This research was supported in part by the National French Program “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire” (PCMI) and the French National Research Agency (ANR-13-BS05-0008-02 “IMOLABS”). The Laboratoire d’Excellence “Chemical and Physical Properties of the Atmosphere” (CaPPA) is also acknowledged. The CaPPA project is funded by the French National Research Agency under contract ANR-11-LABX-0005-01, by the Regional Council “Hauts de France” and by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). J. Cernicharo thanks the European Research Council and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation through the NANOCOSMOS (SyG-610256) and ASTROMOL (CSD2009-00038) projects, respectively, and the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through the projects AYA2009-07304, and AYA2012-32032. The referee is also thanked for the valuable comments concerning the hyperfine structure.


JC thanks Graca Rocha and especially Silvia Galli for discussions about the effect of variations of fundamental constants, which helped clarifying the comparison with the previous literature. JC is supported by the Royal Society as a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Cambridge, UK. YAH is supported by NSF Grant No. 0244990, NASA NNX15AB18G, the John Templeton Foundation, and the Simons Foundation. Use of the GPC supercomputer at the SciNet HPC Consortium is acknowledged. SciNet is funded by: the Canada Foundation for Innovation under the auspices of Compute Canada; the Government of Ontario; Ontario Research Fund - Research Excellence; and the University of Toronto.


Acknowledgments We thank the anonymous referee for their comments and suggestions, which have greatly improved the paper. We also thank Kevin Luhman for making his data available to us prior to publication, and for comments and suggestions on the original manuscript. We thank the authors of Parker etal. ( 2014 ) for providing the material for Section 3.1 . RJP acknowledges support from the Royal Society in the form of a Dorothy Hodgkin Fellowship.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FDP is supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council. MJB acknowledges European Research Council funding by grant ERC-2015-AdG 694520 SNDUST.


The authors would like to thank S. Sulis for useful discussions regarding colored noise and periodograms, and J. Löhner-Böttcher for sharing results from the LARS spectrograph. The authors also thank the anonymous referee for useful comments, which improved the clarity of this manuscript. H.M.C. acknowledges the financial support of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF); S.S., H.M.C, and C.A.W acknowledge support from the Leverhulme Trust. W.J.C., G.R.D., and C.A.W. acknowledge support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), including grants ST/I001123/1 and ST/P000312/1. Funding for the Stellar Astrophysics Centre is provided by The Danish National Research Foundation (Grant agreement no.: DNRF106). S.H.S. was supported by NASA Heliophysics LWS grant NNX16AB79G, and M.L.P. was supported by the NSF-REU solar physics program at SAO, grant number AGS-1560313. Some of this work was performed under contract with the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) funded by NASA through the Sagan Fellowship Program executed by the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute (R.D.H.). This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility; DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services, as well as the VALD database operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow, and the University of Vienna. Software: MURaM (Vögler et al. 2005 ; Shelyag Przybylski 2014 ; Shelyag 2015 ); OPAL (Rogers et al. 1996 ; Rogers Nayfonov 2002 ); NICOLE (Socas-Navarro 2015 ; Socas-Navarro et al. 2015 ).


We thank the anonymous referee for insightful comments on this manuscript and Jo Bovy for useful discussions. This work has been supported by a postdoctoral grant from the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) for GM. RG acknowledges support through the DFG Research Centre SFB-881 ‘The Milky Way System’ through project A1 .


The authors thank an anonymous referee whose comments helped to improve the scientific content of this work. FP acknowledges support from a post-doctoral STFC fellowship and thanks Inga Cebotaru for carefully reading the manuscript and improve the style. RR acknowledges funding by the graduate college Astrophysics of cosmological probes of gravity by Landesgraduiertenakademie Baden-Wrttemberg.


Acknowledgements We are very grateful to the staff of the Observatorio del Teide providing excellent support to the operation of the IAC80 and Carlos Sánchez telescopes, and in particular to Álex Oscoz for a generous allocation of time to this project that proved to be essential to its success. We are also equally thankful to the staff of Calar Alto observatory for their support during our AstraLux observing run. The constructive remarks by an anonymous referee helped to improve the presentation of our results. NS acknowledges support by the French ANR and the German DFG through the project “GENESIS” (ANR-16-CE92-0035-01/DFG1591/2-1). This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the referee Anita Cochran whose comments improved the quality and clarity of this manuscript. The WHT is operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. We gratefully thank the staff at the Isaac Newton Group for their support in the observations reported here. MGH acknowledges receipt of a Northern Ireland DEL studentship award. AF acknowledges support for this work from UK STFC grants ST/L000709/1 and ST/P0003094/1. CS acknowledges support from the STFC in the form of the Ernest Rutherford Fellowship.


We thank the IRIS team for providing the data in the public domain. IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by the Norwegian Space Center (NSC, Norway) through an ESA PRODEX contract. H.T. is supported by contracts 8100002705 and SP02H1701R from Lockheed-Martin to SAO.


Acknowledgements We thank the referee for their interesting and useful comments that helped improve the clarity of the paper. Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory. F.B. acknowledges financial support from INAF through the “Progetti Premiali” funding scheme of the Italian Ministry of Education, University, and Research and through the ASI-INAF contract 2015-019-R.O. A.Z. acknowledges support from Prof. Giuseppe Lodato during his Master thesis work.


We thank Alberto Sesana for illuminating discussions when starting this project, Phil Armitage for very useful comments on an earlier version of this paper, and Christoph Mordasini for fruitful discussions. We also thank students Gabriel Torrealba and Matías Gárate for their help in developing analysis and visualization tools for Fargo simulations. Financial support was provided by Millennium Nucleus RC130007 (Chilean Ministry of Economy). M.M. acknowledges support from FONDECYT grant No. 3120101 and CONICYT-Gemini grant No. 32130007, J.C. acknowledges support from CONICYTChile through FONDECYT (1141175), Basal (PFB0609), Anillo (ACT1101), and DRI-Intercambio (PCCI130064) grant, S.P. acknowledges financial support provided by FONDECYT grant 3140601, and S.C. acknowledges support from FONDECYT grant 1130949. The authors also thank the referee for suggestions that have improved the presentation of this paper.


The authors thank the referee, Marcin Sawicki, for a helpful report that improved this paper. D.M. would like to thank Giuseppe Longo, Audrey Galametz, Sotiria Fotopoulou, and George Helou for helpful conversations. D.M., P.C., D.S., and J.R. acknowledge support by NASA ROSES grant 12-EUCLID12-0004. J.R. and D.S. are supported by JPL, run by Caltech for NASA. F.C. acknowledges support by MINECO grant ESP2015-88861. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank James Willis for his help with the velociraptor halo finder, and Aaron Ludlow, Cedric Lacey, Richard Bower, Shy Genel, Greg Bryan, and Rob Crain for helpful discussions that contributed significantly to this work. They would also like to thank the anonymous reviewer, who provided many useful suggestions that helped clarify our explanations. This work was initiated as a project for the Kavli Summer Program in Astrophysics held at the Center for Computational Astrophysics of the Flatiron Institute in 2018. The program was co-funded by the Kavli Foundation and the Simons Foundation. We thank them for their generous support. This work was supported by collaborative visits funded by the Cosmology and Astroparticle Student and Postdoc Exchange Network (CASPEN). JB is supported by Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) studentship ST/R504725/1. DAA is supported by the Flatiron Institute, which is supported by the Simons Foundation. This work used the ARCHER UK National Supercomputing Service. This work used the DiRAC@Durham facility managed by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). The equipment was funded by BEIS capital funding via STFC capital grants ST/K00042X/1, ST/P002293/1, ST/R002371/1, and ST/S002502/1, Durham University, and STFC operations grant ST/R000832/1. DiRAC is part of the National e-Infrastructure. We would like to extend our thanks specifically to Alastair Basden and his team for managing the DiRAC Memory Intensive service. Software citations This paper made use of the following software packages: GIZMO (Hopkins 2017 ) gadget (Springel 2005 ) swift (Schaller et al. 2016 ) python (Rossum 1995 ), with the following libraries: numpy (Oliphant 2006 ) scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ) py-sphviewer (Benitez-Llambay 2015 ) caesar (Thompson 2018 ) yt (Turk et al. 2011 ) velociraptor (Elahi et al. 2019 ) The AHF (Gill et al. 2004 ; Knollmann Knebe 2009 ).


The authors thank an anonymous referee for the constructive and helpful comments. A. C. acknowledges funding from the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant P2GEP2_184492.


We acknowledge partial financial support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad Project AYA2012-39475-C02-01 and Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2010-00064. The authors thank Enrique Martínez-González for useful discussions and Francesco Paci for providing an apodisation code. The healp ix package (Górski et al. 2005 ) was used throughout the data analysis.


We thank the referee for constructive comments that helped to improve the original manuscript. Y.J.-T. would like to thank Dr. Marc Postman for his support, help, and encouragement during her stay at the STScI, which made this work possible. We gratefully acknowledge the computational support of Dr. Fernando Roig. Y.J.-T. also acknowledges financial support from the Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ; fellowship Nota 10, PDR-10) through grant E-26/202.835/2016 and the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES; Science without Borders program, Young Talent Fellowship, BJT) through grant A062/2013. R.A.D. acknowledges support from the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) through BP grant 312307/2015-2 and the Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos (FINEP) grant REF. 1217/13-01.13.0279.00. Both Y.J.-T. and R.A.D. also acknowledge support from the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC; I-COOP+2016 program) through grant COOPB20263 and the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (MINECO) through grants AYA2013-48623-C2-1-P and AYA2016-81065-C2-1-P. K.U. acknowledges support from the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan (grant MOST 103-2628-M-001-003-MY3) and from the Academia Sinica Investigator Award. M.M. acknowledges support from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Directorate General for Country Promotion.


Funding for the creation and distribution of the SDSS Archive has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS website is http://www.sdss.org/ . The results described in this paper are based on observations obtained with Herschel , an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. SPIRE has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by Cardiff Univ. (UK) and including: Univ. Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, Univ. Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); Stockholm Observatory (Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, Univ. Sussex (UK); and Caltech, JPL, NHSC, Univ. Colorado (USA). This development has been supported by national funding agencies: CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); STFC, UKSA (UK); and NASA (USA). This research has made use of data from the HerMES project ( http://hermes.sussex.ac.uk/ ). HerMES is a Herschel Key Programme utilizing Guaranteed Time from the SPIRE instrument team, ESAC scientists, and a mission scientist. HerMES is described in Oliver et al. ( 2012 ). The HerMES data presented in this paper are available through the Herschel Database in Marseille ( http://hedam.lam.fr/HerMES/ ). AF acknowledges support from the ERC via an Advanced Grant under grant agreement no. 321323 NEOGAL. This work makes extensive use of TOPCAT (Taylor 2005 ).


Acknowledgements This work is partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC 11433004, U1738211, 11363006, and 11403019), the Applied Basic Research Projects Foundation of Yunnan Province (2014FD001) and Top Talents Program of Yunnan Province.


This project is funded by DFG grant KE 1897/1-1, SPP 1681 grant WE2623/7-2, and FOR 1509 grant WE2623/13. We also thank the referee for a constructive review of the paper.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the Science and Technology Funding Council (UK) (ST/P000541/1) and (ST/PN002660/1). OJDF acknowledges the support of STFC (ST/N50404X/1). Horizon 2020: This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 730890. This material reflects only the author's views and the Commission is not liable for any use that may be made of the information contained therein. CC received support from A*MIDEX (project no. ANR-11- IDEX-0001- 02) funded by the ‘Investissements d’Avenir’ French Government program, managed by the French National Research Agency (ANR). This work was supported by the Action Spécifique Haute Résolution Angulaire (ASHRA) of CNRS/INSU co-funded by CNES. This research made use of python including Numpy and Scipy (van der Walt, Colbert Varoquaux 2011 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ) and A stropy , a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (Robitaille et al. 2013 ). We also made use of the Python AO utility library AOtools ( https://github. com/AOtools/aotools ).


We thank B. Ochsendorf and K. Tchernyshyov for useful discussions. We thank the referee for the useful comments. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. SvV is supported by NASA through a Hubble Fellowship (HST-HF2-51350).


Acknowledgements This work was supported by the European Research Council Advanced Grant HotMol (ERC-2011-AdG291659).


Acknowledgments J-SN and J-NF acknowledge the support from the Joint Fund of Astronomy of National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) and Chinese Academy of Sciences through the grant U1231202, the NSFC grant 11673003, the National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program 2014CB845700 and 2013CB834900) and the LAMOST FELLOWSHIP supported by the Special Funding for Advanced Users, budgeted and administrated by the Center for Astronomical Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAMS). J-SN thanks Nami Mowlavi for helpful discussions and useful advice.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for a constructive referee report which greatly improved this manuscript. The authors thank Glenn van de Ven, Morgan Fouesneau, Anna Lisa Varri, Gigi Leung, Diederik Kruijssen, Carme Gallart, and Matteo Monelli for useful discussions which improved the manuscript. Dedicated to BL. RL thanks AH. This work was made possible with funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada PDF award and supported by Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject A7 and A8) of the German Research Foundation (DFG), and Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) PPP project number 57316058 ‘Finding and exploiting accreted star clusters in the Milky Way’. TRL acknowledges support via grants AYA2014-56795-P and AYA2016-77237-C3-1-P from the Spanish Government. PB acknowledges financial support from a Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics (CITA) National Fellowship. MAB and JFB acknowledge support from grant AYA2016-77237-C3-1-P from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) and from the Severo Ochoa Excellence programme SEV-2015-0548.


We thank the referee for his/her thoughtful comments. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013 Grant Agreement no. 614199 , project ‘BLACK’). This work was granted access to the HPC resources of TGCC under the allocations x2014046955, x2015046955 and c2015047012 made by GENCI. We thank Stéphane Rouberoul for smoothly running the horizon cluster in IAP, where the post-processing of the simulations has been done.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee for a very helpful report. The authors would like to thank the Argus instrument team from the Stanford University, Caltech, JPL, University of Maryland, University of Miami, and the Green Bank Observatory for their efforts on the instrument and software that have made this work possible. The Argus instrument construction was funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) ATI-1207825. Green Bank Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation and is operated by Associated Universities, Inc. CYC and ZYL acknowledge support from NSF AST-1815784. ZYL is supported in part by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 80NSSC18K1095 and NNX14AB38G and NSF AST-1716259. AIH and JL acknowledge support from NSF AST-1615647. This research made use of astropy , 7 a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 , 2018 ).


This study has received financial support from the French State in the frame of the “Investments for the future” Programme IdEx Bordeaux, reference ANR-10-IDEX-03-02. Computer time for this study was provided in part by the computing facilities MCIA (Mésocentre de Calcul Intensif Aquitain) of the Université de Bordeaux and of the Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour. P.G. acknowledges support from the ERC Starting Grant (3DICE, grant agreement 336474). P.G.’s postdoctoral position is funded by INSU/CNRS. This paper includes data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. This research has made use of the Exoplanet Orbit Database and the Exoplanet Data Explorer at exoplanets.org.


We thank Jos de Boer for the TYC 5259-446-1 dataset.


The authors thank F. Israel for comments on the manuscript. The authors are indebted to F. Müller-Sánchez for providing the SINFONI H 2 gas emission map of NGC 1068, O. González-Martín for the Chandra data, J. Wang for the Chandra image of NGC 1068, L. Burtscher for the SINFONI data cubes, F. Combes for the ALMA image of NGC 1566, D. Espada for the ALMA image of CenA, and S. García Burillo for the ALMA image of NGC 1068. MM acknowledges financial support from AYA2011-25527 and NASA Chandra grant G05-16099X. The research leading to the results has received funding from the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement 312430. Research by JAFO was supported by Canary Islands CIE: Tricontinental Atlantic Campus. This research is based on ESO VLT programmes P71.B-0632A, 74.B-0722B and 86.B-0484. The research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


I acknowledge the NSF grant AST 1212096, NASA grant NNX14AJ53G and the NSF Center for Magnetic Self Organization (CMSO) as well as a distinguished visitor PVE/CAPES appointment at the Physics Graduate Program of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, the INCT INEspao, and Physics Graduate Program/UFRN. Productive and stimulating discussions with Jungyeon Cho and Gianfranco Brunetti as well as helpful comments of the anonymous referee are acknowledged.


We would like to thank Atul Chhotray, Hirotaka Ito, and Hiro Nagataki for useful discussions. This work was supported in part by NASA Swift GI grant NNX15AG96G and ATP grant NNX17AK42G.


We want to thank the referee for his/her useful and constructive comments. This work is supported by ANPCyT (PICT 2012-00878). V.B-R. acknowledges financial support from MICINN and European Social Funds through a Ramón y Cajal fellowship. This research has been supported by the Marie Curie Career Integration Grant 321520. V.B-R. and G.E.R. acknowledge support by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) under grant AYA2013-47447-C3-1-P.


C.D. is supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. Support for this work was provided through the NASA Kepler Mission Participating Scientist Program grants NNX09AB53G and NNX12AC77G, which were awarded to D.C. This publication was made possible through the support of a grant from the John Templeton Foundation. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the John Templeton Foundation. We thank the anonymous referee for providing feedback that improved the quality of this paper and the Kepler team for providing the community with a fantastic collection of data. We are grateful to Jonathan Irwin for sharing a fast implementation of the transit model (Mandel Agol 2002 ) and for providing valuable advice. We thank Jessie Christiansen for answering questions about the Kepler pipeline completeness and providing helpful suggestions. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. This publication made use of the Kepler Community Follow-Up Observing Program website ( https://cfop.ipac.caltech.edu ), the NASA Exoplanet Archive, and the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). The NASA Exoplanet Archive is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under the Exoplanet Exploration Program. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts.


Acknowledgments We thank Christoph Behrens for providing the MDPL2 merger trees in the galacticus merger tree file format, and Shaun Cole and Yu Lu for helpful discussions. The author gratefully acknowledges the Gauss Centre for Supercomputing e.V. ( www.gauss-centre.eu ) and the Partnership for Advanced Supercomputing in Europe (PRACE, http://www.prace-ri.eu ) for funding the MultiDark simulation project by providing computing time on the GCS Supercomputer SuperMUC at Leibniz Supercomputing Centre (LRZ, http://www.lrz.de ). The CosmoSim data base used in this paper is a service by the Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam (AIP). The MultiDark data base was developed in cooperation with the Spanish MultiDark Consolider Project CSD2009-00064.


LD and JS acknowledge support from the ESA PRODEX Programme “ Gaia -DPAC QSOs” and from the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office. AKM acknowledges the support from the Portuguese Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through grants SFRH/BPD/74697/2010 and PTDC/FIS-AST/31546/2017, from the Portuguese Strategic Programme UID/FIS/00099/2013 for CENTRA, from the ESA contract AO/1-7836/14/NL/HB, and from the Caltech Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy for hosting a research leave during 2017–2018, when this paper was prepared. OW is supported by the Humboldt Research Fellowship for Postdoctoral Researchers. SGD and MJG acknowledge partial support from the NSF grants AST-1413600 and AST-1518308, and the NASA grant 16-ADAP16-0232. The work of DS was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with NASA. We acknowledge partial support from “Actions sur projet INSU-PNGRAM”, and from the Brazil-France exchange programmes Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) – Comité Français d’Évaluation de la Coopération Universitaire et Scientifique avec le Brésil (COFECUB). This work has made use of the computing facilities of the Laboratory of Astroinformatics (IAG/USP, NAT/Unicsul), whose purchase was made possible by the Brazilian agency FAPESP (grant 2009/54006-4) and the INCT-A, and we thank the entire LAi team, especially Carlos Paladini, Ulisses Manzo Castello, Luis Ricardo Manrique, and Alex Carciofi for their support. This work has made use of results from the ESA space mission Gaia , the data from which were processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. The Gaia mission website is http://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia . Some of the authors are members of the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC).


We thank A. Rubin, B. Katz, E. Ofek, and A. Gal-Yam for useful discussions and constructive comments. This research was partially supported by an ISF I-Core, an IMOS grant, and a Minerva grant.


Acknowledgments WW is grateful for useful discussions of merger trees with John Helly and Yan Qu. WW also thank Azadeh Fattahi and Shi Shao about the useful information of apostle . This work was supported by the European Research Council [GA 267291] COSMIWAY and Science and Technology Facilities Council Durham Consolidated Grant [ST/F001166/1,ST/L00075X/1]. WW acknowledges a Durham Junior Research Fellowship (RF040353). The simulations for the Aquarius project were carried out at the Leibniz Computing Centre, Garching, Germany, at the Computing Centre of the Max-Planck-Society in Garching, at the Institute for Computational Cosmology in Durham and on the STELLA supercomputer of the LOFAR experiment at the University of Groningen. apostle project used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ), and also resources provided by WestGrid ( www.westgrid.ca ) and Compute Canada ( www.computecanada.ca ). The DiRAC system was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grants ST/H008519/1 and ST/K00087X/1, STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. Kavli IPMU was established by World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI), MEXT, Japan. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP17K14271.


A.R.L. is grateful for partial support from DIULS Regular project PR15143. G.A.P.F. is partially supported by CNPq and FAPEMIG. We thanks the SOAR staff for the efficient support provided during the OSIRIS and Goodman observing runs. A.R.L. thanks Dr. Nolan Walborn for stimulating discussions about the optical spectra of O2 v stars. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. This work is based (in part) on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. This research has made use of data obtained from the Chandra Source Catalog, provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) as part of the Chandra Data Archive. This research has made use of the VizieR catalog access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS 143, 23 Facility : OSIRIS.


The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for his/her careful reading and useful comments, which improved the content of this manuscript. I.D., V.S., J.D., M.N., and O.M. acknowledge the European Union’s Seventh Framework programme under grant agreement 337595 (ERC Starting Grant, “CoSMass”). N.B. acknowledges the European Union’s Seventh Framework programme under grant agreement 333654 (CIG, “AGN feedback”). C.L. is funded by a Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DE150100618). Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020. M.B. and P.C. acknowledge supports from the PRIN-INAF 2014. M.A. acknowledges partial support from FONDECYT through grant 1140099. A.K. acknowledges support by the Collaborative Research Council 956, sub-project A1, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). This work was partially supported by NASA Chandra grant number GO3-14150C and GO3-14150B (FC, S.M.). I.D. is grateful to B. Magnelli for useful suggestions and to Takamitsu Miyaji for his help with CSTACK.


Acknowledgments I am most grateful to Ski Antonucci and Bill Mathews for numerous comments and discussions. I have also benefitted considerably from discussions of hydrogen-line ratios with Gary Ferland, and discussions of AGN reddening and dust issues with Victor Oknyansky, Clio Heard and Jonathan Stern.


Acknowledgments The authors thank Thomas Bisbas, Tanio Diaz-Santos, Duncan Farrah, Munan Gong, Javier Gracia-Carpio and Eve Ostriker for providing both simulation and observational data that aided us when developing these models. DN thanks Aaron Evans, Thomas Greve, Rob Kennicutt, Dominik Riechers, J. D. Smith, Gordon Stacey, Dan Stark, Karen Olsen and Mark Wolfire for helpful conversations. Partial support for DN was provided by NSF AST-1009452, AST-1445357, NASA HST AR-13906.001 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of University for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA Contract NAS5-26555, and a Cottrell College Science Award, awarded by the Research Corporation for Science Advancement. MRK acknowledges support from US NSF grant AST-1405962 and Australian Research Council grant DP160100695.


We thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments that helped us to improved the manuscript. This work was funded with grants from Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina and the Universidad Nacional de La Plata (Argentina).


We thank Feng Yuan for his thoughtful and constructive comments. Amin Mosallanezhad is supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI), grant No. 2018PM0046. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant No. 11725312, 11421303), the Science Challenge Project of China (grant No. TZ2016002), and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (grant No. 2019M663665).


We thank Peter Stetson for a copy of DAOPHOT as well as his helpful engagement on its usage. We also thank C. Gallart and M. Monelli of the LCID team for a copy of their IC 1613 photometric catalog for comparison to our own. We also thank Richard Kron for helpful comments in this research and preparation of this manuscript, Julia Kollmeier for helpful conversations, and Laura Sturch for the preparation of IMACS imaging. In addition, we thank the anonymous referee for numerous constructive suggestions. Authors M.G.L. and I.S.J. were supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea Government (MSIP) No. 2012R1A4A1028713. Support for program #13691 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5 m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. We thank the Carnegie Institution for its continued support of this program over the past 30 years. Facilities: HST (ACS/WFC , WFC3-IR) , Magellan-Baade (IMACS) . Software: DAOPHOT (Stetson 1987 ), ALLFRAME (Stetson 1994 ), Tiny Tim (Krist et al. 2011 ).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to the anonymous reviewer for justified, helpful, and clearly rationalized remarks that helped improve this paper.


C.-J.M. acknowledges support from ERC Advanced Investigator programme DUSTYGAL 321334. I.R.S. acknowledges support from STFC (ST/L00075X/1), the DUSTYGAL ERC programme, and a Royal Society/Wolfson Merit Award. A.M.S. acknowledges an STFC Advanced Fellowship through grant number ST/H005234/1 and the Leverhume Trust. The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope is operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the National Research Council of Canada, and (until 2013 March 31) the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. Additional funds for the construction of SCUBA-2 were provided by the Canada Foundation for Innovation. This work is based (in part) on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with NASA. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.


