by The Danish National Research Foundation (Grant DNRF106). The research was supported by the ASTERISK project (ASTERoseismic Investigations with SONG and Kepler ) funded by the European Research Council (Grant agreement No. 267864). D.S. acknowledges support from the Australian Research Council. A.V. is supported by the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship, Grant No. DGE 1144152. V.S.A. acknowledges support from VILLUM FONDEN (research grant 10118).


We thank the US Air Force Research Laboratory, Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR-OS-BLAN-0033-01), Conseil des Programmes Scientifiques et Technologiques (CPST) for their great support. We would also like to thank the Polar Institut Paul Emile Victor (IPEV) for the precious infrastructure and friendly help. M. Chadid is indebted to all the people who participated in the Antarctica expeditions within the PAIX framework.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank J. Granot, H. Hamidani, K. Hotokezaka, K. Kashiyama, T. Kinugawa, S. Kisaka, K. Kyutoku, G. P. Lamb, A. Levinson, T. Matsumoto, T. Piran, G. Ryan, M. Shibata, K. Takahashi, and R. Yamazaki for useful discussions. This work is partly supported by JSPS KAKENHI nos. 18H01215, 17H06357, 17H06362, 17H06131, 26287051 (KI), and 15H02087 (TN). Discussions during the YITP workshop YITP-W-18-11 on ‘Jet and Shock Breakouts in Cosmic Transients’ and the workshop at Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported by National Science Foundation grant PHY-1607611, were also useful to complete this work.


We thank the anonymous referee for a careful reading of the manuscript and insightful suggestions. We are very grateful to all of the Subaru Telescope staff. We thank Dr. Furusawa for providing the Suprime-Cam number counts we used to check our data. We thank Dr. Hamana for providing his reconstruction code. We thank Dr. Oguri for incisive comments that have led to improvements in the analysis and discussion. We thank Dr. Okabe for sharing computer resources necessary for reduction and analysis. We thank Dr. Barnacka for a careful reading of the manuscript. Y.U. was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B) from the JSPS (26800103) and MEXT Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas New Developments in Astrophysics Through Multi-Messenger Observations of Gravitational Wave Sources (24103003). The Smithsonian Institution supports the research of M.J.G. A Smithsonian Clay Postdoctoral Fellowship generously supports the research of H.J.Z. The Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) collaboration includes the astronomical communities of Japan and Taiwan, and Princeton University. The HSC instrumentation and software were developed by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ), the Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the universe (Kavli IPMU), the University of Tokyo, the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), the Academia Sinica Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics in Taiwan (ASIAA), and Princeton University. Funding was contributed by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), (Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), the Toray Science Foundation, NAOJ, Kavli IPMU, KEK, ASIAA, and Princeton University. We used software developed for the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope. We thank the LSST Project for making their code available as free software at http://dm.lsstcorp.org (Ivezic et al. 2008 ; Axelrod et al. 2010 ). We acknowledge the use of lensfit for shear measurement (Miller et al. 2007 ; Kitching et al. 2008 ). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this sacred mountain. Facilities: Subaru (HSC) , MMT (Hectospec).


This presented work is funded through the DFG grant: WO 857/10-1. Special thanks go to Yaroslav Pavlyuchenkov for his comments and advice, which were very helpful in the early development phase of Mol3D . We also want to acknowledge Peter Scicluna and Tommy Breslein for language editing and Jan Philipp Ruge for the helpful advice, especially regarding the use of the CASA simulator.


Support for this work was provided by the French space agency CNES. M.P. acknowledges funding from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 664931. Support for this work was also provided by NASA ( Herschel OT funding) through an award issued by JPL/Caltech. This paper makes use of Herschel /HIFI data. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. HIFI has been designed and built by a consortium of institutes and university departments from across Europe, Canada, and the United States under the leadership of SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Groningen, The Netherlands and with major contributions from Germany, France, and the U.S. Consortium members are: Canada: CSA, U. Waterloo; France: CESR, LAB, LERMA, IRAM; Germany: KOSMA, MPIfR, MPS; Ireland: NUI Maynooth; Italy: ASI, IFSI-INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri-INAF; Netherlands: SRON, TUD; Poland: CAMK, CBK; Spain: Observatorio Astronómico Nacional (IGN), Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA); Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology-MC2, RSS and GARD, Onsala Space Observatory, Swedish National Space Board, Stockholm Observatory; Switzerland: ETH Zurich, FHNW; USA: Caltech, JPL, NHSC. Finally, we thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments and suggestions.


