This work was supported in part by the Theoretical Astrophysics Center at UC Berkeley. D.K. is supported in part by a Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Physics Early Career Award, and by the Director, Office of Energy Research, Office of High Energy and Nuclear Physics, Divisions of Nuclear Physics, of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231. Numerical computations utilized the Savio computational cluster resource provided by the Berkeley Research Computing program at the University of California, Berkeley (supported by the UC Berkeley Chancellor, Vice Chancellor of Research, and Office of the CIO).


We are grateful to the referee S. Johnston for very useful comments, to A. Jessner, D. Schnitzeler and D. Riquelme for discussions, to P. Lazarus for sharing code, and to C. Ng for reading the manuscript. Partly based on observations with the 100-m telescope of the MPIfR at Effelsberg. The Nançay radio observatory is operated by the Paris Observatory, associated with the French CNRS. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). APEX is a collaboration between the MPIfR, the European Southern Observatory, and the Onsala Space Observatory. Financial support by the European Research Council for the ERC Synergy Grant BlackHoleCam (ERC-2013-SyG, Grant Agreement no. 610058) is gratefully acknowledged. PT is supported for this research through a stipend from the International Max Planck Research School (IMPRS) for Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Universities of Bonn and Cologne.


ML and AB were supported by the DOE (Grant No. DE-AC02-09CH-11466) and the NSF (Grant No. AGS-1338944) during the course of this work. ML is grateful to Gordon Ogilvie for his encouraging comments regarding a preliminary version of the manuscript. ML is thankful to Santiago Benavides and Pallavi Bhat for their insightful assistance.


I am grateful to T. Baker and M. G. Santos for extensive discussions, and acknowledge Y. Akrami, S. Camera, P. G. Ferreira, A. Raccanelli, J.-P. Uzan, M. Viel, F. Villaescusa-Navarro, and K. Zarb-Adami for useful comments and suggestions. I was supported by European Research Council grant StG2010-257080. The code and Fisher matrices used in this paper are available from http://philbull.com/mg_ska/ .


The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee whose comments improved the flow, precision, and clarity of the paper. It is a pleasure to thank Tony Piro, Dan Kasen, E. Sterl Phinney, Eliot Quataert, Maryam Modjaz, Jim Fuller, Lars Bildsten, Udi Nakar, Paul Duffell, and Luc Dessart for helpful discussions. A.Y.Q.H. is particularly grateful to Tony Piro and the community at Carnegie Observatories for their hospitality on Tuesdays during the period in which this work was performed. Thank you to the staff at the SMA, AMI, the VLA, Swift , and Chandra for rapidly scheduling and executing the observations. Thank you to David Palmer (LANL) for his assistance in searching the pointing data for Swift /BAT. Thank you to Michael J. Koss (Eureka Scientific Int), Andrew Drake (Caltech), Scott Adams (Caltech), Matt Hankins (Caltech), Kevin Burdge (Caltech), and Kirsty Taggart (LJMU) for assisting with optical spectroscopic observations. Thank you to Erik Petigura and David Hogg for their advice on figure aesthetics. Thank you to David Alexander Kann (IAA-CSIC) for pointing out an error in an early version of the paper posted to the arXiv. D.A.G. thanks Stéfan van der Walt and Ari Crellin-Quick for assistance with skyportal, which enabled the search for pre-explosion emission. A.Y.Q.H. is supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under grant No. DGE1144469. This work was supported by the GROWTH project funded by the National Science Foundation under PIRE grant No. 1545949. A.G.-Y. is supported by the EU via ERC grant No. 725161, the ISF, the BSF Transformative program, and by a Kimmel award. Y.T. studied as a GROWTH intern at Caltech during the summer and fall of 2017. C.C.N. thanks the funding from MOST grant 104-2923-M-008-004-MY5. R.L. is supported by a Marie Skłodowska-Curie Individual Fellowship within the Horizon 2020 European Union (EU) Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (H2020-MSCA-IF-2017-794467). A.H. acknowledges support by the I-Core Program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Israel Science Foundation, and support by the ISF grant 647/18. This research was supported by a grant from the GIF, the German-Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development. This research was funded in part by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation through Grant GBMF5076, and a grant from the Heising-Simons Foundation. A.C. acknowledges support from the NSF CAREER award N. 1455090 and from the NASA/ Chandra GI award N. GO8-19055A. Research support to I.A. is provided by the GROWTH project, funded by the National Science Foundation under grant No 1545949. This work is based on observations obtained with the Samuel Oschin Telescope 48 inch and the 60 inch Telescope at the Palomar Observatory as part of the Zwicky Transient Facility project. Major funding has been provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation under grant No. AST-1440341 and by the ZTF partner institutions: the California Institute of Technology, the Oskar Klein Centre, the Weizmann Institute of Science, the University of Maryland, the University of Washington, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron, the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, and the TANGO Program of the University System of Taiwan. Partially based on observations made with the Nordic Optical Telescope, operated by the Nordic Optical Telescope Scientific Association at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain, of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. The Liverpool Telescope is operated by Liverpool John Moores University with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. LT is located on the island of La Palma, in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. The scientific results reported in this article are based in part on observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory . The data presented here were obtained in part with ALFOSC, which is provided by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA) under a joint agreement with the University of Copenhagen and NOTSA. The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. We acknowledge the support of the staff of the Xinglong 2.16 m telescope. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC grants 11325313 and 11633002), and the National Program on Key Research and Development Project (grant No. 2016YFA0400803). SED Machine is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under grant No. 1106171. This publication has made use of data collected at Lulin Observatory, partly supported by MoST grant 105-2112-M-008-024-MY3. The JEKYLL simulations were performed on resources provided by the Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing (SNIC) at Parallelldatorcentrum (PDC). Facilities: CFHT , Keck:I (LRIS) , Hale (DBSP) , AMI , Liverpool:2 m (IO:O , SPRAT) , DCT , Swift (UVOT , XRT) , Beijing:2.16 m , EVLA , SMA , LO:1 m , NOT (ALFOSC). Software: Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 , 2018 ), IPython (Pérez Granger 2007 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), numpy (Oliphant 2006 ), scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ), extinction (Barbary 2016 ) SkyPortal (Van der Walt et al. 2019 ).


This project has received funding from the US Department of Energy under grant DE-FG02-04ER54742, the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No. 795158, the Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation of Georgia (SRNSFG; grant number FR17-107), and the Space and Geophysics Laboratory at the University of Texas at Austin. G.M. acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (Germany). The simulations were performed at the Texas Advanced Computing Center in Austin (TX) and on the high-performance Linux cluster Hydra at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (Germany).


We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments. We also thank Jarle Brinchmann, Anna Feltre, Brent Groves, Alba Vidal-García, Aida Wofford and the entire NEOGAL team for valuable discussions. We acknowledge support from the ERC via an Advanced Grant under grant agreement no. 321323-NEOGAL. GB acknowledges the hospitality and support from CNRS/IAP during different stages of this investigation, as well as support for this work from the National Autonomous University of México (UNAM) through grant PAPIIT IG100115. Funding for the creation and distribution of the SDSS Archive has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS website is http://www.sdss.org/ .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported in part by the bequest of William Herschel Womble in support of astronomy at the University of Denver. JG thanks the University of Denver Undergraduate Research Center for a Partners in Scholarship (PinS) grant, and the Native American Scholarship fund that helped his efforts in this research. An earlier version of this paper appeared as https://arxiv.org/abs/1612.05287 . The authors are grateful to the Astronomical Research Consortium (ARC) that operates the Apache Point Observatory 3.5 m telescopes and its ARCES and TripleSpec instruments that provided the bulk of the data reported in this paper. We thank Matthew Muterspaugh (Tennessee State University) for access to late-eclipse time-series data generated by Joel Eaton with their Automated Spectroscopy Telescope (AST), review of which led us to re-examine the ARCES data during third-contact (see section 3.4: Details of Stream Appearance). We also want to acknowledge observers and APO programme leaders including Alaina Bradley, Jack Dembicky, Suzanne Hawley, Joseph Huehnerhoff, Russet McMillan, Sarah Schmidt, Nicholas Ule, Donald G. York, George Wallerstein, the APO staff, and others for their contributions to the ARCES and TripleSpec data collection process. We appreciate helpful comments from the reviewer and editor.


