Acknowledgments The authors thank Clive Dickinson and Patrick Leahy for useful discussions and comments on the manuscript. We also acknowledge useful discussions with Pascal Rideau and Joel Michaud concerning practical constraints related to data transfer and to attitude and orbit control. CGRW acknowledges the award of an STFC quota studentship the support of the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (grant no. EP/M011852/1). MLB acknowledges the European Research Council for support through the award of an ERC Starting Independent Researcher Grant (EC FP7 grant no. 280127). MLB also thanks the STFC for the award of Advanced and Halliday fellowships (grant no. ST/I005129/1). Some of the results in this paper have been derived using the healpix (Grski etal. 2005 ) package.


We would like to thank Daniel Foreman-Mackey (NYU), Morgan Fouesneau (MPIA), Jon Holtzman (NMSU), Keivan Stassun (Vanderbilt University), Jennifer Johnson (OSU), and David Sontag (NYU) for valuable discussions. D.W.H. was partially supported by the NSF (grant IIS-1124794), NASA (grant NNX08AJ48G), and the Moore–Sloan Data Science Environment at NYU. The research has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP 7) ERC Grant Agreement No. [321035]. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.


This paper made use of spectroscopic data that were obtained at the FLWO-1.5 m with FAST, which is operated by Harvard-Smithsonian Centre for Astrophysics. In particular we want to thank Perry Berlind and Mike Calkins for their role in obtaining most of the FLWO-1.5 m/FAST data. The paper also makes use of data obtained as part of the INT Photometric H Survey of the Northern Galactic Plane (IPHAS) carried out at the Isaac Newton Telescope (INT). The INT is operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. All IPHAS data are processed by the Cambridge Astronomical Survey Unit, at the Institute of Astronomy in Cambridge. We also acknowledge the use of data obtained at the INT and the Nordic Optical Telescope as part of a CCI International Time Programme. The work of L.G. and J.F. is supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, and FEDER, under contracts AYA2010-18352 and AYA2013-48623-C2-2-P, and by the Generalitat Valenciana project of excellence PROMETEOII/2014/060. R.R. received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement No. 320964 (WDTracer). N.J.W. was supported by a Royal Astronomical Society fellowship. Finally, we are grateful to Dr. Pablo Reig for his assistance in the classification in the MK system.


Acknowledgments The observational data for PSR J0738-4042 (at 1375 MHz) and PSR J1022+1001 (at 728 MHz) were obtained from the EPN data base under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence. The numerical code that supports the plots and diagrams within this paper, as well as the relevant parameters of modelling, is available from the authors upon reasonable request. We thank Ya.N. Istomin, B. Stappers and P. Weltevrede for their interest and useful discussions and the anonymous referee for instructive comments that helped us to improve the manuscript. This work was partially supported by Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Grant no. 14-02-00831). AAP is supported by Porter Ogden Jacobus Fellowship, awarded by the graduate school of Princeton University.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the referee for their insightful comments that improved the quality of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to Jo Bovy and Alice Quillen for useful conversations, Jacob Bauer for his assistance with the simulations, and Eugene Vasiliev for his help with an early version of agama and comments on the original manuscript. We also acknowledge the use of computational resources at Compute Canada and the Centre for Advanced Computing. This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada through the Postgraduate Scholarship Program (MHC) and Discovery Grant Program (LMW).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS MV is supported by INFN/PD51 Indark, PRIN-INAF, PRIN-MIUR, and ERC-StG (European Research Council-Starting Grant) ‘cosmoIGM’ grants under ERC Grant agreement 257670-cosmoIGM. TSK is supported by ERC-StG ‘cosmoIGM’. TSK also acknowledges the support from ‘NSF-AST118913’. CM wishes to thank D. Goz, E. Munari, and A. Zoldan for useful discussion. We are grateful to an anonymous referee who provided very useful comments that allowed us to clarify several points in the paper.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment (ACE), also known as SCISAT, is a Canadian-led mission mainly supported by the Canadian Space Agency. EJRM is funded by a McGill Science Undergraduate Research Award. The authors thank Yi Huang for his insight on the ACE-FTS data and on stratospheric clouds, Mark Swain for the idea of investigating Earth’s sodium layer, and Emily Pass for her helpful comments on this work. We also thank Yan Bétrémieux, Tyler Robinson, and an anonymous referee for their comments, which significantly improved this work. NBC acknowledges funding from NSERC and FRQNT.


We would like to thank the anonymous referee for very helpful comments, which help to improve the paper significantly. This work is partially supported by the National Key RD Program of China 2018YFA0404203 and 2018YFA0404204, NSFC grants U1738122, U1931204 and 11761131007, the Natural Science Foundation for Young Scholars of Jiangsu Province, China (No. BK20191109), and by the International Partnership Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences, grant No.114332KYSB20170008.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank P. Behroozi and C. Pacifici for the inspiring discussions to work on this, to B. Diemer, G. Lemson, Y. Feng for help in various steps of obtaining and analysing the data, and many others for conversations, comments, and questions, including S. Alam, M. van Daalen, N. Dalal, R. Dave, and A. Kravtsov. I also thank other participants at the Santa Barbara Galaxy-Halo connection workshop in June 2017, members of the Royal Observatory of Edinburgh, and participants at the Berkeley Center for Cosmological physics workshop and Nordita workshop in July 2017 for the opportunity to talk on this work and for their feedback and suggestions, and the Royal Observatory and Nordita for their kind hospitality. B. Diemer and C. Pacifici generously provided many helpful suggestions and criticisms of an earlier draft. I am especially grateful to M. White for innumerable discussions and suggestions, as well as encouragement. I also thank the referee for many helpful suggestions and questions. The Millennium simulation data bases used in this paper and the web application providing online access to them were constructed as part of the activities of the German Astrophysical Virtual Observatory (GAVO).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FUZ, MF, AGAJ, DRMC and CAA acknowledge funding through Fondecyt Regular No. 1180291 and BASAL Centro de Astrofisica y Tecnologias Afines (CATA) AFB-170002. MF acknowledges funding through the Concurso Proyectos Internacionales de Investigacion No. PII20150171 and Conicyt Quimal 170001. AGAJ acknowledges financial support from Carnegie Observatories through the Carnegie-Chile fellowship.


This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AST 0507473.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for useful comments. We also thank A. Ballone, S. Gillessen and G. Hajdu for very helpful discussions. This work was partially developed while JC was on sabbatical leave at MPE. DC and JC acknowledge the kind hospitality of MPE, and funding from the Max Planck Society through a ‘Partner Group’ grant. We acknowledge support from CONICYT-Chile through FONDECYT (1141175) and Basal (PFB0609) grants. DC is supported by CONICYT-PCHA/Doctorado Nacional (2015-21151574).


This research was supported by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad under project FIS2012-31079. We would like to thank the technical staff of the Calar Alto Observatory in Spain for all its help with the observations.


This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2011.0.000010.SV. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. We are grateful to Antonio Garufi for many discussions and for sharing his infrared polarization images. We thank Sebastian Stammler for insightful discussions on the effect of the CO snowline on dust and for showing us the results of his simulations in advance of publication. We thank the anonymous referee for the helpful comments. Part of this research was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The fits have been carried out on the computing facilities of the Computational Center for Particle and Astrophysics (C2PAP) as part of the approved project “Dust evolution in protoplanetary disks”. M.T. and L.T. are grateful for the experienced support by F. Beaujean (C2PAP). This work was partly supported by the Italian Ministero dell’Istruzione, Università e Ricerca through the grant Progetti Premiali 2012 – iALMA (CUP C52I13000140001).


This work is supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science KAKENHI grant numbers 16K17673 (S.K.), 26800100 (K.M.), 16K17667 (Y.S.). The work by K.M. is supported by the World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI Initiative), MEXT, Japan.


Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for a number of good suggestions helping to improve the presentation of this work. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00955.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAOand NAOJ. The group of JKJ acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 646908) through ERC Consolidator Grant “S4F”. Research at the Centre for Star and Planet Formation is funded by the Danish National Research Foundation.