The authors thank the members of the Oxford Galactic Dynamics group for insightful comments on the manuscript. JS acknowledges the support of the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). JB was supported by STFC by grants R22138/GA001 and ST/K00106X/1. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC grant agreement no. 321067. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous reviewer for their careful reading of this work and for their thoughtful comments and suggestions. NPJ is supported by an Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarship-Doctoral from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. NPJ and JB received support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC; funding reference number RGPIN-2015-05235) and from an Ontario Early Researcher Award (ER16-12-061). Funding for Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS III web site is www.sdss3.org . Funding for the SDSS IV has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. SDSS-IV acknowledges support and resources from the Center for High-Performance Computing at the University of Utah. The SDSS web site is www.sdss.org .


The main production runs was done on the MILKYWAY supercomputer, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) through the Collaborative Research Centre (SFB 881) ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject Z2), hosted and cofunded by the Jülich Supercomputing Center (JSC). The special GPU accelerated supercomputer LAOHU at the Center of Information and Computing at National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, funded by Ministry of Finance of People's Republic of China under the grant ZDYZ2008-2, has been used for some of code development. We also used a smaller GPU cluster KEPLER , funded under the grants I/80 041-043 and I/81 396 of the Volkswagen Foundation and grants 823.219-439/30 and /36 of the Ministry of Science, Research and the Arts of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. This work was supported by the Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject A6) of the German Research Foundation (DFG), and by the Volkswagen Foundation under the Trilateral Partnerships grant no. 90411 . The authors wish to thank G. Bertin, J. Sellwood, I. G. Shukhman, J. Wicker for reading the paper and suggesting improvements to the text, and anonymous referee for valuable remarks and assistance. EVP acknowledges financial support by the Russian Basic Research Foundation, grants 15-52-12387, 16-02-00649, and by the Basic Research Program OFN-15 ‘The active processes in galactic and extragalactic objects’ of Department of Physical Sciences of RAS. PB acknowledges the special support by the NASU under the Main Astronomical Observatory grid/ GPU GOLOWOOD computing cluster project.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee, Matthew Benacquista, for his useful comments. We also thank Emanuele Ripamonti, Alessandro Bressan, Elena D’Onghia, and Gijs Nelemans for useful discussions. We warmly thank The Illustris team for making their simulations publicly available. Numerical calculations have been performed through a CINECA-INFN agreement and through a CINECA-INAF agreement, providing access to resources on GALILEO and MARCONI at CINECA. MM acknowledges financial support from the MERAC Foundation through grant ‘The physics of gas and protoplanetary discs in the Galactic centre’, from INAF through PRIN-SKA ‘Opening a new era in pulsars and compact objects science with MeerKat’, from MIUR through Progetto Premiale ’FIGARO’ (Fostering Italian Leadership in the Field of Gravitational Wave Astrophysics) and ’MITiC’ (MIning The Cosmos Big Data and Innovative Italian Technology for Frontier Astrophysics and Cosmology), and from the Austrian National Science Foundation through FWF stand-alone grant P31154-N27 ‘Unraveling merging neutron stars and black hole – neutron star binaries with population-synthesis simulations’. NG acknowledges financial support from Fondazione Ing. Aldo Gini and thanks the Institute for Astrophysics and Particle Physics of the University of Innsbruck for hosting him during the preparation of this paper. This work benefited from support by the International Space Science Institute (ISSI), Bern, Switzerland, through its International Team programme ref. no. 393 The Evolution of Rich Stellar Populations BH Binaries (2017-18).


This work is based on observations collected at the European Southern Observatory, Chile, and the Gran Telescopio de Canarias (GTC), installed in the Spanish Observatory del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, in the island of La Palma. LTSC is supported by the FPI Program by the Ministerio de Economía y Competividad (MINECO) under grant AYA2011-22614. LTSC would like to thank Luis Peralta de Arriba for comments that helped to improve the presentation of the results. JG-R acknowledges support from Severo Ochoa excellence program (SEV-2011-0187) post-doctoral fellowship.