We thank Monique Arnaud, Gabriel Pratt, Keiichi Umetsu, James Jee, Edo van Uitert, Anja von der Linden, Doug Applegate, Ken Rines and Douglas Scott for useful discussions. We are also grateful to Keiichi Umetsu and James Jee for providing some of their Subaru images, and to Anja von der Linden for sharing the WtG lensing catalogues. HH and MC were supported by the Netherlands organization for Scientific Research (NWO) Vidi grant 639.042.814; HH, RH and MV acknowledge support from the European Research Council FP7 grant number 279396. AB would like to acknowledge research funding from NSERC Canada through its Discovery Grant program. AM acknowledges support from NASA ADAP grant NNX12AE45G. This research used the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre operated by the National Research Council of Canada with the support of the Canadian Space Agency.


We thank Laura Bonavera for assisting with the C2499 ATCA observations of this project. We wish also to thank Mark Wieringa for the support on the miriad data reduction and Piero Ullio for insightful discussions during the early stages of the project. SC acknowledges support by the South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation and by the Square Kilometre Array (SKA). SP is partly supported by the US Department of Energy, Contract DE-FG02-04ER41268. MR acknowledges support by the research grant TAsP ( Theoretical Astroparticle Physics ) funded by the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN). The ATCA is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO.


M.Ć. acknowledges support from NASA’s Outer Planets Research Program, awards NNX11AM48G and NNX14AOO38G. We thank an anonymous reviewer for very insightful comments that greatly improved the paper.


We acknowledge the grants ASI n.I/023/12/0 ‘Attività relative alla fase B2/C per la missione Euclid’ and MIUR PRIN 2010-2011 ‘The dark Universe and the cosmic evolution of baryons: from current surveys to Euclid’. MB is supported by the Marie Curie Intra European Fellowship ‘SIDUN’ within the 7th Framework Programme of the European Commission. The numerical simulations presented in this work have been performed and analysed on the Hydra cluster at the RZG supercomputing centre in Garching, and on the BladeRunner cluster at the Bologna University, partly funded by the Marie Curie Intra European Fellowship ‘SIDUN’. We acknowledge financial support from PRIN INAF 2012 ‘The Universe in the box: multiscale simulations of cosmic structure.


We would like to thank Gary Bernstein, Sarah Bridle, Jörg Dietrich, Mike Jarvis, Elisabeth Krause, Ravi Sheth, Yuanyuan Zhang, and especially Rachel Mandelbaum for helpful discussions and comments. We are very grateful to Erin Sheldon for the use of his SDSS shear catalogues and to Tomasz Kacprzak for related collaborative work. BJ and MT also thank the Aspen Center for Physics and NSF Grant #1066293, for their warm hospitality when part of this work was done. BJ and JC are partially supported by Department of Energy grant DE-SC0007901. MT is supported by World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI Initiative), MEXT, Japan, by the FIRST program ‘Subaru Measurements of Images and Redshifts (SuMIRe)’, CSTP, Japan, by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the JSPS Promotion of Science (No. 23340061 and 26610058), and by MEXT Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas (No. 15H05893 and 15K21733). HM was supported in part by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Research Fellowships for Young Scientists. HM was supported in part by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


Kohta Murase thanks Poonam Chandra, Boaz Katz, Eran Ofek, Todd Thompson, and Eli Waxman for useful discussions. We also thank internal referees in the Fermi -LAT Collaboration, especially Regina Caputo, Seth Digel, Nicola Omodei, and Nicolas Renault-Tinacci for reviewing the manuscript. The work of Kohta Murase is supported by NSF grant No. PHY-1620777 and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. He also acknowledges the Hubble Fellowship through NASA and STScI during the early stages of this work. A.F. was supported by the Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association. Keiichi Maeda acknowledges support by JSPS KAKENHI grant Nos. 18H04585, 18H05223, 17H02864. J.F.B. is supported by NSF grant No. PHY-1714479. The preliminary estimates and results were presented at the PCTS workshop at Princeton University in 2015, the AMON workshop at Penn State University in 2015, and the supernova workshop at ISSI in 2016. The Fermi -LAT Collaboration acknowledges generous ongoing support from a number of agencies and institutes that have supported both the development and the operation of the LAT, as well as scientific data analysis. These include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Department of Energy in the United States; the Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules in France; the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana and the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare in Italy; the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) in Japan; and the K. A. Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council, and the Swedish National Space Board in Sweden. Additional support for science analysis during the operations phase is gratefully acknowledged from the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica in Italy and the Centre National d’Études Spatiales in France. This work was performed in part under DOE Contract DE-AC02-76SF00515.


Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for their helpful comments. We would also like to thank R. Davies and K. Pimbblet for discussion and suggestions which greatly improved the clarity of this paper. This publication made extensive use of the Tool for Operations on Catalogues And Tables (TOPCAT; Taylor 2005 ) that can be found at http://www.star.bris.ac.uk/mbt/topcat/ and the open source Python module astroPy ; 9 Astropy Collaboration etal. ( 2013 ). This research has also made use of NASAs ADS service and Cornells ArXiv. RJS would like to acknowledge funding from both the Science and Technology Facilities Council, Grant Code ST/K502236/1, and from the Ogden Trust. SJK would like to acknowledge the funding from STFC Grant Code ST/MJ0371X/1. The development of Galaxy Zoo was supported in part by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and by The Leverhulme Trust. Based on observations made with the NASA Galaxy Evolution Explorer. GALEX is operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology under NASA contract NAS5-98034. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory and the University of Washington.


Acknowledgements This research was supported in part by the US Department of Energy through grant GR523126, the National Science Foundation through grant GR506177 and the Space Telescope Science Institute through grant GR528562. AP would also like to acknowledge that partial salary support was provided by the Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics (CITA) National Fellowship.


I thank Chris Nixon and Stuart Muldrew for discussions and help in preparing the Letter, and the referee for a very perceptive report. This paper was completed during a visit to the Institut d'Astrophysique, Paris, and I am grateful to them for support. I particularly thank Jean-Pierre Lasota for discussions of accretion disc stability during my stay. Theoretical astrophysics research in Leicester is supported by an STFC Consolidated Grant.


We thank the referee, Sergei Nayakshin, for useful comments that improved the quality of the letter as well as D. Calderón, M. Habibi, and L. Oskinova for very useful comments and discussion. For the computations and analysis, we have made use of many open-source software packages, including R AMSES ( Teyssier 2002 ), yt ( Turk et al. 2011 ), NumPy, SciPy, matplotlib, hdf5, h4py. We thank everybody involved in the development of these for their contributions. MS acknowledges support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through grant no. BU 842/25-1. The computations were performed on the HPC system HYDRA of the Max Planck Computing and Data Facility.


Acknowledgements We thank an anonymous referee for very useful comments and suggestions, and Valerie Connaughton for providing us with the details of the Fermi GBM follow ups to the BBH merger events in runs O1 and O2. RP was partly supported by NSF award AST-1616157. KB acknowledges support from the Polish National Science Center (NCN) grant: Sonata Bis 2 (DEC-2012/07/E/ST9/01360). AC acknowledges support from the NSF CAREER award #1455090 and also partial support from the Swift Cycle 12 GI programme (Grant No. NNX17AF93G).


This study is based on observations obtained in the framework of the ESO Prg. 092.D-0209(A). A.K. thanks Saint Petersburg State University for grant 6.38.18.2014.


Acknowledgments I am grateful to Shahram Abbassi for helpful comments on this paper. I also thank the referee for his/her thoughtful and constructive comments that greatly helped me to improve this paper.


Acknowledgements This work is based on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. This work has also made use of the Rainbow Cosmological Surveys data base, which is operated by the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), partnered with the University of California Observatories at Santa Cruz (UCO/Lick,UCSC) and used observations taken by the CANDELS Multi-Cycle Treasury Program with the NASA/ESA HST, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555.