Based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under program ID 188.B-3002 and 193.B-0936. These data products have been processed by the Cambridge Astronomy Survey Unit (CASU) at the Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, and by the FLAMES/UVES reduction team at INAF–Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri. These data have been obtained from the Gaia -ESO Survey Data Archive, prepared and hosted by the Wide Field Astronomy Unit, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, which is funded by the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 program through ERC grant number 320360 and by the Leverhulme Trust through grant RPG-2012-541. We acknowledge the support from INAF and Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca (MIUR) in the form of the grant “Premiale VLT 2012”. The results presented here benefit from discussions held during the Gaia -ESO workshops and conferences supported by the ESF (European Science Foundation) through the GREAT Research Network Programme. S.F. and T.B. acknowledge the support from the New Milky Way project funded by a grant from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg foundation. C.L. gratefully acknowledges financial support from the European Research Council (ERC-CoG-646928, Multi-Pop, PI: N. Bastian). U.H. and A.J.K acknowledge support from the Swedish National Space Board (Rymdstyrelsen). The research of A.L. has been subsidized by the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office under contract No. BR/143/A2/BRASS. R.S. acknowledges support by the National Science Center of Poland through grant 2014/15/B/ST9/03981. C.A.P. is thankful for support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) through grant AYA2014-56359-P. J.M. acknowledges support from the ERC Consolidator Grant funding scheme (project STARKEY, G.A. No. 615604). T.M. acknowledges financial support from Belspo for contract PRODEX Gaia -DPAC. S.G.S acknowledges the support by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) through national funds and a research grant (project ref. UID/FIS/04434/2013, and PTDC/FIS-AST/7073/2014). S.G.S. also acknowledge the support from FCT through Investigador FCT contract of reference IF/00028/2014 and POPH/FSE (EC) by FEDER funding through the program “Programa Operacional de Factores de Competitividade – COMPETE”. L.S. acknowledges support by the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourism’s Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS). M.Z. acknowledges support by the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourism’s Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS), by Fondecyt Regular 1150345 and by the BASAL CATA PFB-06. E.J.A. and M.T.C acknowledge the financial support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, through grant AYA2013-40611-P. S.Z. acknowledge the support from the INAF grant “PRIN INAF 2014”, “Star won’t tell their ages to Gaia , Galactic Archaelogy with wide-area asterosismic”. This research has made use of the WEBDA database, operated at the Department of Theoretical Physics and Astrophysics of the Masaryk University; of the TOPCAT catalogue handling and plotting tool ( Taylor 2005 ); of the Simbad database and the VizieR catalog access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France ( Ochsenbein et al. 2000 ); and of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.


We wish to thank Roelof de Jong and Ned Taylor for valuable discussions, and Dustin Lang for making the WISE magnitudes of Lang et al. ( 2014 ) available for testing before their publication. We also wish to thank the anonymous referee for their helpful suggestions on presenting some aspects of our results. This work was partially supported by NSF-AST 1514835. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.


V.A. acknowledges financial support from NASA/ Chandra grants GO3-14051X, AR4-15003X, NNX15AR30G, and NASA/ADAP grant NNX10AH47G. A.Z. acknowledges financial support from NASA/ADAP grant NNX12AN05G, and funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007–2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. 617001. J.D., P.P., and T.G. acknowledge financial support from NASA contract NAS8-03060. M.S. acknowledges support by the the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through the Heisenberg Programme (SA 2131/3-1). S.L. acknowledges financial support from NASA/ADAP grant NNX14-AF77G. The OGLE project has received funding from the National Science Centre, Poland, Grant MAESTRO 2014/14/A/ST9/00121 to AU. We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments and suggestions.


The work of JHM and CK is supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), via studentships and a consolidated grant, respectively. The work of NSH is supported by NASA under Astrophysics Theory Program grants NNX11AI96G and NNX14AK44G. We would like to thank the anonymous referee for a helpful and constructive report, and we are grateful to A. F. Palah and B. T. Gaensicke for the IX Vel XSHOOTER data set. We would also like to thank J. V. Hernandez Santisteban, S. W. Mangham and I. Hubeny for useful discussions. We acknowledge the use of the IRIDIS High Performance Computing Facility, and associated support services at the University of Southampton, in the completion of this work.


Acknowledgements The anonymous referee of our paper offered many helpful suggestions for improvement, and we thank him/her for performing such a careful review. We also thank Paolo Ventura and Sergio Cristallo for providing answers to our enquiries regarding the details of the ATON (Ventura) and FRUITY (Cristallo) model predictions and in some cases sending us additional output. We also appreciate the help provided by Gloria Delgado-Inglada concerning her group's recently updated ICFs. Portions of the UV data employed in our project came from HST programme number GO12600. BGS is grateful for summer support by the US National Science Foundation (NSF) through the Research Experience for Undergraduates programme. MMBB was supported by ANPCyT through grant PICT-2014-2708 and by a Return Fellowship from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. Finally, RBCH, BGS, KBK, and BB are grateful to their home institutions for travel support.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the anonymous referee, Iain A. Steele, Phil James, Dan Hoak, David Bersier, and Hendrik van Eerten for useful comments. This research was supported by Science Technology and Facilities Council grants. GPL was partially supported by International Astronomical Union and Royal Astronomical Society grants.


Acknowledgments We dedicate this paper to our colleague Y.Y. Zhang: we are indebted to her work (Zhang etal. 2011 ) for the analysis discussed in Paper I , on which this paper is based. We thank H. Ebeling for useful information about the ME-MACS sample and T. Reiprich for providing the concentration parameters of HIFLUGCS clusters.


The current work benefited from discussions with visiting researchers at the institute for Solar Physics in Stockholm. The authors specially wish to thank Carlos Díaz Baso, Andrés Asensio Ramos, Marian Martínez Gonzalez, Lindsey Fletcher and Paulo Simões for useful advice on the presented work. We also wish to thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments which improved the content of the paper. We made use of routines by Rob Rutten to align SDO data with SST data. The observers thank Pit Sutterlin for support during the observing campaign at the SST. TL acknowledges financial support from the C HROMOBS project funded by the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. JdlCR is supported by grants from the Swedish Research Council (2015-03994) and the Swedish National Space Board (128/15) and has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (SUNMAG, grant agreement 759548). JdlCR and SD are also supported by the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB). The inversions were performed on resources provided by the Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing (SNIC) at the High Performance Computing Center North at Umeå University. The Swedish 1 m Solar Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by the Institute for Solar Physics of Stockholm University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services.


Based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory (processed using the Gemini iraf package), which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnologa e Innovacin Productiva (Argentina), and Ministrio da Cincia, Tecnologia e Inovao (Brazil), and observations collected at the Centro Astronmico Hispano Alemn (CAHA), operated jointly by the Max-Planck Institut fr Astronomie and the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (CSIC). VVG acknowledges the Russian Science Foundation grant 14-12-01096. JM acknowledges funding from a Royal Society Science Foundation Ireland University Research Fellowship (No. 14/RS-URF/3219). AYK acknowledges support from the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research grant 16-02-00148. TJH is funded by an Imperial College Junior Research Fellowship. This research was supported by the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., on behalf of the international Gemini partnership of Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, and the United States of America, and has made use of the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the SIMBAD data base and the VizieR catalogue access tool, both operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.


We thank Willy Benz for insightful discussions. This work was supported in part by the European Research Council under grant 239605. This work has been carried out within the framework of the NCCR PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. The author acknowledges the financial support of the SNSF.


We are grateful to Dr J. S. Jenkins for discussions that led to important improvements of this Letter. C.L. acknowledges the financial support of the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). This research made use of Astropy 2 (Astropy Collaboration 2013) , and of the SIMBAD (Wenger et al. 2000) , VIZIER (CDS, Strasbourg, France) and NASA’s Astrophysics Data System databases.


This work was supported by Australian Research Council grants ( DP0662810, DP1096533 ). The Mopra Telescope is part of the Australia Telescope and is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. The University of New South Wales Mopra Spectrometer Digital Filter Bank used for these Mopra observations was provided with support from the Australian Research Council, together with the University of New South Wales, University of Sydney, Monash University and the CSIRO. We would like to thank the anonymous referee whose comments served to increase the quality of our manuscript and maximize the exploitation of our data.


We would like to thank the anonymous referee for their detailed and helpful comments which improved the quality of this work.


This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2012 R1A2A1A 03670387). Facilities: Big Bear Solar Observatory


Acknowledgements This work is supported by the European Community through the grant LENA (ERC StG no. 678282) within the H2020 Framework Program.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank R. Srianand and Neeraj Gupta for their invaluable comments and inputs, that helped in improving the paper significantly. I also thank the staff of the GMRT who have made these observations possible. The GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Further, I acknowledge support from the Indo-French Centre for the Promotion of Advanced Research under Project 5504-B (PIs: N. Gupta, P. Noterdaeme). I thank the anonymous referee for a very helpful report that significantly improved the quality of the paper.