P.S. is a Covington Fellow at DRAO. S.B. and S.C. acknowledge support from NASA Chandra grants GO7-18059A and GO7-18059B issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060. J.W.T.H. acknowledges funding from an NWO Vidi fellowship. J.W.T.H. and C.G.B. acknowledge support from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement nr. 337062 (DRAGNET; PI Hessels). L.G.S. gratefully acknowledges support from the ERC Starting Grant BEACON under contract no. 279702 and the Max Planck Society. V.M.K. holds the Lorne Trottier and a Canada Research Chair and receives support from an NSERC Discovery Grant and Herzberg Prize, from an R. Howard Webster Foundation Fellowship from the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR), and from the FRQNT Centre de Recherche en Astrophysique du Quebec. C.J.L. is supported by the NSF under grant No. 1611606. B.M. acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) under grants AYA2016-76012-C3-1-P and MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia “María de Maeztu”). The Green Bank Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. The Arecibo Observatory is operated by SRI International under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation (AST-1100968), and in alliance with Ana G. Méndez-Universidad Metropolitana, and the Universities Space Research Association. Based on observations with the 100 m telescope of the MPIfR (Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie) at Effelsberg. Based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. This research has made use of data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive, and software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application package CIAO. Facilities: GBT (GUPPI) , Arecibo (PUPPI) , Effelsberg (PFFTS) , XMM (EPIC/pn , EPIC/MOS) , CXO (ACIS-I) , Fermi (GBM). Software: PRESTO, XMM SAS v16.0, HEASoft v6.19, CIAO v4.8.2.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS M-KL is supported by the Theoretical Institute for Advanced Research in Astrophysics (TIARA) based in the Academia Sinica Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA) and the Ministry of Science and Education (MOST) grant 107-2112-M001-043-MY3. Computer time for this study was provided by the computing facilities MCIA (Mésocentre de Calcul Intensif Aquitain) of the Universite de Bordeaux and by HPC resources of Cines under the allocation A0050406957 made by GENCI (Grand Equipement National de Calcul Intensif).


Acknowledgments We would like to thank Dmitriy Blinov, Vasiliki Pavlidou and Aris Tritsis for fruitful discussions as well as Vassilis Charmandaris, Paul Goldsmith, Nick Kylafis and Josh Peek for their helpful comments on the paper. We are grateful to the anonymous reviewer for a detailed report that greatly improved this work. Also, we thank Monica He for her contribution during the first steps of this work and Damianos Mylonakis for helping out with technical issues. We used the python module corner (Foreman-Mackey 2016 ) to produce Fig. 5 . This research has made use of astropy , a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ). GVP and KT acknowledge support by FP7 through the Marie Curie Career Integration Grant PCIG-GA-2011-293531 SFOnset and partial support from the EU FP7 Grant PIRSES-GA-2012-31578 EuroCal. JJA acknowledges funding from the European Research Council under the European Unions Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. 617001. This research has used data from the Herschel Gould Belt Survey (HGBS) project ( http://gouldbelt-herschel.cea.fr ). The HGBS is a Herschel Key Programme jointly carried out by SPIRE Specialist Astronomy Group 3 (SAG 3), scientists of several institutes in the PACS Consortium (CEA Saclay, INAF-IFSI Rome and INAF-Arcetri, KU Leuven, MPIA Heidelberg) and scientists of the Herschel Science Center (HSC).


We thank Ora Zackay, Zeljko Ivesic, Robert Lupton, and Assaf Horesh for many discussions. This paper is based on observations obtained with the Samuel Oschin Telescope as part of the Palomar Transient Factory project, a scientific collaboration between the California Institute of Technology, Columbia University, Las Cumbres Observatory, the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, the University of Oxford, and the Weizmann Institute of Science. B.Z. is grateful for receiving the Clore fellowship. E.O.O. is incumbent of the Arye Dissentshik career development chair and is grateful for support by grants from the Willner Family Leadership Institute Ilan Gluzman (Secaucus NJ), Israel Science Foundation, Minerva, Weizmann-UK, and the I-Core program by the Israeli Committee for Planning and Budgeting and the Israel Science Foundation (ISF). A.G. acknowledges support from the I-Core program “The Quantum universe,” as well as from the Kimmel Award.