The authors thank W. Dziembowski for his contribution to the theoretical predictions for activity-related frequency shifts in Metcalfe et al. ( 2007 ). The authors thank D. Bossini for providing the evolutionary tracks shown in this paper. A.R.G.S. acknowledges the support from National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant NNX17AF27G. T.L.C. acknowledges support from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 792848 and from grant CIAAUP-12/2018-BPD. W.J.C., G.R.D., R.H., and Y.E. acknowledge the support of the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). M.S.C acknowledges support from FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia—through national funds and by FEDER through COMPETE2020—Programa Operacional Competitividade e Internacionalização—through the grants: UID/FIS/04434/2019; PTDC/FIS-AST/30389/2017 POCI-01-0145-FEDER-030389. C.K. is supported by the Villum Foundation. Funding for the Stellar Astrophysics Centre is provided by the Danish National Research Foundation (grant agreement No.: DNRF106). T.S.M. acknowledges support from a Visiting Fellowship at the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research. S.M. acknowledges the support from the Ramon y Cajal fellowship number RYC-2015-17697. R.A.G. acknowledges the support from PLATO and GOLF CNES grants. M.N.L. acknowledges the support of The Danish Council for Independent Research—Natural Science (grant DFF-4181-00415). R.K. acknowledges the support of the STFC consolidated grant ST/P000320/1. V.S.A. acknowledges support from the Independent Research Fund Denmark (Research grant 7027-00096B). Software: SciPy (Jones et al. 2001 ), NumPy (van der Walt et al. 2011 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), scikit-learn (Pedregosa et al. 2011 ), MESA (Paxton et al. 2011 , 2013 , 2015 , 2018 ).


We thank the authors of K16 , especially M. Kadler and F. Krauss for providing the data on PKS B1424-418. S.G. and M.P. acknowledge support by the Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP) funded by the Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association. W.W. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant No. 646623).


We thank the anonymous referee for very useful comments and suggestion to improve this work. We acknowledge support from CONICYT-Chile grants, Basal-CATA PFB-06/2007 (DC, FEB, SS), FONDECYT 1141218 (FEB), PCCI 130074 (FEB), ALMA-CONICYT 31100004 (FEB), Gemini-CONICYT 32120003 (FEB), ‘EMBIGGEN’ Anillo ACT1101 (DC, FEB), the Ministry of Economy, Development, Tourism's Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009 awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, MAS (FEB, SS), CONICYT-Chile through PCHA/Doctorado Nacional (2015-21151574) (DC), and by NASA through Herschel contracts 1427277 and 1454738 (SV). Optical observations were obtained with the Magellan/Baade as part of the program CN–2015A–129. We acknowledge NASA and Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST) for the use of data retrieved from MAST.


This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under the grant Nos. 10878002, 11025314, 10673004, 10610099a, and 11533005, as well as NKBRSF under the grants 2011CB811402 and 2014CB744203. W.C. acknowledges the support of the US NSF (AGS-0847126 and AGS-1250818) and NASA (NNX13AG14G).


Acknowledgements We would like to kindly thank Michael Marks for useful discussions and suggestions. We would also like to thank an anonymous referee for numerous comments and suggestions. DB was supported by the CAPES foundation, Brazilian Ministry of Education through the grant BEX 13514/13-0 and by the National Science Centre, Poland, through the grant UMO-2016/21/N/ST9/02938. AA would like to acknowledge support from the National Science Centre, Poland, through the grant UMO-2015/17/N/ST9/02573 and partial support from Nicolaus Copernicus Astronomical Centre's grant for young researchers.


The work was supported in part by the project NNX17AB74G of NASA’s HGI Program.


We would like to thank the referee for constructive comments that helped clarify the paper. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA #2015.1.01115.S, #2016.1.00544.S, and #2017.1.01301.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. M.N., F.W., B.V., and Ml.N. acknowledge support from ERC Advanced grant 740246 (Cosmic_Gas). D.R. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under grant No. AST-1614213.


We thanks the anonymous referee for his/her comments and suggestions. This research has been funded by MINECO grant AYA2014-59084-P, by the AGAUR, by the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. 320964 (WDTracer), by Milenium Science Initiative, Chilean Ministry of Economy, Nucleus P10-022-F, by Fondecyt (1141269, 3140585) and by the National Key Basic Research Programme of China (2014CB845700). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington and Yale University.


This work is partially supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science through projects AYA2010-18029, AYA2011-24808, and AYA2014-55078-P. This work contributes to the deliverables identified in FP7 European Research Council grant agreement 277829, “Magnetic connectivity through the Solar Partially Ionized Atmosphere.”


Acknowledgement We would like to thank Ivan Minchev for a very opportune question while we recently met at the Gaia meeting in Nice, and Benoit Famaey and Christian Boily for pertinent remarks.


This work has been supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education through the program ‘Ideas Plus’ award No. IdP2012 000162. The OGLE project has received funding from the Polish National Science Centre grant MAESTRO no. 2014/14/A/ST9/00121. RS acknowledges support from the Polish National Science Centre grants no. DEC-2012/05/B/ST9/03932 and DEC-2015/17/B/ST9/03421.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the anonymous referee for their helpful comments that improved the presentation of this work. The authors thank Connor Bottrell, Greg Bryan, John Forbes, Shy Genel, Li-Hwai Lin, Nic Loewen, Ari Maller, Hsi-An Pan, David Patton, Rachel Somerville, Mallory Thorp, and Joanna Woo for their insightful comments and helpful discussions. MHH acknowledges the receipt of a Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarship. SLE acknowledges the receipt of an NSERC Discovery Grant. The data used in this work were, in part, hosted on facilities supported by the Scientific Computing Core at the Flatiron Institute, a division of the Simons Foundation.


We thank the anonymous referee for constructive suggestions that improved the quality of the manuscript. The authors wish to thank I.(K.) Lee, A. Stutz, B. Reipurth, J. Jorgensen, A. Kraus, and L. Tychoniec for useful discussions regarding this work. J.J.T. is currently supported by grant 639.041.439 from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO). J.J.T. acknowledges past support provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant #HST-HF-51300.01-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555. L.W.L. acknowledges support from the Laboratory for Astronomical Imaging at the University of Illinois and the NSF under grant AST-07-09206. Z.Y.L. is supported in part by NSF1313083 and NASA NNX14AB38G. C.M. acknowledges financial support from the U.S. National Science Foundation through award AST-1313428. M.M.D. acknowledges support from the Submillimeter Array through an SMA postdoctoral fellowship. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration, 2013, http://www.astropy.org ). This research made use of APLpy, an open-source plotting package for Python hosted at http://aplpy.github.com . This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Facility: VLA


We thank Nicolas Bouché, Max Pettini and Crystal Martin for inputs on the work presented here. We also thank the anonymous referee for many suggestions that have improved the paper. We would like to thank the Paranal and Garching staff at ESO for performing the observations in service mode and the instrument team for making a reliable instrument. CP thanks the ESO science visitor programme for support. SQ thanks CNRS and CNES (Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales) for support for his PhD. VPK acknowledges partial support from the US National Science Foundation grant AST/1108830 and NASA grant NNX14AG74G. Additional support from a NASA/STScI grant for programme 13733 is gratefully acknowledged. This work has been carried out thanks to the support of the OCEVU Labex (ANR-11-LABX-0060) and the A*MIDEX project (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) funded by the ‘Investissements d'Avenir’ French government programme managed by the ANR. L. A. S. acknowledges support from ERC Grant agreement 278594-GasAroundGalaxies.


We thank K. S. Cheng, C. W. Ng, K. L. Li, J. Takata, and A. K. H. Kong for valuable discussion. We acknowledge the use of data and software facilities from the FSSC, managed by the HEASARC at the Goddard Space Flight Center. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) through grants 11633007, 11661161010, and U1731136.


Financial support from the Academy of Finland Centre of Excellence ReSoLVE No. 272157 (MJK) and from the Vilho, Yrjö and Kalle Väisälä Foundation (EC) is gratefully acknowledged.