Acknowledgements This article is dedicated to the memory of H.-J. Bode, J. G. Greenhill and O. Faragó for their long-standing support and participation to occultation campaigns. The work leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Community’s H2020 2014-2020 ERC Grant Agreement n° 669416 “Lucky Star”. E.M. thanks support from Concytec-Fondecyt-PE and GA, FC-UNI for providing support during the 2012 July 18 occultation. B.S. thanks S. Para for partly supporting this research though a donation, J. P. Beaulieu for helping us accessing to the Hobart Observatory facilities and B. Warner, B. L. Gary, C. Erickson, H. Reitsema, L. Albert, P. J. Merritt, T. Hall, W. J. Romanishin, Y. J. Choi for providing data during the 2007 March 18 occultation. M.A. thanks CNPq (Grants 427700/2018-3, 310683/2017-3 and 473002/2013-2) and FAPERJ (Grant E-26/111.488/2013). J.L.O. thanks support from grant AYA2017-89637-R. P.S.S. acknowledges financial support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme, under Grant Agreement no 687378, as part of the project “Small Bodies Near and Far” (SBNAF). J.L.O., R.D., P.S.S. and N.M. acknowledge financial support from the State Agency for Research of the Spanish MCIU through the “Center of Excellence Severo Ochoa” award for the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (SEV-2017-0709). F.B.R. acknowledges CNPq support process 309578/2017-5. G.B.R. thanks support from the grant CAPES-FAPERJ/PAPDRJ (E26/203.173/2016). J.I.B.C. acknowledges CNPq grant 308150/2016-3. R.V.M. thanks the grants: CNPq-304544/2017-5, 401903/2016-8, and Faperj: PAPDRJ-45/2013 and E-26/203.026/2015. B.M. thanks the CAPES/Cofecub-394/2016-05 grant and CAPES/Brazil – Finance Code 001. B.M. and A.R.G.J. were financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) – Finance Code 001. TRAPPIST-North is a project funded by the University of Liège, in collaboration with Cadi Ayyad University of Marrakech (Morocco). TRAPPIST-South is a project funded by the Belgian Fonds (National) de la Recherche Scientifique (F.R.S.-FNRS) under grant FRFC 2.5.594.09.F, with the participation of the Swiss National Science Foundation (FNS/SNSF). VSD, SPL, TRM and ULTRACAM are all supported by the STFC. K.G. acknowledges help from the team of Archenhold-Observatory, Berlin, and A.R. thanks G. Román (Granada) for help during the observation of the 2016 July 19 occultation. A.J.C.T. acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministry Project AYA2015-71718-R (including EU funds). We thank Caisey Harlingten for the repeated use of his 50 cm telescopes in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile. We thank the Italian Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG), operated on the island of La Palma by the Fundación Galileo Galilei of the INAF (Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica) at the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. L.M. acknowledges support from the Italian Minister of Instruction, University and Research (MIUR) through FFABR 2017 fund and support from the University of Rome Tor Vergata through “Mission: Sustainability 2016” fund. The Astronomical Observatory of the Autonomous Region of the Aosta Valley (OAVdA) is managed by the Fondazione Clément Fillietroz-ONLUS, which is supported by the Regional Governmentof the Aosta Valley, the Town Municipality of Nus and the “Unité des Communes valdôtaines Mont-Émilius”. The research was partially funded by a 2016 “Research and Education”s grant from Fondazione CRT. We thank D.P. Hinson for his constructive and detailed comments that helped to improve this article.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Based on observations obtained with SITELLE, a joint project of Université Laval, ABB, Université de Montréal, and the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), which is operated by the National Research Council of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de l’Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique of France, and the University of Hawaii. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most grateful to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. We thank the referee for a very thorough and constructive report, leading to significant improvements on this paper. LD, CR, GJ, and ST are grateful to the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Fonds de Recherche du Québec, and the Canada Foundation for Innovation for funding. LD and CR are very grateful to the Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Hawaii Hilo, as well as the CFHT, for having provided them with an ideal and very enjoyable working environment during their sabbatical stay on the Big Island.


T.L. thanks Cole Miller for helpful discussions and the referee(s) for their comments. S.G. is supported in part by NSF AAG grant 1616566. Partial support for T.L. was provided by NANOGrav NSF Physics Frontiers Center award No. 1430284. This research has made use of the VizieR catalog access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. This work makes use of observations from the LCO network. These results made use of the Discovery Channel Telescope at Lowell Observatory. Lowell is a private, nonprofit institution dedicated to astrophysical research and public appreciation of astronomy and operates the DCT in partnership with Boston University, the University of Maryland, the University of Toledo, Northern Arizona University, and Yale University. The LMI construction was supported by grant AST-1005313 from the National Science Foundation. The upgrade of the DeVeny optical spectrograph has been funded by a generous grant from John and Ginger Giovale. Based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory (acquired through the Gemini Science Archive and processed using the Gemini IRAF package), which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil). The Pan-STARRS1 surveys (PS1) have been made possible through contributions of the IfA, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max Planck Society and its participating institutes, MPIA, Heidelberg and MPE, Garching, JHU, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, QUB, the Harvard-Smithsonian CfA, LCOGT Inc., the National Central University of Taiwan, STScI, NASA under grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the NSF under grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, and Eotvos Lorand University. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . The SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration, including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, the University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, the University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, the University of Tokyo, the University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, the University of Virginia, the University of Washington, and Yale University. Software: Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), create_fringes (Snodgrass Carry 2013 ), IRAF (Tody 1986 , 1993 ), remove_fringes (Snodgrass Carry 2013 ), SCAMP (Bertin 2006 ), SExtractor (Bertin Arnouts 1996 ), SWARP (Bertin et al. 2002 ).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee for a constructive report which improved the manuscript. We are grateful to Richard Booth, Cathie Clarke, Ruth Murray-Clay, and Giovanni Rosotti for interesting discussions. JEO is supported by a Royal Society University Research Fellowship.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Daniele Viganò for useful comments. This work is supported in part by the Spanish MINECO/FEDER grants AYA2015-66899-C2-1-P, AYA2015-66899-C2-2-P, the grant of Generalitat Valenciana PROMETEOII-2014-069, and by the PHAROS COST action CA16214. PC acknowledges the support from the Ramón y Cajal program of the Spanish MINECO (RYC-2015-19074).


This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under grant AST-1614018 to C.W.M. and grants AST-1515876 and AST-1814440 to C.S.K. COSMOGRAIL is made possible thanks to the continuous work of all observers and technical staff obtaining the monitoring observations, in particular, at the Swiss Leonhard Euler telescope at La Silla Observatory, which is supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. V.B. and F.C. are also supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). This work is partly based on observations obtained with the Small and Moderate Aperture Research Telescope System (SMARTS) 1.3 m, which is operated by the SMARTS Consortium. Thanks are due to V. Motta for helpful discussions about black hole masses and to R. Witt for many hours of help with the USNA High Performance Computing Cluster.


Acknowledgements The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Y.W., H.B., S.B., and J.D.S. acknowledge support from the European Research Council under the Horizon 2020 Framework Program via the ERC Consolidator Grant CSF-648505, and R.S.K. via the ERC AdvancedGrant 339177 (STARLIGHT). H.B., S.C.O.G., and M.R. acknowledge support from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in the Collaborative Research Center (SFB 881) “The Milky Way System” (subproject B1, B2, B8). R.S.K. and S.C.O.G. also acknowledge support from the DFG via Germany’s Excellence Strategy EXC-2181/1 - 390900948 (the Heidelberg STRUCTURES Cluster of Excellence). This work was carried out in part at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory which is operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology. N.S. acknowledges support by the french ANR and the german DFG through the project “GENESIS” (ANR-16-CE92-0035-01/DFG1591/2-1). F.B. acknowledges funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No 726384). This research made use of Astropy and affiliated packages, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration 2018 ), Python package SciPy 3 , APLpy, an open-source plotting package for Python ( Robitaille Bressert 2012 ), and software TOPCAT ( Taylor 2005 ). The authors thank the anonymous referee for the constructive comments that improve the paper.