Acknowledgements We would like the thank the anonymous referee for their constructive report on this manuscript. We would also like to thank Christoph Federrath, Tiago Costa and Noam Soker for helpful comments and suggestions. MAB and DS acknowledge support by the ERC starting grant 638707 ‘BHs and their host galaxies: co-evolution across cosmic time’. DS further acknowledges support from the STFC. This research used the DiRAC Darwin Supercomputer hosted by the University of Cambridge High Performance Computing Service ( http://www.hpc.cam.ac.uk/ ), provided by Dell Inc. using Strategic Research Infrastructure Funding from the Higher Education Funding Council for England and funding from the Science and Technology Facilities Council; the COSMA Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility. This equipment was funded by a BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/K00087X/1, DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. The DiRAC Complexity system, operated by the University of Leicester IT Services, which forms part of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment is funded by BIS National E-Infrastructure capital grant ST/K000373/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K0003259/1. DiRAC is part of the UK National E-Infrastructure.


We thank the anonymous referee for fruitful comments. We also thank Evgenii Polyachenko for reading the manuscript and several helpful comments. The numerical simulations were performed at the Research Computing Centre (Moscow State University) and Joint Supercomputer Centre (Russian Academy of Sciences). The numerical simulation, carried out at the Research Computing Centre of Lomonosov Moscow State University, was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant no. 14-22-00041. One of the authors (SAK) was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship sponsored by the Italian MIUR. The work was also partially supported by the President RF grant (MK-4536.2015.2) and RFBR grants (15-02-06204 and 15-32-21062).


We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the large team of HPOL and WUPPE observers from the University of Wisconsin who helped to acquire and reduce these data. The relocation and refurbishment of HPOL was supported in part by a Small Research Grant from the American Astronomical Society and by funding from the Dunham Fund for Astrophysical Research. Observations with HPOL at Ritter Observatory have been supported by NSF grant no. AST-1412135 (KSB/JEB), the Helen Luedtke Brooks Endowed Professorship (KSB), and the Scott Smith Fund for Research at Ritter Observatory. We thank the Ritter observing team for help with acquiring observations. We also thank G. Peters and A.M. Magalhães for helpful discussions in the early stages of this project. ACC acknowledges support from CNPq (grant no. 307594/2015-7) and FAPESP (grant no. 2015/17967-7). This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract no. NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant no. NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts.


This work was supported by grant No. 16-18495S of the Czech Funding Agency and by ASI ASCR project RVO:67985815. The authors also acknowledge support by the International Space Science Institute (ISSI), namely through the team of H. Tian, who deal with chromospheric flares. Comments and suggestions of the referee are also highly acknowledged.


Based in part on observations made with the NASA/DLR Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy. SOFIA Science Mission Operations are conducted jointly by the Universities Space Research Association, Inc., under NASA contract NAS2-97001, and the Deutsches SOFIA Institut under DLR contract 50 OK 0901. We GREATfully acknowledge the support by the observatory staff and the careful examination of this work by an anonymous referee. The kinetic data used in our study were downloaded from the online database KIDA ( http://kida.obs.u-bordeaux1.fr ).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Financial support was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. Paul Hickson thanks the National Astronomial Observatories, Chinese Acadamy of Sciences for hospitality during a sabbatical visit, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences for support from the President’s International Fellowship Initiative, 2017VMA0013.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the MINECO Ramón y Cajal programme RYC-2016-20254, by the MINECO grant AYA2017-86274-P, by the AGAUR (SGR-661/2017), by the Netherlands Research Council NWO (grant VENI [nr. 639.041.645]), by the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007–2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. 320964 (WDTracer), by Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme no. 677706 (WD3D), and by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant #HST-HF2-51357.001-A, awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Based on observations obtained at the SOAR telescope, which is a joint project of the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, e Inovação da República Federativa do Brasil, the U.S. National Optical Astronomy Observatory, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and Michigan State University.


Thanks go to Eric Jensen and an anonymous referee for helpful comments that greatly improved this paper. The author acknowledges support from NASA ATP grant NNX12AD43G.


