Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for the helpful and constructive comments. The results presented in this paper expand one chapter of PC's PhD thesis. We thank Michael Brown, Casey Papovich, and Ray Sharples for their constructive feedback and suggestions. This work was performed on the gSTAR national facility at Swinburne University of Technology. gSTAR is funded by Swinburne and the Australian Governments Education Investment Fund. We thank the Swinburne supercomputing and Information Technology teams for their support. We would like to thank Bianca Maria Poggianti and Alessia Moretti for providing us with the latest versions of the WINGS catalogues. We also thank Boris Häußler for providing the latest up to date scripts for galaxy image simulations. We thank Julie B. Nantais for providing updated redshift catalogues for the cluster RDCS J1252.9−2927. We thank Yara Jaffé for providing suggestions and stimulating discussions on the use of the EDisCS and WINGS data. PC acknowledges the support provided by FONDECYT postdoctoral research grant no. 3160375, by a Swinburne Chancellor Research Scholarship and an AAO PhD Scholarship. WJC gratefully acknowledges the financial support of an Australian Research Council Discovery Project grant throughout the course of this work. RD gratefully acknowledges the support provided by the BASAL Center for Astrophysics and Associated Technologies (CATA), and by FONDECYT grant no. 1130528. The data in this paper were based in part on observations obtained at the ESO Paranal Observatory (ESO programme 084.A-0214). Based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil). Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained from the data archive at the Space Telescope Science Institute. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. These observations are associated with Program ID 12051. Based on data obtained from the ESO Science Archive Facility (Program ID 073.A-0737(A)). Part of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.


We thank SeyedAbdolreza Sadjadi and Renaud Papoular for helpful discussions. The fitting models were done using the NASA Ames Research Center PAH IR Spectroscopic Database and software, and we thank Christiaan Boersma for making these resources publicly available. This work was partially supported by the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (project No. HKU 7031/10P).


Part of this work was supported by the Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica (ANPCyT) through the Programa de Modernización Tecnolǵica BID 1728/OC-AR, by the PIP 112-200801-00940 grant from CONICET (Argentina). Some simulations were run on IFLySiB’s Cluster, which is part of SNCAD-MinCyT, Argentina.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for their very helpful comments in assisting with the discussions in this paper. In addition, would like to thank Russet McMillan for her help taking images to create a master I -band fringe pattern for the ARCTIC imager. We would also like to thank Dr. Stacy McGaugh for discussions on LSB photometry, especially morphological classifications. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research made use of astropy , a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 , 2018 ). We acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda data base ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ).


DK thanks Norbert Werner for a useful discussion about the links between the observed emission-line gas and the large-scale X-ray properties of NGC 5813. DK also thanks Michele Cappellari and Richard McDermid for comments on an early version of the paper. Based on observations made with ESO telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 60.A-9100(A). RB acknowledges support from the ERC advanced grant 339659-MUSICOS.


We gratefully acknowledge support from NSF grants AST-0709356 (L.Y.H. and L.L.C.) and AST-1313150 (A.J.B.), as well as the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation and Trustees of the William F. Vilas Estate (A.J.B.). I.R.S. acknowledges support from STFC (ST/L00075X/1), the ERC Advanced Investigator programme DUSTYGAL (321334), and a Royal Society/Wolfson Merit Award. The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope is operated by the East Asian Observatory on behalf of The National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, the National Astronomical Observatories of China and the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDB09000000), with additional funding support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom and participating universities in the United Kingdom and Canada. The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope has historically been operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the National Research Council of Canada and the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. Additional funds for the construction of SCUBA-2 were provided by the Canada Foundation for Innovation. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. We acknowledge the cultural significance that the summit of Maunakea has to the indigenous Hawaiian community.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DSE acknowledges the financial support of the Science and Technology Facilities Council through a studentship award. We would like to thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments that helped to improve this paper as well as Jose Oñorbe, Tilman Hartwig, Bhaskar Agarwal, and Marta Volonteri for their useful discussions and comments. This research made use of astropy , a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ).


The authors wish to thank the CoRoT and Kepler Teams whose efforts made these results possible. The CoRoT space mission has been developed and was operated by CNES, with contributions from Austria, Belgium, Brazil, ESA (RSSD and Science Program), Germany, and Spain. Funding for Kepler ’s Discovery mission is provided by NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. S.B.F. wishes to thank E. Michel for encouraging him to study Scuti stars, and the Solar Physics Team of the Universitat de les Illes Balears (UIB) for hosting his stay in Majorca. He has received financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN) under the grant AYA2010-20982-C02-02. A.G.H. acknowledges support from Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT, Portugal) through the fellowship SFRH/BPD/80619/2011. R.A.G. acknowledges the financial support from the ANR (Agence Nationale de la Recherche, France) program IDEE (n ANR-12-BS05-0008) “Interaction Des Étoiles et des Exoplanètes” and from the CNES GOLF and PLATO grants at CEA.


We would like to thank our referee, Ralph Schönrich, whose detailed and accurate comments much improved the presentation of our paper. T.T. also thanks Takuma Suda for his advice on practical use of the SAGA database. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant Nos. 18H01258, 18H04593, 16H04081, 18H01248, 17H02870, and 18K03711.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS RG thanks Michael Fall for very useful discussions and comments on an earlier version of the manuscript, and the referee for providing a very constructive and useful report that led to the improvement of this paper. FvdV was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through project SP 709/5-1. JZ acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 679145, project ‘COSMO-SIMS’). FAG acknowledges financial support from CONICYT through the project FONDECYT Regular Nr. 1181264, and funding from the Max Planck Society through a Partner Group grant. FM is supported through the Program ‘Rita Levi Montalcini’ of the Italian MIUR.


We are grateful to John Peacock for his useful comments. Special thanks to Mark Taylor for the TOPCAT 8 ( Taylor 2005 ) and STILTS 9 ( Taylor 2006 ) software. Some of the results in this paper have been derived using the HEALPix package 10 ( Górski et al. 2005 ). This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, and NEOWISE, which is a project of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology. WISE and NEOWISE are funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research has made use of data obtained from the SuperCOSMOS Science Archive, prepared and hosted by the Wide Field Astronomy Unit, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, which is funded by the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. M.B., K.M., A.P., A.K. and M.K. were supported by the Polish National Science Center under contract #UMO-2012/07/D/ST9/02785. T.K., K.M. and A.P. were supported by the National Science Centre (grants UMO-2012/07/B/ST9/04425 and UMO-2013/09/D/ST9/04030), the Polish-Swiss Astro Project (co-financed by a grant from Switzerland, through the Swiss Contribution to the enlarged European Union), and the European Associated Laboratory Astrophysics Poland-France HECOLS. M.B. was supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, NWO, through grant No. 614.001.451, and through FP7 grant No. 279396 from the European Research Council.


We thank M. A. T. Groenewengen for the helpful comments. We acknowledge the support from the ERC Consolidator Grant funding scheme ( project STARKEY , G.A. n. 615604). A. B. acknowledges support from PRIN-MIUR 2017. T. S. R. acknowledges financial support from Premiale 2015 MITiC (PI B. Garilli). For the plots we used matplotlib, a Python library for publication quality graphics ( Hunter 2007 ).


Support for programme GO 11598 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. Much of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which operates as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Additionally, partial support for this work came from NASA ATP NNX12AH86G, HST grants HST-GO-11598 and HST-GO-12248, NASA ADP grant NNX08AJ44G, NSF grants AST-0847667 and AST-133514, and the South African National Research Foundation's Research Chairs programme. The simulations used here were run on computing facilities owned by the Carnegie Observatories. Computing resources used for this work were made possible by a grant from the Ahmanson foundation, and through grant DMS-0619881 from the National Science Foundation. Facilities : Keck: I (HIRES), Hubble (COS).


Acknowledgements We would like to thank the anonymous referee for suggesting revisions that greatly improved the quality of the paper. We also thank Anatoly Klypin for insightful discussions, and Andrea Macciò and Aaron Dutton for generously providing their NIHAO data. AS acknowledges support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (PZ00P2_161363).


We thank Xianyu Tan and Xi Zhang for helpful comments on an early draft of this manuscript and the anonymous referee for helpful comments that significantly improved the manuscript. T.D.K. and A.P.S. acknowledge support from the Technology and Research Initiative Fund (TRIF) at the University of Arizona. T.D.K. acknowledges funding from the 51 Pegasi b Fellowship in Planetary Astronomy sponsored by the Heising–Simons Foundation.


We are grateful to N. Bucciantini, B. Metzger, T. Piran, and B. Zhang for useful discussions and comments. Support comes from the DFG Grant SFB/Transregio 7, from “NewCompStar,” COST Action MP1304, and from HIC for FAIR.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We appreciate the help of the anonymous referee that, during the revision process, provided us comments and suggestions that allowed improving the manuscript. CQN acknowledges the support of the ISAS/JAXA International Top Young Fellowship and the JSPS KAKENHI grant number 18K13596. The sunrise -3 project is supported in Japan by the funding from ISAS/JAXA for the small-scale program for novel solar observations and the JSPS KAKENHI grant numbers 18H03723 and 18H05234. This research was supported by the Research Council of Norway through its Centres of Excellence scheme, project number 262622. This work has also been supported by Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through the project ESP-2016-77548-C5-1-R. DOS also acknowledges financial support through the Ramón y Cajal fellowships.


S.V.E. is FRS-FNRS Research Associate. P.N. is Boursier F.R.I.A. (FNRS, Belgium). B.P.’s research is partially funded by the CNRS Programme National de Physique Stellaire. Support from the Fondation ULB is acknowledged. Based on observations made with the Mercator Telescope, operated on the island of La Palma by the Flemish Community, at the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. Based on observations obtained with the HERMES spectrograph, which is supported by the Fund for Scientific Research of Flanders (FWO), Belgium, the Research Council of K.U. Leuven, Belgium, the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (F.R.S.-FNRS), Belgium, the Royal Observatory of Belgium, the Observatoire de Genève, Switzerland and the Thüringer Landessternwarte Tautenburg, Germany. This work was partly funded by an Action de recherche concertée (ARC) from the Direction générale de l’Enseignement non obligatoire et de la Recherche scientifique – Direction de la recherche scientifique – Communauté française de Belgique. We wish to thank the referee Ian Short for very helpful comments which improved this paper.


This work was supported by NASA grant NNX13AI34G.


We thank the referee for valuable suggestions that helped to improve the paper. The project was partially supported by National Science Centre, Poland, grant No. 2017/26/A/ST9/00756 (Maestro 9) and MNiSW grant DIR/WK/2018/12. V.K. acknowledges Czech Science Foundation No. 17-16287S. We acknowledges P. Du, Y.-R. Li, and J.-M. Wang for the provided data and comments that improved the paper. We acknowledge M. Bentz, C. J. Grier, J. Kuraszkiewicz, A. del Olmo, M. Fausnaugh, J. Mejía-Restrepo, and Y. Shen for the extra information required for the development of this work.


This study uses data provided by the Calar Alto Legacy Integral Field Area (CALIFA) survey ( http://califa.caha.es/ ), which is based on observations collected at the Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA) at Calar Alto, operated jointly by the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (CSIC). This study also uses the the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the reviewer Professor M. Peimbert for comments and corrections and for pointing out the possible blend of the λ4089.29 line with an Si iv line. The work of PJS was supported in part by the STFC (grant ST/J000892/1). The complete data generated in this work can be obtained in electronic format with full precision from the Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg (CDS) data base (catalog VI/150). The fortran 77 data server is compiled and tested thoroughly using gfortran, f77 and Intel fortran compilers on Ubuntu 12.04 and Scientific Linux platforms. Representative sample results from all these compilers and on all those platforms are compared and found to be identical within the stated numerical accuracy.


Acknowledgments We thank Emily Levesque for helpful conversations and V. Ashely Villar for access to their SN 2010da spectra. We are grateful to our anonymous referee for a thoughtful and constructive review. The supernova research of AVF’s group at U.C. Berkeley is supported by Gary Cynthia Bengier, the Richard Rhoda Goldman Fund, the Christopher R. Redlich Fund, the TABASGO Foundation and NSF grant AST–1211916. Some of AVF’s work was completed at the Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported by NSF grant PHY-1066293; he thanks the Center for its hospitality during the black holes workshop in 2016 June and July. This research makes use of observations from the Las Cumbres Observatory (LCO) network and is supported by National Science Foundation (NSF) grant AST-1313484. This research is based in part on observations made at the W. M. Keck Observatory; we are grateful to the Keck staff for their assistance, and we extend special thanks to those of Hawaiian ancestry on whose sacred mountain we are privileged to be guests. The W. M. Keck Observatory is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA); it was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. We thank Daniel Perley and Brad Cenko for the use of, and assistance with, their Keck LRIS imaging and spectroscopy reduction pipeline. 5 We also thank WeiKang Zheng, Kelsey Clubb, Brad Tucker, Patrick Kelly and Isaac Shivvers for their assistance with the observations. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with NASA. This work has made use of the Weizmann Interactive Supernova Data Repository (Yaron Gal-Yam 2012 ) at http://wiserep.weizmann.ac.il .


The authors acknowledge useful discussions with G. Nelemans and M. Dan. We acknowledge an anonymous referee for suggestions that helped us to improve the presentation of our results. LP acknowledges support from the PRIN-INAF 2011 project ‘Multiple populations in Globular Clusters: their role in the Galaxy assembly’. AT acknowledges support from the PRIN-MIUR 2010-2011 project ‘The Obscure Universe and the Cosmic Evolution of Barions’. LRY acknowledges support by RFBR grants 14-02-00604, 15-02-04053 and Presidium of RAS program P-41. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System.


GH acknowledges discussions with A. Tokovinin and K. Hełminiak. We also thank the referee for her/his helpful comments. Support for this project is provided by the Ministry for the Economy, Development, and Tourism's Programa Iniciativa Científica Milenio through grant IC 210009, awarded to the Millennium Institute of Astrophysics; by Proyecto Basal PFB-06/2007; by Fondecyt grant #1141141; and by CONICYT Anillo grant ACT 1101.


The authors would like to thank Annie Hughes for providing the CO(1–0) data and Akiko Kawamura for the CO(3–2) data. This research was made possible through the financial support of the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) through the programme SYMPATICO (Program Blanc Projet (NR-11-BS56-0023) and also through the EU FP7. SH acknowledges financial support from DFG programme HO 5475/2-1. PACS was developed by MPE (Germany); UVIE (Austria); KU Leuven, CSL, IMEC (Belgium); CEA, LAM (France); MPIA (Germany); INAFIFSI/OAA/OAP/OAT, LENS, SISSA (Italy); IAC (Spain). This development was supported by BMVIT (Austria), ESA-PRODEX (Belgium), CEA/CNES (France), DLR (Germany), ASI/INAF (Italy), and CICYT/MCYT (Spain). SPIRE was developed by Cardiff University (UK); Univ. Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, Univ. Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, Univ. Sussex (UK) and Caltech, JPL, NHSC, Univ. Colorado (USA). This development was supported by CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); Stockholm Observatory (Sweden); STFC (UK); and NASA (USA).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS MJI was supported by the Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT130100235). This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement CoG #683029). JHG gratefully acknowledges support from the Director’s Research Funds at the Space Telescope Science Institute. The manuscript was also substantially improved following helpful comments from an anonymous referee.


This work was financially supported by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 646717, TUNNELCHEM). The authors also acknowledge support for CPU time by the state of Baden-Württemberg through bwHPC and the German Research Foundation (DFG) through grant no. INST 40/467-1 FUGG. Software: DL-FIND (Kästner et al. 2009 ), DL_POLY (Smith et al. 2002 ), Molpro version 2015.1 (Werner et al. 2012 ), NWCHEM 6.6 (Valiev et al. 2010 ).


Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Nuala McCullagh for helpful discussions relating to the evolution of the matter power spectrum, and Violeta Gonzalez-Perez for helpful discussions relating to the evaluation of the Limber equation, for both this work and C16 . WIC and CGL acknowledge financial support and fruitful discussions from the Munich Institute for Astro- and Particle Physics (MIAPP) DFG cluster of excellence ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’ workshop entitled ‘The Star Formation History of the Universe’, held in Munich in 2015 August. This work was supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council [ST/K501979/1, ST/L00075X/1]. CMB acknowledges the receipt of a Leverhulme Trust Research Fellowship. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008519/1, and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure.


Acknowledgments This work is supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TBTAK) under the grant 113F354. Preliminary results of this paper were presented at NewCompStar 2015 Annual Meeting held in Budapest, Hungary, which was supported by COST action MP1304. I am grateful to M. Ali Alpar for fruitful discussions on this and related topics over the years. I wish to express my special thanks to Peter S. Shternin for useful remarks on the cooling of neutron stars. I acknowledge the referee for insightful comments that lead to clarification of some points.


Acknowledgments We thank Daniel Bardin for his help with the Observatoire de Haute Provence (OHP, France) observations; OHP, IUCAA Observatory (India) and Chandra Himalayan telescope (India) for attribution of observing time; and Programme National de Plantologie (PNP, France) for support. This work was partly supported by CNES, in relation to observations of MIDAS on the Rosetta mission and to measurements with PROGRA2 instruments on parabolic flights on A300-ZeroG. Support for HST comet observations in program numbers GO13863 and 144261 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy Incorporated, under NAS5-26555.


The authors are very thankful to the referee for valuable comments that helped to improve the paper. The authors would also like to thank Jesper Rasmussen and Alastair Sanderson for kindly providing their observational data, as well as Susana Planelles and Elena Rasia for kindly providing their simulation outputs and for useful discussions. This work is partly based on the XMM-Newton AO-12 proposal “The XMM-Newton view of chemical enrichment in bright galaxy clusters and groups” (PI: de Plaa), and is a part of the CHEERS (CHEmical Evolution Rgs cluster Sample) collaboration. H.A. acknowledges the support of NWO via a Veni grant. P.K. acknowledges financial support from STFC. C.P. acknowledges support from ERC Advanced Grant Feedback 340442. T.H.R. acknowledges support from the DFG through grant RE 1462/6 and through the Transregional Collaborative Research Centre TRR33 The Dark Universe, project B18. This project has been supported by the Lendület LP2016-11 grant awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA member states and the USA (NASA). The SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research is supported financially by NWO, The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research.


The authors thank I. Cooke, R. Martin-Domenech, P. Maksiutenko, and L. Kelley for valuable feedback. J.B.B. acknowledges funding from the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under grant DGE1144152. This work was supported by an award from the Simons Foundation (SCOL # 321183, K.O.). Software: NumPy (Van Der Walt et al. 2011 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ).


We kindly thank Jun Li and Hua Guo for providing the potential energy surface. Astrochemistry in Leiden in general was supported by the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under grant agreement No. 238258, the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA) and from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) within the framework of the Dutch Astrochemistry Network. SI acknowledges the Royal Society for financial support. T.L. was supported by the Dutch Astrochemistry Network financed by NWO. T.L. and J.K. were financially supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 646717, TUNNELCHEM).


This work was supported by the 973 program (2013CB837900), National Science Foundation of China (U1331205). W.A.B. has been supported as a Visiting Professor of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KJZD-EW-T01). P.M. thanks the support through the CAS PIFI program. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. The e-MERLIN is a National Facility operated by the University of Manchester at Jodrell Bank Observatory on behalf of the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). This research has made use of the United States Naval Observatory (USNO) Radio Reference Frame Image Database (RRFID). This research has made use of data from the MOJAVE database that is maintained by the MOJAVE team (Lister et al. 2009a ).


SPCP is grateful to the Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, USA, the Research School for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia, and the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain, for hospitality and support during short and extended working visits in the course of his PhD thesis research. He thanks Roelof de Jong and Ron Allen for help and support during an earlier period as a visiting student at Johns Hopkins University and the Physics and Astronomy Department, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences for this appointment. PCK thanks the directors of these same institutions and his local hosts Ron Allen, Ken Freeman and Johan Knapen for hospitality and support during many work visits over the years, most of which were directly or indirectly related to the research presented in this series of papers. Work visits by SPCP and PCK were supported by an annual grant from the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of the University of Groningen to PCK, accompanying his distinguished Jacobus C. Kapteyn professorship, and by the Leids Kerkhoven-Bosscha Fonds. PCK's work visits were also supported by an annual grant from the Area of Exact Sciences of the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO), in compensation for his membership of its board.


Acknowledgements We are very grateful to the anonymous referee for his/her very valuable comments. This work is partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC 11433004 and 11173020), Top Talents Program of Yunnan Province, the Natural Science Foundation of Yunnan Province (2013FB063), the Young Teachers Program of Yuxi Normal University, and the Program for Innovative Research Team (in Science and Technology) in University of Yunnan Province (IRTSTYN).


We thank the anonymous referees for carefully reading the manuscript and for valuable comments that helped improve this paper substantially. We also thank Professor Yang Chen for discussions, Dr Rai Yuen for smoothing out the language and Dr Cristobal Espinoza for useful suggestions on the braking indices of several radio pulsars. This work was supported by Xinjiang Natural Science Foundation No. 2013211A053, by Chinese National Science Foundation through grants Nos 11173041, 11173042, 11273051, 11373006 and 11133001, by the National Basic Research Programme of China grants 973 Programmes 2012CB821801, by the Strategic Priority Research Programme ‘The Emergence of Cosmological Structures’ of the Chinese Academy of Sciences through No. XDB09000000 and by the West Light Foundation of Chinese Academy of Sciences No. 2172201302.


This work was supported by NASA ATP Grant NNX14AP92G and NSF Grant AST-1716762. K.K. acknowledges support by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under grant No. DGE-1324585. S.C. acknowledges support from CIERA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through a Chandra Award Number TM5-16004X/NAS8-03060 issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center (operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060), and Hubble Space Telescope Archival research grant HST -AR-14555.001-A (from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge the ‘Accordo Quadro INAF-CINECA (2017)' for the availability of high performance computing resources and support. Simulations have been performed as part of the class-A project ‘Three-dimensional relativistic simulations of bow shock nebulae' (PI B. Olmi). The authors also acknowledge financial support from the PRIN-MIUR project prot. 2015L5EE2Y ‘Multi-scale simulations of high-energy astrophysical plasmas'. B. Olmi wishes also to acknowledge Andrea Mignone, from the PLUTO team, for fundamental support, and Simone Landi and Luca Del Zanna for fruitful discussions.


We thank the anonymous referee for a constructive and helpful report, E. Schunová for her feedback on earlier versions of this manuscript, S. D. Miller for comments on his results, and P. Wiegert for sharing the details of his pre-impact orbital solution. This work was partially supported by the Spanish “Comunidad de Madrid” under grant CAM S2009/ESP-1496. Some of the calculations discussed here were completed on the “Servidor Central de Cálculo” of the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. In the preparation of this paper, we made use of the NASA Astrophysics Data System, the ASTRO-PH e-print server, the MPC data server, and the NEODyS information service.


The authors are very grateful to the referee, Frans Snik, for his insightful suggestions and helpful comments to improve the quality of the original manuscript. This work is partially supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grants NNX12AG05G and NNX14AD33G issued through the Astrophysics Research and Analysis (APRA) program (PI: R. Soummer). M.N. would like to thank Rémi Soummer and Laurent Pueyo for their support. M.N. would also like to acknowledge the ESO Chile Visiting Scientist program. Finally, A.V. would like to thank the Paranal staff for their patience and support when performing the tests presented in this work. SPHERE is an instrument designed and built by a consortium consisting of IPAG (Grenoble, France), MPIA (Heidelberg, Germany), LAM (Marseille, France), LESIA (Paris, France), Laboratoire Lagrange (Nice, France), INAF Osservatorio di Padova (Italy), Observatoire de Genève (Switzerland), ETH Zurich (Switzerland), NOVA (Netherlands), ONERA (France) and ASTRON (Netherlands) in collaboration with ESO. SPHERE was funded by ESO, with additional contributions from CNRS (France), MPIA (Germany), INAF (Italy), FINES (Switzerland) and NOVA (Netherlands). SPHERE also received funding from the European Commission Sixth and Seventh Framework Programmes as part of the Optical Infrared Coordination Network for Astronomy (OPTICON) under grant number RII3-Ct-2004-001566 for FP6 (20042008), grant number 226604 for FP7 (20092012) and grant number 312430 for FP7 (20132016).


We thank Stephen White who edited the GMRT data of April 06, 2006 when he was a visiting scientist in Meudon in July 2006. P. Subramanian acknowledges partial support from the CAWES-II program, administrated by the Indian Space Research Organization. We also thank N. G. Kantharia and S. Ananthakrishnan for helpful discussions regarding GMRT observation procedures, and an anonymous referee for helping us to improve the manuscript.


Acknowledgments We are grateful to Dr D. Weisz, Dr A. McConnachie and Dr N. Ho and collaborators for generously providing their data for this project. The authors thank the anonymous referee for the comments that have helped to improve this paper. AdP also thanks S. Bertran de Lis for her support and help during this project. This research was supported by the Polish National Science Centre under grant 2013/10/A/ST9/00023.


We thank Mark Reid for pointing out the large amount of high-mass clumps that would be required to account for the global Galactic HCN and IR luminosities. This work was supported by NASA grant NNX12AE42G and NSF grant AST-1211844. A.E.G. acknowledges support from FONDECYT grant 3150570. This research made use of APLpy, an open-source plotting package for Python hosted at http://aplpy.github.com .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank Adrick Broeils, Martha P. Haynes, J. M. van der Hulst, and Marc A. W. Verheijen, as well as the THINGS, LITTLE THINGS, and WHISP collaborations, for providing H i data cubes and moment maps of archival data. The authors also acknowledge the referee for their insight and helpful recommendations that improved this manuscript. This paper is based on work presented in EER's PhD dissertation, which was accepted by Indiana University graduate faculty in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree. The authors acknowledge observational and technical support from the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO). We acknowledge use of the WIYN 0.9 m telescope operated by WIYN Inc. on behalf of a Consortium of ten partner Universities and Organizations, and the WIYN 3.5 m telescope. The WIYN Observatory is a joint facility of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Indiana University, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, and the University of Missouri. This work is based on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. E.E.R. acknowledges support from the Provost's Travel Award for Women in Science, a professional development fund supported through the Office of the Provost at Indiana University Bloomington, the Indiana University College of Arts and Sciences Dissertation Year Fellowship, and the Indiana Space Grant Consortium. L.v.Z. recognizes support from the Helena Kluyver Female Visitor programme at ASTRON during which some of this analysis was completed. This work was partially supported by NASA ADAP award NNX17AF17G. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) that is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


This paper was based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope associated with program 13481; support for this program was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute. EML is additionally supported by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant number HST -HF-51324.01 A from the Space Telescope Science Institute. The Space Telescope Science Institute is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555.


We thank Axel Brandenburg for comments and useful discussions. F.D.S. acknowledges the Swedish Research Council International Postdoc fellowship for support, Giuseppe Jacopo Guidi for discussions, and the INAF Astrophysical observatory of Catania for the warm hospitality that allowed this work to be carried out.


Support for this work was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra awards GO2–13091X and AR3-14017X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8–03060. E.S. acknowledges support from The Science Academy (Bilim Akademisi, Turkey) under the BAGEP program. We would like to thank the anonymous referee for carefully reading the paper and providing useful comments.


This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. We have also used UKIDSS data from the UKIDSSDR8plus database. The UKIDSS project is defined in Lawrence et al. (2007) . UKIDSS uses the UKIRT Wide Field Camera (WFCAM; Casali et al. 2007 ) and a photometric system described in Hewett et al. (2006) . We thank R. M. Humphreys for her comments on an early version of the paper and N. L. J. Cox for his advice on DIBs.


We thank Jarle Brinchmann, J. J. Eldridge, Elizabeth Stanway, Eric Pellegrini, Selma de Mink, Evan Kirby, Jim Fuller, Phil Hopkins, and Maryam Shirazi for very informative conversations. We benefited significantly from talks, discussions, and conversations during the First Carnegie Symposium in Honor of Leonard Searle, “Understanding Nebular Emission in High-Redshift Galaxies,” held at the Carnegie Observatories in Pasadena, 2015 July 13–17. T. Bensby, C. Esteban, and D. Erb kindly provided machine-readable data from their published work. This work has been supported in part by the US National Science Foundation through grants AST-0908805 and AST-1313472 (C.C.S., A.L.S., R.F.T.), as well as by an NSF Graduate Student Research Fellowship (A.L.S.). Finally, we wish to extend thanks to those of Hawaiian ancestry on whose sacred mountain we are privileged to be guests.


The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) have been made possible through contributions of the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, Queen’s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, and Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE) and the Los Alamos National Laboratory. We thank the anonymous referee for very beneficial comments. T.S. thanks Andrea Merloni, Phil Uttley, Brandon Kelly, Jason Dexter, Simone Scaringi and Barbara De Marco for many helpful discussions and comments.


L.D.F. acknowledges support through the ESO Studentship Programme, CAPES Programme and CNPq fellowship Programme (166880/2014-0). L.P. acknowledges the Visiting Researcher program of CNPq Brazilian Agency, at the Fed. Univ. of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil. Support for C.C. is provided by the Ministry for the Economy, Development and Tourism’s Programa Iniciativa Científica do Milênio through grant IC20009, awarded to the Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS). G.F.P.M. acknowledges financial support by CNPq grant 476909/2006-6, FAPERJ grant APQ1/26/170.687/2004 and ESO, for financial support for a trip to Garching, which enabled participation in this work. We thank Dr. Martin Asplund and Dr. Maria Bergemann for their contribution with the line lists used in this work. This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System, of the WEBDA database, operated at the Department of Theoretical Physics and Astrophysics of the Masaryk University, and of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.


We would like to thank Ezequiel Treister and the anonymous referee for helpful discussions regarding the interpretations of our results. We would also like to thank Scott Chapman for providing radio images of the SSA22 field. CS acknowledges support from CONICYT-Chile (FONDECYT 3120198, Becas Chile 74140006, and the Anillo ACT1101). FEB acknowledges support from CONICYT-Chile (Basal-CATA PFB-06/2007, FONDECYT 1141218, Gemini-CONICYT 32120003, ‘EMBIGGEN”Anillo ACT1101), and Project IC120009 ‘Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS)’ funded by the Iniciativa Científica Milenio del Ministerio de Economía, Fomento y Turismo. The work of DS was carried out at Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with NASA. JEG thanks the Royal Society. Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 085.A-0616 and 089.A-0405. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.


Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 60.A-9379. The asteroid diameters and albedos based on NEOWISE observations were obtained from the Planetary Data System (PDS). Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. This research has made use of the Keck Observatory Archive (KOA), which is operated by the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute (NExScI), under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. This research used the MPC service developed, maintained, and hosted at the Lagrange laboratory, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur ( Delbo et al. 2017 ). Photometry of 6 Hebe was identified and extracted from WASP data with the help of Neil Parley (Open University, now IEA Reading). The WASP project is currently funded and operated by Warwick University and Keele University, and was originally set up by Queen’s University Belfast, the Universities of Keele, St. Andrews and Leicester, the Open University, the Isaac Newton Group, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the South African Astronomical Observatory and by STFC. The WASP project is currently funded and operated by Warwick University and Keele University, and was originally set up by Queen’s University Belfast, the Universities of Keele, St. Andrews and Leicester, the Open University, the Isaac Newton Group, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the South African Astronomical Observatory and by STFC. TRAPPIST-South is a project funded by the Belgian Funds (National) de la Recherche Scientifique (F.R.S.-FNRS) under grant FRFC 2.5.594.09.F, with the participation of the Swiss National Science Foundation (FNS/SNSF). E.J. and M.G. are F.R.S.-FNRS research associates. Based on observations with ISO, an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA Member States and with the participation of ISAS and NASA. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. Herschel fluxes of Hebe where extracted by Csaba Kiss (Konkoly Observatory, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1121 Budapest, Konkoly Thege Miklós út 15–17, Hungary). TM received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme, under Grant Agreement No. 687378.


We acknowledge support from the Research Council of Lithuania under the grant No. MIP-85/2012. The European Union FP7-PEOPLE-2010-IRSES program is acknowledged for funding exchange visits in the framework of the project POSTAGBinGALAXIES (grant agreement No. 269193). L. Z. thanks Drs. T. Kipper, M. R. Schmidt, U. G. Jørgensen, and A. Barzdis for assistance during the first iterations of abundance analysis and valuable discussions. This research has made use of the Simbad database operated at CDS (Strasbourg, France) and the VALD database operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow, and the University of Vienna. The publication charge was paid by the Research Council of Lithuania.


We are grateful to the referee, Prof. Michael Shull, for his thorough reading and for useful comments and suggestions that have significantly improved the clarity of the paper. E.L. thanks G. Calderone for having modified the code QSFit to handle low-resolution WFC3 spectra and for feedback and suggestions on the fitting procedure. E.L. is supported by a European Union COFUND/Durham Junior Research Fellowship (under EU grant agreement 609412). M.F. acknowledges support by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant ST/P000541/1). This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement 757535). Support for HST Program GO-14127 was provided by NASA through grants from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS526555. M.R. acknowledges support by HST-GO-14127.011 and a NASA Keck PI Data Award, administered by the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory from telescope time allocated to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through the agency’s scientific partnership with the California Institute of Technology and the University of California. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Facilities: HST (WFC3) , Keck:II (ESI). Software: astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), corner (Foreman-Mackey 2016 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ), QSFit (Calderone et al. 2017 ).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge valuable input from M. Aumer, J. Bland-Hawthorn, C. Dobbs, R. Genzel, K. Masters, M. Miville-Deschenes, E. Ostriker, S. Ragan, and D. Soderblom. We also thank the referee for a careful reading of the original manuscript and for numerous suggestions that improved the clarity and organization of the paper. The research of CFM is supported in part by NASA ATP grant NNX13AB84G.


This work has been partly funded by a PRIN-INAF 2014 grant, the PRIN INAF SKA-CTA grant and a PRIN MIUR 2015. We acknowledge the CINECA award under the ISCRA initiative, for the availability of high-performance computing resources.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for useful comments. R.G. and J.G. are supported by the Israeli Science Foundation under grant No. 719/14 and by the ISF-NSFC joint research program (grant No. 3296/19). We thank Merlin Kole for organizing and the hospitality at the conference Shedding new light on Gamma-Ray Bursts with polarization data in Geneva where part of this work was completed.


The STEREO /SEPT, Chandra /EPHIN, and SOHO /EPHIN project is supported under grant 50OC1702 by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology on the basis of a decision by the German Bundestag. R.G.H. acknowledges the Spanish MICIU/FEDER/AEI for the financial support under project ESP2017-88436-R. I.G.R. acknowledges support from NASA programs NNH17ZDA001N and NH14ZDA001N-LWS, and from the STEREO mission. F.E. and N.D. acknowledge support from NASA grant NNX17AK25G. Additional support from an Alexander von Humboldt group linkage program is appreciated. We thank the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) for hosting our team on “Solar flare acceleration signatures and their connection to solar energetic particles.” Financial support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) via project GI 1352/1-1 is acknowledged. We thank Dr. R. D. Strauss, Dr. E. Kontar, and Dr. A. Warmuth for helpful discussions.


We thank the anonymous referee for thoughtful comments and suggestions that improved this paper. We are grateful to D. Koester for sharing his grid of white dwarf atmosphere models. We thank J. J. Hermes for his insightful comments on the appropriate mass ranges for the WD fits. This paper is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. These observations are associated with program #13354 and R.D.M. has been supported by NASA HST-GO-13354.001-A and NSF AST- 1714506. E.M.L. is funded by a National Science Foundation Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellowship under award No. AST-1801937. Facility: HST (COS). Software: MESA (Paxton et al. 2015 ), numpy (van der Walt et al. 2011 ), astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ; Price-Whelan et al. 2018 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ), seaborn (Waskom et al. 2018 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ), ipython (Pérez Granger 2007 ).


We would like to thank Mélanie Habouzit, Yohan Dubois, Joseph Silk, Gary Mamon, Stéphane Colombi, Rebekka Bieri, Andrea Negri, Mitch Begelman, Bhaskar Agarwal, Britton Smith, Mei Sasaki, and Paul Clark for valuable discussions and helpful contributions. We also thank the referee for insightful comments. We are very grateful for the free availability of the code music . We acknowledge funding from the European Research Council under the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) via the ERC Grant ‘BLACK’ under the project number 614199 (TH, MAL, MV) and via the ERC Advanced Grant ‘STARLIGHT: Formation of the First Stars’ under the project number 339177 (RSK, SCOG). SCOG and RSK acknowledges support from the DFG via SFB 881, ‘The Milky Way System’ (subprojects B1, B2 and B8) as well as via SPP 1573 ‘Physics of the Interstellar Medium’. The simulations described in this paper were performed at the Jülich Supercomputing Centre.


We thank an anonymous referee and M. Walmsley for comments that helped to improve this paper. We thank the SOFIA operations and the GREAT instrument teams, whose support has been essential for the GREAT accomplishments, and the DSI telescope engineering team. Based (in part) on observations made with the NASA/DLR Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy. SOFIA Science Mission Operations are conducted jointly by the Universities Space Research Association, Inc., under NASA contract NAS2-97001, and the Deutsches SOFIA Institut, under DLR contract 50 OK 0901. We thank N. Cunningham for providing us with the spectacular image of the region. This work was partly funded by grant ANR-09- BLAN-0231-01 from the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche as part of the SCHISM project. It was also partly supported by the CNRS programme “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire”.


We acknowledge a helpful report from an anonymous referee. J.B.-P. and L.H. acknowledge UNAM-PAPIIT grant number IN103012. Numerical simulations were performed either at Miztli, a 4096-core cluster at DGTIC-UNAM, or at the University of Michigan HPC center, partially supported by UNAM-PAPIIT grant number IN103012 to J.B.-P. A.K. would like to acknowledge funding by the Rackham Graduate School at the University of Michigan.


Acknowledgments We thank the Wyoming NASA Space Grant Consortium who funded this work through the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Grant #NNX15AI08H. ADM was partially supported by National Science Foundation grant 1515404.


The authors thank Paul Kuin for the UVOTPY software used in extracting the UVOT spectra, Rollin Thomas for the SYN++ and SYNAPPS spectra synthesis packages, and Chris Burns for the SNooPy light-curve analysis program. We also thank the George P. and Cynthia Woods Mitchell Institute for Fundamental Physics Astronomy at Texas AM and the Carnegie Supernova Project. M.S. is supported partially by the NASA Swift Guest Investigator grant NNX15AR51G. P.J.B. and the Swift Optical/Ultraviolet Supernova Archive are supported by NASA’s Astrophysics Data Analysis Program through grant NNX13AF35G. We acknowledge the support of the staff of the Li-Jiang 2.4-m telescope (LJT), and Tsinghua-NAOC 80-cm telescope (TNT). Funding for the LJT has been provided by Chinese academy of science (CAS) and the People’s Government of Yunnan Province. The TNT is owned by Tsinghua University and operated by the National Astronomical Observatory of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (NAOC). J.J.Z. is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, grant 11403096). The work of X.F.W. is supported by the Major State Basic Research Development Program (2013CB834903), the NSFC (grants 11073013, 11178003, 11325313), Tsinghua University Initiative Scientific Research Program, and the Strategic Priority Research Program “The Emergence of Cosmological Structures” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. XDB09000000). This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


This work was supported in part by the DeutscheForschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) via SFB 956. It was also partly supported by fruitful discussions with members of the Czech Science Foundation DFG collaboration (No. 13-00070J) and with members of the European Union Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement no 312789; Strong gravity: Probing Strong Gravity by Black Holes Across the Range of Masses.


We thank the anonymous referee and R. Ulrich for constructive comments. We are grateful to X. Zhao for the spherical harmonic decomposition code, and A. A. Norton and B. McClintock for bringing the DPD catalog to our attention. This work is supported by NASA contract NAS5-02139 (HMI). The HMI data are courtesy of NASA and the SDO /HMI team. The SSN records are courtesy of WDC-SILSO, Royal Observatory of Belgium, Brussels. Facility: SDO


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS RAB was supported by grant #2017/12828-4, So Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP). The work of AS was supported by the Russian Science Foundation under grant no.19-71-10018, carried out at the Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University. EMGDP was partially supported by FAPESP grant #2013/10559-5 and National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) grant 306598/2009-4. The simulations were run at the cluster GAPAE of the group of Plasmas and High-Energy Astrophysics from the Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics and Atmospheric Sciences at the University of So Paulo (IAG-USP) (FAPESP grant #2013/10559-5).


We gratefully acknowledge the developers of iSALE-2D, including Gareth Collins, Kai Wunnemann, Dirk Elbeshausen, Boris Ivanov and Jay Melosh. Numerical computations were carried out on the PC cluster at Center for Computational Astrophysics, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. We thank the referee, H.J. Melosh for helpful suggestions and comments. S.W. thank Alexander N. Krot for helpful comments and discussions on chondrules and also thank Brandon C. Johnson and Kosuke Kurosawa for kindly comments on simulations. The part of this research was carried out at JPL/Caltech under a contract with NASA. Y.H. is supported by JPL/Caltech.


This research was partially supported by the Italian Space Agency (ASI) under contracts I/013/12/0 and I/022/10/2 and by the European Commission’s Seventh Framework Program under the grant agreement STORM (project n° 313038). Data from Wind and Messenger were obtained from NASA-CDAWeb and NASA-PDS websites, respectively.


We acknowledge the financial support of the UnivEarthS Labex program at Sorbonne-Paris-Cité (ANR-10-LABX-0023 and ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02) through project SolarGeoMag. We also acknowledge the support from the ERC PoC SolarPredict project, CNES Solar Orbiter and INSU/PNST grants, and Idex SPC through the DAMSE project. We are grateful to Roger Ulrich for giving us digital access to his surface meridional circulation measurements. We also thank SIDC for access to their sunspot series observations. Wilcox Solar Observatory data used in this study were obtained via the Web site http://wso.stanford.edu on 2017 September 29 03:15:25 PDT, courtesy of J.T. Hoeksema. A.S.B. thanks M. DeRosa and A. Title for useful discussions. Numerical computations were performed on the S-CAPAD platform, IPGP, France and on the DIM-ACAV funded Anais server at CEA/IRFU. IPGP contribution 3889.


We thank the anonymous referee for useful comments. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Support for this work was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra Award Number GO5-16133X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. R.J.W. is supported by a Clay Fellowship awarded by the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. W.R.F., C.J., and F.A.-S. acknowledge support from the Smithsonian Institution. F.A.-S. acknowledges support from Chandra grant GO3-14131X. Basic research in radio astronomy at NRL by TEC is supported by 6.1 Base funding. M.N. acknowledges PRIN-INAF 2014 1.05.01.94.02. This research made use of APLpy, an open-source plotting package for Python (Robitaille Bressert 2012 ). This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ).


Cs. K. has been supported by the PECS grant # 4000109997/13/NL/KML of the HSO ESA, the K-104607 grant of the Hungarian Research Fund (OTKA), and the LP2012-31 “Lendület” grant of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. We are indebted to our referee for the useful comments.


Acknowledgements This study is based on observations with XMMNewton , an ESA Science Mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member states and the USA (NASA), and with Swift , a NASA mission with international participation. We would like to thank the anonymous referee for the useful comments and suggestions that helped improve the manuscript. The XMMNewton project is supported by the Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt (BMWi/DLR, FKZ 50 OX 0001) and the Max-Planck Society. The OGLE project has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Communitys Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement no. 246678 to AU. We thank the Swift team for accepting and carefully scheduling the target of opportunity observations, and we acknowledge the use of public data from the Swift data archive. GV acknowledges support from the BMWi/DLR grant FKZ 50 OR 1208. PM acknowledges support by the Centre National dtudes Spatiales (CNES). Last but not least, we wish to thank Dr. M. Petropoulou and Dr. F. Koliopanos for their useful comments.


Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Julian Krolik, Joe Silk, Meng Su and Ilias Cholis for useful discussions. We especially thank Glennys Farrar for valuable detailed comments on an earlier draft. This work was supported by NSF Grant No. 0244990, NASA NNX15AB18G, the John Templeton Foundation and the Simons Foundation.


Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Italian Ministry of Education, University, and Research through the PREMIALEWOW 2013 research project under grant Ricerca di pianeti intorno a stelle di piccola massa. J.M. acknowledges support from the Ariel ASI-INAF agreement N. 2015-038-R.0. E.V. and C.E. acknowledge support from the On the rocks project funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad under grant AYA2014-55840-P. We sincerely appreciate the careful reading of the manuscript and the constructive comments of the anonymous referee.


We thank Chris Belczynski for providing tabulated data to map between ZAMS stellar masses and final compact remnant masses, and Tod Lauer for assistance in interpreting the Nuker data sets. We thank Iair Arcavi and Suvi Gezari for providing useful data on the peak luminosities of observed TDEs. We thank Brad Cenko, Jacqueline van Gorkum, Morgan MacLeod, Jeremiah Ostriker, Greg Snyder, Linda Strubbe, and Sjoert van Velzen for helpful conversations. Finally, we also thank the anonymous referee for many useful suggestions. BDM gratefully acknowledges support from the NSF grant AST-1410950 and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHYS-1066293 and the hospitality of the Aspen Center for Physics.


I am grateful to the anonymous referee for the helpful comments that allowed me to improve the paper.


We acknowledge A.J. Koning for development of the nuclear reaction code TALYS, his help in using the code, and his willingness to answer questions concerning nuclear physics. This work was supported by NASA grant NNH13AV36I and the Chief of Naval Research (CNR). B.K. acknowledges the Israeli Science Foundation for support. G.S. was supported by NSF/SHINE grant 1156092.


Support for this work was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra Award Number G04-15114X to S.M. issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. Support for the HST program number GO-13185 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. K.D.D. was supported by an NSF AAPF fellowship awarded under NSF grant AST-1302093 while she worked on this project. M.V. gratefully acknowledges support from the Danish Council for Independent Research via grant number DFF 4002-00275.


We warmly thank Simon Goodwin, this papers referee, for his enlightened and useful comments that have helped to improve the content and presentation of this work. Likewise, we also wish to thank Richard Parker for his reading of the draft and the discussion held concerning specific points of the paper. We acknowledge support from the Spanish Ministry for Economy and Competitiveness and FEDER funds through grant AYA2013-40611-P.


We thank Jeremiah P. Ostriker, Gurtina Besla, and Benedikt Diemer for useful comments and discussions. SG acknowledges support provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51341.001-A awarded by the STScI, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. VS acknowledges support through the European Research Council through ERC-StG grant EXAGAL-308037. LH acknowledges support from NSF grant AST-1312095 and NASA grant NNX12AC67G. Simulations were run on the Harvard Odyssey and CfA/ITC clusters, the Ranger and Stampede supercomputers at the Texas Advanced Computing Center as part of XSEDE, the Kraken supercomputer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory as part of XSEDE, the CURIE supercomputer at CEA/France as part of PRACE project RA0844, and the SuperMUC computer at the Leibniz Computing Centre, Germany, as part of project pr85je.


We thank Kassandra Anderson for useful discussions and Cristóbal Petrovich for comments on the manuscript. We also thank the referee Smadar Naoz for a constructive report. This work has been supported in part by NSF grant AST-1211061, and NASA grants NNX14AG94G and NNX14AP31G.


This research has made use of the Exoplanet Orbit Database and the Exoplanet Data Explorer at exoplanets.org . The project has been supported by Swiss National Science Foundation grants 200021-138016, 200020-15710 and 200020-160119. A.A.V. acknowledges support from an Ambizione Fellowship of the Swiss National Science Foundation.


We thank Joachim Puls for his advice and for the fastwind comparison models; Rolf Kudritzki for making the optical observations available to us; and Miguel Urbaneja for sharing his original CSPN model runs. We also thank the anonymous referees for helpful comments which improved the paper. This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) under grants Pa 477/4-1 and Pa 477/7-1.


The authors acknowledge the anonymous referee for very useful comments and suggestions. JV acknowledges the support of ESO through a studentship. JV and MB acknowledge the support of the Fund for Scientific Research Flanders (FWO-Vlaanderen). The authors are grateful to CTIO for the hospitality and the dedicated assistance during the numerous observing runs.


The authors thank R.G. Bhaskar and V. Wakelam for stimulating conversations. We also thank the anonymous referee for their valuable comments. This work was supported in part by the NSF Division of Astronomical Sciences Astronomy and Astrophysics Grants Program and by the NASA Astronomy and Physics Research and Analysis Program. X.U. is Senior Research Associate of the FRS-FNRS. S.V. was supported in part by the NSF Research Experience for Undergraduates program.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Support for this work was provided by NASA through grant number JWST-ERS-01324 and HST-GO-15212 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. Support was also provided through NSF grant: COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH: The Final Frontier: Spectroscopic Probes of Galaxies at the Epoch of Reionization (AST 1815458, AST 1810822). The Cosmic Dawn Center is funded by the DNRF. MB acknowledges support by NSF through award NSF-AAG-1815458 and through NASA ADAP grant 80NSSC18K0945. The authors wish to thank Simon Birrer for helpful discussions during the development of the Bayesian inference analysis.


The authors thank the anonymous referee for his/her constructive comments that greatly helped to improve the content of this manuscript. This work is financially supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants no. 11273068, 11473073, 11403105), the Strategic Priority Research Program-The Emergence of Cosmological Structures of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no. XDB09000000), the innovative and interdisciplinary program by CAS (grant no. KJZD-EW-Z001), the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (grant no. BK20141509) and the Foundation of Minor Planets of Purple Mountain Observatory.


We thank the anonymous referee for his/her very useful and constructive comments. We thank Y.-Y. Mao for providing the abundance matching code and for assistance. We thank Eric Jullo, Stéphane Arnouts, Olivier Ilbert, and Corentin Schreiber for their explanations. The Bolshoi-Planck simulation was performed by Anatoly Klypin within the Bolshoi project of the University of California High-Performance AstroComputing Center (UC-HiPACC) and was run on the Pleiades supercomputer at the NASA Ames Research Center. We acknowledge financial support from “Programme National de Cosmologie and Galaxies” (PNCG) funded by CNRS/INSU-IN2P3-INP, CEA and CNES, France. This work has been partially funded by the ANR under the contract ANR-15-CE31-0017. This work has been carried out thanks to the support of the OCEVU Labex (ANR-11-LABX-0060) and the A*MIDEX project (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) funded by the “Investissements d’Avenir” French government program managed by the ANR. H.W. acknowledges the support by the US National Science Foundation (NSF) grant AST1313037. Part of the research described in this paper was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


This research was supported by NSF grants AST-1515568 and AST-1140030. The Kitt Peak 12 m and the SMT are operated by the Arizona Radio Observatory (ARO), with partial support through the NSF University Radio Observatories (URO) program (AST-1140030).


We are grateful to Andrej Dundovic for useful discussions as well as the comments of the unknown referee that helped to improve the original version of the paper. L.S., A.F., and B.E. acknowledge financial support from the MERCUR project An-2017-0009. Software: CRPropa3 (Alves Batista et al. 2016 ), NumPy (van der Walt et al. 2011 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), SymPy (Meurer et al. 2017 ), Pandas (McKinney 2010 ).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 088.D-0096(A) and 095.D-0973(A). This research has used the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, and of the NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. iraf is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Tom Marsh is thanked for developing and sharing his package molly . We thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments. MAPT and JC acknowledge support by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (MINECO) under grant AYA2017-83216-P. MAPT also acknowledges support via a Ramón y Cajal Fellowship (RYC-2015-17854). The work of SR was supported by the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA). PGJ and ZKR acknowledge support from European Research Council Consolidator grant 647208. RIH and CBJ acknowledge support from NASA through Chandra Award Number AR3-14002X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. The work of LW has been supported by the Polish National Science Centre grant no.DEC-2011/03/B/ST9/02573. The OGLE project has received funding from the National Science Centre, Poland, grant MAESTRO 2014/14/A/ST9/00121 and 2015/18/M/ST9/00544 to Andrzej Udalski. COH is supported by NSERC Discovery grant RGPIN-2016-04602, and a Discovery Accelerator Supplement. SR is thankful to Hagai Perets for his insights on the triple scenario.


This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. This research has made use of data obtained with the NuSTAR mission, a project led by the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and funded by NASA. BDM acknowledges support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 798726, and grant agreement No. 665778 via the Polish National Science Center grant Polonez 2016/21/P/ST9/04025. TPA acknowledges support from Polish National Science Center grant Polonez 2016/21/P/ST9/04025 and Preludium 2016/21/N/ST9/0331. S. B. acknowledges financial support from ASI under grants ASI-INAF I/037/12/0 and n. 2017-14-H.O. AGM acknowledges partial support from Nardowe Centrum Nauki (NCN) award 2016/23/B/ST9/03123. JM is supported by STFC (UK) through the University of Strathclyde UK APAP network grant ST/R000743/1. D. J. W. acknowledges support from STFC in the form of an Ernest Rutherford fellowship. C. P. is supported by European Space Agency (ESA) Research Fellowship. POP thanks financial support from the CNES french agency and the CNRS/PNHE. AR was supported by Polish National Science Center grants No. 2015/17/B/ST9/03422 and 2015/18/M/ST9/00541. The authors thank the referee for their helpful comments.


We thank the anonymous referee for the constructive comments and suggestions, which helped to improve the manuscript. GAMA is a joint European-Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The GAMA input catalog is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is obtained by a number of independent survey programs including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE, Herschel-ATLAS, GMRT, and ASKAP, providing UV to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA web site is http://www.gama-survey.org/ . The Radio Semi-Analytic Galaxy Evolution (Radio-SAGE) model used in this study is a publicly available for download at https://github.com/mojtabaraouf/sage . The Millennium Simulation was carried out by the Virgo Supercomputing Consortium at the Computing Centre of the Max Plank Society in Garching.


Work by J.K. is supported in part by a research project hosted by Waseda Research Institute for Science and Engineering, also by Institute for Advanced Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Waseda university. We thank anonymous referees for carefully reading our manuscript and for giving useful comments. Software: HEASoft (v6.19), CIAO (v4.8).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has been funded by VIALACTEA, a Collaborative Project under Framework Programme 7 of the European Union (Contract n. 607380). ADC acknowledges support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (under grant ST/N00706/1). This work is based on observations carried out under project number 133-15 with the IRAM 30-m telescope. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain).


Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for the useful comments that improved the manuscript. L.D. thanks Jun Yang for answering some questions about the library of X-ray pulsars in SMC. This paper is based on data from observationswith, XMM-Newton , Swift , and Chandra X-ray observatory. XMM-Newton is an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. Chandra data were obtained from the Chandra Data Archive. This paper is based on data from observations with INTEGRAL, an ESA project with instruments and science data centre funded by ESA member states (especially the PI countries: Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland), Czech Republic, and Poland, and with the participation of Russia and the USA. This work is supported by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie through the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt (grant FKZ 50 OG 1602). P.R. acknowledges contract ASI-INAF I/004/11/0.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank an anonymous referee for helpful comments. SC acknowledge NCRA-TIFR for providing financial support. We acknowledge the THINGS collaboration for providing the data for galaxy NGC 628.


We thank the referee for a valuable report that greatly helped us to clarify the paper. This work was supported by NSF grants AST/110897 and AST/12117937.


We thank the anonymous referee for helpful suggestions that improved the quality of the paper. LZ and YS acknowledge support for this work from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant 11373021), the Strategic Priority Research Program ‘The Emergence of Cosmological Structures’ of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. XDB09000000), and Excellent Youth Foundation of Jiangsu Scientific Committee (grant BK20150014). LZ also thanks for the support by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. J1210039). AL is supported in part by NSF AST-1311804 and NASA NNX14AF68G. This research has made extensive use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work is based (in part) on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA.’ The Galaxy Evolution Explorer ( GALEX ) is a NASA Small Explorer, launched in 2003 April. We acknowledge NASA's support for construction, operation, and science analysis for the GALEX mission.


This work is supported by Technology under State Key Development Program for Basic Research (973 program) No. 2012CB821802 and National Key Basic Research Program of China (973 Program) 2015CB857100, the China Ministry of Science, and the Guizhou Scientific Collaboration Program (#20130421). We are grateful to the anonymous referee for his/her constructive suggestions, which have greatly improved this paper. The authors would like to thank Pei Zuo for helping Delingha CO observations, John Dickey for discussing H i self-absorption, Xiaohu Li for discussing chemical evolutionary model. We thank the Pineda team for providing C and CO data. Part of CO data were observed with the Delingha 13.7 m telescope of the Qinghai Station of Purple Mountain Observatory. We appreciate the help of all the staff members of the observatory during the observations.


H.B. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the Horizon 2020 Framework Program via the ERC Consolidator Grant CSF-648505. J.M.D.K. gratefully acknowledges funding from the German Research Foundation (DFG) in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group (grant number KR4801/1-1, PI Kruijssen), from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the ERC Starting Grant MUSTANG (grant agreement number 714907, PI Kruijssen), and from Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 “The Milky Way System” (subproject P1) of the DFG. E.R. is supported by a Discovery Grant from NSERC of Canada. T.P. acknowledges support from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG via the SPP (priority program) 1573 Physics of the ISM. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Software: CASA (McMullin et al. 2007 ), CLASS ( http://www.iram.fr/IRAMFR/GILDAS ), miriad (Sault et al. 1995 ), APLpy (Robitaille Bressert 2012 ). Facility: ATCA(CABB) .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This scientific work makes use of the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory, operated by CSIRO. We acknowledge the Wajarri Yamatji people as the traditional owners of the Observatory site. Support for the operation of the Murchison Widefield Array is provided by the Australian Government (NCRIS), under a contract to Curtin University administered by Astronomy Australia Limited. We acknowledge the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre which is supported by the Western Australian and Australian Governments and the Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), which is an Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence, funded by grant CE110001020. Parts of this research were conducted with the support of Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. This research also made use of Montage. Montage is funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number ACI-1440620, and was previously funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Earth Science Technology Office, Computation Technologies Project, under Cooperative Agreement Number NCC5-626 between NASA and the California Institute of Technology.


This material is based upon work partially supported by the National Science Foundation under grant No. 1616538. The National Solar Observatory is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation. This work utilized the RMACC Summit supercomputer, which is supported by the National Science Foundation (awards ACI-1532235 and ACI-1532236), the University of Colorado Boulder, and Colorado State University. The Summit supercomputer is a joint effort of the University of Colorado Boulder and Colorado State University. The authors are grateful for the International Space Science Institute in Bern for hosting the International Team 335 “Toward New Models of Solar Spectral Irradiance Based on 3D MHD Simulations,” which helped motivate this work. Software: MURaM (Vögler et al. 2005 ; Rempel et al. 2009 ), RH (Uitenbroek 2001 ; Pereira Uitenbroek 2015 ), Stagger (Nordlund Galsgaard 1995 ), Scipy ndimage (Jones et al. 2001 ).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank John Pritchard of ESO Operations Support for his assistance with the wavelength calibration of the spectra. Based on observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO programme 095.B-0133(A). This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. This work makes use of PyAstronomy and emcee . DRW is supported by a fellowship from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. NFM acknowledges that this work has been published under the framework of the IdEx Unistra and benefits from a funding from the state managed by the French National Research Agency as part of the investments for the future programme. NFM also acknowledge support by the Programme National Cosmology et Galaxies (PNCG) of CNRS/INSU with INP and IN2P3, co-funded by CEA and CNES.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ENM acknowledges support by an SIIP-UNCuyo grant.


Acknowledgements We acknowledge the substantial efforts of both the CFHT staff in implementing the Legacy Survey and of the CFHTLenS team in preparing catalogues of galaxy ellipticities and photometric redshifts. This work is based on observations obtained with MegaPrime/MegaCam, a joint project of CFHT and CEA/IRFU, at the CanadaFranceHawaii Telescope (CFHT) that is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de lUnivers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France and the University of Hawaii. This research used the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre operated by the National Research Council of Canada with the support of the Canadian Space Agency. CFHTLenS data processing was made possible thanks to significant computing support from the NSERC Research Tools and Instruments grant programme. MJH and MLB acknowledge support from NSERC.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was partially supported by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (grant NNX13AN25G) and the National Science Foundation (grant 1616992).


We thank the reviewer for the very comprehensive and insightful report that helped improve the quality of the paper. We also thank Freeman Dyson and Corey Powell for valuable comments regarding the paper. This work was supported in part by the Breakthrough Prize Foundation, Harvard University’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences, and the Institute for Theory and Computation (ITC) at Harvard University.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to the anonymous referee for his/her valuable comments. This article is based on observations made in the Observatorios de Canarias del IAC with the William Herschel Telescope (WHT) operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos. This work is partly financed by the Spanish Ministry of Economics and Competitiveness through grants ESP2013-48391-C4-2-R and AYA2016-79425-C3-2-P.


Support for this work was provided by the NASA through Chandra award number AR4-15013X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the NASA under contract NAS8-03060. SWA acknowledges support from the US Department of Energy under contract number DE-AC02-76SF00515. IZ and NW are partially supported from Suzaku grants NNX12AE05G and NNX13AI49G. PA acknowledges financial support from FONDECYT grant 1140304. EC and RS are partly supported by grant No. 14-22-00271 from the Russian Scientific Foundation.


We thank the reviewer for providing helpful comments that improved this paper. A.M.H. is supported by the DOE NNSA Stewardship Science Fellowship. P.M.R. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under grant AST 14-13367. Portions of this work were completed at the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics, where it was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under grant NSF PHY-1125915. We thank Vicky Kalogera, Frank Timmes, Krzysztof Belczynski, Grzegorz Wicktorowicz, Pablo Marchant, Imre Bartos, Daniel Siegel, Konstantin Postnov, Aleksandr Tutukov, Brian Fields, and Lars Bildsten for helpful comments and fruitful discussions. We also thank Samaya Nissanke for reviewing this work as an LVC reviewer. The LIGO document number for this work is P1700155. Software: MESA (V8845; Paxton et al. 2011 , 2013 , 2015 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), Numpy (Walt et al. 2011 ).


We thank the anonymous referee for constructive criticism that helped to improve the readability of the paper. We thank A. Biviano, H. Böhringer, and J. Dietrich for their numerous suggestions that helped this work. Furthermore, we thank A. L. Serra and A. Diaferio for the communication on the caustic method and kindness to cross-check our results with their code, as well as Heinz Andernach for his hint on a case with a lack of clearity. The Guide Star Catalogue-II is a joint project of the Space Telescope Science Institute and the Osservatorio Astronomico di Torino. Space Telescope Science Institute is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under contract NAS5-26555. The participation of the Osservatorio Astronomico di Torino is supported by the Italian Council for Research in Astronomy. Additional support is provided by European Southern Observatory, Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility, the International GEMINI project and the European Space Agency Astrophysics Division. We have made use of VLT/VIMOS observations taken with the ESO Telescope at the Paranal Observatory under programme 087.A-0096 and WFI observations partially supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) through Transregional Collaborative Research Centre TRR 33. The XMM-Newton project is an ESA Science Mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and the USA (NASA). The XMM-Newton project is supported by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (BMWI/DLR, FKZ 50 OX 0001) and the Max-Planck Society. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We used the version 13SEPpl1.4 of ESO-MIDAS for data reduction and STILTS 1 for table processing and plotting of figures. Y.Y.Z. acknowledges support by the German BMWi through the Verbundforschung under grant 50 OR 1506. T.H.R. acknowledges support from the DFG through the Heisenberg research grant RE 1462/5.


This work was supported by NSF grants AST-1105835 and AST-1440343. AL acknowledges support from the University of California Office of the President Multicampus Research Programs and Initiatives through award MR-15-328388, and from NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51363.001-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. The NASA funding for the eGSM is NASA grant no. NNX16AF55G. We acknowledge the use of the Legacy Archive for Microwave Background Data Analysis (LAMBDA), part of the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Center (HEASARC). HEASARC/LAMBDA is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. This research has made use of the NASA/ IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We wish to thank Jacqueline Hewitt, Gianni Bernardi, Douglas Finkbeiner, Aaron M. Meisner for helpful comments and suggestions, and Angelica de Oliveira-Costa for pioneering the GSM approach. We also wish to thank our anonymous referee for extremely helpful and detailed feedback.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the anonymous referee and also Jeff J. Andrews, Deepto Chakrabarty, Pat Slane, Bradford Snios, and Johan Samsing for useful comments and discussions. Financial support was provided from NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship award number PF6-170151 (DJD) and also through the Smithsonian Institution.


This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant Nos. 11321064, 11233004, 11390371, 11473033, U1331122, and by National Key Basic Research Program of China 2014CB845700.


The authors would like to thank G. Aarts and M. Hanauske for helpful discussions and M. Strickland for carefully reading the manuscript. The authors also acknowledge the support from NewCompStar COST Action MP1304, from GSI, HIC for FAIR, and from BMBF. The computational resources were provided by the Frankfurt Centre for Scientific Computing (CSC) and Center for Nuclear Research (Kent State University). In addition, the authors acknowledge the insights and comments of the referee who took the time to review this paper.


This work was initiated during the International Summer Institute for Modelling in Astrophysics (ISIMA) in 2014, hosted at CITA at the University of Toronto. This work was in part supported by NASA grant NNX13AI27G. We also thank Kristen Menou, Linda Strubbe, Pascale Garaud, Jeremy Leconte, Yanqin Wu, Subu Mohanty, Man-Hoi Lee, Eric Lopez, John Papaloizou, Dan Fabrycky and Arieh Konigl for helpful discussions and correspondence. We also thank the anonymous referee for helpful suggestions. JT is supported by STFC through grant ST/L000636/1. JEO acknowledges support by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51346.001-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the reviewer for helpful suggestions that improved the manuscript. MRJ is funded by the President’s PhD scholarship of the Imperial College London and the ‘Dositeja’ stipend from the Fund for Young Talents of the Serbian Ministry for Youth and Sport. TJH is funded by an Imperial College Junior Research Fellowship. JDI gratefully acknowledges support from the DISCSIM project, grant agreement 341137, funded by the European Research Council under ERC-2013-ADG and support from the STFC (grant number ST/R000549/1). DF gratefully acknowledges support from the ECOGAL project, grant agreement 291227, funded by the European Research Council under ERC-2011-ADG. CJC acknowledges support from the STFC (grant number ST/M001296/1). CW acknowledges financial support from the University of Leeds. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.


S.G. acknowledges support from the European Commission via the Marie Curie Actions—Intra-European Fellowships Project No. 328138. D.H.M. acknowledges financial support from the STFC, the Leverhulme Trust, and NASA. The simulations in the present paper use the STFC funded UKMHD supercomputer in St Andrews.


This research was partially supported by the Munich Institute for Astro- and Particle Physics (MIAPP) of the DFG cluster of excellence “Origin and Structure of the Universe”. S.L., A.S., E.C., A.B. acknowledge partial support from PRIN-MIUR 2010-2011 PI Francesca Matteucci Evoluzione chimica e dinamica della nostra galassia e delle galassie del gruppo locale. E.V. acknowledges support by grants NASA-NNX13AF45G and HST-12830.01-A.


MCPB acknowledges support from Maja Vučković and the Joint Committee ESO-Government of Chile (grant 2014). TRM, EB, VSD, SPL, TB and RWW are grateful to the Science and Technology Facilities Council for financial support in the form of grant nos ST/L000733, ST/L00075X/1 and ST/M001350/1. SGP and CC acknowledge support from CONICYT FONDECYT grants 3140585 and 3140592, respectively. CC also acknowledges support from the Millennium Nucleus RC130007 (Chilean Ministry of Economy). JJH acknowledges support from NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant no. HST-HF2-51357.001-A, awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. DK is partially funded by the University of the Western Cape and the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa. The research leading to these results has also received funding from the European Research Council under ERC Grant Agreement n. 320964 (WDTracer).


We acknowledge Bruce Elmegreen for useful discussions. We thank the referee for helping us to polish the results section. S.C. and H.S. acknowledge support from the Academy of Finland. J.H.K. acknowledges financial support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 721463 to the SUNDIAL ITN network, and from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under grant number AYA2016-76219-P. We acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.