We thank Sera Markoff, Heino Falcke, and Geoffrey Bower for constructive discussions and the anonymous referee for useful comments. This work was supported in part by the Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 11103061, 11133005, 11121062, and 11103059), the National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program, grant 2014CB845800), and the Strategic Priority Research Program “The Emergence of Cosmological Structures” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant XDB09000000).


We thank Marta Volonteri and Stefano Bovino for interesting discussions and helpful suggestions. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/20072013 Grant Agreement no. 614199, project “BLACK”). DRGS is indebted to the Scuola Normale Superiore (SNS) in Pisa for an invitation as a “Distinguished Scientist”, which has stimulated the research described in this manuscript.


We thank our collaborators as well as the anonymous referee for constructive comments that improved the paper. This work was supported in part by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant number NNX15AU32H issued through the NASA Education Minority University Research Education Project (MUREP) through the NASA Harriett G. Jenkins Graduate Fellowship activity. R.C.H. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation through CAREER grant number 1554584. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.


We wish to thank the anonymous referee for the extremely useful comments. Based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 188.B-3002. This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 programme through ERC grant number 320360 and by the Leverhulme Trust through grant RPG-2012-541. We acknowledge the support from INAF and Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca (MIUR) in the form of the grant “Premiale VLT 2012”. The results presented here benefit from discussions held during the Gaia -ESO workshops and conferences supported by the ESF (European Science Foundation) through the GREAT Research Network Programme. We wish to thank C. Bailer-Jones and C. Babusiaux for extremely useful comments. M. Schultheis, A. Recio-Blanco, P. de Laverny, and V. Hill acknowledge the support of the “Programme National de Cosmologie et Galaxies” (PNCG) of CNRS/INSU, France. T.B. is funded by grant No. 621-2009- 3911 from the Swedish Research Council.


We thank Karl Gebhardt, Georges Meylan, Ben MacLean and Sandro Villanova for sharing unpublished radial velocity data with us. We are also grateful to Long Wang for sending us data from his simulations. We finally thank Pouria Khalaj and two anonymous referees for comments that helped improve the presentation of the paper. This work has made use of BaSTI web tools.


We thank Dmitrii Barsukov, Serge Balashev and Aida Kirichenko for discussions. The work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation, grant 14-12-00316. For Fig. 6 we used the data from the VGPS survey conducted by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) instruments. NRAO is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.


This research was funded by the European Union’s Seventh Framework programme under grant agreement 337595 (ERC Starting Grant, “CoSMass”). A.F. wishes to acknowledge Finnish Academy award, decision 266918. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHYS-1066293 and the hospitality of the Aspen Center for Physics. This work is partly based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under ESO programme ID 179.A-2005 and and 185.A-0791 and on data products produced by TERAPIX and the Cambridge Astronomy Survey Unit on behalf of the UltraVISTA consortium. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System, and the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the JPL, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the NASA. We greatfully acknowledge the contributions of the entire COSMOS collaboration consisting of more than 100 scientists. More information on the COSMOS survey is available at http://www.astro.caltech.edu/~cosmos . We thank the VUDS team for making the data in the COSMOS field available prior to public release.


We would like to acknowledge the continual assistance with the Hyperion code from Dr. Thomas Robitaille and the useful discussions with Brian Kloppenborg and Kathy Geise. We thank the referee for useful comments and suggestions. This work was supported in part by the bequest of William Herschel Womble in support of astronomy at the University of Denver, as well as a Grant-In-Aid of Research from the National Academy of Sciences, administered by Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society, for which we are grateful.


We thank the referee for comments that pushed us to improve the analysis of Sect. 3.3. S.C. warmly thanks the financial support by PRIN-INAF2014 (PI: S. Cassisi) and the Economy and Competitiveness Ministry of the Kingdom of Spain (grant AYA2013-42781-P). A.P. acknowledges financial support by PRIN-INAF 2012 The M4 Core Project with Hubble Space Telescope (P.I.: L. Bedin).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Ling Sun, Joe Romano, David Keitel, and Paul Schale for useful discussion and comments. We also thank Tyson Littenberg for insightful comments and suggestions that improved the paper. SB acknowledges support by the Hoff Lu Fellowship at the University of Minnesota, and by NSF grant PHY-1806630. MWC is supported by the David and Ellen Lee Postdoctoral Fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. PDL is supported by ARC Future Fellowship FT160100112 and ARC Discovery Project DP180103155. ET and CT are supported by CE170100004. ET is supported by FT150100281. The authors are thankful for the computing resources provided by LIGO Laboratory. LIGO was constructed by the California Institute of Technology and Massachusetts Institute of Technology with funding from the National Science Foundation and operates under cooperative agreement PHY-0757058. All posterior corner plots were made with ChainConsumer (Hinton 2016 ). The code for the analysis in this paper is available upon request. A public release is being planned for the near future. This paper has been assigned document number LIGO-P1900107.


We greatly appreciate the lengthy conversations with Cole Miller regarding the development of the MCMC code. We thank the referee for carefully reading the manuscript and providing many helpful comments that led to its improvement. This research was supported in part by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute through the Undergraduate Science Education Program. We also are grateful for the generous support of the Michigan Space Grant Consortium, the National Science Foundation under Grant Nos. REU: PHY/DMR-1004811 and RUI: AST-1009731, the Fermi Guest Investigator Program Cycle 3 under Grant No. NNH09ZDA001N-FERMI3, and the NASA Astrophysics Theory and Fundamental Physics Program under Grant No. NNX13AO12G.


S.K. and P.M.W. received funding through BMBF Verbundforschung (project MUSE-AO, grant 05A14BAC and 05A14MGA). S.K. further acknowledges support from DFG via SFB 963/1 “Astrophysical flow instabilities and turbulence” (project A12).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the referee for providing a clear, constructive, and concise report that greatly improved the interpretations presented here. We would also like to thank Karl Gordon for an enlightening discussion in the early stages of this work. KEH and PJ acknowledge support by a Project Grant (162948-051) from The Icelandic Research Fund. The Cosmic Dawn Center is funded by the Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF).


It is a pleasure to thank the anonymous referee for their positive and helpful suggestions. NI thanks NSERC Discovery and Canada Research Chairs Program. SJ thanks the Chinese Academy of Sciences and National Science Foundation of China, project numbers 11250110055 and 11350110324. PhP thanks the Umezawa Fund for hospitality. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant no. NSF PHY11-25915, Grant no. PHYS-1066293 and the hospitality of the Aspen Center for Physics.


The authors wish to thank Dr. Kevin Walsh and Dr. Dan Durda at SwRI Boulder, Dr. Dave Jewitt at UCLA, and Dr. Tony Dobrovolskis at SETI Institute for useful comments on the present work.


This research is part of the project GLENCO, funded under the European Seventh Framework Programme, Ideas, Grant Agreement no. 259349. The analysis presented in this paper is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA).


We thank Rodolfo Barniol Duran, Ehud Nakar, Re’em Sari, Elad Steinberg, and Almog Yalinewich for helpful discussions. J.K. and R.C. would like to thank the Hebrew University and its Institute for Advanced Studies for hospitality while the key ideas of this paper were developed. We are also grateful to Ehud Nakar for a loan of office space. This work was supported by the following grants: I-CORE 1829/12, ISA 3-10417 (T.P.); NSF AST-1028111 and AST-1516299, and NASA/ATP NNX14AB43G (J.K.).


This research has been supported by the National Science Foundation under grants PHY 11-25915 and AST 11-09174. This project was also supported by JINA (NSF grant PHY 08-22648). FH and DV acknowledge funding from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. PD is grateful to the staff of the Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik, where this project was completed, for their warm hospitality. We thank M. Salaris who has generously provided us with the Sbordone et al. bolometric corrections.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IB is supported by an Alexander von Humboldt postdoctoral fellowship. The authors are grateful for comments by the referee which greatly improved this manuscript. The algorithms were set up using matlab ® .


F.D. and V.K. acknowledge support from grant NSF AST-1517753 and Northwestern University through the “Reach for the Stars” program. The authors also thank our colleagues Dimitri Veras, Jeremy Sepinsky, Michael Efroimsky, and Lorenzo Iorio who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research. We are thankful for their comments that greatly improved the manuscript during its composition and revising stages.