We thank the anonymous referee for a careful consideration of the manuscript and helpful comments. We thank V.S. Titov for insightful discussions. The calculations presented in this work were performed on the quadri-core bi-Xeon computers of the Cluster of the Division Informatique de l’Observatoire de Paris. K.D. acknowledges funding from the Computational and Information Systems Laboratory and from the High Altitude Observatory, as well as support from the Air Force Office of Scientific Research under award FA9550-15-1-0030. The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation. T.T. was supported by the NSF through grant AGS-1348577 and by NASA's LWS program. B.K. acknowledges support by the DFG.


We thank Rudy Gilmore for discussions. PMS acknowledges support from NSF grant NSF AST 09-08693 ARRA. This work made in the ILP LABEX (under reference ANR-10-LABX-63) was supported by French state funds managed by the ANR within the Investissements d'Avenir programme under reference ANR-11-IDEX-0004-02. JRP acknowledges support from NSF-AST-1010033. AD acknowledges the support of the Spanish MICINN's Consolider-Ingenio 2010 Programme under grant MultiDark CSD2009-00064.


Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for the helpful comments. With the support of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Directorate General for the Country Promotion (Bilateral Grant Agreement ZA14GR02 Mapping the Universe on the Pathway to Square Kilometre Array). AMB and ACS acknowledge support by Sonderforschungsbereich (SFB) 881 The Milky Way System (subproject A7 and A8) of the German Research Foundation (DFG).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The figures in this work are produced with plotting routines from matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ) and ChainConsumer (Hinton 2016 ). Some of the results in this paper have been derived using the healpy and HEALPix package (Zonca et al. 2019 ). The authors thank D. H. Weinberg and C. Chuang for useful conversations in the course of preparing this work. AC acknowledges support from NASA grant 15-WFIRST15-0008. During the preparation of this paper, CH was supported by the Simons Foundation, NASA, and the U.S. Department of Energy. Funding for the DES projects has been provided by the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. National Science Foundation, the Ministry of Science and Education of Spain, the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Kavli Institute of Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago, the Center for Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Mitchell Institute for Fundamental Physics and Astronomy at Texas AM University, Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos, Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico and the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, and the Collaborating Institutions in the Dark Energy Survey. The Collaborating Institutions are Argonne National Laboratory, the University of California at Santa Cruz, the University of Cambridge, Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas-Madrid, the University of Chicago, University College London, the DES-Brazil Consortium, the University of Edinburgh, the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zürich, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Institut de Ciències de l’Espai (IEEC/CSIC), the Institut de Física d’Altes Energies, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München and the associated Excellence Cluster Universe, the University of Michigan, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, the University of Nottingham, The Ohio State University, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Portsmouth, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford University, the University of Sussex, Texas AM University, and the OzDES Membership Consortium. Based in part on observations at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory, National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The DES data management system is supported by the National Science Foundation under grant numbers AST-1138766 and AST-1536171. The DES participants from Spanish institutions are partially supported by MINECO under grants AYA2015-71825, ESP2015-66861, FPA2015-68048, SEV-2016-0588, SEV-2016-0597, and MDM-2015-0509, some of which include ERDF funds from the European Union. IFAE is partially funded by the CERCA program of the Generalitat de Catalunya. Research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013), including ERC grant agreements 240672, 291329, and 306478. We acknowledge support from the Brazilian Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia (INCT) e-Universe (CNPq grant 465376/2014-2). This manuscript has been authored by Fermi Research Alliance, LLC under contract no. DE-AC02-07CH11359 with the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of High Energy Physics. The United States Government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the United States Government retains a non-exclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, world-wide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this manuscript, or allow others to do so, for United States Government purposes. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. This work used resources at the Owens Cluster at the Ohio Supercomputer Center (Ohio Supercomputer Center 1987 ).


We gratefully acknowledge the provision of the LOFAR radio data in electronic form by Jose Sabater Montes. MK thanks Jim Dale for comments on parts of the manuscript. We thank the anonymous referee for a very useful report.


We thank Alessandro Morbidelli, Steven N. Shore and David Nesvorný for helpful discussions during this project. We are very grateful to Bertram Bitsch who kindly provided his code for calculating the migration maps. We also thank an anonymous referee for valuable comments. The work of O.C. and M.B. has been supported by Charles University in Prague (project GA UK No. 128216; project SVV-260441). The work of M.B. was supported by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic (grant No. 13-01308S). Access to computing and storage facilities owned by parties and projects contributing to the National Grid Infrastructure MetaCentrum, provided under the program “Projects of Large Research, Development, and Innovations Infrastructures” (CESNET LM2015042), is greatly appreciated.