This publication is supported by NPRP grant no. X-019-1-006 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the authors. Based on observations obtained with the 1.52-m Cassini telescope at the OAB Observatory in Loiano (Italy), and with the 1.23-m and 2.2-m telescopes at the Centro Astronòmico Hispano Alemàn (CAHA) at Calar Alto (Spain), jointly operated by the Max-Planck Institut for Astronomy and the Instituto de Astrofìsica de Andalucìa (CSIC). We thank to TÜBİTAK for the partial support in using T100 telescope with project number 12CT100-378. OB acknowledges the support by the research fund of Ankara University (BAP) through the project 13B4240006.


Support comes from the ERC Synergy Grant “BlackHoleCam – Imaging the Event Horizon of Black Holes” (Grant 610058). M.P. acknowledges support by the Spanish “Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad” grants AYA2013-48226-C3-2-P and AYA2015-66899-P. Z.Y. acknowledges support from an Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship. E.R. acknowledges support from the grants AYA-2012-38491-C02-01, AYA2015-63939-C2-2-P, and PROMETEOII/2014/057. C.M.F. wants to thank Walter Alef and Helge Rottmann for support during the computation on the MPIfR cluster and Mariafelicia De Laurentis and Hector Olivares for fruitful discussion and helpful comments to the manuscript.


The authors thank the anonymous referee for their helpful comments that improved the data analysis and strengthened the conclusions. The authors further thank A. Strugarek and J. Varela for the use of their data, as well as S. Mathis for extensive discussions and helpful advice. The authors also thank S. Tobias for his helpful comments. K.C.A. acknowledges support from the ERC SPIRE 647383 grant. A.S.B. acknowledges funding by ERC WHOLESUN 810218 grant, INSU/PNST, and CNES Solar Orbiter. J.T. was partly supported by NASA through grants NNX14AB56G and NNX17AG22G.


This work was partly supported by Campus France, by the Scientific Council of Paris Observatory, by IMCCE, and by IPSA. This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project No. 16-52-150005-CNRS-a.


M.M. wishes to acknowledge support from NASA under contract NAS8-03060. This research has made use of data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive and software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC). T.K. was supported in part by NASA grant 14-ATP14-0022 through the Astrophysics Theory Program.


This paper is partially based on observations made with SOPHIE on the 1.93 m telescope at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence (CNRS), France. This paper includes data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. All of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the MAST. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. The team at LAM acknowledge support by CNES grants 98761 (SCCB), 426808 (CD) and 251091 (JMA). JMA and XB acknowledge funding from the European Research Council under the ERC Grant Agreement no. 337591-ExTrA. XB acknowledge the support of the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR), under the program ANR-12-BS05-0012 Exo-atmos. RFD acknowledge funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under Grant agreement no. 313014 (ETAEARTH), and the financial support of the SNSF in the frame of the National Centre for Competence in Research ‘PlanetS’. We thank S. Udry for discussions on the dynamics of this system, L. Kreidberg for her Mandel Agol code, and T. Fenouillet for his assistance with the LAM cluster.


Acknowledgments We are grateful to the referee, Raffaele Gratton, whose comments greatly improved the paper. Support for this work (proposal number GO-10775) was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute that is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. This material is based upon work supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant NNX11AF34G issued through the Office of Space Science and through the University of Central Floridas NASA Florida Space Grant Consortium. DSs work was supported by NSF grants DMS 1208791. DvD was partially supported by a Wolfson Research Merit Award (WM110023) provided by the British Royal Society and by Marie-Curie Career Integration (FP7-PEOPLE-2012-CIG-321865) and Marie-Skodowska-Curie RISE (H2020-MSCA-RISE-2015-691164) Grants both provided by the European Commission.


We thank the anonymous referee for his/her constructive comments. This work is supported by the National Basic Research Program (“973” Program) of China under grant no. 2014CB845800 and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. U1331202, 11533033, U1331101, 11573014, 11422325, and 11373022). D.X. acknowledges support from the One-Hundred-Talent Program of the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences.


This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research has made use of the NASA/ IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work was partly supported by Kepler grants NNX12AC89G and NNX11AG95G. D.K. is supported by a DOE office of nuclear physics early career award.


The authors are much indebted to Ke-Jun Li for his constructive proposals and helpful suggestions. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (11573065, 11633008, 11273057, 11603071, and 11603069), the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.


We are thankful to the helpful comments about star formation rate estimation and the implications of MIR neon emission lines from an anonymous referee on this paper. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC-11573024, 11903029, 11473025, 11421303) and the National Basic Research Program of China (2013CB834905). W.L. acknowledges supports from the Natural Science Foundation of China grant (NSFC-11703079) and the 'Light of West China' Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). P.J. is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC-11973037), and H.W. is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC-11890693). We acknowledge the use of the Hale 200-inch Telescope at Palomar Observatory through the Telescope Access Program (TAP), as well as the archival data from the SDSS, 2MASS, and WISE surveys. TAP is funded by the Strategic Priority Research Program, the Emergence of Cosmological Structures (XDB09000000), National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the Special Fund for Astronomy from the Ministry of Finance. Observations obtained with the Hale Telescope at Palomar Observatory were obtained as part of an agreement between the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the California Institute of Technology. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ .


We thank the referee for a constructive report. This paper includes data collected by the K2 mission, funded by the NASA Science Mission directorate. The work was supported in part by NSERC grants to R.J. A.S. received funding from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (ST/R000824/1). S.A. gratefully acknowledges support from the Leverhulme Trust (RPG-2012-661) and the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (ST/K00106X/1,ST/N000919/1). D.P.’s work was supported by NASA grant NNX17AI61G. Facility: Kepler / K2 . Software: astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), numpy (Van Der Walt et al. 2011 ), scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ), K2SC (Aigrain et al. 2016 ), PyAstronomy ( https://github.com/sczesla/PyAstronomy ).


We thank Dave Campbell, Will Cowley and Peder Norberg for their contributions to this work. We thank Claudia Maraston for supplying versions of her stellar population model for different IMFs. We thank Rychard Bouwens, Ignacio Ferreras and Ian Smail for comments on the paper. Finally, we thank the referee Bruno Henriques for a detailed and constructive report that helped improve the paper. This work was supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council grants ST/F001166/1 and ST/L00075X/1, and by European Research Council grant GA 267291 (Cosmiway). This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008519/1, and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. CMB acknowledges receipt of a Research Fellowship from the Leverhulme Trust. Galaxy catalogues calculated using the model described in this paper will be made available on a relational data base accessible from http://virgodb.dur.ac.uk/ .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is co-financed by Greece and the European Union (European Social Fund–ESF) through the Operational Programme ‘Human Resources Development, Education and Lifelong Learning’ in the context of the project ‘Strengthening Human Resources Research Potential via Doctorate Research’ (MIS-5000432), implemented by the State Scholarships Foundation (IKY). We acknowledge Davide de Martin James Long (ESA/Hubble) for use of the HST image of A2218, as well as Prof. Gustavo Yepes for providing access to the Cosmological N -body Simulation data used in this work. We also wish to thank Dr. Angel-Ruiz Camuñas for his help in using the photutils package. This research made use of photutils , an astropy package for detection and photometry of astronomical sources. Finally, we would like to thank the anonymous referee for suggestions that improved significantly the work presented in our manuscript.