We thank Phil Armitage, Ilse Cleeves, Ilaria Pascucci, Richard Teague, and Upasana Das for useful discussions related to this work. We also thank the anonymous referee whose comments improved the quality of this paper. J.B.S. acknowledges support from NASA grants NNX13AI58G and NNX16AB42G, and from NSF grant AST 1313021. The computations were performed on Stampede , Stampede 2 , and Maverick through XSEDE grants TG-AST120062 and TG-AST140001. We thank the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics, supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. NSF PHY-1125915, for hospitality during the completion of the paper. Software: Athena (Stone et al. 2008 ).


We would like to thank the late Prof. Janusz Gil for his leadership and inspiration, which have motivated us to start the MSPES project. We thank the referee for his comments, which helped to improve the paper. We thank Prof. Joanna Rankin and Dr. W. Lewandowski for critical comments on the manuscript. We would like to thank the staff of GMRT and NCRA for providing valuable support in carrying out this project. This work was supported by grants DEC-2012/05/B/ST9/03924 and DEC-2013/09/B/ST9/02177 of the Polish National Science Centre. This work has been supported by Polish National Science Centre grant DEC-2011/03/D/ST9/00656 (K.K.). This work was financed by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) under project ”CleanMachine” (614.001.301).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Guillermo Barro for sharing Σ 1 values and Dale Kocevski for helpful advice. QN, GY, and WNB acknowledge support from Chandra X-ray Center grant GO8-19076X, NASA ADP grant 80NSSC18K0878, the V.M. Willaman Endowment, and Penn State ACIS Instrument Team Contract SV4-74018 (issued by the Chandra X-ray Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060). DMA thanks the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) for support from grant ST/L00075X/1. BL acknowledges financial support from the National Key RD Program of China grant 2016YFA0400702 and National Natural Science Foundation of China grant 11673010. FV acknowledges financial support from CONICYT and CASSACA through the Fourth call for tenders of the CAS-CONICYT Fund. YQX acknowledges support from the 973 Program (2015CB857004), NSFC-11890693,NSFC-11421303, the CAS Frontier Science Key Research Program (QYZDJ-SSW-SLH006), andK.C. Wong Education Foundation. The Chandra Guaranteed Time Observations (GTO) for the GOODS-N were selected by the ACIS Instrument Principal Investigator, Gordon P. Garmire, currently of the Huntingdon Institute for X-ray Astronomy, LLC, which is under contract to the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory via Contract SV2-82024.


Acknowledgements We thank Zoltán Haiman and Kazuyuki Sugimura for useful discussions. This work is partially supported by the Simons Foundation through the Simons Society of Fellows (KI) and by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A) (17H01102 KO), for Scientific Research (C) (15K05036 KO; 16K05309 KO and 17K05383 SM)) and for Young Scientists (17K14260 HRT). This research was also supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology as ‘Priority Issue on Post-K computer’ (Elucidation of the Fundamental Laws and Evolution of the Universe) and the Joint Institute for Computational Fundamental Science. Numerical computations were carried out on Cray XC30 at Center for Computational Astrophysics, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan.


Acknowledgements This research has made use of data and software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. It is additionally based on observations obtained with XMMNewton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. The research also made use of the Swift /BAT transient monitor results provided by the Swift /BAT team. We would like to thank all the proposers of the archival observations used in this work. We would also like to thank the anonymous referee for his/her suggestions, which helped improve the manuscript.


We wish to thank Dick Manchester and George Hobbs for helpful discussion and suggestions. Furthermore, we thank Hao Tong and Mingyu Ge for communication on the latest progress on the time delay measurements of the Crab Pulsar. This research is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, under the grant NSFC11373018 and NSFC11503006. We are also thankful for the support of the grant Beyond the Horizons 2012, and the support of the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences Grant No. XDB23010200.


Acknowledgements EN acknowledges the Polish National Science Center grant no. 2014/13/B/ST9/00902. Calculations have been carried out at the Wrocław Centre for Networking and Supercomputing ( http://www.wcss.pl ), grant No. 214. Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 097.C-0277 and 097.D-0478.


Comments from an anonymous referee spurred substantial revisions to this paper. This research was supported by NSERC of Canada.


We would like to thank an anonymous referee for helpful suggestions that improved the paper. This work is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AST-1616632, by the NASA Astrophysics Theory Program, by the NASA Astrophysics Data Analysis Program, and by Fermi Guest Investigator Program. Resources supporting this work were provided by the NASA High-End Computing (HEC) Program through the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Facility at NASA Ames Research Center and NASA Center for Climate Simulation (NCCS) at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.


We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments which further improved the quality of the paper. This research work is financially supported by S N Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences under Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. This publication makes use of data from The UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey or UKIDSS which is a next generation near-IR sky survey using the wide field camera (WFCAM) on the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope on Mauna Kea in Hawaii. We also use data from Two-micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS), which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This paper uses data observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with NASA. The authors are thankful to the HTAC members and staff of HCT, operated by Indian Institute of Astrophysics (Bangalore); JTAC members and staff of 1.04 m Sampurnanand telescope operated by Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (Nainital).


Acknowledgements SK and MJH are supported by STFC grant ST/M001008/1. SK acknowledges a Senior Research Fellowship from Worcester College Oxford. EKL acknowledges support from the UK's Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant number St/K502029/1).


The Berger GRB group at Harvard is supported in part by the NSF under grant AST-1411763 and by NASA under grant NNX15AE50G. This paper is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under Grant No. DGE1144152. W.F. acknowledges support provided by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF4-150121 issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for NASA under contract NAS8-03060. We thank Ragnhild Lunnan, Maria Drout, Josh Grindlay, and Avi Loeb for helpful discussions. The HST data presented here and the Swift /UVOT data used in this work were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. Based in part on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, acquired through the Gemini Science Archive, and processed using the Gemini IRAF package, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil) and Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnologia e Innovación Productiva (Argentina). Based in part on data obtained from the ESO Science Archive Facility. This paper makes use of data gathered with the 6.5 m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. This research has made use of data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive and software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application package CIAO. Based in part on data collected at the Subaru Telescope and obtained from SMOKA, which is operated by the Astronomy Data Center, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. We thank S.B. Cenko for providing Palomar 60 inch afterglow images for GRBs 060206 and 090618, T. Krühler and J. Greiner for providing GROND afterglow images for GRBs 080520, 081121, and 081109 and a WHT image for GRB 090113, D. Malesani for providing a TNG afterglow image for GRB 060605, D. A. Kann for providing a WHT afterglow image for GRB 060124, and D. Perley for providing a Keck telescope afterglow image of GRB 071010A and a Palomar 60 inch afterglow image of GRB 080607.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was conducted within the Emmy Noether research group on ‘Accretion Flows and Feedback in Realistic Models of Massive Star Formation’ funded by the German Research Foundation under grant no. KU 2849/3-1. Additionally, the authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for comments which helped clarify the discussion found here.


We acknowledge the anonymous referee for useful comments and suggestions, the use of the Fermi -LAT data provided by the Fermi Science Support Center, the SIMBAD database operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France and the data of Herschel provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. This work is supported by National Key Program for Research and Development (2016YFA0400200), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 11433009, 11525313, 11722328, 11703093), the Joint Research Fund in Astronomy under cooperative agreement between the National Natural Science Foundation of China and Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. U1738126), and the Natural Science Foundation for Young Scholars of Jiangsu Province, China (No. BK20191109).


The support of the Namibian authorities and of the University of Namibia in facilitating the construction and operation of H.E.S.S. is gratefully acknowledged, as is the support by the German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), the Max Planck Society, the German Research Foundation (DFG), the French Ministry for Research, the CNRS-IN2P3 and the Astroparticle Interdisciplinary Programme of the CNRS, the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the IPNP of the Charles University, the Czech Science Foundation, the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education, the South African Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation, the University of Namibia, the Innsbruck University, the Austrian Science Fund (FWF), and the Austrian Federal Ministry for Science, Research and Economy, and by the University of Adelaide and the Australian Research Council. We appreciate the excellent work of the technical support staff in Berlin, Durham, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Palaiseau, Paris, Saclay, and in Namibia in the construction and operation of the equipment. This work benefited from services provided by the H.E.S.S. Virtual Organisation, supported by the national resource providers of the EGI Federation.


Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Nathan Crockett for providing the data on Orion KL and Sgr B2, and Peter Schilke for the data on NGC6334I. We also thank Frederik Dhooghe for discussing his results on halogens in 67P/C–G and David Neufeld and Catherine Walsh for discussions on the chemistry. MK is supported by an Intra-European Marie Sklodowska-Curie Fellowship. Astrochemistry in Leiden is supported by the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA), by a Royal NetherlandsAcademy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) professor prize, and by the European Union A-ERC grant 291141 CHEMPLAN. HIFI has been designed and built by a consortium of institutes and university departments from across Europe, Canada andthe United States under the leadership of SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Groningen, The Netherlands and with major contributions from Germany, France and the US. Consortium members are: Canada: CSA, U.Waterloo; France: CESR, LAB, LERMA, IRAM; Germany: KOSMA, MPIfR, MPS; Ireland, NUI Maynooth; Italy: ASI, IFSI-INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri-INAF; Netherlands: SRON, TUD; Poland: CAMK, CBK; Spain: Observatorio Astronómico Nacional (IGN), Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA). Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology - MC2, RSS GARD; Onsala Space Observatory; Swedish National Space Board, Stockholm University - Stockholm Observatory; Switzerland: ETH Zurich, FHNW; USA: Caltech, JPL, NHSC.


We thank Y. L. Yung, J. F. Kasting, C. E. Harman, and S. Seager for a helpful discussion of atmospheric photochemistry. R.Y.H. was supported by NASA grant No. 80NM0018F0612 and grant No. 15038.004 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. The research was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank N. Cornish, K. Kyutoku, T. Narikawa, T. Robson, H. Sugiura, and D. Toyouchi for their help. This work is supported by JSPS Kakenhi Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (nos. 17H06358 and 19K03870).


Acknowledgements We are grateful to Matthew Walker for providing us with the observational data. We are also grateful to Nana Cabo, Oscar Loaiza, Octavio Obregón, Jorge Peñarrubia, Miguel Sabido, and Erik Verlinde for useful discussions. AXGM acknowledges support from Cátedras CONACYT and UCMEXUS-CONACYT collaborative project funding. This work is supported by CONACyT-Mexico grants 182445, 167335, 179208, 179881, and Fronteras de la Ciencia 281, and also by DAIP-Universidad de Guanajuato grants 1,046/2016 and 878/2016.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Harley Katz, Yohan Dubois, and Marta Volonteri for useful discussion, and the anonymous referee for constructive comments. The research of RSB is supported by Science and Technologies Facilities Council (STFC) and by the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) on grant ANR-16-CE31-0011, and the research of AS and JD at Oxford is supported by Adrian Beecroft. This work is part of the Horizon-UK project, which used the DiRAC Complexity system, operated by the University of Leicester IT Services, which forms part of the STFC DiRAC High Perforamce Computing Facility ( http://www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment is funded by National E-Infrastructure capital grant ST/K000373/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K0003259/1. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. All visualizations in this work were produced using the yt-project (Turk et al. 2011 ).


We would like to thank the referee, Johan Hamaker, for extremely valuable comments that improved the paper. This work is based upon research supported by the South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation. Trienko Grobler originally pointed us in the direction of Wirtinger derivatives.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank the referee for their careful reading of the manuscript and their thoughtful and astute comments, which have led to clear improvements. I gratefully acknowledge the support of the STFC via an Ernest Rutherford Fellowship (grant ST/P003850/1).


This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. The authors thank the referee, Prof. Shri Kulkarni, for offering comments that significantly improved this manuscript. Facility: TESS .


We thank Tiago Pereira for his help during the observations. Comments from the referee led to considerable improvement of the presentation. IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research Center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by the Norwegian Space Center through an ESA PRODEX contract. The SST is operated on the island of La Palma by the Institute for Solar Physics of Stockholm University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. This research received funding from both the Research Council of Norway and the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/20072013)/ERC grant agreement No. 291058. We made much use of the SolarSoft and ADS libraries.


We thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments which helped us to improve this paper. We are grateful to Kathryn Kreckel for providing us the filtered density contrast of the galaxies from Grogin Geller ( 1999 ) and to Margaret Geller for valuable discussion. EMC was supported by Padua University through grants 60A02-5857/13, 60A02-5833/14, 60A02-4434/15, CPDA133894, and BIRD164402/16. EMC acknowledges the Max-Planck-Institut fr extraterrestrische Physik for the hospitality while this paper was in progress. This investigation was based on observations obtained at the Michigan-Dartmouth-MIT (MDM) Observatory and at the Gemini Observatory under program GN-2011B-9-80. MDM Observatory, Kitt Peak, Arizona is operated by a consortium of Dartmouth College, the University of Michigan, Columbia University, the Ohio State University, and Ohio University. Gemini Observatory is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnologa e Innovacin Productiva (Argentina), and Ministrio da Cincia, Tecnologia e Inovao (Brazil). Parts of the data used in this research were acquired through the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) Archive ( http://www.sdss.org/ ). Funding for the creation and distribution of the SDSS Archive has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium (ARC) for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are The University of Chicago, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, The Johns Hopkins University, the Korean Scientist Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPI), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. This research also made use of the HyperLeda Database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr/ ) and NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/ ).


T.R. and D.H. are supported by the German Aerospace Center (DLR, grants 05 OR 1507 and 50 OR 1501, respectively). The GAVO project had been supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) at Tübingen (05 AC 6 VTB, 05 AC 11 VTB) and is funded at Heidelberg (05 AC 11 VH3). Financial support from the Belgian FRS-FNRS is also acknowledged. P.Q. is research director of this organization. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. The TIRO ( http://astro.uni-tuebingen.de/~TIRO ), TMAD ( http://astro.uni-tuebingen.de/~TMAD ), and TOSS ( http://astro.uni-tuebingen.de/~TOSS ) services were constructed as part of the Tübingen project of the German Astrophysical Virtual Observatory (GAVO, http://www.g-vo.org ). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System and the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.


Acknowledgments MMRau thanks the anonymous referee, Gary Bernstein, Michael Troxel and Sarah Bridle for invaluable comments on the manuscript. This work was supported by SFB-Transregio 33 The Dark Universe by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and the DFG cluster of excellence Origin and Structure of the Universe.


We acknowledge support by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) under grants AYA2013-47447-C3-1-P, and MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia “María de Maeztu”). This research has been supported by the Marie Curie Career Integration Grant 321520. V.B.-R. also acknowledges financial support from MINECO and European Social Funds through a Ramón y Cajal fellowship. X.P.-F. also acknowledges financial support from Universitat de Barcelona and Generalitat de Catalunya under grants APIF and FI (2015FI_B1 00153), respectively. D.K. acknowledges financial support by a grant-in-aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI, No. 24105007-1) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (MEXT). M.P. is a member of the working team of projects AYA2013-40979-P and AYA2013-48226-C3-2-P, funded by MINECO.


We thank Andrew Youdin for a helpful discussion. This work is based on observations made with the cryogenic mission of the Spitzer Space Telescope , which was operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. It also makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This project was partially supported by contracts 1255094 and 1256424 from Caltech/JPL to the University of Arizona, and by NASA Grant NNX10AD38G. Facilities: Spitzer (MIPS , IRAC) , WISE .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS GBTrans activities are supported by a National Science Foundation (NSF) award AST-1516958. DRL was supported by NSF award number OIA-1458952. GG would like to thank Mayuresh Surnis and Dan Werthimer for useful discussions and Nate Garver-Daniels for the technical support for this work. GG, DRL, RP, and MAM are members of the NANOGrav Physics Frontiers Center that is supported by NSF award 1430284. SWE was supported by NSF award AST-1516170 to Virginia Tech. KR would like to acknowledge financial support from European Research Council Horizon 2020 grant (no. 694745). The Green Bank Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. We thank the referee for very helpful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.


This work was partially supported by NASA grants NNX09AC46G and NNX13AF31G. We thank Randall Smith for helpful discussions.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA2013.1.00521.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ.


We warmly thank the German ALMA ARC node for their excellent support for this project and R. Somerville for providing the information on the simulation predictions for our redshift range of interest. We also thank the referee for constructive comments. E.S. acknowledges fruitful discussions with R. Somerville, R. Feldmann, N.Z. Scoville, N. Bouché, and C. de Breuck that helped to significantly focus the paper. B.G. gratefully acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council as the recipient of a Future Fellowship (FT140101202). A.K. acknowledges support by the Collaborative Research Council 956, sub-project A1, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). Support for B.M. was provided by the DFG priority program 1573 “The physics of the interstellar medium.” V.S. acknowledges funding from the European Union’s Seventh Framework program under grant agreement 337595 (ERC Starting Grant, “CoSMass”). This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00151.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC, and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. Based on data obtained with the European Southern Observatory Very Large Telescope, Paranal, Chile, under Large Program 185.A-0791. Facility: ALMA.