We thank the referee for several helpful suggestions. We gratefully acknowledge Renbin Yan and Jeff Newman for their assistance with spectroscopic throughput corrections. T.A.J. acknowledges support from the Southern California Center for Galaxy Evolution through a CGE Fellowship. C.L.M. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under AST-1109288. Funding for the DEEP2 Galaxy Redshift Survey has been provided by NSF grants AST-95-09298, AST-0071048, AST-0507428, and AST-0507483, as well as NASA LTSA grant NNG04GC89G. Spectroscopic data in DEEP2 were obtained with the DEIMOS spectrograph at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeornautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation.


We wish to acknowledge the assistance of Dr Poonam Chandra in supplying radio afterglow data. DC is supported by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT100100345). We thank the reviewer for providing suggestions that have improved the clarity of our results.


The Australia Telescope Compact Array is part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. We thank Matteo Murgia (INAF-Cagliari), who made available to us his fitting programme SYNAGE.


Acknowledgments This manuscript was begun while the author was a visitor at the Center for Space and Habitability at the University of Bern, Switzerland. The author thanks Ray Pierrehumbert for a stimulating conversation that eventually sparked this work and Daniel Kitzmann for a discussion of hazes.


We thank the anonymous referee for a helpful report. ADB wishes to acknowledge partial support from grants NSF-AST 0955836 and 1412419. MR wishes to acknowledge support from CONICYT(CHILE) through FONDECYT grant no. 1140839 and partial support through project BASAL PFB-06. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.


The RXTE /PCA data were obtained from the RXTE Guest Observer Facility (GOF) at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Centre (GSFC). This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. D.L. thanks the referee for suggestions that led to improvements in this work.


Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments that improved the manuscript. We thank the teams of Fermi and GOES for their open data-use policy. This study is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under grants 11603077, 11573072, 11333009, 973 programme (2014CB744200) and Laboratory No. 2010DP173032. DL is supported by the Youth Fund of Jiangsu No. BK20161095. QMZ is supported by the Surface Project of Jiangsu No. BK20161618 and the Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS. The authors wish to thank the International Space Science Institute in Beijing (ISSI-BJ) for supporting and hosting the meetings of the International Team on ‘Magnetohydrodynamic Seismology of the Solar Corona in the Era of SDO/AIA', during which discussions leading to this publication were held.


Y.F. is supported from the Grant-in-Aid No. 25887024 by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science and from an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, administered by Oak Ridge Affiliated Universities. D.S.S. gratefully acknowledges support from a fellowship from the AMIAS group. J.N. acknowledges support from NASA grant HST AR-12146.04-A and NSF grant AST-1102738. We thank David Hogg for encouraging us to pursue calculations of exoplanetary radio emission. We thank Greg Novak for helpful conversations. We thank Jake VanderPlas for developing the XKCD-style plotting package for matplotlib, and acknowledge its use. A.P. is grateful for support from NSF grants 1352519 and 1440343. Y.F. greatly acknowledges insightful and helpful discussions with Tomoki Kimura and Hiroki Harakawa. The portion of this research for which T.M. is responsible was performed under a National Research Council Research Associateship Award at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). Basic research in radio astronomy at NRL is supported by 6.1 Base funding.


The authors thank Huanqing Chen and Philip Mansfield for their helpful insights and comments during this project. H.Z. acknowledges support from the Heising-Simons Foundation, the Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics and the Blue Waters Student Internship Program. C.A. acknowledges support from both the Enrico Fermi Institute and the Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics. N.G.’s contribution to this work used the resources of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), a U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, HEP User Facility. Fermilab is managed by Fermi Research Alliance, LLC (FRA), acting under contract No. DE-AC02-07CH11359. This work was partly supported by a NASA ATP grant NNX17AK65G, and used resources of the Argonne Leadership Computing Facility, which is a DOE Office of Science User Facility supported under Contract DE-AC02-06CH11357. An award of computer time was provided by the Innovative and Novel Computational Impact on Theory and Experiment (INCITE) program. This research is also part of the Blue Waters sustained-petascale computing project, which is supported by the National Science Foundation (awards OCI-0725070 and ACI-1238993) and the state of Illinois. Blue Waters is a joint effort of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and its National Center for Supercomputing Applications.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Gravitational Wave Discovery (OzGrav) through project number CE170100004. The authors would like to thank John Bowman at Walmart Labs (user ‘jbowman’ on stats.stackexchange.com ) for suggesting useful modifications to the likelihood function.


The author acknowledges the Big Bear Solar Observatory, Observatory Paris–Meudon, STEREO , SDO teams for the high-quality data supplied. The author thanks the referee for critical comments and useful suggestions. Movies created using the ESA and NASA funded Helioviewer Project. This work was supported in part by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grant 14-02-92690).


We are indebted to Tom Bell for initiating this project and for his help in the early data reduction. We thank our anonymous referee for useful comments. We also thank the Spanish MCIU and the ERC for funding support under grants AYA2017-85111-P and ERC-2013-Syg-610256-NANOCOSMOS.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS MG wishes to acknowledge the support by the Austrian FWF project J-3588-N27, and thanks Y. Cavecchi for suggestions to improve the computations; S. Aljbaae running some of our numerical orbital integrations on a cluster at FEGP-UNESP (Brazil); and Western University for providing computational facilities (the TITAN supercluster and the SHARCNET). EAS gratefully acknowledges the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Postdoctoral Fellowship programme for supporting this project. RD acknowledges the support by the Austrian FWF project S11603-N16. We gratefully acknowledge the developers of iSALE-2D ( http://www.isale-code.de ), the simulation code used in our research, including G. Collins, K. Wunnemann, D. Elbeshausen, B. Ivanov, and J. Melosh. The authors also thank the referee Mario Melita for valuable advice allowing us to improve this paper.


Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. M.M. acknowledges support by NASA through a Hubble Fellowship grant No. HST -HF51308.01 A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555. We also acknowledge support from grant HST -GO-12570.01 A. N.W. thanks Rebecca Canning for helpful discussions.


We thank Pierre Maxted for interesting discussions and John Southworth for help compiling Table 6 . This paper includes data collected by the Kepler / K 2 mission. Funding for the K 2 mission of Kepler is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST) under support by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Finally, we would like to thank the anonymous referee for their careful reading of the manuscript and helpful suggestions for improvement. Facilities: Kepler ( K2 ), Keck:I, Sloan , CTIO:2MASS, FLWO:2MASS , WISE . Software: astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ), george (Ambikasaran et al. 2014 ).


We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments, which helped improve the clarity of this manuscript. We are grateful to Dr. K. Saigo, Y. Ao, A. Kawamura, and F. Egusa for their supports regarding ALMA data reduction. M.I. was supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant Nos. 23540273 and 15K05030 and the ALMA Japan Research Grant of the NAOJ Chile Observatory, NAOJ-ALMA-0001, 0023, 0072. This paper made use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00032.S, 2015.1.00027.S, and 2016.1.00051.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. Data analysis was in part carried out on the open use data analysis computer system at the Astronomy Data Center, ADC, of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System and the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


We are grateful to Paweł Moskalik for stimulating discussions, reading the manuscript and detailed comments. Fruitful conversation with Wojtek Dziembowski is also acknowledged. This research is supported by the Polish National Science Centre through grant DEC-2012/05/B/ST9/03932 and by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education through the program ‘Ideas Plus’ award no. IdP2012 000162. The OGLE project has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement no. 246678 to AU.


We thank A. Gould for valuable discussions. SCN acknowledges support by JPL grant 1500811. GS thanks NExScI for hospitality at Caltech during part of this work.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Ryoma Murata for the detailed investigation that found the error with respect to constraining average M vs average log M.


We thank the referee for providing a helpful report. We also thank Taysun Kimm, Chris Matzner, and Jim Stone for helpful comments and suggestions on the manuscript. This work was supported by Grants No. AST-1312006 and PHY-1144374 from the National Science Foundation. MAS is supported by the Max-Planck/Princeton Center for Plasma Physics. Part of this project was conducted during a visit to the KITP at U.C. Santa Barbara, which is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHY-1125915. Simulations were performed on the computational resources supported by the PICSciE TIGRESS High Performance Computing Center at Princeton University.