We would like to thank the referee for constructive and valuable comments that improved the manuscript considerably. SDO is a mission for NASA’s Living With a Star (LWS) program. P. K. thanks Prof. Davina Innes for several fruitful discussions. We acknowledge the use of the Fermi Solar Flare Observations facility funded by the Fermi GI program. Hinode is a Japanese mission developed and launched by ISAS/JAXA, with NAOJ as a domestic partner and NASA and STFC (UK) as international partners. It is operated by these agencies in cooperation with the ESA and the NSC (Norway). This work was supported by the “Development of Korea Space Weather Center” of KASI and the KASI basic research funds. V. M. N. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the SeismoSun Research Project No. 321141, STFC consolidated grant ST/L000733/1, and the BK21 Plus Program through the National Research Foundation funded by the Ministry of Education of Korea.


We thank the anonymous referee for a critical reading of the manuscript and highly appreciate the comments and suggestions, which significantly contributed to improving quality of the paper. We also thank the staff of GMRT, who made the radio observations possible. GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. We thank UKIRT staff for their assistance in observations. The UKIRT is supported by NASA and operated under an agreement among the University of Hawaii, the University of Arizona and Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center; operations are enabled through the cooperation of the Joint Astronomy Centre of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the UK. When the data reported here were acquired, UKIRT was operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the UK. We thank the Mt. Abu Infrared Observatory staff for assistance in the observations. We also thank M. T. Beltran for providing the 1.2 mm map of this region. We thank A. Sanchez-Monge for providing the ATCA maps. We also thank Varsha Ramachandran and Govind Nandakumar for their help in python programming. This research made use of NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Caltech under contract with NASA. This publication also made use of data products from Herschel (ESA space observatory). We use ATLASGAL [collaboration between the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, the European Southern Observatory (ESO) and the Universidad de Chile] data products for our research.


The research was supported by NSFC under grant 41774179 and the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories of China. We acknowledge the use of data from SOHO , STEREO , SDO , GOES , Wind , and MAVEN , we thank M. Leila Mays, Christina O. Lee and Janet G. Luhmann for their help and discussions on the work, and we are grateful to R.-Y. Kwon for providing his ellipsoidal shock model. The ENLIL simulations were provided by CCMC through their public Runs on Request system ( http://ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov ).


Thanks are due to R. Amorín, Y. Ascasibar, A. B. Morales-Luis, P. Papaderos, and J. Vílchez, who participated in the target selection and in some of the observing time proposals that produced the spectra analyzed in the paper. We also thank an anonymous referee whose comments helped to improve the readability of the paper. This article is based on observations made with the WHT operated by the ING in the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain. This work has been partly funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, projects Estallidos AYA2013–47742–C04–02–P and AYA2013–47742–C04–01–P. A.O.-G. thanks Fundación La Caixa for financial support in the form of a PhD contract. M.E.F. is partly funded by the Estallidos project, as well as by the Fundao para a Cincia e Tecnologia (FCTPortugal), through the research grant SFRH/BPD/107801/2015. J.M.-A. acknowledges support from the European Research Council Starting Grant (SEDmorph; P.I. V. Wild).


The simulations have been carried out either on a work station with multicore processors or/and on the CFCA cluster (XC30) of National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. We make 2D visualization and analysis using package visit (Childs et al. 2012 ) and octave . SSK acknowledges support by STFC under the standard grant EP/N023986/1. BMV acknowledge partial support by JSPS (Japan Society for the Promotion of Science): No.2503786, 25610056, 26287056, 26800159. BMV also MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology): No.26105521 and RFBR grant 12-02-01336-a.


Acknowledgments We thank Simon White and Philipp Busch for helpful input to the analysis.


The authors thank an anonymous referee for constructive comments that improved the clarity of the paper. This research is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA, and AKARI , a JAXA project with the participation of ESA. This research made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). Facilities: XMM-Newton , AKARI


We wish to thank an anonymous referee for his/her many interesting comments and suggestions. Based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under program ID 188.B-3002. These data products have been processed by the Cambridge Astronomy Survey Unit (CASU) at the Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, and by the FLAMES-UVES reduction team at INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri. These data have been obtained from the Gaia -ESO Survey Data Archive, prepared and hosted by the Wide Field Astronomy Unit, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, which is funded by the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 program through ERC grant number 320360 and by the Leverhulme Trust through grant RPG-2012-541. We acknowledge the support from INAF and Ministero dell’ Istruzione, dell’ Università’ e della Ricerca (MIUR) in the form of the grant “Premiale VLT 2012”. T.Z. acknowledges support from the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding No. P1-0188). F.J.-E. acknowledges financial support from the Spacetec-CM project (S2013/ICE-2822). M.T.C. acknowledges the financial support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, through grant AYA2016-75931-C2-1-P. The results presented here benefit from discussions held during the Gaia -ESO workshops and conferences supported by the ESF (European Science Foundation) through the GREAT Research Network Programme. This work is also based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under program ID 177.D-3023, as part of the VST Photometric H Survey of the Southern Galactic Plane and Bulge (VPHAS, www.vphas.eu ). This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study uses data provided by the Calar Alto Legacy Integral Field Area (CALIFA) survey ( http://califa.caha.es/ ). Based on observations collected at the Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA) at Calar Alto, operated jointly by the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (CSIC). IMC acknowledges the support of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias via an Astrophysicist Resident fellowship. BGL acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO) by the grant AYA2015-68217-P. CRA acknowledges the Ramón y Cajal Program of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through project RYC-2014-15779 and the Spanish Plan Nacional de Astronomía y Astrofisíca under grant AYA2016-76682-C3-2-P. TRL acknowledges support via grants AYA2014-56795-P and AYA2016-77237-C3-1-P from the Spanish Government. JFB acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO) by the grant AYA2013-48226-C3-1P. SFS thanks the CONACyT programs CB-285080 and DGAPA IA101217 grants for their support. IMP and JM acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad(MINECO) by the grant AYA2016-76682-C3-1-P. This paper makes use of python ( http://www.python.org ); Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), a suite of open-source python modules that provide a framework for creating scientific plots; and Astropy, 6 a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 , 2018 ). Finally, we thank the anonymous referee for useful suggestions and comments that have improved this paper.


The authors wish to thank Julia Lawless for useful discussions and the anonymous referee for very detailed suggestions that helped clarify the manuscript. D.M.L. acknowledges support from the European Commission’s H2020 Programme under the following Grant Agreements: GREST (No. 653982) and Pre-EST (No. 739500) as well as support from the Leverhulme Trust for an Early Career Fellowship (ECF-2014-792) and is grateful to the Science Technology and Facilities Council for the award of an Ernest Rutherford Fellowship (ST/R003246/1). G.V. was funded by the Leverhulme Trust under grant 2014-051. J.M.J. thanks the STFC for support via funding given in his PhD Studentship. Facilities: SDO , GONG. Software: SolarSoftWare (Freeland Handy 1998 ).


Acknowledgements This work is supported by Labex ESEP (ANR N 2011-LABX-030) and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project no. 16-52-150005-CNRS-a. The work of RSS was carried out while he was working at Université de Lille – Laboratoire Paul Painlevé.


Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for comments and suggestions which have improved this paper. This work is based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the Science and Technology Facilities Council (United Kingdom), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia (Brazil) and south-eastCYT (Argentina). This work has been partially supported by the Brazilian institution CNPq.


This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant Nos. 11473024, 11363005, 11763007, 11503008, and 11365022 and the XinJiang Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars under grant No. QN2016YX0049.


We thank Jie Wang and Liang Gao for helpful discussion. QG acknowledges support from the NSFC grant (No. 11133003), the Strategic Priority Research Program ‘The Emergence of Cosmological Structure’ of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. XDB09000000), the ‘Recruitment Program of Global Youth Experts’ of China, the NAOC grant (Y434011V01), MPG partner Group family and a Royal Society Newton International Fellowship, as well as the hospitality of the Institute for Computational Cosmology at Durham University. APC is supported by a COFUND/Durham Junior Research Fellowship under EU grant [267209] and thanks Liang Gao for support in the early stages of this work under a CAS International Research Fellowship and NSFC grant [11350110323]. CF acknowledges an ERC Advanced Investigator grant COSMIWAY (GA 267291). This work was supported in part by the Science and Technology Facilities Council Consolidated Grant for Durham Astronomy (grant number ST/I00162X/1). This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008519/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. The COCO simulations were run at the University of Warsaw HPC centre and we would like to thank Maciej Cytowski and Arkadiusz Niegowski for their help with these simulations.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee for the useful and constructive comments that improved the presentation of the results.This work is based on observations carried out at the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) under program ID 2015_2016_28. The LBT is an international collaboration among institutions in the US, Italy and Germany. We acknowledge the support from the LBT-Italian Coordination Facility for the execution of the observations, the data distribution and for support in data reduction. We thank D. Thomas and J. Lian for having provided us with the median metallicity values of eBOSS galaxies from Comparat et al. ( 2017 ). PS would like to thank T. Durden for the useful suggestions.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author AKS acknowledges IUCAA and IIA, India, for providing funds and telescope facilities for cometary observation.


The authors thank the anonymous referee for the enlightening suggestions, which helped to improve the quality of this manuscript. This work is based on observations taken at ESO/VLT in Paranal, and we would like to thank the ESO staff for their assistance and support during the MUSE GTO campaigns. This work was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. We thank Amanda Bluck for proofreading the manuscript. We thank J. Woo and M. Maseda for their comments on the draft. S.C. gratefully acknowledges support from Swiss National Science Foundation grant PP00P2_163824. R.B. acknowledges support from the ERC advanced grant 339659-MUSICOS. J.R. acknowledges support from the ERC starting grant 336736-CALENDS. J.B. acknowledges support by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through national funds (UID/FIS/04434/2013) and Investigador FCT contract IF/01654/2014/CP1215/CT0003., and by FEDER through COMPETE2020 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007672). T.C. acknowledges support of the ANR FOGHAR (ANR-13-BS05-0010-02), the OCEVU Labex (ANR-11-LABX-0060), and the A*MIDEX project (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) funded by the “Investissements davenir” French government program managed by the ANR. J.S. and S.M. acknowledge support from European Research Council (ERC), grant agreement 278594-GasAroundGalaxies. J.S. acknowledges support from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) VICI grant 639.043.409. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for astronomy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), NumPy and SciPy (Oliphant 2007 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), IPython (Perez Granger 2007 ), and of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services.


This research was supported by NNSFC grants 41674146, 41731070, and 41574159, in part by the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories of China and NSSC research fund for key development directions, and by the Strategic Pioneer Program on Space Science of CAS grant XDA15052500, and by NASA grants NNX13AF99G, QYZDJ-SSW-JSC028 and NNX17AB85G.


We acknowledge the anonymous referee for her/his helpful comments and suggestions that improved the presentation of this paper. This project was partially financed by CONICET of Argentina under projects PIP 00356, and PIP00107, and from UNLP, 2012-2014 PPID/G002 and 11/G120. L.B. acknowledges support by CONICYT project PFB-06. Support for J.B. is provided by the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourism’s Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, MAS. M.A.K. was supported by a Chilean FONDECYT fellowship grant (No. 3150319) from the Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (CONICYT) and the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourism’s Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work is supported in part by the NSF grant AST-1715246 and NASA grant NNX14AP31G. BL is also supported in part by grants from NSFC (No. 11703068 and No. 11661161012). This work made use of the High Performance Computing Resource in the Core Facility for Advanced Research Computing at Shanghai Astronomical Observatory.


We would like to thank the referee for her/his useful comments. We also thank the SMA staff for their support, which makes these studies possible. The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. We thank Mauricio Tapia for thoughtful discussions about the origin of the infrared emission in NGC 6334 V. We thank Marco Padovani for his valuable support with ARTIST and Gilberto Zavala Pérez and Alfonso H. Ginori González for their computational support. C.J. acknowledges support from MINECO (Spain) grant No. BES-2012-052481. C.J. and J.M.G. acknowledge support from MICINN (Spain) grant No. AYA2014-57369-C3. J.M.G. also acknowledges the support from the MECD (Spain) PRX15/00435 travel grant. A.P. and M.Z.-A. acknowledge financial support from the UNAM-DGAPA-PAPIIT IA 102815 grant (Mexico). M.Z.-A. also acknowledges CONACyT for a postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Michigan. P.M.K. acknowledges support from the Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan through grant MoST 103-2119-M-001-009 and an Academia Sinica Career Development Award. J.B.-P. acknowledges UNAM-PAPIIT grant No. IN110816 and UNAM’s DGAPA-PASPA Sabbatical program. He also is indebted to the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung for its invaluable support. K.Q. acknowledges the support from National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) through grants NSFC 11473011 and NSFC 11590781.


The authors would like to thank Charles Danforth and John Stocke for very helpful discussions and for assistance with reducing and co-adding COS data and the anonymous referee for thoughtful reports which helped to improve this work. Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA HST , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). STScI is operated by the association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under the NASA contract NAS 5-26555.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for their work which much improved the paper. We also thank Stephen Kane for his useful feedback and advice. This work was funded in part by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Discovery Grants program.


An anonymous referee is gratefully acknowledged for the suggestions/comments which improved the paper. MP and PKP gratefully acknowledge support by the CSIR, New Delhi under the NET fellowship programme. This research has made use of (i) NASA's Astrophysics Data System, (ii) the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, (iii) observations obtained with XMM–Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA, and (iv) data, software and/or web tools obtained from the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory's High Energy Astrophysics Division.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has made use of light curves provided by the University of California, San Diego Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences, X-ray Group (R.E. Rothschild, A.G. Markowitz, E.S. Rivers, and B.A. McKim), obtained at http://cass.ucsd.edu/rxteagn/ .


This paper is based in part on data collected at Subaru Telescope, which is operated by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. A.F. thanks Oscar A. Gonzalez for kindly providing VVV data. A.F. was supported by the Astrobiology Project of the Center for Novel Science Initiatives (CNSI), National Institutes of Natural Sciences (NINS; Grant Number AB261005). T.S. acknowledges the financial support from the JSPS, JSPS23103002, JSPS24253004, and JSPS26247023. The MOA project is supported by grants JSPS25103508 and 23340064. NJR is a Royal Society of New Zealand Rutherford Discovery Fellow. Work by C.H. was supported by Creative Research Initiative Program (2009-0081561) of National Research Foundation of Korea. S.D. is supported by “the Strategic Priority Research Program—The Emergence of Cosmological Structures” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. 09000000). The OGLE project has received funding from the National Science Centre, Poland, grant MAESTRO 2014/14/A/ST9/00121 to A.U. C.S. received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under grant agreement No. 268421. K.A., D.M.B., M.D., K.H., M.H., C.L., C.S., R.A.S., and Y.T. would like to thank the Qatar Foundation for support from QNRF grant NPRP-09-476-1-078. Facilities : Subaru (IRCS) , FTN , FTS , Liverpool:2m , LCOGT .


Acknowledgements The authors thank an anonymous referee for interesting comments and suggestions. We acknowledge financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through grants AYA2012-30789, AYA2015-66211-C2-1-P and AYA2015-66211-C2-2. CJB, ACS and PC thank CNPq for partially financing this work. LSJ acknowledges support from FAPESP (0800) and CNPq. We acknowledge the OAJ Data Processing and Archiving Unit (UPAD) for reducing and calibrating the OAJ data used in this work. Based on observations made with the JAST/T80 telescope at the Observatorio Astrofísico de Javalambre, in Teruel, owned, managed and operated by the Centro de Estudios de Física del Cosmos de Aragón. We acknowledge the OAJ Data Processing and Archiving Unit (UPAD) for reducing and calibrating the OAJ data used in this work. Funding for the J-PLUS Project has been provided by the Governments of Spain and Aragón through the Fondo de Inversiones de Teruel, the Aragón Government through the Reseach Groups E96 and E103, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO; under grants AYA2015-66211-C2-1-P, AYA2015-66211-C2-2, AYA2012-30789 and ICTS-2009-14), and European FEDER funding (FCDD10-4E-867, FCDD13-4E-2685). RAD acknowledges support from CNPq through BP grant 312307/2015-2, CSIC through grant COOPB20263, FINEP grants REF. 1217/13 – 01.13.0279.00 and REF 0859/10 – 01.10.0663.00 for partial hardware support for the J-PLUS project through the National Observatory of Brazil.


The research of B.B. is supported by the NASA Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship.


This research has made use of the following data and software packages: observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory, data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive, software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application package ciao , and software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center in the heasoft package. We acknowledge extensive use of the ADS and arXiv. AB thanks G.R. Sivakoff and T.J. Maccarone for helpful discussions. COH acknowledges financial support from NSERC Discovery Grants, an Alberta Ingenuity New Faculty Award, and an Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship. ND acknowledges support via an EU Marie Curie Intra-European fellowship under contract no. FP-PEOPLE-2013-IEF-627148. LC acknowledges support from a Chandra grant associated with Obs.ID 15761. WCGH acknowledges support from STFC in the UK. This work was partially supported by the NSF through grant AST-1308124.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the reviewer for the careful and thorough reading of this manuscript and for the thoughtful comments and constructive suggestions that help to improve the quality of this manuscript.


We thank Kate Scholberg, André Rubbia, Masayuki Nakahata, and Lutz Köpke for useful conversations. We also thank Gabriel Martinez-Pinedo for providing us with tables for the 40 Ar cross sections. The authors acknowledge support provided by the NSF PetaApps program, under award OCI-0905046 via subaward no. 44592 from Louisiana State University to Princeton University, and by the Max-Planck/Princeton Center (MPPC) for Plasma Physics (NSF PHY-1144374). The authors employed computational resources provided by the TIGRESS high-performance computer center at Princeton University, which is jointly supported by the Princeton Institute for Computational Science and Engineering (PICSciE) and the Princeton University Office of Information Technology and by the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC), which is supported by the Office of Science of the US Department of Energy under contract DE-AC03-76SF00098. This work is part of the “Three Dimensional Modeling of Core-Collapse Supernovae” PRAC allocation support by the National Science Foundation (award number ACI-1440032). In addition, this research is part of the Blue Waters sustained-petascale computing project, which is supported by the National Science Foundation (awards OCI-0725070 and ACI-1238993) and the state of Illinois. Blue Waters is a joint effort of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and its National Center for Supercomputing Applications.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the A*MIDEX project (no. ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) funded by the ‘Investissements d’Avenir’ French Government programme, managed by the French National Research Agency (ANR). This work is also supported OPTICON H2020 WP10. NAB acknowledges UKRI STFC funding (ST/P000541/1).


Acknowledgement SPIRE has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by Cardiff University (UK) and including University of Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, University of Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); Stockholm Observatory (Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, University of Sussex (UK); and Caltech, JPL, NHSC, University of Colorado (USA). This development has been supported by national funding agencies: CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); STFC, UKSA (UK); and NASA (USA). PACS has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by MPE (Germany) and including UVIE (Austria); KU Leuven, CSL, IMEC (Belgium); CEA, LAM (France); MPIA (Germany); INAF-IFSI/OAA/OAP/OAT, LENS, SISSA (Italy); IAC (Spain). This development has been supported by the funding agencies BMVIT (Austria), ESA-PRODEX (Belgium), CEA/CNES (France), DLR (Germany), ASI/INAF (Italy), and CICYT/MCYT (Spain). This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. K.L.J.R. acknowledges financial support by the Italian Ministero dell’Istruzione Università e Ricerca through the grant Progetti Premiali 2012-iALMA (CUP C52I13000140001). N.S. and S.B. acknowledge support by the french ANR and the german DFG through the project “GENESIS” (ANR-16-CE92-0035-01/DFG1591/2-1). GLW gratefully acknowledges support from The Leverhulme Trust. We acknowledge financial support from “Programme National de Physique Stellaire” (PNPS) and programme “Physique et Chime du Milieu Interstellaire” (PCMI) of CNRS/INSU, France. A.Z. thanks the support of the Institut Universitaire de France.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors acknowledge support from the PRIN-MIUR project Multi-scale Simulations of High-Energy Astrophysical Plasmas (Prot. 2015L5EE2Y). We would also grateful to the referee for his/her constructive comments which helped to improve the quality of this manuscript. We wish to thank L. Pareschi for valuable comments on the development of the Riemann solver in the context of IMEX schemes.


The authors thank the anonymous referee for important suggestions and comments that led to an improvement in the presentation of the paper. IP acknowledges the support from the Leibniz-DAAD research fellowship. NIL is supported by the DFG. ET is supported by the grants IUT26-2, IUT40-2 of the Estonian Ministry of Education and Research. JGS acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt foundation.


This research was supported by the FFG ASAP-12 project JetPro* (FFG-854025) and in part by the EU FP7-2011 project under Grant Agreement No. 284405.


Acknowledgments It is a pleasure to thank Martin Sparre for providing data for the figures. We thank the anonymous referee for suggestions that improved this paper. We thank Gary Mamon for constructive comments. This project is partially funded by the Danish Council for Independent Research, under the project Fundamentals of Dark Matter Structures, DFF - 6108-00470.


The research presented in this paper was financed by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) with the research project STiMulUs , ERC Grant agreement no. 278267. The authors are also very grateful for the subsequent financial support of the present research, already granted by the European Commission under the H2020-FETHPC-2014 programme with the research project ExaHyPE , grant agreement no. 671698. We are grateful to Bruno Giacomazzo and Luciano Rezzolla for providing the numerical code for the exact solution of the Riemann problem in RMHD. We would also like to acknowledge PRACE for awarding access to the SuperMUC supercomputer based in Munich, Germany at the Leibniz Rechenzentrum (LRZ), and ISCRA, for awarding access to the FERMI supercomputer based in Casalecchio (Italy).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee who reviewed the previous version carefully and help us to strengthen the results in this version. This work was partially supported by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología México under grants CB-2011 No. 166212, CB-2014-01 No. 240512, Project No. 269652, and Fronteras Project 281; Xiuhcoatl and Abacus clusters at Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, Instituto Politécnico Nacional; I0101/131/07 C-234/07 of the Instituto Avanzado de Cosmología (IAC) collaboration ( http://www.iac.edu.mx ). AAA and LEP acknowledge financial support from CONACyT fellowships.


Acknowledgements We thank Ross Parkin, Cornelia Lang, Naomi McClure-Griffiths, and Helga Denés for insightful discussions on the numerical setups and on the potential applications of the simulations presented here, and the anonymous referee for their comments which helped improve this work. WBB thanks the National Secretariat of Higher Education, Science, Technology, and Innovation of Ecuador (SENESCYT) for funding this project through a doctoral scholarship (CI:1711298438), and the Ecuadorian Network for Research and Education (RED CEDIA) for providing access to local computational resources. WBB is the recipient of the Olin Eggen Scholarship at Mount Stromlo Observatory. CF acknowledges funding provided by the Australian Research Council's Discovery Projects (grants DP130102078 and DP150104329). RMC is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT110100108). This research was supported by the National Computational Infrastructure at Australian National University and the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre, with funding from the Australian Government and the Government of Western Australia, through grants n72 and ek9. CF thanks for high-performance computing resources provided by the Leibniz Rechenzentrum and the Gauss Centre for Supercomputing (grants pr32lo, pr48pi, and Gauss Centre for Supercomputing Large-scale project 10391), and the Partnership for Advanced Computing in Europe (PRACE grant pr89mu). The 3D plots and movies reported in this series of papers were generated using the VisIt visualization software (Childs et al. 2012 ).


The authors are very grateful to Ulrike Heiter for writing and maintaining SME documentation, to Thomas Nordlander for contributing NLTE tools and testing the model atmosphere grid interpolation, and to Paul Barklem and Remo Collet for contributing the partition functions for atoms, molecules and negative ions as part of our collaboration on the EOS package. We would also like to thank all SME users for continuous and useful feedback on the package.


We thank the referee for their helpful comments. This work was supported by the BK21 plus program through the National Research Foundation (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education of Korea, the Basic Science Research Program through the NRF funded by the Ministry of Education (NRF-2016R1A2B4013131, NRF-2016R1A6A3A11932534, NRF-2019R1A2C1002634), the NRF of Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF-2013M1A3A3A02042232), the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute under the RD program supervised by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning, the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute under the RD program Development of a Solar Coronagraph on International Space Station (Project No. 2019-1-850-02) supervised by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning, and the Institute for Information communications Technology Promotion (IITP) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIP) (2018-0-01422, Study on analysis and prediction technique of solar flares). The data used here are provided courtesy of NASA/ SDO and the HMI science team, as well as the GOES team.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the California- Kepler Survey team for making their data publicly available. We thank James Owen for valuable comments that helped to improve the manuscript. AG also thanks Erik Petigura and B.J. Fulton for useful discussions related to this work. HES gratefully acknowledges support from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant No. 17 XRP17_2 – 0055 issued through the Exoplanet Research Program.


We thank an anonymous referee for detailed comments that substantially improved both the scientific content and the presentation of our results. We also thank Erez Michaely, Hagai Perets and Robert Izzard for very valuable discussions and suggestions. This research was supported by a generous grant from the president of the Technion Professor Peretz Lavie, and by the Asher Fund for Space Research at the Technion.


We thank Alister Graham, Anne Samson, and the anonymous referee for helpful comments on this manuscript. SPD and AJM acknowledge funding support from the Australian Research Council under Discovery Project 130103505. GAMA is a joint European–Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the Anglo–Australian Telescope. The GAMA input catalogue is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is being obtained by a number of independent survey programmes including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE , Herschel -ATLAS, GMRT and ASKAP providing UV to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA website is http://www.gama-survey.org/ . Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U. S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. The VIKING survey is based on observations with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under the programme ID 179.A-2004.


The work was supported by European FP7-PEOPLE-2010-IRSES-269299 project – SOLSPANET. The work was also supported by Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation grant DI/14/6-310/12. B.M.S. and M.K. acknowledge the support by the Austrian Fonds zur Foerderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung within the project P25640-N27 and T.Z. – under project FWF26181-N27. We are grateful to the anonymous referee for the constructive comments on our manuscript that led to significant improvements.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Ainulnabilah B. Nasirudin and the anonymous referee for their clear and constructive comments. We would also like to thank Lucie Bakels for the helpful comments and discussions. RP is supported by a University of Western Australia Scholarship. PJE is supported by the ARC Centre of Excellence ASTRO 3D through project number CE170100013 Part of this research was undertaken on Raijin, the NCI National Facility in Canberra, Australia, which is supported by the Australian commonwealth Government. Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. This research was undertaken with the assistance of resources from the National Computational Infrastructure (NCI Australia), an NCRIS enabled capability supported by the Australian Government.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has been supported by grant no. 366/15 of the Israel Science Foundation. The authors thank an anonymous reviewer whose insightful comments helped improve and clarify this manuscript.


CA would like to thank the University of Kent for her 50th Anniversary PhD scholarship and Timothy Kinnear and Victor Ali-Lagoa for fruitful discussions. MCP and MJC thank the STFC, UK for funding this work. MD acknowledges support from the French Agence National de la Recherche (ANR) SHOCKS.


Acknowledgments The support of the Namibian authorities and of the University of Namibia in facilitating the construction and operation of H.E.S.S. is gratefully acknowledged, as is the support by the German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), the Max Planck Society, the German Research Foundation (DFG), the French Ministry for Research, the CNRS-IN2P3 and the Astroparticle Interdisciplinary Programme of the CNRS, the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the IPNP of the Charles University, the Czech Science Foundation, the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education, the South African Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation, the Australian Research Council and by the University of Namibia. We appreciate the excellent work of the technical support staff in Berlin, Durham, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Palaiseau, Paris, Saclay, and in Namibia in the construction and operation of the equipment.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank an anonymous referee for valuable suggestions which helped to improve the paper and acknowledge useful discussions with Chris Fragile, Matthew Liska, and Anderson Caproni. We thank an anonymous referee for valuable suggestions which helped to improve the paper. This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), and Fundação de Amparo à pesquisa do Estado do RS (FAPERGS). RN acknowledges funding by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) through grant 2017/01461-2. Based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the Science and Technology Facilities Council (United Kingdom), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia (Brazil) and Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina). SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU) / University of Tokyo, the Korean Participation Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Leibniz Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik (MPA Garching), Max-Planck-Institut für Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), National Astronomical Observatories of China, New Mexico State University, New York University, University of Notre Dame, Observatório Nacional / MCTI, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, University of Arizona, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford, University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and Yale University.


The authors are thankful for the referee’s kind and valuable comments on this manuscript. This work is supported by NSFC grants 11433006, 11790301, 11661161015, and 11573039, and by a Science Technology Facilities Council (STFC) consolidated grant ST/L000741/1. This work was also partly supported by the joint research program of the Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research at Nagoya University and the International Space Science Institute-Beijing (ISSI-BJ).


Acknowledgments JAP would like to thank the University of Surrey for the computational resources required to perform the simulations used in this paper. We are grateful to Sverre Aarseth and Keigo Nitadori for making nbody6 publicly available; we also thank Mr David Munro of the University of Surrey for hardware and software support.


This work was supported in part by the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories, NSFC under grants 41874201, 41531071, 11873018, 11790302, and 11761131007. We thank the STEREO /PLASTIC team and NASA’s CDAWeb for making these data available. The authors also would like to thank Drs. L. Xiang, Y. F. Hao, and H. Y. Sun for their useful suggestions and discussions.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank N. Schartel for providing us with the possibility to perform the ToO observation in the Director Discretionary Time, and the XMM–Newton team for the technical support. We also use Director Discretionary Time on NuSTAR , for which we thank Fiona Harrison for approving and the NuSTAR team for the technical support. We acknowledge financial contribution from the agreements ASI-INAF I/037/12/0 and ASI-INAF 2017-14-H.O. This work was partially supported by the Regione Autonoma della Sardegna through POR-FSE Sardegna 2007-2013, L.R. 7/2007, Progetti di Ricerca di Base e Orientata, Project N. CRP-60529. AP acknowledges funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement 660657-TMSP-H2020-MSCA-IF-2014, as well as the International Space Science Institute (ISSIBern) which funded and hosted the international team ‘The disc magnetosphere interaction around transitional millisecond pulsar’.


We thank the referee for the useful comments on the manuscript. F.C. acknowledges financial contribution from the agreement ASI-INAF n.2017-14-H.0 and PRIN MIUR 2015 Cosmology and Fundamental Physics: Illuminating the Dark Universe with Euclid.


Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge help of Derek Homeier and France Allard with Phoenix format. We thank Ingo Waldmann and Marco Rocchetto for testing E XO C ROSS . E XO C ROSS uses the Fortran 90 input parsing module input.f90 supplied by Anthony J. Stone, which is gratefully acknowledged. This work was supported by the UK Science and Technology Research Council (STFC) No. ST/M001334/1 and the COST action MOLIM No. CM1405. This work made extensive use of UCL’s Legion and STFC’s DiRAC@Darwin high performance computing facilities.


We are grateful to the referee, Prof. Takeuchi, for his helpful comments. We thank Bade Uzgil for insightful discussions. Support for R.D. was provided by the DFG priority program 1573 “The physics of the interstellar medium.” F.W., B.P.V., and E.P.F. acknowledge support through ERC grant Cosmic_Dawn. D.R. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under grant number AST-1614213 to Cornell University. Facility: ALMA data: 2015.1.01115.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ.


This work is partially supported by programmes number HST/GO 11700, 12587, 12905 and 13767 from NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. JSBW acknowledges the support of an Australian Research Council Laureate Fellowship. MT acknowledges the support of an Australia Research Council Future Fellowship. We would like to acknowledge the anonymous referee for their helpful comments, Sharon Rapoport for her initial lens modelling of the system and Stephanie Bernard for her help with the BoRG data.


Acknowledgments This paper has gone through internal review by the DES collaboration. Funding for the DES Projects has been provided by the US Department of Energy, the US National Science Foundation, the Ministry of Science and Education of Spain, the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Kavli Institute of Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago, the Center for Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Mitchell Institute for Fundamental Physics and Astronomy at Texas AM University, Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos, Fundao Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientfico e Tecnolgico and the Ministrio da Cincia, Tecnologia e Inovao, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Collaborating Institutions in the DES. The DES data management system is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number AST-1138766. The DES participants from Spanish institutions are partially supported by MINECO under grants AYA2012-39559, ESP2013-48274, FPA2013-47986 and Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa SEV-2012-0234, some of which include ERDF funds from the European Union. The Collaborating Institutions are Argonne National Laboratory, the University of California at Santa Cruz, the University of Cambridge, Centro de Investigaciones Enrgeticas, Medioambientales y Tecnolgicas-Madrid, the University of Chicago, University College London, the DES-Brazil Consortium, the University of Edinburgh, the Eidgenssische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zrich, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Institut de Cincies de lEspai (IEEC/CSIC), the Institut de Fsica dAltes Energies, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the Ludwig-Maximilians Universitt Mnchen and the associated Excellence Cluster Universe, the University of Michigan, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, the University of Nottingham, the Ohio State University, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Portsmouth, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford University, the University of Sussex and Texas AM University. The DES data management system is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number AST-1138766. The DES participants from Spanish institutions are partially supported by MINECO under grants AYA2012-39559, ESP2013-48274, FPA2013-47986 and Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa SEV-2012-0234. Research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Unions Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) including ERC grant agreements 240672, 291329 and 306478. EB acknowledges financial support from the European Research Council (ERC-StG-335936, CLUSTERS).


We thank John Beacom, Keith Bechtol, Chris Belczynski, Michal Dominik, Alex Drlica-Wagner, Jennifer Johnson, Vicky Kalogera, Paul Lasky, Adam Martin, Grant Mathews, Annika Peter, Kris Sigurdson, Rebecca Surman, Todd Thompson, and MacKenzie Warren for helpful discussions, and the ABHM Workshop for their hospitality while this work was completed. J.B. thanks the Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported by National Science Foundation grant PHY-1066293. T.L. is supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship Award No. PF3-140110.


Acknowledgements This work was supported by the UK Science and Technology Research Council (STFC) No. ST/M001334/1 and the COST action MOLIM No. CM1405. This work made extensive use of UCL’s Legion high performance computing facility.


We thank our anonymous referee for the useful comments and suggestions. This work has been supported by PRA Università di Pisa 2018-2019 ( Le stelle come laboratori cosmici di Fisica fondamentale , PI: S. Degl’Innocenti) and by INFN ( Iniziativa specifica TAsP ).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Kyle Dawson and Xiaohu Yang for useful discussions. HX acknowledges the support by a fellowship from the Willard L. and Ruth P. Eccles Foundation. IZ is supported by NSF grant AST-1612085. During the final stage, this project has been supported by a grant from Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality (Grants No.16DZ2260200) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants No.11655002). We gratefully acknowledge the High Performance Computing Resource for Advanced Research Computing at Shanghai Astronomical Observatory. The support and resources from the Center for High Performance Computing at the University of Utah are gratefully acknowledged. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Gauss Centre for Supercomputing e.V. ( www.gauss-centre.eu ) and the Partnership for Advanced Supercomputing in Europe (PRACE, http://www.prace-ri.eu ) for funding the MultiDark simulation project by providing computing time on the GCS Supercomputer SuperMUC at Leibniz Supercomputing Centre (LRZ, http://www.lrz.de ). The CosmoSim database used in this paper is a service by the Leibniz-Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam (AIP). The MultiDark database was developed in cooperation with the Spanish MultiDark Consolider Project CSD2009-00064. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Parkes Observatory is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility which is funded by the Australian Government for operation as a National Facility managed by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. The Green Bank Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation (NSF) operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Pulsar research at the Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics and the observations using the Lovell Telescope are supported by a consolidated grant from the Science and Technology Facilities Council in the UK. This work is also based on observations with the 100-m telescope of the Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie at Effelsberg. This work is supported by the ARC Centres of Excellence CE110001020 (CAASTRO) and CE170100004 (OzGrav). Survey processing was conducted in association with CAASTRO at the Australian National Computational Infrastructure high-performance computing centre at the Australian National University. The authors wish to thank Marina Berezina, Eleni Graikou, Alex Kraus, and Laura Spitler for their assistance with observations at Effelsberg, along with Natalia Lewandowska and Ryan Lynch for their assistance with observations at the GBT. We also thank West Virginia University for its financial support of GBT operations, which enabled some of the observations for this project. ADC acknowledges the support of both the International Max Planck Research School for Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Universities of Bonn and Cologne, and the Bonn-Cologne Graduate School of Physics and Astronomy. PCCF and AR gratefully acknowledge financial support by the European Research Council (ERC) for the ERC Starting grant BEACON under contract No. 279702, and continued support from the Max Planck Society. MK, RK, and RPE gratefully acknowledge support from ERC Synergy Grant ‘BlackHoleCam’ Grant Agreement Number 610058. MAM was supported by NSF award number AST-1517003. DRL was supported by NSF award number OIA-1458952.


This work was supported by Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (sub-projects B1, B2, B5 and B8) of the German Research Foundation (DFG) and SPP 1573, ‘Physics of the Interstellar Medium’ (grant number GL 668/2-1). In addition, RSK acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) via the ERC Advanced Grant STARLIGHT (project number 339177). The numerical simulations presented in this work were performed on the Milky Way supercomputer, which is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) through the Collaborative Research Center (SFB 881) ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject Z2) and hosted and co-funded by the Jülich Supercomputing Center (JSC). The authors thank the anonymous referee for helpful and constructive comments. CBM thanks Patrick Hennebelle, Pavel Kroupa, Tilman Hartwig and Scott Trager for helpful discussions.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS JET and SC acknowledge support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada through respective Discovery Grants. NNQO acknowledges support from NSERC through a PGS D scholarship. We thank the anonymous referee for several comments and questions that improved the paper significantly. We also thank B. Tully, M. Hudson, N. Dalal, and the participants of the conference ‘The Physics of Galaxy Scaling Relations and the Nature of Dark Matter’ held at Queen’s University in July 2018 for many useful comments on a preliminary version of this work. This work made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France (DOI : 10.26093/cds/vizier; https://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/vizier ). The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS 143, 23.


We are indebted to the staff of the W.M. Keck Observatory who keep the instruments and telescopes running effectively. We also wish to extend thanks to those of Hawaiian ancestry on whose sacred mountain we are privileged to be guests. This work has been supported in part by the US National Science Foundation through grants AST-0908805 and AST-1313472. We thank Mariska Kriek and Eliot Quataert for many useful discussions as well as the anonymous referee for comments and suggestions that significantly improved this work. R.F.T. also acknowledges support from Dennis and Carol Troesh and from the Miller Institute for Basic Research in Science at the University of California, Berkeley.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ARG-J thanks the financial support of Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – Brasil (CAPES), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) (proc. 2018/11239-8). MA thanks CNPq (Grants 427700/2018-3, 310683/2017-3, and 473002/2013-2) and Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) (grant E-26/111.488/2013). FB-R acknowledges CNPq grant 309578/2017-5. GB-R is thankful for the support of CAPES/Brazil and FAPERJ (grant E26/203.173/2016). BM thanks the CAPES/Cofecub-394/2016-05 grant. RV-M acknowledges grants CNPq: 304544/2017-5, 401903/2016-8, Faperj: PAPDRJ-45/2013 and E-26/203.026/2015, CAPES/Cofecub: 2506/2015. JIBC acknowledges CNPq grant 308150/2016-3. Based on observations obtained at the SOAR telescope, which is a joint project of the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, Inovações e Comunicações do Brasil, the U.S. National Optical Astronomy Observatory, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC), and Michigan State University (MSU). Based on data obtained at Complejo Astronómico El Leoncito, operated under agreement between the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientf́icas y Técnicas de la República Argentina and the National Universities of La Plata, Córdoba and San Juan. The work was based on observations made at the Laboratório Nacional de Astrofísica (LNA), Itajubá-MG, Brazil. TRAPPIST-South is funded by the Belgian Fund for Scientific Research under the grant FRFC 2.5.594.09.F. EJ is a Belgian FNRS Senior Research Associates. The work was based on observations made by MiNDSTEp from the Danish 1.54 m telescope at ESO’s La Silla observatory. This collaboration, as part of the Encelade working group ( http://www.issibern.ch/teams/encelade/ ), has been supported by the International Space Sciences Institute in Bern, Switzerland. Part of the research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Communitys H2020 (2014–2020/ERC grant 669416 ‘LUCKY STAR’)


We are grateful to the people responsible for the Bolshoi and MultiDark simulations for making their halo catalogues publicly available, to the anonymous referee for an insightful report that greatly helped to improve the presentation, and to the following individuals for their advice and assistance: Peter Behroozi, Mike Boylan-Kolchin, Carlo Giocoli, Andrew Hearin, Anatoly Klypin, Alexander Knebe, Surhud More, Nikhil Padmanabhan, Tomomi Sunayama, and Bepi Tormen.


We thank the referee for their comments and criticisms that have significantly improved this work. We are grateful to David Bacon, Bob Nichol, Dominique Sluse, Kenneth Wong and Phil Marshall for insightful comments on the original manuscript. We thank Tommaso Treu and Paul Schechter for helpful discussions. SDC acknowledges funding from the SEPNet summer placement scheme and is grateful to the ICG for hosting the placement. This project made use of the lenspop code which is freely available from github.com/tcollett/LensPop. Numerical computations were done on the Sciama High Performance Compute (HPC) cluster which is supported by the ICG, SEPNet and the University of Portsmouth.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is a pleasure to thank Simon White and Adriano Agnello for inspiring discussions.


MGBA acknowledges the financial support from FAPESP 2011/23996-9 and from the FAPESP Thematic Project 2013/26258-4. MGBA is also grateful to the Kapteyn Astronomical Institute for the hospitality and to R. Misra, M. Linares, P. Bult and T. Strohmayer for the useful comments. DA acknowledges support from the Royal Society. The authors are grateful to the unknown referee for his/her meticulous review of this paper whose comments significantly increased the value of our work.


This research has made use of the GOLDmine database (Gavazzi et al. 2003, 2014b) and of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


We thank Martin Haehnelt, Daniel Mortlock and Steve Warren for their helpful comments on the manuscript, as well as Paul Hewett for assistance in the early stages of this work. We also thank the referee, Xiaohui Fan, for comments which helped to improve the manuscript. SEIB acknowledges a Graduate Studentship from the Science and Technology Funding Council (STFC) and is grateful for funding through the ERC grant LGAG/209 RG66659. GDB has been supported by STFC through an Ernest Rutherford Fellowship.


We warmly thank Diana Valencia for interesting discussions on the internal composition of planets, Florentin Millour for explanations concerning the Hipparcos catalog, Georges Kordopatis, Orlagh Creevey and Mathias Schultheis for insights on stellar models and populations. R.L. is funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement n. 664931. C.D. is funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation under the Ambizione grant PZ00P2_174028.


We thank the US National Science Foundation (AST-1505502) for support in conducting the present experiments. The authors acknowledge the W. M. Keck Foundation for financing the experimental setup.