We thank Qiang Yuan and Zhao-Huan Yu for helpful discussions. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under grant nos. 11375277, 11410301005, 11647606, and 11005163, the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, the Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province under grant no. 2016A030313313, and the Sun Yat-Sen University Science Foundation.


K.J.K. gratefully acknowledges funding for this work received through a NASA Earth and Space Science Fellowship, as well as the use of codes written by B. J. Lynch. The numerical simulations were performed under a grant of NASA High-End Computing resources to C.R.D. on Discover at NASA’s Center for Climate Simulation. Grants from NASA’s Living With a Star, Heliophysics Supporting Research, and Heliophysics Internal Scientist Funding Model programs partially supported K.J.K., S.K.A., J.A.K., and C.R.D.


Based on observations made with the WHT operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. This research has been supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under the grants AYA2007-67625-CO2-01, AYA2009-12903 and AYA2012-39408-C02-02. JEB acknowledge financial support to the DAGAL network from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013/ under REA grant agreement number PITN-GA-2011-289313. This research made use of astropy , a community-developed core python package for astronomy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), aplpy , an open-source plotting package for python hosted at http://aplpy.github.com , and astrodendro , a python package to compute dendrograms of astronomical data ( http://www.dendrograms.org/ ). We acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda data base ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). We thank Roberto Terlevich, the referee of the paper, whose comments have led to important improvements on the original version of the paper.


Acknowledgements We thank the IRAM staff for their support in carrying out the CALYPSO observations, and the anonymous referee for a detailed reading that significantly helped us to improve the paper. We thank Kees Dullemond, Ralf Klessen, Sandrine Bottinelli, Benoit Commercon, and Ralf Launhardt for their participation to the preparation of the CALYPSO project. We thank the INSU “Action Spécifique ALMA” for their financial support to the CALYPSO collaboration. This work has benefited from the support of the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (Advanced Grant ORISTARS with grant agreement No. 291294 and Starting Grant MagneticYSOs with grant agreement No. 679937).


This work has been funded by the ANR GIPSE ANR-14-CE33-0018. This work has made use of the VALD database, operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow, and the University of Vienna. This work has made use of the BASS2000 data base at http://bass2000.obspm.fr/ . Our group is part of the LabEx OSUG@2020 (Investissement d’avenir – ANR10 LABX56).


Acknowledgments Guang-Xing Li thanks Xun Shi for discussions and for comments on the paper, and thanks Manuel Behrendt and Andi Burket for introducing him the problem and for sharing their views. Alexei Kritsuk is acknowledged for a discussion at MIAPP (Munich) where he introduced the Marochnik etal. ( 1983 ) paper, and Masataka Fukugita is acknowledged for a discussion on H I /H 2 transition. Jens Kauffman and Pavel Kroupa are acknowledge for critical comments. Bruce Elmegreen is acknowledged for an in-depth discussion on the multiphase ISM. Finally, the referee must be thanked for a careful reading of the paper and for the pertinent comments. This paper is supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) priority programme 1573 ISM-SPP.


The author acknowledges fruitful exchange with H. Andressen, A. Burrows, Th. Foglizzo, A. Heger, W.R. Hix, H.-Th. Janka, Y. Levin, T. Plewa, and T. Waters. He has been supported by the Australian Research Council through a Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (grant DE150101145) and by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation through a Feodor Lynen fellowship. The computations were performed on Raijin at the NCI National Facility (project fh6) using computer time contingents obtained through NCMAS, ASTAC, and a Monash LIEF top-up grant, on the Monash eGrid Cluster, and on the IBM iDataPlex system hydra at the Rechenzentrum of the Max-Planck Society (RZG).


PNB and JS are grateful for support from the UK STFC via grant ST/M001229/1. KJD acknowledges support from the ERC Advanced Investigator programme NewClusters 321271. GG acknowledges the CSIRO OCE Postdoctoral Fellowship. MJH and WLW acknowledge support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) [ST/M001008/1]. APM would like to acknowledge the support from the NWO/DOME/IBM programme “Big Bang Big Data: Innovating ICT as a Driver For Astronomy”, project #628.002.001. LKM acknowledges support from Oxford Hintze Centre for Astrophysical Surveys, which is funded through generous support from the Hintze Family Charitable Foundation. This publication arises from research partly funded by the John Fell Oxford University Press (OUP) Research Fund. IP acknowledges support from INAF under PRIN SKA/CTA “FORECaST”. The LOFAR group in Leiden is supported by the ERC Advanced Investigator programme New-Clusters 321271. LOFAR, the LOw Frequency ARray designed and constructed by ASTRON, has facilities in several countries, which are owned by various parties (each with their own funding sources) and are collectively operated by the International LOFAR Telescope (ILT) foundation under a joint scientific policy. The ILT resources have benefited from the following recent major funding sources: CNRS-INSU, Observatoire de Paris, and Université d’Orléans, France; BMBF, MIWF-NRW, MPG, Germany; Department of Business, Enterprise and Innovation (DBEI), Ireland; NWO, The Netherlands; and The Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), UK. Part of this work was carried out on the Dutch national e-infrastructure with the support of the SURF Cooperative through grant e-infra 160022 and 160152. The LOFAR software and dedicated reduction packages on https://github.com/apmechev/GRID_LRT were deployed on the e-infrastructure by the LOFAR e-infragroup, consisting of J. B. R. Oonk (ASTRON Leiden Observatory), A. P. Mechev (Leiden Observatory), and T. Shimwell (ASTRON) with support from N. Danezi (SURFsara) and C. Schrijvers (SURFsara). This research has made use of the University of Hertfordshire high-performance computing facility ( http://uhhpc.herts.ac.uk/ ) and the LOFAR-UK computing facility located at the University of Hertfordshire and supported by STFC [ST/P000096/1]. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration 2018 ).


E.L. is supported by an NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellowship under award AST-1801937. R.D.M. acknowledges funding support from NSF AST-1714506 and NASA-NNX15AW69G. A.V.’s work was performed under contract with the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) funded by NASA through the Sagan Fellowship Program executed by the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute. Thank you to R. Esselstein for helpful conversations about stellar rotation periods for this paper. Thank you also to the anonymous referee for careful and thoughtful comments on the manuscript.


This research is supported by the Polish National Science Centre through grant DEC-2012/05/B/ST9/03932. Fruitful discussions with Pawel Moskalik are acknowledged. We also thank Jan Skowron for enlightening discussion about the OGLE photometry.


SS acknowledges support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific research (NWO), VENI grant 639.041.233. RS acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the European Union (FP/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement no. 306476. DS acknowledges (i) financial support from the NWO through a Veni fellowship and (ii) funding from FCT through a FCT Investigator Starting Grant and Start-up Grant (IF/01154/2012/CP0189/CT0010) and from FCT grant PEst-OE/FIS/UI2751/2014.


Acknowledgements For useful discussions in the course of this work, we would like to thank Rolf-Peter Kudritzki, Nathan Smith, Justyn Maund and Paul Crowther.


We are thankful to Raphael Roth and Fortunate Joos for providing data on C production rates and for useful discussions on the carbon cycle. Support by the Academy of Finland to the ReSoLVE Center of Excellence (project no. 272157) and by IPGP through its invitation program is acknowledged. Y.G. and G.K. were partly financed by grant N 14.Z50.31.0017 of the Russian Ministry of Science and Education. This is IPGP contribution No. 3699.