D. V. Bisikalo and V. I. Shematovich were partially supported by the Russian Academy of Sciences (Program-22), and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Project 14-02-00838). B. Hubert, D. Hutsemékers, and E. Jehin are supported by the Belgian FRS-FNRS. This work was supported by the FRFC grant no. 2.4541.11. A. Decock acknowledges the support of the Belgian National Science Foundation F.R.I.A., Fonds pour la formation à la Recherchedansl'Industrie et l'Agriculture. The authors thank the reviewer for very helpful comments.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Based on data collected under the NGTS project at the ESO La Silla Paranal Observatory. The NGTS facility is operated by the consortium institutes with support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) project ST/M001962/1. This paper includes data collected by the TESS mission. Funding for the TESS mission is provided by the NASA Explorer Program. This paper uses observations made at the South African Astronomical Observatory (SAAO). PE and AC. JIV acknowledges support of CONICYT-PFCHA/Doctorado Nacional-21191829, Chile. JSJ acknowledges support by Fondecyt grant 1161218 and partial support by CATA-Basal (PB06, CONICYT). Contributions at the University of Geneva by DB, FB, BC, LM, and SU were carried out within the framework of the National Centre for Competence in Research ‘PlanetS’ supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). The contributions at the University of Warwick by PJW, RGW, DLP, FF, DA, BTG, and TL have been supported by STFC through consolidated grants ST/L000733/1 and ST/P000495/1. The contributions at the University of Leicester by MGW and MRB have been supported by STFC through consolidated grant ST/N000757/1. TL was also supported by STFC studentship 1226157. MNG is supported by the STFC award reference 1490409 as well as the Isaac Newton Studentship. EG gratefully acknowledges support from Winton Philanthropies in the form of a Winton Exoplanet Fellowship. SLC acknolwedges support from an STFC Ernest Rutherford Fellowship. PE, ACh, and HR acknowledge the support of the DFG priority program SPP 1992 ‘Exploring the Diversity of Extrasolar Planets’ (RA 714/13-1). This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 681601). The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) / ERC Grant Agreement n. 320964 (WDTracer). We thank Marissa Kotze (SAAO) for developing the SHOC camera data reduction pipeline We thank the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) and the Geneva University for their continuous support to our planet search programs. This work has been in particular carried out in the frame of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). This publication makes use of The Data Analysis Center for Exoplanets (DACE), which is a facility based at the University of Geneva (CH) dedicated to extrasolar planets data visualization, exchange and analysis. DACE is a platform of the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) PlanetS, federating the Swiss expertise in Exoplanet research. The DACE platform is available at https://dace.unige.ch . The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen’s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has been partially supported by UNAM-PAPIIT IN-107518. RP thanks Carl Knight and Anal Wnsche for nicely providing information about the observations of WASP-19b published in the ETD. RP and EJ acknowledge DGAPA for their postdoctoral fellowships and Drs. L. Hebb, C. Hellier, J. Tregloan-Reed, D. Dragomir, J. Bean, E. Sedaghati, and N. Espinoza for kindly providing the new transits presented in their studies. RP and EJ are also grateful to the operators of the 1.54-m telescope at EABA, Cecilia Quiones and Luis Tapia, for their support during the observing runs. All the authors thank the anonymous referee for useful comments and suggestions. We would also like to thank the Pierre Auger Collaboration for the use of its facilities. The operation of the robotic telescope FRAM is supported by the grant of the Ministry of Education of the Czech Republic LM2015038. The data calibration and analysis related to FRAM telescope is supported by the Ministry of Education of the Czech Republic MSMT-CRLTT18004 and MSMT/EU funds CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001402. This research has made use of the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France and NASAs Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services (Wenger et al. 2000 ). This work is partially based on observations obtained with the 1.54-m telescope at Estacin Astrofsica de Bosque Alegre dependent on the National University of Crdoba, Argentina. Based on data acquired at Complejo Astronmico El Leoncito, operated under agreement between the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientficas y Tcnicas de la Repblica Argentina and the National Universities of La Plata, Crdoba and San Juan (Programme ID: JS-2019A-06, PI: E. Jofr).


X.H. thanks Myriam Benisty and Gilles Duvert for their work on the reduction package amdlib, the AMBER data reduction package of the Jean-Marie Mariotti Center 2 . For quick-look analysis, this work has made use of LITPro ( Tallon-Bosc et al. 2008 ). CNRS is acknowledged for having supported this work with allocation of 14 h in Guaranteed Time Observations. Support for this work was provided by NASA through grant number HST-GO-12610.001-A from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555.


We thank two anonymous referees for helpful comments and suggestions that improved this work. RVV thanks the STFC for support. ACF and JA acknowledge ERC Advanced Grant FEEDBACK. CSR is grateful for financial support from the Simons Foundation (through a Simons Fellowship in Theoretical Physics), a Sackler Fellowship (hosted by the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge), and NASA under grant NNX14AF86G. CSR thanks the Institute of Astronomy at the University of Cambridge for their hospitality during an extended visit while this work was being performed. We thank Dom Walton for useful discussions on this work.


We thank the anonymous referee for significantly improving this paper by pointing out uncertainties that had been missed. This work is supported by the International Partnership Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences No.114A11KYSB20160008, the National Natural Science Foundation of China No. 11373038, and the National Key Basic Research Program of China (973 Program) 2015CB857100, the China Ministry of Science. D.L. acknowledges support from the “CAS Interdisciplinary Innovation Team” program. This work was carried out in part at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which is operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology. M.K. acknowledges the support of Special Funding for Advanced Users, budgeted and administrated by Center for Astronomical Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAMS). N.M.M.G. acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council through grant FT150100024. The Arecibo Observatory is operated by SRI International under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation (AST-1100968), and in alliance with Ana G Méndez-Universidad Metropolitana, and the Universities Space Research Association. CO data were observed with the Delingha 13.7 m telescope of the Qinghai Station of Purple Mountain Observatory. We appreciate all the staff members of the Delingha observatory and Zhichen Pan for their help during the observations.


S.H. was supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG, grant We 1312/37-1), T.R. by the German Aerospace Center (DLR, grant 05 OR 1402). The TMAD service ( http://astro-uni-tuebingen.de/~TMAD ) used to compile atomic data for this paper was constructed as part of the activities of the German Astrophysical Virtual Observatory. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 093.D-0426. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . This research made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, and of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.


This work is based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. T.H. and S.B. were supported by grant HST GO 13862. V.W. acknowledges the support of the European Research Council via the award of a starting gant (SEDMorph: P.I. V. Wild). This project also made use of archival SDSS data. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. T.H. thanks the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics, the Simons Foundation, and the Aspen Center for Physics for supporting informal workshops on galactic winds, feedback, and the circum-galactic medium during 2014, 2015, and 2016. These provided important input for this paper. Conversations at these workshops with Romeel Davé Crystal Martin, Norm Murray, Ralph Pudritz, Eliot Quataert, Brant Robertson, Chuck Steidel, Todd Thompson, and Ellen Zweibel were especially helpful. He also thanks Greg Bryan, Mark Voit, and Brian O‘Shea for interesting discussions of the possible importance of wind-driven precipitation. Facility: Sloan (COS) .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We gratefully acknowledge support from Australian Research Council (DMcN), and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, the Land Niedersachsen (J-UG). The quantum chemical calculations performed in this work were supported by computational resources on the NCI Australia National Facility through the National Computational Merit Allocation Scheme.


The realization of this work was supported by the Hungarian OTKA NN grants 103244 and 114560.


We thank the referee for a timely and constructive report that helped improve this paper. We would like to thank David Phillips and the members of the HARPS-N solar telescope team for sharing the data with us before their publication. The research leading to these results received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement number 313014 (ETAEARTH). A.C.C. acknowledges support from STFC grant ST/M001296/1.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank Michelle Cluver, Jeffrey Newman, and Steven Bamford for helpful discussions, along with the anonymous referee for providing useful comments that improved the quality of this manuscript. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


S.G.M. would like to thank Ian McCarthy and Ishiyama Tomoaki for access to and help with simulation data. A.S.G.R. acknowledges support of a UWA postdoctoral research fellowship, as well as an Australian Research Council (ARC) Discovery Project (DP) grant, DP140100395. The Centre for All-Sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO) is an Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence, funded by grant CE11E0090. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.


The authors thank the referee for valuable suggestions and comments to improve the quality of this article. We gratefully acknowledge Y. N. Su, P. F. Chen, J. Zhang, B. Kliem, R. Liu, S. Gibson, H. Gilbert, M. D. Ding, and H. N. Wang for inspiring and constructive discussions. SDO is a mission of NASA's Living With a Star Program. AIA and HMI data are courtesy of the NASA/ SDO science teams. STEREO /SECCHI data are provided by a consortium of US, UK, Germany, Belgium, and France. QMZ is supported by Youth Fund of JiangSu BK20141043, by 973 program under grant 2011CB811402, and by NSFC 11303101, 11333009, 11173062, 11473071, and 11221063. H. Ji is supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program—The Emergence of Cosmological Structures of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, grant No. XDB09000000. Y.G. is supported by NSFC 11203014. Li Feng is supported by the NFSC grant 11473070, 11233008, and by grant BK2012889. Li Feng also thanks the Youth Innovation Promotion Association, CAS, for the financial support.


We thank N. Schartel for the possibility to perform the ToO observation in the Director Discretionary Time, and the XMM–Newton team for the support for the observation. We gratefully acknowledge the Sardinia Regional Government for the financial support (P. O. R. Sardegna F.S.E. Operational Programme of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia, European Social Fund 2007-2013 – Axis IV Human Resources, Objective l.3, Line of Activity l.3.1). This work was partially supported by the Regione Autonoma della Sardegna through POR–FSE Sardegna 2007–13, L.R. 7/2007, Progetti di Ricerca di Base e Orientata, project no. CRP-60529. We also acknowledge financial contribution from the agreement ASI-INAF I/037/12/0. The High-Energy Astrophysics Group of Palermo acknowledges support from the Fondo Finalizzato alla Ricerca (FFR) 2012/13, project no. 2012- ATE-0390, founded by the University of Palermo.


The first author wish to thank the School of Astronomy, IPM for providing support while working on this paper. AM also acknowledges the Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes (ING) and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC) for hospitality and support while this paper was in progress. We also thank an anonymous referee for a lot of constructive comments. The authors acknowledge support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) through grants AYA2009-11137, AYA2013-48226-C3-1-P, AYA2013-46886-P and AYA2014-58308-P. JFB also acknowledges financial support from the DAGAL network from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Unions Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013/ under REA grant agreement number PITN-GA-2011-289313. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington and Yale University.


We are infinitely grateful to the staff members at the Nordic Optical Telescope for their valuable and unique support during the observations. We thank the editor and the anonymous referee for their careful review and very positive feedback. Davide Gandolfi thanks Gabriele Cologna for the interesting conversations on the properties of the planetary system. Hannu Parviainen has received support from the Rocky Planets Around Cool Stars (RoPACS) project during this research, a Marie Curie Initial Training Network funded by the European Commission’s Seventh Framework Programme. He has also received funding from the Väisälä Foundation through the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters and from the Leverhulme Research Project grant RPG-2012-661. Financial supports from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) are acknowledged by Hans J. Deeg for the grant AYA2012-39346-C02-02, by Sergio Hoyer for the 2011 Severo Ochoa program SEV-2011-0187, and Roi Alonso for the Ramón y Cajal program RYC-2010-06519. This paper includes data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission Directorate. The Kepler data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX13AC07G and by other grants and contracts. This research has made an intensive use of the Simbad database and the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS, 143, 23.


Acknowledgments The authors thank Volker Springel for providing us with gadget 3 , and Giuseppe Murante for useful discussion. Data post-processing and storage has been done on the CINECA facility PICO, granted us thanks to our expression of interest. Partial support from Consorzio per la Fisica di Trieste is acknowledged. EM has been supported by PRIN MIUR 2010-2011 J91J12000450001 The dark Universe and the cosmic evolution of baryons: from current surveys to Euclid and by a University of Trieste grant. PM has been supported by PRIN-INAF 2009 Towards an Italian Network for Computational Cosmology and by a F.R.A. 2012 grant by the University of Trieste. SB has been supported by PRIN MIUR 01278X4FL grant and by the InDark INFN Grant. SA has been supported by a Department of Energy grant de-sc0009946 and by NSF-AST 0908241.


Most of the numerical calculations presented in this study were performed on the Savio computational cluster provided by the Berkeley Research Computing program at the University of California, Berkeley (supported by the UC Berkeley Chancellor, Vice Chancellor of Research, and Office of the CIO). We would like to thank the anonymous referee for the very thorough and detailed review, which resulted in a substantially improved manuscript. We would like to specifically acknowledge the referee for having the idea to estimate the value of from the “effective gravitational energy” released upon mixing.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Carles Badenes for suggesting that we investigate the size distributions of SNRs. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under grant no. 1313036.


This work was supported by the International Center of Future Science of Jilin University (P.R. China) and the project of Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine “Dynamics, evolution and physical effects in the formation of structure of the universe, supernova remnants and close binary stars with relativistic components” (state registration no. 0116U001544).


The authors thank Rachel Akeson, John Carpenter, Kevin Flaherty, Lynne Hillenbrand, Heather Knutson, Patrick Ogle, Inseok Song, Karl Stapelfeldt, and Barbara Whitney for their contributions to the YSOVAR project and valuable discussions on this work. H.Y.A.M. acknowledges support from the IPAC Visiting Graduate Research Fellowship program. P.P. acknowledges the work of Nancy Silbermann, William Mahoney, and the Spitzer scheduling team in scheduling the data volume-intensive observations, and thanks Greg Doppmann for providing the Keck/NIRSPEC spectrum. K.C. acknowledges support provided by the NSF through grant AST-1449476. A.M.W. thanks the staff of the Observatorio Astronómico Nacional in Sierra San Pedro Mártir. This work is based in part on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with NASA. Support for this work was provided by NASA through an award issued by JPL/Caltech. Facilities: CTIO:1.3 m , Mayall , OANSPM:HJT , SOAR , Spitzer (IRAC).


Dust studies at Leiden Observatory are supported through the Spinoza Premie of the Dutch science agency, NWO. S.K. would like to thank C.P. Dullemond, J. Dra ̧żkowska and T. Birnstiel for useful discussions, and S. Okuzumi for comments and helping with the comparison to his work. The authors thank B. Gundlach and J. Blum for sharing a version of their manuscript. C.W.O. acknowledges support for this work by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant No. HST-HF-51294.01-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555.


This work has been supported by the Australian Research Council (grants FL110100012, FT140100554 and DP120100991). JM thanks support by FAPESP (2012/24392-2). DLL thanks the Robert A. Welch Foundation of Houston, Texas for support through grant F-634. TB was supported by the project grant ‘The New Milky Way’ from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. Australian access to the Magellan Telescopes was supported through the Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy of the Australian Federal Government. The Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope is operated by the National Research Council of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique of France, and the University of Hawaii. The Hobby–Eberly Telescope is a joint project of the University of Texas at Austin, the Pennsylvania State University, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, and Georg-August-Universität Göttingen.


Acknowledgments DW was supported by NSF grant 1518246. We thank Marua Brada, Marcus Brggen, James Bullock, Will Dawson, James Jee, Manoj Kaplinghat, Reinout van Weeren and David Sobral for discussions that shaped the direction of this project, and for their careful reading of the manuscript. The Merging Cluster Collaboration has provided valuable input to this project. We thank the Ohio Supercomputer Center for the use of the Ruby cluster during its commissioning phase.


We thank F. Mignard and Ch. Ordenovich (OCA, Nice) for putting at our disposal the use of the Gaia simulator of Solar system observations. The work of TSR was carried out through the Gaia Research for European Astronomy Training (GREAT-ITN) network. He received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement no. 264895. The work of AC was partly funded by ASI contract I/058/10/0.


We thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments.


Acknowledgments We would like to thank Tamara Davis for useful comments on a draft of this paper. DS thanks the Faculty of Technology of the University of Portsmouth for support during his PhD studies. DB, EM and RCN acknowledge funding from STFC grant ST/N000668/1 and EM acknowledges the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020.


This work is partially supported by the grants ANR-12-BS05-0002 and ANR-13-BS05-0005 of the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche. CU is supported by the Delta-ITP consortium, a program of the Netherlands organization for scientific research (NWO) that is funded by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW). CU thanks IAP for hospitality when this project was initiated and the Balzan Centre for Cosmological Studies for financial support during the visit. The simulations were run on the Horizon cluster. We acknowledge support from S. Rouberol for running the cluster for us.


SNXM acknowledges IMPRS for a PhD research scholarship. SJA, WJH and SNXM would like to thank DGAPA-UNAM for financial support through projects PAPIIT IN101713 and IN112816. This work has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System.


Herschel is a European Space Agency space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led principal investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. HIFI has been designed and built by a consortium of institutes and university departments from across Europe, Canada, and the United States under the leadership of SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Groningen, The Netherlands, and with major contributions from Germany, France, and the US. Consortium members are: Canada: CSA, U. Waterloo; France: IRAP (formerly CESR), LAB, LERMA, IRAM; Germany: KOSMA, MPIfR, MPS; Ireland, NUI Maynooth; Italy: ASI, IFSI-INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri-INAF; Netherlands: SRON, TUD; Poland: CAMK, CBK; Spain: Observatorio Astronmico Nacional (IGN), Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA). Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology MC2, RSS GARD; Onsala Space Observatory; Swedish National Space Board, Stockholm University Stockholm Observatory; Switzerland: ETH Zurich, FHNW; USA: Caltech, JPL, NHS. Support for this work was provided by NASA ( Herschel OT funding) through an award issued by JPL/Caltech. This work was partially supported by grants from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA). The data presented here are archived at the Herschel Science Archive, http://archives.esac.esa.int/hda/ui , under OBSID 1342198337 and 1342201585.


We thank Laurent Gizon and Gert Lube for encouragement and support. Research funding by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) under grant SFB963/1, project A11, is gratefully acknowledged.


This research was based in part on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (USA), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovaļão (Brazil) and Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina). Elements of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS, 143, 23. This research was conducted with the support of Australian Research Council DP130101667. We thank the International Telescope Support Office and Gemini Observatory for contributing travel funding.


AAW is supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council. We thank Jason Sanders and Carlo Nipoti for some useful conversations, as well as the referee for a thorough and useful report.


C.F.G.’s work was supported, in part, by a Romano Professorial Scholar appointment, a Simons Fellowship in Theoretical Physics, and a Visiting Fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. We thank S. Desch, C. Thompson, M. Chandra, B. Ryan, J. Papaloizou, and C. Terquem for comments, and the referee, S. Charnoz, for a thoughtful report that greatly improved the manuscript.


We thank the referee for thoughtful and constructive feedback on this work. We acknowledge our colleagues in the CANDELS collaboration for very useful comments and suggestions. We also thank the great effort of all the CANDELS team members for their work to provide a robust and valuable data set. We thank Karl Gordon for insightful discussions on the physical implications of these results. We also thank Daniela Calzetti and Veronique Buat for helpful comments and comments. This work is based in part on observations taken by the CANDELS Multi-Cycle Treasury Program with the NASA/ESA HST , which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. This work is supported by HST program No. GO-12060. Support for Program No. GO-12060 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. We acknowledge the Spanish MINECO grant AYA2012-31277 for funding the contribution from Pablo Pérez-González. This work is based in part on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The authors acknowledge the Texas AM University Brazos HPC cluster that contributed to the research reported here. URL: http://brazos.tamu.edu .


The authors also thank the anonymous referee for comments that strengthened the arguments in this paper. The authors thank Lucas Tarr and George Doschek for discussions that improved the modeling and understanding of this event. This research was performed while J.W.R. held an NRC Research Associateship award at the US Naval Research Laboratory with the support of NASA. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement No. 606862 (F-CHROMA) (PJAS). IRIS is a NASA Small Explorer developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by the Norwegian Space Center through an ESA PRODEX contract. CHIANTI is a collaborative project involving George Mason University, the University of Michigan (USA) and the University of Cambridge (UK).


This work was supported by the National Key RD Program of China (2016YFA0400702), the National Science Foundation of China (11473002, 11721303), the National Youth Fund (11303008), and the Youth Foundation of Hebei Province of China (A2011205067). We thank Jenny Greene for sending the data from Greene Ho ( 2005a ). M.K. is grateful to Jian-Min Wang for his hospitality and help during her visit to IHEP and to JinLin Han for his help during her stay at NAOC. She thanks Song Huang, Ligang Hou, Xianmin Meng, Jinyi Shangguan, Jiayi Sun, and Junzhi Wang for their help. Funding for the SDSS has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS website is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington.


The observations have been supported by the OPTICON project (observing proposals 2010B/01, 2011A/014 and 2012A/015), which is funded by the European Commission under the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7). Part of the observations have been taken under service mode (service proposal AO171) and the authors gratefully acknowledge the help of the AAO support astronomers. This research is partially supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (Mineco) under grant AYA2012-39364-C02-02. The work reported on in this publication has been partially supported by the European Science Foundation (ESF), in the framework of the GREAT Research Networking Programme. This research was achieved using the POLLUX database ( http://pollux.graal.univ-montp2.fr ) operated at LUPM (Université Montpellier II CNRS, France with the support of the PNPS and INSU. This research made use of the Simbad, Vizier, and Aladin services developed at the Centre de Données Astronomiques de Strasbourg, France. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


Acknowledgements We are grateful to our referee Mike Bessell for his very thorough and useful report of our paper. The project is supported by fondation MERAC. N.C., H.G.L., and A.J.G. were supported by Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 “The Milky Way System” (subproject A4) of the German Research Foundation (DFG). R.S.K. acknowledges support from the European Research Council via the Advanced Grant “STARLIGHT: Formation of the First Stars” (project number 339177). C.A. acknowledges funding from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are most grateful to Volker Springel for allowing us to use the gadget -3 code. This work is supported by the Brazilian Agencies FAPESP (grants 2016/01355-5, 2016/22183-8, and 2013/10559-5) and by CNPq (grant 308643/2017-8).


The authors thank the referee, Kyle Oman, for the excellent suggestions and for providing us with the APOSTLE/EAGLE V Rlast and V rot (2 kpc) simulated data points. We also thank Aaron Dutton for providing us with the NIHAO RAR at 2 kpc. We acknowledge useful discussions with Federico Lelli and Stacy McGaugh.


Acknowledgements The anonymous referee is thanked for providing comments and feedback that improved the overall quality of the paper. ECE acknowledges the support of the South African National Astrophysics and Space Science Programme (NASSP).


We thank the anonymous referee for a constructive report that helped improve the manuscript. The authors also acknowledge various people for helpful and inspiring discussion at various stages during the preparation of this manuscript, including Evan Bauer, Jared Brooks, Maria Drout, JJ Eldridge, Chris Evans, Rob Farmer, Miriam Garcia, Stephan Geier, Zhanwen Han, Edward van den Heuvel, Stephen Justam, Lex Kaper, Alex de Koter, Søren Larsen, Danny Lennon, Pablo Marchant, Colin Norman, Philipp Podsiadlowski, Onno Pols, Mathieu Renzo, Hugues Sana, Tomer Shenar, Nathan Smith, Elizabeth Stanway, Silvia Toonen, Jorick Vink, Manos Zapartas and the VFTS collaboration. This work was carried out on the Dutch national e-infrastructure with the support of SURF Cooperative. The authors acknowledges John Hillier for making his code, CMFGEN, publicly available. YG thank Martin Heemskerk for providing computing expertise and support throughout the project and Alessandro Patruno for allowing us to use the Taurus computer. SdM has received funding under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program from the European Research Council (ERC) (Grant agreement No. 715063). JHG acknowledges support from the Irish Research Council New Foundations Award 206086.14414 “Physics of Supernovae and Stars”. This work made use of v2.2.1 of the Binary Population and Spectral Synthesis (BPASS) models as last described in Eldridge et al. (2017) and Stanway Eldridge (2018) .


We thank Christophe Sandt (SOLEIL) for his help with the infrared microscope at the SMIS beam line. VUV measurements were made at the DISCO beam line of the SOLEIL synchrotron radiation facility (projects: 20141074 and 20130778). This work has been supported by the French program “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire”, the ANR COSMISME project (grant ANR-2010-BLAN-0502). L.G. acknowledges support from the CNES post-doctoral fellowship program.


This scientific work makes use of the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory, operated by CSIRO. We acknowledge the Wajarri Yamatji people as the traditional owners of the Observatory site. Support for the operation of the MWA is provided by the Australian Government Department of Industry and Science and Department of Education (National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy: NCRIS), under a contract to Curtin University administered by Astronomy Australia Limited. We acknowledge the iVEC Petabyte Data Store and the Initiative in Innovative Computing and the CUDA Center for Excellence sponsored by NVIDIA at Harvard University. JKS is supported from NSF Physics Frontier Center award number 1430284. DLK and SDC acknowledge support from the US National Science Foundation (grant AST-1412421). Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020. This work was supported by the Flagship Allocation Scheme of the NCI National Facility at the ANU.


We acknowledge financial support from PRIN MIUR 2010-2011, project ‘The Chemical and dynamical Evolution of the Milky Way and Local Group Galaxies’, prot. 2010LY5N2T. NR acknowledges support from the Swedish Research Council, VR (project number 621-2014-5640), Funds from Kungl. Fysiografiska Sällskapet i Lund. (Stiftelsen Walter Gyllenbergs fond and Märta och Erik Holmbergs donation). NR acknowledges the supports from Knut och Alice Wallenbergs stiftelse. We thank I. J. Danziger for reading the manuscript. Finally, we thank an anonymous referee for his/her important suggestions which improved the paper.


The authors thank the referee for his/her comments. The scientific results reported in this article are based on data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive and observations obtained with XMM - Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP72007-2013) ERC grant agreement No. 340519. M.A., P.M., E.P., and G.W.P. acknowledge partial funding support from NASA grant NNX14AC22G. F.A.-S. acknowledges support from Chandra grant GO3-14131X.


The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee whose constructive comments helped to improve the clarity of the manuscript. This work was supported by funds from the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA), and the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) of Taiwan by grant NSC 102-2119-M-001-008-MY3. This work is partly based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme 084.C-1095(A). The HST /STIS spectra were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST) at the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. Facilities: HST (STIS) , VLT:Kueyen (X-Shooter) .


The research leading to these results was funded by the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under grant agreement number ITN 215212 “Black Hole Universe” and by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie under grant numbers DLR 50 OR 0701 and 50 OR 1113. This work was partially completed by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344, and is supported by NASA grants to LLNL. Support for this work was also provided by NASA through the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) contract SV3-73016 to MIT for Support of the Chandra X-Ray Center (CXC) and Science Instruments; CXC is operated by SAO for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060. We acknowledge the support by the DFG Cluster of Excellence “Origin and Structure of the Universe” and are grateful for the support by MCB through the Computational Center for Particles and Astrophysics (C2PAP). We are thankful to John E. Davis for the SLXfig package that was used to create the figures throughout this paper, to David Huenemoerder for the AGLC routines that handled the grating lightcurves and routines related to plasma diagnostics, and to Thomas Dauser for parallel computing routines. This research has made use of the MAXI data provided by RIKEN, JAXA, and the MAXI team.


The Parkes telescope and the ATCA are both part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. Financial support for this work was provided by the Australian Research Council. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System Abstract Service; and the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. SLB is the recipient of an Australian Research Council DECRA Fellowship (project number DE130101270). The authors dedicate this paper to the memory of J. L. Caswell, who was the driving force behind the MMB survey, and will continue to inspire maser studies for years to come.


Pulsar research at the Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics and the observations using the Lovell Telescope is supported by a consolidated grant from the STFC in the UK.


Acknowledgments We thank Eric Huff, Melanie Simet and Rachel Mandelbaum for useful discussions, and also the anonymous referee for pointing out problems with the method involving the mixing of deconvolved and directly measured parameters and several other changes which improved the paper. This work is based on observations obtained with MegaPrime/MegaCam, a joint project of CFHT and CEA/DAPNIA, at the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) which is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France and the University of Hawaii. This research used the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre operated by the National Research Council of Canada with the support of the Canadian Space Agency. CFHTLenS data processing was made possible thanks to significant computing support from the NSERC Research Tools and Instruments grant program.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We gratefully acknowledge useful discussions with Isabella Söldner-Rembold regarding the velocity ellipsoid, and numerous helpful discussions with Matias Blaña. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 798384. This work has made use of data from the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia , processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium ( DPAC ). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society, and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen’s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.


We thank Slavko Bogdanov, Simin Mahmoodifar, Sharon Morsink, Joonas Nättilä, Feryal Özel, Juri Poutanen, Dimitrios Psaltis, and Tod Strohmayer for useful discussions.


This work was strongly supported by computing resources from the Swiss National Supercomputing Centre (CSCS) under projects ID ch2 and s585 in 2014–2015. FV acknowledges personal support from the grant VA 876/3-1 from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. FV and MB also acknowledge partial support from the grant FOR1254 from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. We acknowledge the use of computing resources under allocations no. 7006 and 9016 (FV) and 9059 (MB) on supercomputers at the NIC of the Forschungszentrum Jülich. We acknowledge the use of the online ‘Cosmology Calculator’ by Wright ( 2006 ). We thank K. Dolag for very fruitful discussions at an early stage of this work, and our referee H. Kang for very useful comments on the manuscript.


We thank A.S. Rivkin and P. Vernazza for kindly providing their spectral data. The research of Z.K. is supported by VEGA – The Slovack Agency for Science, Grant No. 2/0032/14. This program was supported by the French national space agency CNES and French INSU – PNP program.


We thank the referee for a very helpful report. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with participation from NASA. The Herschel spacecraft was designed, built, tested, and launched under a contract to ESA managed by the Herschel / Planck Project team by an industrial consortium under the overall responsibility of the prime contractor Thales Alenia Space (Cannes), and including Astrium (Friedrichshafen) responsible for the payload module and for system testing, Thales Alenia Space (Turin) responsible for the service module, and Astrium (Toulouse) responsible for the telescope, with in excess of a hundred subcontractors. SPIRE has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by Cardiff Univ. (UK) and including: Univ. Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, Univ. Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); Stockholm Observatory (Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, Univ. Sussex (UK); and Caltech, JPL, NHSC, Univ. Colorado (USA). This development has been supported by national funding agencies: CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); STFC, UKSA (UK); and NASA (USA). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. AF acknowledges support from the ERC via an Advanced Grant 321323-NEOGAL.


We thank Wesley Even, Sean M. Couch, Donald Q. Lamb, Ryan Chornock, Ken Chen, Alexandra Kozyreva, and Ragnhild Lunnan for useful discussions and comments. This work was supported in part by the STScI grants AR 12820 and 13276 and the National Science Foundation under grants AST-0909132 and PHY-0822648 for the Physics Frontier Center “Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics” (JINA). E.C. thanks the Enrico Fermi Institute for its support via the Enrico Fermi Fellowship.


The authors would like to thank Profs. Guillermo Muñoz Caro and Maria Palumbo for conversations about laboratory studies of sulfur-containing ices, Prof. Susanna Widicus Weaver about gas-grain modeling, and Profs. John Black and David Neufeld about observations. JL would also like to thank Dr. Wing-Fai Thi for helpful feedback during the development of the astrochemical code.


Acknowledgments This work was supported by the UKs Science and Technology Facilities Council, grant numbers ST/J001333/1, ST/M001008/1 and ST/L001403/1. We gratefully acknowledge the use of data from the ESO Public Survey program 179.B-2002 taken with the VISTA 4.1m telescope and data products from the Cambridge Astronomical Survey Unit. Support for DM and CC is provided by the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourisms Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to the Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, MAS. DM is also supported by the Center for Astrophysics and Associated Technologies PFB-06 and Fondecyt Project No. 1130196. MSNK is supported by the Marie-Curie Intra-European fellowship project GESTATE (661249). This research has made use of the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France; also the SAO/NASA Astrophysics data (ADS). ACG was supported by the Science Foundation of Ireland, grant 13/ERC/I2907. We also acknowledge the support of CONICYT REDES project No. 140042 Young variables and proper motion in the Galactic plane. ValparaisoHertfordshire collaboration C. Contreras Pea was supported by a University of Hertfordshire PhD studentship in the earlier stages of this research. We thank Janet Drew for her helpful comments on the structure of the paper.