We are extremely grateful to Lyuba Slavcheva-Mihova for providing us with their HST structure map of Mrk 590. Also, we thank Sandra Raimundo for helpful discussions and the anonymous reviewer for insightful comments. We wish to thank the staff of the Nordic and Italian nodes of the European ARC, in particular Ivan Marti-Vidal, for assistance with the data reduction and imaging. We are also indebted to SMA support staff, including Mark Gurwell and Lars Kristensen, for their assistance with the preparation of the SMA proposal, scheduling of observations and data reduction. Travel to the Nordic node of the ARC was made possible through the MARCUs RadioNet3 funding from the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) under grant agreement no. 283393. JYK is supported by a research grant (VKR023371) from Villumfonden. MV, JYK, and DL gratefully acknowledge support from the Danish Council for Independent Research via grant no. DFF 4002-00275. The Dark Cosmology Centre is funded by the Danish National Research Foundation. The work of VC is partly supported by the Italian Ministero dell′′Istruzione, Università e Ricerca through the grant Progetti Premiali 2012 – iALMA (CUP C52I13000140001). BMP is grateful to the US National Science Foundation for support through grant AST–1008882 to The Ohio State University. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00534.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This research also makes use of data from the SMA, which is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. We also used data based on observations made with the NASA/ESA HST , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). The NVAS image used in this paper was produced as part of the NVAS, (c) AUI/NRAO. We acknowledge the use of data from the NASA Extragalactic Database (NED).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the ERC Advanced Investigator Project 267219, the UK Natural Environment Research Council and the Russian Fund for Fundamental Studies (grant 18-02-0057).


Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their gratitude to the computing facilities of IATE and UNC, without which these numerical experiments would not have been possible. We also thank an anonymous referee for valuable comments and suggestions that improved the manuscript. This work was funded by research grants from SECYT/UNC, CONICET, and ANPCyT.


Acknowledgements We wish to thank Jay Anderson for helping us quantify the additional uncertainty introduced by the 180° rotation between epochs. Thanks also to Bo Reipurth for helpful conversations. MR would like to thank John Bieging, Tom Haworth and Chris Miller. HH numbers are assigned by Bo Reipurth in order to correspond with the catalogue of HH objects maintained at http://ifa.hawaii.edu/reipurth/ ; see also Reipurth Reiter (2017), A General Catalog of Herbig-Haro Objects , 3rd Edition, in preparation. Support for this work was provided by NASA through grants AR-12155, GO-13390 and GO-13391 from the Space Telescope Science Institute. This work is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained from the Data Archive at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. These HST observations are associated with programmes GO 10241, 10475, 13390 and 13391.


Data from ESO FEROS programme ID 078.C-0493(A) and FLAMES programme 171.D-0237(B) were taken from the ESO archive. This research has made use of the simbad (Wenger et al. 2000 ) Database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France and the ESO Archive. JVS thanks the ESO Director General Discretionary Fund and Queen's University Belfast Visiting Scientist Fund for financial support. We would like to thank two anonymous referees whose comments significantly improved the paper.


The authors thank the anonymous referee for useful comments that improved this paper. We also thank Jane Lin for helpful discussions on stellar mass for the Li-rich giants. This research was supported by the National Key Basic Research Programme of China 2014CB845700, and by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant Nos. 11833006, 11603037, and 11473033. This work is supported by the Astronomical Big Data Joint Research Center, cofounded by the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Alibaba Cloud. K.P. acknowledges support from the Mt. Cuba Astronomical Foundation Grant and from Center for Astronomical Megascience, CAS. Guoshoujing Telescope (the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope LAMOST) is a National Major Scientific Project built by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Funding for the project has been provided by the National Development and Reform Commission. LAMOST is operated and managed by the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 188.B-3002. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy. Software: Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 , 2018 ), PARAM (da Silva et al. 2006 ), SPECTRUM (Gray Corbally 1994 ), MARCS (Gustafsson et al. 2008 ).


The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for constructive comments. The authors thank Doug Gilliam (NSO) and Michiel Van Noort (MPS) for their valuable support during the acquisition and MOMFBD processing of the data. S.L.G. and F.Z. are supported by Università degli Studi di Catania (Linea di intervento 1 e Linea di intervento 2). The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Framework Programme for Research and Innovation, grant agreements H2020 PRE-EST (No. 739500) and H2020 SOLARNET (No. 824135). This work was also supported by INAF Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (PRIN-INAF-2014). S.J. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 682462) and from the Research Council of Norway through sits Centres of Excellence scheme (project No. 262622).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Steve Warren for helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper. This work was supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) grants ST/L00075X/1 and ST/P000541/1. AJG acknowledges an STFC studentship funded by STFC grant ST/N50404X/1. CDL has received funding from the ARC Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. CDL also thanks the Mobilising European Research in Astrophysics and Cosmology (MERAC) Foundation for a Postdoctoral Research Award. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC High Performance Computing (HPC) Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grants ST/H008519/1 and ST/K00087X/1, STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments. M.J. acknowledges the support of the Academy of Finland Grant No. 285769. P.C. acknowledges the support of the ERC Advanced grant PALs 320620.


The author is really thankful to the anonymous referee for numerous comments, which led to a significant improvement of the manuscript. The author is also grateful to C.J. Pethick and D.G. Yakovlev for discussions. This work was supported by RSF, grant no. 14-12-00316.


We thank the anonymous referee for a careful reading of the manuscript and helpful suggestions that strengthened this paper greatly. We thank our colleagues on the AGES, ISS, SDWFS, NDWFS, and the XBoötes teams and the HerMES team for making the data publicly available. The first Spitzer MIPS survey of the Boötes region was obtained using GTO time provided by the Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph Team (PI, James Houck) and by M. Rieke. We thank the collaborators in that work for access to the 24 μ m catalog generated from those data by Emeric Le Floc’h. This work was supported under Contract NAS8-03060. R.J.A. was supported by Gemini-CONICYT Grant 32120009. K.N.H and R.C.H. were partially supported by NASA through ADAP Award NNX12AE38G and by the National Science Foundation through Grant 1211096. This work was also supported by Science and Technologies Facilities Council (STFC) grant ST/I001573/1 (D.M.A. and A.D.M.) and the Leverhulme Trust (D.M.A.). R.C.H. acknowledges support from an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship and Dartmouth Class of 1962 Faculty Fellowship. C.-T.J.C was supported by a Dartmouth Fellowship and the William H. Neukom 1964 Institute for Computational Science.


The authors thank the anonymous reviewer for a careful reading of this manuscript and providing thoughtful feedback that improved this paper. We also thank Alis Deason for assistance in line-list vetting, Gina Duggan for useful discussions on generating grids of synthetic spectra, Raja Guha Thakurta for help with observations and insightful conversations, and Luis Vargas and Marla Geha for sharing their data for M31 outer halo RGB stars. I.E. acknowledges support from a Ford Foundation Predoctoral Fellowship and the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship under grant No. DGE-1745301, as well as the NSF under grant No. AST-1614081, along with E.N.K. K.M.G. and J.W. acknowledge support from NSF grant AST-1614569. E.C.C. was supported by an NSF Graduate Research Fellowship as well as NSF grant No. AST-1616540. The analysis pipeline used to reduce the DEIMOS data was developed at UC Berkeley with support from NSF grant AST-0071048.


We wish to thank the anonymous referee for the extremely useful comments that greatly improved the quality of this paper. G.N. and M.S. acknowledge the Programme National de Cosmologie et Galaxies (PNCG) of CNRS/INSU, France, for financial support. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, the Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. Funding for RAVE has been provided by the Australian Astronomical Observatory; the Leibniz-Institut fuer Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP); the Australian National University; the Australian Research Council; the French National Research Agency; the German Research Foundation (SPP 1177 and SFB 881); the European Research Council (ERC-StG 240271 Galactica); the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica at Padova; Johns Hopkins University; the National Science Foundation of the USA (AST-0908326); the W. M. Keck foundation; the Macquarie University; The Netherlands Research School for Astronomy; the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada; the Slovenian Research Agency; the Swiss National Science Foundation; the Science Technology Facilities Council of the UK; Opticon; Strasbourg Observatory; and the Universities of Groningen, Heidelberg, and Sydney. Based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 188.B-3002. These data products have been processed by the Cambridge Astronomy Survey Unit (CASU) at the Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, and by the FLAMES/UVES reduction team at INAF/Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri. These data have been obtained from the Gaia -ESO Survey Data Archive, prepared and hosted by the Wide Field Astronomy Unit, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, which is funded by the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 programme through ERC grant number 320360 and by the Leverhulme Trust through grant RPG-2012-541. We acknowledge the support from INAF and Ministero dell’ Istruzione, dell’ Università’ e della Ricerca (MIUR) in the form of the grant “Premiale VLT 2012”. The results presented here benefit from discussions held during the Gaia -ESO workshops and conferences supported by the ESF (European Science Foundation) through the GREAT Research Network Programme. The Guo Shou Jing Telescope (the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope, LAMOST) is a National Major Scientific Project built by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Funding for the project has been provided by the National Development and Reform Commission. LAMOST is operated and managed by National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences.