We sincerely thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments and suggestions that significantly improved the scientific content and presentation of the manuscript. We also thank Jun Zhang for constructive suggestions, as well as Junchao Hong and Haidong Li for helpful discussions. SDO is a mission of NASA’s Living With a Star Program. H.C.C, J.Y.Y, and Y.D.D are supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under grants 11633008, 11703084, and 11873088, and also by the CAS program QYZDJ-SSW-SLH012. K.F.J is supported by NSFC under grants 11773072 and 11873027.


M. Beuret thanks Arnaud Siebert for providing the shape of the spiral arms from Englmaier et al. (2011) . This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS, 143, 23. This research has also made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. Davide Elia’s and Eugenio Schisano’s research activity is supported by the VIALACTEA project, a Collaborative project under Framework Programme 7 of the European Union funded under Contract #607380, that is hereby acknowledged.


The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for the important suggestions/corrections on this paper. Part of this work was supported by CAPES/Cofecub Project 712/2011. BF thanks CNPq Project 142849/2010-3. JGH acknowledges partial support from FAPESP Proc. No. 2010/50930-6. This publication makes use of data products from the 2MASS, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This publication makes use of data products from the WISE , which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Dunlap Institute is funded through an endowment established by the David Dunlap family and the University of Toronto. BMG acknowledges the support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) through grant RGPIN-2015-05948, and of the Canada Research Chairs program. Partial support for LR comes from NSF grant 17-14205 to the University of Minnesota. XS is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant No. 11763008.


The authors would like to thank Stefan Hilbert, Sherry Suyu, Malte Tewes, James Nightingale and an anonymous referee for very useful comments. DDX thanks the HITS fellowship. DS acknowledges support from a Back to Belgium grant from the Belgian Federal Science Policy (BELSPO) and partial funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, reference SL172/1-1. PS and VS acknowledge support by the DFG through Transregio 33, ‘The Dark Universe’. VS also acknowledges support by the European Research Council under ERC-StG EXAGAL-308037. LH acknowledges support from NASA grant NNX12AC67G and NSF grant AST-1312095. DDX and VS gratefully acknowledge the support of the Klaus Tschira Foundation.


A.W.M. was supported through Hubble Fellowship grant 51364 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555. This research was supported by NASA grant NNX11AC33G to E.G. E.G. was also supported by an International Visitor grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation. We thank Bandit for his useful discussions and encouragement during the writing of this manuscript. This work used the Immersion Grating Infrared Spectrograph (IGRINS), which was developed under a collaboration between the University of Texas at Austin and the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI) with the financial support of the US National Science Foundation under grant ASTR1229522, of the University of Texas at Austin, and of the Korean GMT Project of KASI. The IGRINS pipeline package PLP was developed by Dr. Jae-Joon Lee at Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute and Professor Soojong Pak's team at Kyung Hee University. SNIFS on the UH 2.2 m telescope is part of the Nearby Supernova Factory project, a scientific collaboration among the Centre de Recherche Astronomique de Lyon, Institut de Physique Nucléaire de Lyon, Laboratoire de Physique Nucléaire et des Hautes Energies, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Yale University, University of Bonn, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Tsinghua Center for Astrophysics, and the Centre de Physique des Particules de Marseille. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. This research was made possible through the use of the AAVSO Photometric All-Sky Survey (APASS), funded by the Robert Martin Ayers Sciences Fund. The authors acknowledge the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC) at The University of Texas at Austin for providing grid resources that have contributed to the research results reported within this paper. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Facilities: IRTF (SpeX) , UH:2.2 m (SNIFS) , kepler , Keck:II (NIRC2) , Smith (IGRINS) .


This work is supported by the NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Division (grant No.1311958 to G.V.). We thank Dr. J. Brucato of the Astrophysical Observatory of Arcetri (Italy) for providing the sample used in these experiments and Zhirou Zhang, Jianming Shi, and Tyler Hopkins for technical help. R.T.G. acknowledges the support of the NASA Astrophysics Theory Program (grant No. NNX11AC38G).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Fabrizio Arrigoni Battaia for insightfull discussions related to this manuscript. This research was carried out on the High Performance Computing resources at New York University Abu Dhabi; on the theo cluster of the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie and on the hydra clusters at the Rechenzentrum in Garching. We greatly appreciate the contributions of these computing allocations. All figures in this work have been made with matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), using the open-source python libraries: pynbody (Pontzen et al. 2013 ), numpy (Walt, Colbert Varoquaux 2011 ), and scipy (Eric Jones et al. 2001 ). AO and BM are funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) – MO 2979/1-1. TB acknowledges support from by the European Research Council under ERC- CoG grant CRAGSMAN-646955. RK acknowledges support from NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF7-180163 awarded by the Chandra X-ray Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for NASA under contract NAS8-03060.


We would like to thank the anonymous referee for the many constructive remarks and suggestions that greatly helped us to improve the content and layout of the paper. MS thanks Giulia Despali, Chiara Mancini, and Alessia Moretti for helpful discussions and hints. CC would like to thank Rosaria Tantalo and Emanuela Chiosi for valuable collaboration and the Department of Physics and Astronomy of the Padua University for the friendly hospitality and computational support. The tool HMFcalc and the public data from the ILLUSTRIS project have been amply used in this study.


The USRA co-authors gratefully acknowledge NASA funding through contract NNM13AA43C. The UAH co-authors gratefully acknowledge NASA funding from co-operative agreement NNM11AA01A. E.B. and T.D.C. are supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Goddard Space Flight Center, administered by Universities Space Research Association under contract with NASA. D.K., C.A.W.H., C.M.H., and T.L. gratefully acknowledge NASA funding through the Fermi GBM project. Support for the German contribution to GBM was provided by the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) via the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt (DLR) under contract number 50 QV 0301. A.v.K. was supported by the Bundesministeriums für Wirtschaft und Technologie (BMWi) through DLR grant 50 OG 1101. N.C. and J.B. acknowledge support from NSF under grant PHY-1505373. S.M.B. acknowledges support from Science Foundation Ireland under grant 12/IP/1288. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the United States National Science Foundation (NSF) for the construction and operation of the LIGO Laboratory and Advanced LIGO as well as the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) of the United Kingdom, the Max-Planck-Society (MPS), and the State of Niedersachsen/Germany for support of the construction of Advanced LIGO and construction and operation of the GEO600 detector. Additional support for Advanced LIGO was provided by the Australian Research Council. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and the Foundation for Fundamental Research on Matter supported by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, for the construction and operation of the Virgo detector and the creation and support of the EGO consortium. The authors also gratefully acknowledge research support from these agencies as well as by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of India, the Department of Science and Technology, India, the Science Engineering Research Board (SERB), India, the Ministry of Human Resource Development, India, the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigación, the Vicepresidència i Conselleria d’Innovació Recerca i Turisme and the Conselleria d’Educació i Universitat del Govern de les Illes Balears, the Conselleria d’Educació Investigació Cultura i Esport de la Generalitat Valenciana, the National Science Centre of Poland, the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, the Russian Science Foundation, the European Commission, the European Regional Development Funds (ERDF), the Royal Society, the Scottish Funding Council, the Scottish Universities Physics Alliance, the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA), the Lyon Institute of Origins (LIO), the National Research, Development and Innovation Office Hungary (NKFI), the National Research Foundation of Korea, Industry Canada and the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Economic Development and Innovation, the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council Canada, the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, the Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovations, and Communications, the International Center for Theoretical Physics South American Institute for Fundamental Research (ICTP-SAIFR), the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong, the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), the Leverhulme Trust, the Research Corporation, the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Taiwan and the Kavli Foundation. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the NSF, STFC, MPS, INFN, CNRS, and the State of Niedersachsen/Germany for provision of computational resources.


This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.01520.S. ALMA is a partnership of the ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with the NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by the ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. This research has made use of the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). We thank Jonathan Braine, the referee of the paper, for helpful comments that improved the quality of this paper substantially. P.J. acknowledges support through project LM2015067 of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic. P.J. and J.P. acknowledge support from the project 19-18647S of the Czech Science Foundation and from the institutional research project RVO:67985815. M.S. acknowledges support from NASA grants GO6-17111X and 80NSSC18K0606 and NSF grant 1714764. L.C. is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT180100066) funded by the Australian Government. T.S. acknowledges support through fellowship SFRH/BPD/103385/2014 funded by FCT (Portugal) and POPH/FSE (EC). This work was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through national funds (UID/FIS/04434/2013) and by FEDER through COMPETE2020 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007672). T.S. also acknowledges support from DL 57/2016/CP1364/CT0009. This work was supported by FCT/MCTES through national funds (PIDDAC) by grant PTDC/FIS-AST/29245/2017. E.B. acknowledges support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant No. ST/M001008/1). M.F. acknowledges support by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant No. ST/P000541/1). This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 757535). Facility: ALMA. Software: CASA (McMullin et al. 2007 ), GILDAS (Guilloteau Lucas 2000 ), astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ).


The research activities of the Observational Astronomy Stellar Board at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte are supported by continuous grants from the Brazilian agencies CNPq and FAPERN and by the INCT-INEspaço. C.C. acknowledges a PDJ/CAPES fellowship (Process n °88887.114342/2015-00). B.B. acknowledges the support of the NASA Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship. A.L. acknowledges the support from the Center for Magnetic Self-Organization, a distinguished visitor PVE/CAPES appointment at the Physics Graduate Program at UFRN, Natal, Brazil and thanks the DFTE/UFRN for hospitality.


R.G. and J. G. are supported by the Israeli Science Foundation under grant No. 719/14. F.D.C. acknowledges support from the UNAM-PAPIIT grant IN117917. We acknowledge the support from the Miztli-UNAM supercomputer (project LANCAD-UNAM-DGTIC-281) in which the simulations were performed.


We thank the anonymous referee for comments and suggestions that improved the paper. We acknowledge financial support from INAF under the contracts PRIN-INAF-2011 (“Black Hole growth and AGN feedback through cosmic time”) and PRIN MIUR 2010-2011 (“The dark Universe and the cosmic evolution of baryons”). M.B. acknowledges support from the FP7 Career Integration Grant “eEASy” (CIG 321913). C.F. gratefully acknowledges financial support from PRIN MIUR 2010-2011, project “The Chemical and Dynamical Evolution of the Milky Way and Local Group Galaxies”, prot. 2010LY5N2T. E.P. acknowledges financial support from INAF under the contract PRIN-INAF-2012. Funding for this work has also been provided by the Israel Science Foundation grant 284/13.


We thank the anonymous referee for insightful comments that helped improve the manuscript. MV and MC thank Henk Hoekstra and Rachel Mandelbaum for useful and stimulating discussions. MC acknowledges support from NWO VIDI grant number 639.042.814 and ERC FP7 grant 278594. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008519/1, and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. We also gratefully acknowledge PRACE for awarding us access to the resource Curie based in France at Très Grand Centre de Calcul. This work was sponsored by the Dutch National Computing Facilities Foundation (NCF) for the use of supercomputer facilities, with financial support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO). The research was supported in part by the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC Grant agreements 278594-GasAroundGalaxies, GA 267291 Cosmiway, and 321334 dustygal, the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant numbers ST/F001166/1 and ST/I000976/1), Rolling and Consolodating Grants to the ICC, Marie Curie Reintegration Grant PERG06-GA-2009-256573. TT acknowledges the Interuniversity Attraction Poles Programme initiated by the Belgian Science Policy Office ([AP P7/08 CHARM]).


We would like to thank Eric Herbst and Ilsa Cooke for their helpful suggestions and Xixin Liang for technical assistance. We are grateful to an anonymous referee for the constructive comments that helped to improve the paper. This work was supported by NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Research Grants No. 1311958 and No. 1615897.


F.M. gratefully acknowledges the financial support of the Programma Giovani Ricercatori – Rita Levi Montalcini – Rientro dei Cervelli (2012) awarded by the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR). Part of this work is based on the NVSS (NRAO VLA Sky Survey): The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is operated by Associated Universities, Inc., under contract with the National Science Foundation. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research made use of the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive and Extragalactic Database (NED), which are operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration, including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.


We thank the anonymous referee for a prompt and insightful report. G.M. and A.N. acknowledge the financial support from the National Science Centre, Poland through grant No. 2016/23/B/ST9/00579. A.N. is also supported by the National Science Centre, Poland through grant No. 2015/19/B/ST9/02937. E.V. acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades under the project PGC2018-101950-B-I00. M.K. is supported by the Polish National Science Center (NCN) through grant 2017/27/B/ST9/02727. Facility: TNG(HARPS-N).


Acknowledgements This work is based upon observations carried out at the OAN SPM, Baja California, Mexico. GT and SZ acknowledge PAPIIT grants IN108316, IN100617 and CONACyT grant 166376. We are grateful to Dr J. V. Hernndez Santisteban for the opportunity to work with the original data of 1RXS J064434.5334451. We thank the daytime and night support staff at the OAN-SPM for facilitating and helping to obtain our observations.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the reviewer for her/his valuable comments on the submitted manuscript. NN thanks T. Fischer for providing neutrino-driven wind trajectories used in this study. This work has been partially supported by the European Research Council (EU-FP7-ERC-2012-St Grant 306901, EU-FP7 Adv Grant GA321263-FISH), the EU COST Action CA16117 (ChETEC), the UK STFC (ST/M000958/1), and MEXT Japan (‘Priority Issue on Post-K computer: Elucidation of the Fundamental Laws and Evolution of the Universe’ and ‘the World Premier International Research Centre Initiative: WPI Initiative’). GC acknowledges financial support from the EU Horizon2020 programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant 664931. CF acknowledges support by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Nuclear Physics, under Award No. DE-FG02-02ER41216. Parts of the computations were carried out on COSMOS (STFC DiRAC Facility) at DAMTP in University of Cambridge. This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/J005673/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008586/1, and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K00333X/1. DiRAC is part of the UK National E-Infrastructure. Further computations were carried out at CfCA, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, and at YITP, Kyoto University. The University of Edinburgh is a charitable body, registered in Scotland, with Registration No. SC005336.


This work is dedicated to our colleague and friend Tomas Dahlen, for whom this supernova has been named in memoriam. He is dearly missed. We thank the Hubble Frontier Fields team at STScI for their substantial efforts to make the HFF program successful. In particular, thanks are due to Matt Mountain for the allocation of discretionary orbits for the HFF program; to Jennifer Lotz, Norman Grogin, and Patricia Royle for accommodations in strategy and implementation to make the FrontierSN program possible; to Anton Koekemoer for HFF data processing support. We also thank the CLASH team, led by Marc Postman, for observations, catalogs, and high level science products that were of significant value for this analysis. Thanks to Jonatan Selsing for helpful comments on the manuscript. This work utilizes gravitational lensing models produced by modeling teams that were funded as part of the HST Frontier Fields program conducted by STScI. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. The lens models were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). Financial support for this work was provided to S.A.R. by NASA through grants HST-HF-51312 and HST-GO-13386 from STScI, which is operated by Associated Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. (AURA), under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. A.M. acknowledge the financial support of the Brazilian funding agency FAPESP (Post-doc fellowship—process number 2014/11806-9). Support for this research at Rutgers University was provided in part by NSF CAREER award AST-0847157 to SWJ. The Dark Cosmology Centre is supported by the Danish National Research Foundation. J.M.D. acknowledges support of the consolider project CSD2010-00064 and AYA2012–39475-C02-01 funded by the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad. J.M. contributed to this research from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with NASA and acknowledges support from NASA Grants HST-GO-13343.05-A and HST-GO-13386.13-A. The research leading to these results has received funding from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/20072013) under REA grant agreement number 627288. A.Z. acknowledges financial support from NASA through grant HST-HF-51334.01-A awarded by STScI and operated by AURA. T.T. acknowledges support by the Packard Foundation in the form of Packard Research Fellowship. GLASS is funded by NASA through HST grant GO-13459. L.L.R.W. acknowledges the support of the Minnesota Supercomputing Institute. Facility: HST (WFC3).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Erica Hammerstein thanks the National Science Foundation for support through a Research Experience for Undergraduates program at Wayne State University (National Science Foundation Grant No. PHY-1460853). We thank Manuel Torres for helpful comments that improved the paper. We thank the referee, and author of ELC, Jerry Orosz, for a helpful referee report and guidance in using the latest MCMC version of ELC. This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5-m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. This paper makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.


The authors thank Drs. Alan Heays, Kenji Furuya, and Mihkel Kama for useful discussions and an anonymous referee for their insightful comments. C.W. acknowledges support from the European Union A-ERC grant 291141 CHEMPLAN and from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO, program number 639.041.335). H.N. acknowledges the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research 23103005 and 25400229. She also acknowledges support from the Astrobiology Project of the CNSI, NINS (grant numbers AB261004, AB261008). A portion of the numerical calculations were carried out on SR16000 at YITP in Kyoto University.


Positive criticism from an anonymous referee led to substantial improvements in the paper. This research was supported by NSERC of Canada. Computations were performed on the niagara supercomputer at the SciNet HPC Consortium. SciNet is funded by: the Canada Foundation for Innovation; the Government of Ontario; Ontario Research Fund—Research Excellence; and the University of Toronto.


We wish to thank the anonymous referee for the useful comments which significantly improved the paper.


T.-W. Chen thanks the organisers and participants of MIAPP workshop “Supernovae: The Outliers” for stimulating discussions: You-Hua Chu for interacting galaxy, Maryam Modjaz for metallicity and Ken’ichi Nomoto for CSM model. T.-W. Chen thanks Stefan Taubenberger for bolometric light curve comparison and participants in the Garching SN meeting for useful advise. T.W.C, T.K., R.Y. and P.W. acknowledge the support through the Sofia Kovalevskaja Award to P. Schady from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation of Germany. S.J.S. acknowledges ERC grant 291222 and STFC grants ST/I001123/1 and ST/L000709/1. L.G. was supported in part by the US National Science Foundation under Grant AST-1311862. A.J. acknowledges funding by the European Union’s Framework Programme for Research and Innovation Horizon 2020 under Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 702538. M.S. acknowledges support from EU/FP7-ERC grant 615929. K.M. acknowledges support from the STFC through an Ernest Rutherford Fellowship. The Liverpool Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. Part of the funding for GROND (both hardware as well as personnel) was generously granted from the Leibniz-Prize to Prof. G. Hasinger (DFG grant HA 1850/28-1). We acknowlegde use of the Pan-STARRS1 photometric reference catalogue: the Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) have been made possible through contributions of the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, Queen’s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, and Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE) and the Los Alamos National Laboratory.


We thank a number of unnamed colleagues for interesting discussions. G.Ö. is a Royal Swedish Academy of Science research fellow (supported by a grant from the Knut Alice Wallenbergs foundation). This work was supported by the Swedish Research Council and the Swedish National Space Board. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.


This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant Nos 11203016 and 11143012. This work is partly supported by the Young Scholars Program of Shandong University, Weihai. We are also grateful for data taken and assembled by the WEBT collaboration and stored in the WEBT archive at the Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino-INAF ( http://www.oato.inaf.it/blazars/webt/ ) and data from the Steward Observatory spectropolarimetric monitoring project supported by Fermi Guest Investigator grants NNX08AW56G, NNX09AU10G and NNX12AO93G, as well as data from the variable star observations from the AAVSO International Database contributed by observers worldwide.


S.K. and P.M.W. received funding through BMBF Verbundforschung (project MUSE-AO, grant 05A14BAC and 05A14MGA). Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA), and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA).


Acknowledgments We thank the referee, James Reeves, for his helpful comments. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and the USA (NASA). M.D. acknowledges financial under contract ASI – INAF grant I/037/12/0. G.P. acknowledges the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (BMWI/DLR, FKZ 50 OR 1408) and the Max Planck Society. B.D.M. acknowledges support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 665778 via the Polish National Science Center grant Polonez UMO-2016/21/P/ST9/04025.


This research was supported by the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute under the RD program (Project No. 3348-20160002) supervised by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning. Support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Grant No. Yo 194/1-1, is gratefully acknowledged. P.N. would like to thank Phillip Podsiadlowski and Stephan Geier for useful discussions.


U.M. and H.B.P. acknowledge support from the Marie Curie FP7 career integration grant “GRAND,” the Research Cooperation Lower Saxony-Israel Niedersachsisches Vorab fund, the Minerva center for life under extreme planetary conditions and the ISF I-CORE grant 1829/12.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee whose comments and suggestions helped to significantly improve the manuscript.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is supported by the I-CORE program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee (grant 1937/12), and was performed in part at Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported by National Science Foundation grant PHY-1607611. We thank an anonymous referee for useful comments.


We are thankful to the journal referee for constructive comments. We are also grateful to the Fermi -LAT Collaboration internal referee Rodrigo Nemmen for useful suggestions and Philippe Bruel, Elizabetta Cavazzutti, Sara Cutini, Seth Digel, Alberto Domínguez, Marcello Giroletti, and Dave Thompson for critical reading of the manuscript. The Fermi LAT Collaboration acknowledges generous ongoing support from a number of agencies and institutes that have supported both the development and the operation of the LAT, as well as scientific data analysis. These include NASA and the Department of Energy in the United States, the Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules in France, the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana and Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare in Italy, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) in Japan, and the K. A. Wallenberg Foundation, Swedish Research Council, and Swedish National Space Board in Sweden. Additional support for science analysis during the operations phase is gratefully acknowledged from the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica in Italy and the Centre National d’Études Spatiales in France. This work performed in part under DOE Contract DE-AC02-76SF00515. This research has made use of data obtained through the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center Online Service, provided by the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. Part of this work is based on archival data, software, or online services provided by the ASI Data Center (ASDC). This research has made use of the XRT Data Analysis Software (XRTDAS). This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. The scientific results reported in this article are based on data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive. This research has made use of software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application packages CIAO, ChIPS, and Sherpa. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by NASA. Software: SAS (v15.0.0), fermiPy (Wood et al. 2017 ), XSPEC (Arnaud 1996 ), Swift-XRT data product generator (Evans et al. 2009 ), CIAO (v.4.9).


Acknowledgements JDS acknowledges the support from the European Research Council (ERC) under the Horizon 2020 Framework Program via the Consolidator Grant CSF-648505. AB acknowledges the support from the ERC Advanced Grant ORISTARS under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (Grant 291294). AP was partly funded by a Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics (CITA) National Fellowship. We thank the referee M. Alves for her constructive comments that have led to improvements in this presentation of our results. Thanks to M. Houde and S. Basu for their comments on the early versions of this work. We also thank the following people who helped with their encouragement and conversation: P. G. Martin, H. Beuther, C. Heiles, T. Robishaw, M.-A. Miville-Deschênes, and A. Roy. Special thanks go to Thomas Müller at the Haus der Astronomie for his assistance in the magnetic field visualization.


Research at Armagh Observatory is a grant aided by the N. Ireland Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure. M.M. is funded by the Leverhulme trust. We thank Richard Harrison for important discussion and an anonymous referee for insightful comments. M.M. thanks Kamalam Vanninathan, Astrid Veronig and Zhenghua Huang for fruitful discussions on this manuscript. We are grateful to Vasyl Yurchyshyn for providing us with the BBSO images. We thank STFC for the support via ST/J001082/1.


Acknowledgments GDS and MO'D are partially supported by Department of Energy grant DE-SC0009946 to the particle astrophysics theory group at CWRU. MO'D is partially supported by the CAPES Foundation of the Ministry of Education of Brazil. Some of the results in this paper have been derived using the healpix (Górski et al. 2005 ) package. This work made use of the High Performance Computing Resource in the Core Facility for Advanced Research Computing at Case Western Reserve University.


We acknowledge valuable communications and discussions with F. Bouchet, C. Burigana, J. Dunkley, G. Efstathiou, K. Ganga, P. Naselsky, H. Peiris, C. Räth and D. Scott. GDS and CJC are supported by a grant from the US Department of Energy to the Particle Astrophysics Theory Group at CWRU. DH has been supported by the DOE, NSF, and the Michigan Center for Theoretical Physics. DJS is supported by the DFG grant RTG 1620 ‘Models of gravity’. DH thanks the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics and GDS thanks the Theory Unit at CERN for their respective hospitality. This work made extensive use of the healpix package (Górski et al. 2005 ). The numerical simulations were performed on the facilities provided by the Case ITS High Performance Computing Cluster. We acknowledge the use of the Legacy Archive for Microwave Background Data Analysis (LAMBDA), part of the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Center (HEASARC). HEASARC/LAMBDA is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. This paper made use of observations obtained with Planck ( http://www.esa.int/Planck ), an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States, NASA, and Canada.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by NASA Astrophysics Theory Program grant NNX13AG61G and the International Space Science Institute in Bern. SH was supported by Japan JSPS KAKENH 15K05040 and the joint research project of ILE, Osaka University. The radiation MHD simulation was partly carried out on the Cray XT4 at CfCA, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, and on SR16000 at YITP in Kyoto University.


E.W.C. thanks Karel Schrijver and Jürg Beer for organizing a series of stimulating ISSI Team meetings on extreme solar events, and Ian Richardson for sharing results in advance of publication. E.D. acknowledges support from the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) through the ESA-PRODEX programme, grant No. 4000120800.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This publication makes use of vosa , developed under the Spanish Virtual Observatory project supported from the Spanish MICINN through grant AyA2011-24052. This research has made use of the SIMBAD data base and VizieR catalogue access tool, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. This is based on observations made with the CAOS operated by the Catania Astrophysical Observatory.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge the Virgo Consortium for making their simulation data available. The eagle simulations were performed using the DiRAC-2 facility at Durham, managed by the ICC, and the PRACE facility Curie based in France at TGCC, CEA, Bruyg̀resle-Chåtel. We would like to thank Claudio Dalla Vecchia for the kind help with the data handling. We also thank Romeel Davé for providing the simba simulation data and for his help in interpreting them, and the CANDELS team for providing the latest available data.


This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant 14-12-01287 (S.S.T., A.A.L., A.A.M.), the Foundations’ Professor Pool, the Finnish Cultural Foundation and the Academy of Finland grant 268740 (J.P.). We also acknowledge the support from the COST Action MP1304.


Acknowledgements We thank L. Dunne and S. Maddox for hosting the author and for initial advice at the University of Canterbury and subsequent helpful discussions. Stuart Weston is a recipient of a CSIRO Astronomy and Space Science, Australia Telescope National Facility Graduate Research Scholarship. Nicholas Seymour is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship. Mattia Vaccari acknowledges support from the European Commission Research Executive Agency (FP7-SPACE-2013-1 GA 607254), the South African Department of Science and Technology (DST/CON 0134/2014) and the Italian Ministry for Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation (PGR GA ZA14GR02). We thank the referee, Jim Condon, for critically reading the manuscript and suggesting substantial improvements which have significantly improved the paper.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS WEK was supported by an ESO Fellowship and the Excellence Cluster Universe, Technische Universität München, Boltzmannstrasse 2, D-85748 Garching, Germany. Support for program #13432 was provided to KSL and PFW by NASA through grant HST -GO-13432 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. PFW acknowledges additional support from the NSF through grant AST-1714281. We would like to acknowledge the detailed discussions and input from Marten van Kerkwijk and Kim Venn during the preparation of the HST proposal that led to the observations reported here. We would like to acknowledge the helpful comments by our referee.


We thank an anonymous referee for his useful comments and suggestions. G. Picogna acknowledges the support through the German Research Foundation (DFG) grant KL 650/21 within the collaborative research program “The first 10 Million Years of the Solar System”. Some simulations were performed on the bwGRiD cluster in Tübingen, which is funded by the Ministry for Education and Research of Germany and the Ministry for Science, Research and Arts of the state Baden-Württemberg, and the cluster of the Forschergruppe FOR 759 “The Formation of Planets: The Critical First Growth Phase” funded by the DFG.


The authors would like to thank Mayte Alfaro Cuello, Moritz Reichert and Thomas de Boer for readily sharing their results with us. This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 804240).


We are grateful to the referee, Scott Gaudi, for providing constructive criticism that has led to improvements in this paper. We thank the members of the TESS Science Team for their contributions to the mission. In particular, Jacob Bean, Tabetha Boyajian, Eric Gaidos, Daniel Huber, Geoffrey Marcy, Roberto Sanchis-Ojeda, and Keivan Stassun provided helpful comments on the manuscript, and discussions with Jon Jenkins helped inform our approach to the simulations. We acknowledge Anthony Smith, Kristin Clark, and Michael Chrisp at MIT-Lincoln Laboratory for their respective roles in the project management, systems engineering, and optical design for the TESS payload. In addition, Barry Burke and Vyshnavi Suntharalingam at MIT-LL provided useful input to the PSF model. We thank Leo Girardi for adding the TESS bandpass to the TRILEGAL simulation and for providing a perl script to facilitate the queries. We also thank Gibor Basri for sharing the stellar variability data from Kepler . This publication makes use of data products from the 2MASS, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.


We acknowledge helpful comments and suggestions from our referee. We thank Spanish MINECO for funding support under grants CSD2009-00038, AYA2009-07304, and AYA2012-32032. We also thank the ERC for support under grant ERC-2013-Syg-610256-NANOCOSMOS. Part of this research was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), California Institute of Technology (Caltech), under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Support for this work was provided by NASA through an award issued by JPL/Caltech. This work was supported by the German Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG project number SFB 956, C1. This work was in part also supported by theCNRS program “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire (PCMI).” Facilities: Herschel Space Observatory , IRAM:30m.


M.Y.S. thanks K. D. Denney for a beneficial discussion. We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that improved the paper. M.Y.S. and Y.Q.X. acknowledge the support from NSFC-11603022, NSFC-11473026, NSFC-11421303, the 973 Program (2015CB857004), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2016M600485), the CAS Frontier Science Key Research Program (QYZDJ-SSW-SLH006), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities. W.N.B. acknowledges support from NSF Grant AST-1516784 and Chandra X-ray Center grant GO6-17083X. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. Software: Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), Kapteyn (Terlouw Vogelaar 2015 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), Numpy Scipy (Van Der Walt et al. 2011 ).


The authors are very grateful to Stephen Bougher for generously providing access to the M-GITM model, and acknowledge valuable discussions with Andrew Knoll, Janet Luhmann, Michael Summers, Lei Dai, Takuya Shibayama, and David Pawlowski. The detailed and insightful report furnished by the referee is also much appreciated. M.L. and A.L. were partly supported by grants from the Breakthrough Prize Foundation for the Starshot Initiative and Harvard University’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences, and by the Institute for Theory and Computation (ITC) at Harvard University. C.D. was supported by the NASA Living With a Star Jack Eddy Postdoctoral Fellowship Program, administered by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. X.F. and B.M.J. acknowledge support from NASA’s MAVEN mission. Resources for this work were provided by the NASA High-End Computing (HEC) Program through the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Division at Ames Research Center.


FD is indebted to the ScaLAPACK team for both the provision of their libraries and their responses to numerous questions. FD thanks the European Research Council (ERC) for funding under the H2020 research innovation programme (grant agreement #740651 NewWorlds). NJM is part funded by a Leverhulme Trust Research Project Grant and partly supported by a Science and Technology Facilities Council Consolidated Grant (ST/R000395/1), both of which we gratefully acknowledge. This study uses material produced using Met Office Software. Additionally, used the DiRAC Complexity system, operated by the University of Leicester IT Services, which forms part of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment is funded by BIS National E-Infrastructure capital grant ST/K000373/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K0003259/1. DiRAC is part of the National e-Infrastructure. Additionally, this research made use of the ISCA High Performance Computing Service at the University of Exeter. Finally, this work was also partly funded by the ERC grant No. 320478-TOFU.


This research has made use of data and/or software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The High-Energy Astrophysics Group of Palermo acknowledges support from the Fondo Finalizzato alla Ricerca (FFR) 2012/13, project No. 2012-ATE-0390. We also acknowledge a financial contribution from the agreement ASI-INAF I/037/12/0. M.D.S. thanks the Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica, Università di Palermo, for its hospitality. A.R. and A.S. gratefully acknowledge the Sardinia Regional Government for its financial support (P.O.R. Sardegna F.S.E. Operational Programme of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia, European Social Fund 2007-2013 – Axis IV Human Resources, Objective l.3, Line of Activity l.3.1.). A.P. acknowledges grant SGR2014-1073 and partial support from “NewCompStar”, COST Action MP1304. A.P. acknowledges support via an EU Marie Skłodowska-Curie fellowship under grant No. 660657-TMSP-H2020-MSCA-IF-2014, as well as fruitful discussion with the international team on “The diskmagnetosphere interaction around transitional millisecond pulsars” at ISSI (International Space Science Institute), Bern.


We thank Matias Zaldarriaga for useful discussions. US acknowledges support from NASA grant NNX15AL17G. ZV is supported in part by the U.S. Department of Energy contract to SLAC no. DE-AC02-76SF00515. IM is supported by Fermi Research Alliance, LLC under Contract No. De-AC02-07CH11359 with the United States Department of Energy.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge financial support from the national programs (PNP, PNPS, PCMI) of INSU, CNRS, CEA, and CNES, France. This project was partly supported by the IDEXLyon project (contract nANR-16-IDEX-0005) under the auspices University of Lyon. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 823823. This work has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement ERC advanced grant 740021-ARTHUS, PI: Thomas Buchert). We thank the referee for his constructive report. We have used mathematica (Wolfram Research 14 ).


Both BN and MS acknowledge the financial support and hospitality provided by the European Southern Observatory (ESO) through the award of an ESO studentship and visiting fellowship, respectively. EMC, EDB, LM, and AP acknowledge financial support from Padua University through grants DOR1699945/16, DOR1715817/17, DOR1885254/18, and BIRD164402/16.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. The authors would also like to thank referee Santiago García-Burillo, who provided valuable input and helped improve the condition of the publication.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Matthias Bartelmann for helpful comments on this analysis and for acting as the external blinder for the KiDS-450 data. We are also very grateful to Mike Jarvis for the treecorr correlation function measurement software and Martin Kilbinger for the nicaea theoretical modelling software. We are thankful to Vasiliy Demchenko, Naomi Robertson, Shahab Joudaki, Laura Jean Wells, and members of the KiDS consortium for useful discussions. We extend our gratitude to the anonymous referee for their comments which improved this paper. BG, CH, JHD, AA, MA, and TT acknowledge support from the European Research Council under grant number 647112. JHD also acknowledges support from the European Commission under a Marie-Sklodwoska-Curie European Fellowship (EU project 656869). LvW is supported by NSERC of Canada. HH is supported by an Emmy Noether grant (No. Hi 1495/2-1) of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. KK acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. PS acknowledges support from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in the framework of the TR33 ‘The Dark Universe’. TT acknowledges funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement number 797794. This KiDS data are based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 177.A-3016, 177.A-3017, and 177.A-3018. Computations for the SLICS N -body simulations (now publicly available; http://slics.roe.ac.uk ) were performed in part on the Orcinus supercomputer at the WestGrid High Performance Computing (HPC) Consortium ( www.westgrid.ca ), in part on the General Purpose Cluster supercomputer at the SciNet HPC Consortium. SciNet is funded by: the Canada Foundation for Innovation under the auspices of Compute Canada; the Government of Ontario; Ontario Research Fund – Research Excellence; and the University of Toronto. All authors contributed to the development and writing of this paper. The authorship list is given in three groups: the lead authors (BG, CH, JHD, and FS), followed by two alphabetical groups. The first alphabetical group includes those who are key contributors to both the scientific analysis and the data products. The second group covers those who have either made a significant contribution to the data products, or to the scientific analysis.


Acknowledgements We would like to thank J. D. Long for Python advice and the referee for comments that improved this paper. OCJ and MM acknowledge support from NASA grant, NNX14AN06G, for this work. The authors also acknowledge financial support from the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) Taiwan under grant MOST104-2628-M-001-004-MY3. IM and AAZ were funded by the Science and Technology Facilities Council under grant ST/L000768/1. The NASA Astrophysics and Data Analysis Program (Grant NNX13AE66G) supported GCS and the addition of high-resolution IRS spectra to CASSIS, the Combined Atlas of Sources with Spitzer IRS Spectra. Readers are referred to ApJS, 196, 8 (2011). BAS acknowledges support from NASA grants NNX13AD54G and NNX15AF15G. The work of MS was supported by the appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at Goddard Space Flight Center. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS, 143, 23 (2000). Facilities: Spitzer (IRS), Spitzer (MIPS), Spitzer (IRAC).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for their constructive comments that helped us improve the manuscript. DS acknowledges the hospitality of the IAC and a Severo Ochoa visiting grant. SS and JC acknowledge studentships from the Lancaster University. JM acknowledges a Huygens PhD fellowship from Leiden University. APA acknowledges financial support from the Science and Technology Foundation (FCT, Portugal) through research grants UID/FIS/04434/2013 and fellowship PD/BD/52706/2014. The authors thank Alyssa Drake, Kimihiko Nakajima, Yuichi Harikane, Max Gronke, Irene Shivaei, Helmut Dannerbauer, Huub Röttgering, Marius Eide, and Masami Ouchi for many engaging and stimulating discussions. We also thank Sara Perez, Alex Bennett, and Tom Rose for their involvement in the early stages of this project. Based on data products from observations made with European Southern Observatory (ESO) Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under ESO programme IDs 294.A-5018, 097.A-0943, 098.A-0819, 099.A-0254, and 179.A-2005 and on data products produced by terapix and the Cambridge Astronomy Survey Unit on behalf of the UltraVISTA consortium. Based on observations using the WFC on the 2.5 m INT, as part of programmes 2013AN002, 2013BN008, 2014AC88, 2014AN002, 2014BN006, 2014BC118, and 2016AN001. The INT is operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. This work is based in part on data products produced at terapix available at the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre as part of the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey (CFHTLS), a collaborative project of NRC and CNRS. We are grateful to the CFHTLS, COSMOS-UltraVISTA, and COSMOS survey teams. We are also unmeasurably thankful to the pioneering and continuous work from previous Ly α surveys’ teams. Without these previous Ly α and the wider reach legacy surveys, this research would have been impossible. We also thank the VUDS team for making available spectroscopic redshifts from data obtained with VIMOS at the European Southern Observatory Very Large Telescope, Paranal, Chile, under Large Programme 185.A-0791. Finally, the authors acknowledge the unique value of the publicly available programming language python , including the numpy and scipy (Van Der Walt, Colbert Varoquaux 2011 ; Jones et al. 2001 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), and the topcat analysis program (Taylor 2005 ). We publicly release a catalogue with all LAEs used in this paper (SC4K), so it can be freely explored by the community (see five example entries in Table A1 ).


The authors would like to sincerely thank an anonymous referee whose comments led to substantial improvements in the manuscript, Luc Arnold for discussions on the E-ELT capabilities, Franck Selsis for discussions on the thermal-IR emission of planets with an atmosphere during their day–night cycle, and Antoine Crouzier for different comments. A.L. and F.M. thank CNES for their continuous technical support regarding space interferometry, free flying, and high-precision astrometry, and the French POLCA project (ANR-10-BLAN-0511). O.A. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Program (ERC grant agreement No. 337569) and from the French Community of Belgium through an ARC grant for Concerted Research Action.


This work is based on the observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO programme 095.D-0343(A). We thank the anonymous referee for his/her very constructive comments to our manuscript. RPM acknowledges financial support from the project TElescopi CHErenkov made in Italy (TECHE).it. CRA 1.05.06.04.01 cap 1.05.08 for the project ‘Studio multi-lunghezze d'onda da stelle di neutroni con particolare riguardo alla emissione di altissima energia’. DGC acknowledges the financial support by CONICYT through a ‘Becas Chile’ fellowship no. 72150555.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for detailed, insightful, and thorough feedback that improved the quality of the manuscript. We would also like to thank Till Sawala for useful discussions and for providing the raw data used in Appendix C , and Roan Haggar for code-testing the public software. This research made use of numpy (van der Walt, Colbert Varoquaux 2011 ), scipy (Jones, Oliphant Peterson 2011 ) and matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ) and we thank their developers for making them freely available. ON was supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) through grant ST/N50404X/1 and MC, ARJ, and CSF were supported by STFC grant ST/L00075X/1. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grants ST/H008539/1 and ST/K00087X/1, STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1, and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure.


Acknowledgements SB is thankful to the anonymous referee for helpful comments that helped us improve some of the descriptions in this paper. SB is indebted to Sverre Aarseth of the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge, for his efforts in improving nbody6/7 , without which this study would not have been possible. SB is thankful to Sverre Aarseth also for reading the manuscript and providing improvement suggestions. SB is thankful to the computing team of the Argelander-Institut fr Astronomie, University of Bonn, for their efficient maintenance of the workstations on which all the computations have been performed.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Alis Deason for providing the properties of her modelled stellar haloes in electronic form. We acknowledge useful discussions with Antonela Monachesi, Kohei Hattori, Sarah Loebman, Monica Valluri, Ian Roederer, and Adam Smercina. We also would like to thank the Illustris simulations team, in particular Annalisa Pillepich, Vincent Rodrigues-Gomez, and Dylan Nelson.


We thank Bharat Kumar Yerra, Li Haining, Tan Kefeng, and Liu Yujuan for their constructive suggestions and discussions. This work is supported by the Astronomical Big Data Joint Research Center, co-founded by the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the Alibaba Cloud. This study is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant Nos. 11390371, 11233004, U1431106, 11573035, 11625313, and 11603033, the National Key Basic Research Program of China (973 program), 2014CB845701 and 2014CB845703, and JSPS—CAS Joint Research Program. W.A. is partially supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant No. 16H02168.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the referee for valuable comments. EK thanks K. É. Gabányi and S. Frey for discussions on the topic. This work was supported by the Hungarian National Research Development and Innovation Office (NKFIH) in the form of the grant 123996, and it was based upon work from the COST action CA15117 (CANTATA), supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology). This research has made use of data from the OVRO 40-m monitoring programme (Richards et al. 2011 ), which is supported in part by NASA grants NNX08AW31G, NNX11A043G and NNX14AQ89G and NSF grants AST-0808050 and AST-1109911. This research has made use of data from the MOJAVE data base, which is maintained by the MOJAVE team (Lister et al. 2009a ). The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.


We thank the anonymous referee for the comments and suggestions that improved this paper. We acknowledge Vladimir Avila-Reese, Xavier Hernandez, Manuel Peimbert and Liliana Hernández-Martínez, for helpful suggestions. LC thanks for the financial supports provided by CONACyT of México (grant 241732), by PAPIIT of México (IG110115, IA100815, IA101315) and by MINECO of Spain (AYA2010-16717). NA-V thanks for the financial support provided by Universidad Iberoamericana.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the anonymous referee for constructive feedback that improved the manuscript. We wish to sincerely thank all the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, SMA, JCMT, and IRAM NOEMA staff that supported us during this observing campaign. The authors also offer a special thanks to the IRAM NOEMA Director, Karl-Fredrich Schuster, for granting our NOEMA DDT request. AJT thanks Craig Heinke and Bailey Tetarenko for useful discussions on accretion disc contributions in broad-band spectra of X-ray binaries. AJT is supported by an Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Post-Graduate Doctoral Scholarship (PGSD2-490318-2016). AJT and GRS are supported by NSERC Discovery Grants. JCAMJ is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT140101082). SBM acknowledges support from VICI grant Nr. 639.043.513/520, funded by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO). TDR acknowledges support from the NWO Veni Fellowship, grant number 639.041.646. DA acknowledges support from the Royal Society. This work is based on observations carried out under project numbers S15DE and D15AB with the IRAM NOEMA Interferometer. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. We thank the engineers and staff of the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory for maintenance and operation of AMI, which is supported by the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford. The AMI telescope acknowledges support from the European Research Council under grant ERC-2012-StG-307215 LODESTONE. The SMA is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. The JCMT is operated by the East Asian Observatory on behalf of The National Astronomical Observatory of Japan; Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics; the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute; the Operation, Maintenance and Upgrading Fund for Astronomical Telescopes and Facility Instruments, budgeted from the Ministry of Finance (MoF) of China and administrated by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), as well as the National Key RD Program of China (No. 2017YFA0402700). Additional funding support is provided by the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom and participating universities in the United Kingdom and Canada. The authors also wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. We acknowledge with thanks the variable star observations from the AAVSO International Database contributed by observers worldwide and used in this research.


The authors thank Prateek Sharma for useful discussions. SC gratefully acknowledges financial support received through the INSPIRE faculty fellowship (DST/INSPIRE/04/2013/000365) awarded by Department of Science and Technology (Government of India).


We are grateful to the anonymous referee for constructive comments leading to significant improvement of this paper. We thank the financial support of the Key Research Program of the CAS (grant No. KJZD-EW-M06), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC; grant No. 11433004), and the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (2016YFA0400700). We also thank the financial support of the NSFC (grant No. 11273052), and the Youth Innovation Promotion Association, CAS. We also acknowledge the support of the staff of the Lijiang 2.4 m telescope. Funding for this telescope has been provided by the CAS and the People’s Government of Yunnan Province.


We thank everyone who offered their help to this work, including Matthew Miller, Edmund Hodges-Kluck, Zhijie Qu, and our anonymous referee, whose comments helped to improve this work. Special thanks also go to Eric Peng for the computational resources he provided. This research is funded by the China Scholarship Council, NASA ADAP grant NNX16AF23G, and the Department of Astronomy at the University of Michigan, who we also thank for their hospitality. Software: AtomDB (Foster et al. 2012 ), emcee (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013 ).


We are grateful to Ivan Marti-Vidal and the Nordic ALMA Regional Center for providing us with helpful CASA software tools and advice on analyzing the data. We appreciate Tohru Nagao, Jeremy Blaizot, Peter Mitchell, Takashi Kojima, Shiro Mukae, Yuichi Harikane, Akio Inoue, and Rieko Momose for useful comments and suggestions. We are indebted for the support of the staff at the ALMA Regional Center. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO, ALMA #2013.1.00815.S, #2015.1.00834.S, #2015.1.01111.S, #2015.1.01105, #2016.1.01240.S, #2012.1.00523.S, and #2012.1.00602.S. ALMA is a partnership of the ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by the ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. This study is supported by World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI Initiative), MEXT, Japan, and KAKENHI (15H02064, 16J02344, 17H01110, 17H01111, and 17H01114) Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A) through the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), the Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellow, the NAOJ ALMA Scientific Research grant No. 2017-06B, and the Munich Institute for Astro- and Particle Physics (MIAPP) of the DFG cluster of excellence “Origin and Structure of the Universe.” S.F. is supported by the ALMA Japan Research Grant of NAOJ Chile Observatory NAOJ-ALMA-197, The 2018 Graduate Research Abroad in Science Program Grant (GRASP2018), and the Hayakawa Satio Fund awarded by the Astronomical Society of Japan. A.F. and R.J.I. acknowledge support from the ERC Advanced Grant INTERSTELLAR H2020/740120 and COSMIC ISM 321302, respectively.


We thank the referee for the comments and suggestions to improve the presentation of our results. The work of L.B., C.E., and C.F. was partially funded under the auspices of the U.S. Dept. of Energy and supported by contract W-7405-ENG-36 to Los Alamos National Laboratory. Simulations at LANL were performed on HPC resources provided under the Institutional Computing program.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by XSEDE computing grants TG-AST190001 and TG-AST180052 and the Stampede2 supercomputer at the Texas Advanced Computing Center. KSSB was supported by a Porat Postdoctoral Fellowship at Stanford University.


Acknowledgements We are grateful to Ski Antonucci, Edi Bon, Xiao-Bo Dong, Wen-Juan Liu, Bill Mathews, and Victor Oknyansky for extensive comments on the paper. We also wish to thank the anonymous referee for numerous helpful comments that have improved the paper.


We acknowledge the support from a 985 project at Peking University. L.J., S.C., and E.E. also acknowledge the support from NASA through awards issued by STScI ( HST PID: 11149,12329,12616) and by JPL/Caltech ( Spitzer PID: 40026,70094). We would like to thank R. Ryan for his advice on IRAC photometry and using iGALFIT . We also thank J. Rhoads and Z. Zheng for their insightful comments, and thank P. Madau and P. A. Oesch for providing us with the data used for Figures 10 and 12 . Facilities: HST (NICMOS,WFC3) , Spitzer (IRAC) , Subaru (Suprime-Cam) .


I would like to thank Frank Postberg, Nicolas Altobelli, and Mario Trieloff for stimulating discussions on the composition of dust in the Local Cloud. I also thank Martin Hilchenbach, Harald Krüger, and Thomas Albin for their hospitality during my stay at Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research (MPS), where much of the writing was performed. Special thanks go to an anonymous reviewer who made careful reading and provided useful comments and suggestions. I am grateful to MPS's research fellowship and financial support for my travel expense to MPS as well as to JSPS's Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (#26400230). This research has made use of the SIMBAD data base, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.


MG and PKB are funded by Science and Technology Facilities Council (UK), grant ST/P000428/1. Simulations have been performed using the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility.


V.V.G. and J.C. acknowledge support from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant No. 15XRP15_20140 issued through the Exoplanets Research Program. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA# 2012.1.00681.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ.


Authors thank the anonymous referee for the helpful comments. This work is partially supported by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie through the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR) under the grant numbers 50 OG 1301, 50 OR 1310.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are sincerely grateful to the referee for constructive and valuable suggestions and comments, which help us improve the manuscript. We thank the Square Kilometre Array Regional Center prototype developed by Shanghai Astronomical Observatory for providing us with computing resources. We acknowledge the support of Astronomical Information Technology Group and Public Technology Service Center, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences (NAOC); this work was supported by High Performance Computing Cluster of NAOC. This work was supported by the National Key RD Programme of China (grant no. 2018YFA0404600), the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no. XDB23010300), and the Key Projects of Frontier Science of Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no. QYZDY-SSW-SLH022).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Gravitational Wave Discovery (OzGrav), through project number CE170100004. EJH acknowledges support from an Australian Research Council DECRA Fellowship (DE170100891). The authors gratefully thank Raymond Frey (University of Oregon), the assigned reviewer for the LIGO Scientific Collaboration, for conducting a thorough review of the manuscript that included a number of insightful suggestions. We are also particularly grateful to Giulia Stratta (INAF/OAS), who provided some useful comments to improve the manuscript. We also thank Aaron Tohuvavohu of the Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory ( Swift ) for useful discussions on the follow-up capabilities of Swift . Finally, we thank the anonymous referee for a thorough reading of the manuscript and for providing a number of erudite suggestions that have enriched the paper. This paper has LIGO document ID P1800322.


Acknowledgements The authors thank Elena Lega and Bertram Bitsch for an extremely careful reading of a first draft of this manuscript, and for constructive feedback. MAJ acknowledges financial support from a UNAM DGAPA fellowship. The simulations presented in this work were run on a GPU cluster acquired with CONACyT's grant 178377. The authors acknowledge support from UNAM's grant PAPIIT IN101616.


We thank K. Dalmasse, S. Guidoni, A. Higginson, S. Masson, and K. Muglach for illuminating discussions and helpful suggestions, and we greatly appreciate J. Karpen's contribution of the artwork shown in Figure 1 . K.J.K. acknowledges support for this work by a cooperative agreement between the Catholic University of America and the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, as well as additional funding received through the NASA Earth and Space Science Fellowship program. The participation of S.KA. and C.R.D. was sponsored by NASA's Heliophysics Theory and Supporting Research programs. The numerical simulations were supported by a grant of NASA High End Computing resources to C.R.D.


The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee who provided a variety of insightful comments that helped to strengthen and clarify the results presented here.


Acknowledgments We thank Georges Meynet for improving the paper as a referee. We also thank Zoltn Haiman, Takashi Hosokawa, Sylvia Ekstrm and Tilman Hartwig for useful discussions. This work is partially supported by the Simons Foundation through the Simons Society of Fellows (KI), Flatiron Fellowship (KH), by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) research fellowship for young scientists (RH, No. 16J07613) and by JSPS KAKENHI Grant (TK, No. JP16818962).


We thank Adam Ingram and Guglielmo Mastroserio for kindly providing the most recent reltrans model and for discussions on implementing it. B.M.C. and E.M.C. gratefully acknowledge support through NSF CAREER award No. AST-1351222. Software: XSPEC (v12.9.1; Arnaud 1996 ), reltrans (Mastroserio et al. 2018 , 2019 ; Ingram et al. 2019 ).


We thank the anonymous referee for the careful reading of the manuscript and for the helpful comments. Based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 188.B-3002. These data products have been processed by the Cambridge Astronomy Survey Unit (CASU) at the Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, and by the FLAMES/UVES reduction team at INAF/Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri. These data have been obtained from the Gaia -ESO Survey Data Archive, prepared and hosted by the Wide Field Astronomy Unit, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, which is funded by the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 programme through ERC grant number 320360 and by the Leverhulme Trust through grant RPG-2012-541. We acknowledge the support from INAF and Ministero dell’ Istruzione, dell’ Università’ e della Ricerca (MIUR) in the form of the grant “Premiale VLT 2012”. The results presented here benefit from discussions held during the Gaia -ESO workshops and conferences supported by the ESF (European Science Foundation) through the GREAT Research Network Programme. M.M. acknowledges financial support from the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR) through grant FIRB 2012 RBFR12PM1F, from INAF through grant PRIN-2011-1 and from CONACyT through grant 169554. The authors acknowledge the CINECA Award N. HP10B3BJEW, HP10CLI3BX, HP10CXB7O8, HP10C894X7, HP10CGUBV0, HP10CP6XSO and HP10C3ANJY for the availability of high performance computing resources and support.


We thank David Marsh for stimulating discussions. This work is supported in part by the National Science Council of Taiwan under the grant MOST 103-2112-M-002-020-MY3.


We warmly thank an anonymous referee for comments that helped improve the presentation of our results and Vincent Bouillot, Ravi Sheth, Andrea Lapi, Luigi Danese and Ignacio Trujillo for useful discussions.


The authors thank J. Mauerhan for sharing his late-time spectra of SN 2013ej and S. Valenti for sharing his photometry of SN 2013by. CSB's research is supported in part by a Fellowship from Dartmouth’s School of Graduate and Advanced Studies. This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5 meter Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. Archival observations of SNe were downloaded from the Open Supernova Catalog ( https://sne.space/ ).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to an anonymous referee for valuable comments that helped to improve the manuscript. They also thank V. Afanasiev and R. Uklein for a collaboration. The observations at the 6-meter BTA telescope were carried out with the financial support of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (agreement No. 14.619.21.0004, project ID RFMEFI61914X0004). The reduction of the spectral data were supported by The Russian Science Foundation (RSCF) grant No. 17-72-20119. The estimate of the metallicity and its interpretaion were supported by Russian Foundation for Basic Research grant No. 18-32-20120. The authors acknowledge the usage of the HyperLeda database ( http://leda.univ-lyon1.fr ). Authors acknowledge the support from the Leading Scientific School in astrophysics (direction: extragalactic astronomy) at Moscow State University. Funding for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. SDSS-IV acknowledges support and resources from the Center for High-Performance Computing at the University of Utah. The SDSS web site is www.sdss.org . SDSS-IV is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU) / University of Tokyo, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Leibniz Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik (MPA Garching), Max-Planck-Institut für Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), National Astronomical Observatories of China, New Mexico State University, New York University, University of Notre Dame, Observatário Nacional/MCTI, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, University of Arizona, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford, University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and Yale University.


It is a pleasure to thank Jerry Sellwood, Barbara Pichardo and Jonathan Bird for helpful discussions during the course of this work. We thank the anonymous referee for comments which strengthened the discussion in this paper. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under grant no. DGE-1232825 and National Science Foundation Grants AST-0908326 and OIA-1124403.


H.D. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under the 2014 Ramón y Cajal program MINECO RYC-2014-15686. J.L.W. acknowledges support from an STFC Ernest Rutherford Fellowship. D.R. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under grant number AST-1614213. G.D.Z. acknowledges support from ASI/INAF agreement n. 2014-024-R.1. We pay special thanks to the useful feedback provided on the draft version of this work to D. Farrah, J. Greenslade, M. J. Michalowski, and I. Valtchanov. This research has made use of data from Her MES project ( http://hermes.sussex.ac.uk/ ). Her MES is a Herschel Key Programme utilizing Guaranteed Time from the SPIRE instrument team, ESAC scientists and a mission scientist. The H -ATLAS is a project with Herschel , which is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. The H -ATLAS website is http://www.h-atlas.org . US participants in H -ATLAS acknowledge support from NASA through a contract from JPL. This publication is based on data acquired with the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX). APEX is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, the European Southern Observatory, and the Onsala Space Observatory. Based on observations made with APEX under European Southern Observatory program E-191.A-0748 and Max Planck Institute (MPI) programs M-090.F-0025-2012, M-091.F-0021-2013 and M-092.F-0015-2013. Facilities: APEX , Herschel .


Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the referee and the editor for careful reading and comments, which significantly improved this paper.


R.L. thanks Andrew Wetzler, Wen-fai Fong, Mark Sullivan, Dan Milisavljevic, Giorgos Leloudas, Jesper Sollerman, and Ryan Chornock for useful discussions and acknowledges helpful interactions with Lars Bildsten, Eliot Quataert, and Dan Kasen at a PTF Theory Network retreat funded by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation through Grant GBMF5076. We thank J. Silverman, B. Dilday, J. Bloom, B. Sesar, D. Levitan, P. Groot, D. Perley, A. Horesh, K. Mooley, and D. Xu for assisting with the observations presented in this paper. The Intermediate Palomar Transient Factory project is a scientific collaboration among the California Institute of Technology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, the Oskar Klein Center, the Weizmann Institute of Science, the TANGO Program of the University System of Taiwan, and the Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe. Support for HST Program GO-13864 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. We thank F. Yuan, M. Sullivan, D. Perley, R. M. Quimby, and S. B. Cenko for their contributions to the HST proposal. This work was supported by the GROWTH project funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant 1545949. The National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, which is supported by the Office of Science of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231, provided staff, computational resources, and data storage for this project. A.G.-Y. is supported by the EU/FP7 via ERC grant No. 307260, the Quantum Universe I-Core program by the Israeli Committee for planning and funding, and the ISF, Minerva and ISF grants, WIS-UK “making connections,” and Kimmel and YeS awards. A.V.F. is grateful for financial support from the Christopher R. Redlich Fund, the TABASGO Foundation, and NSF grant AST-1211916. D.A.H. and C.M. are supported by NSF grant AST-313484. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Facilities: PO:1.2m, PO:1.5m, PO:Hale, Keck:I, Keck:II, Subaru, HST .


We thank the GMRT staff who have made these observations possible. The GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. N.K. acknowledges support from the Department of Science and Technology via a Swarnajayanti Fellowship (DST/SJF/PSA-01/2012-13). A.B. thanks Jayaram Chengalur and Prasun Dutta for useful discussions. We thank Mark Krumholz for discussions and much advice about the application of his model to our results, and an anonymous referee for detailed comments and suggestions on an earlier version of the manuscript.


This project is financed by the SoMoPro II programme (3SGA5916). The research leading to these results received a financial grant from the People Programme (Marie Curie action) of the Seventh Framework Programme of the EU according to REA Grant Agreement No. 291782. The research is further co-financed by the South-Moravian Region. It was also supported by grant 7AMB14AT015 and the financial contributions of the Austrian Agency for International Cooperation in Education and Research (BG-03/2013 and CZ-09/2014). We thank the referee, Luca Fossati, for helpful comments and suggestions that helped to improve the paper. This work reflects only the author’s views so the European Union is not liable for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.


Acknowledgments TS acknowledges financial support from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) under grant numbers JSPS23103002, JSPS24253004 and JSPS26247023. NK is supported by Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Fellows. The MOA project is supported by JSPS grants JSPS25103508 and JSPS23340064 and by the Royal Society of New Zealand Marsden Grant MAU1104. NJR acknowledges the contribution of NeSI high-performance computing facilities to the results of this research. New Zealands national facilities are provided by the NZ eScience Infrastructure and funded jointly by NeSIs collaborator institutions and through the Ministry of Business, Innovation Employments Research Infrastructure programme ( https://www.nesi.org.nz ). The OGLE team thanks Prof. M. Kubiak and G. Pietrzyski, former members of the OGLE team, for their contribution to the collection of the OGLE photometric data over the past years. The OGLE project has received funding from the National Science Centre, Poland, grant MAESTRO 2014/14/A/ST9/00121 to AU. The Danish 1.54m telescope is operated based on a grant from the Danish Natural Science Foundation (FNU). The MiNDSTEp monitoring campaign is powered by ARTEMiS (Automated Terrestrial Exoplanet Microlensing Search; Dominik etal. 2008 ). This publication was made possible by NPRP grant nos. X-019-1-006 and 09-467-1-078 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). KH acknowledges support from STFC grant ST/M001296/1. GD acknowledges Regione Campania for support from POR-FSE Campania 2014-2020. TCH acknowledges support from the Korea Research Council of Fundamental Science Technology (KRCF) via the KRCF Young Scientist Research Fellowship Programme and for financial support from KASI travel grant number 2014-1-400-06. JS acknowledges support from the Communaut franaise de Belgique - Actions de recherche concertes - Acadmie Wallonie-Europe. This work has made extensive use of the ADS service, for which we are thankful. This work makes use of observations from the LCOGT network, which includes three SUPAscopes owned by the University of St Andrews. The RoboNET programme is an LCOGT Key Project using time allocations from the University of St Andrews, LCOGT and the University of Heidelberg together with time on the Liverpool Telescope through the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), UK. This research has made use of the LCOGT Archive, which is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the Las Cumbres Observatory. The authors thank Matthew Penny for his comments on this manuscript.


This work made use of data from the NuSTAR mission, a project led by the California Institute of Technology, managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We thank the NuSTAR Operations, Software and Calibration teams for support with the execution and analysis of these observations. This research has made use of the NuSTAR Data Analysis Software (NuSTARDAS) jointly developed by the ASI Science Data Center (ASDC, Italy) and the California Institute of Technology (USA). Data from Chandra were also used, and the work on serendipitous NuSTAR sources is partially funded by Chandra grants GO5-16154X and GO6-17135X. This work has made use of data from the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia , processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. This research had made use of the SIMBAD database and the VizieR catalog access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France as well as the VISTA and WISE databases and publicly available images from PanSTARRS, SDSS, and IPHAS.


Acknowledgments The author gratefully acknowledges support from the ECOGAL project, grant agreement 291227, funded by the European Research Council under ERC-2011-ADG, and warmly thanks David Armstrong, Andrew Collier-Cameron, Ian Dobbs-Dixon, David Kipping, Joe Llama, Annelies Mortier and Hugh Osborn for stimulating discussions, and Tyler Robinson for an insightful review of this manuscript. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System bibliographic services.


This work made use of pyke (Still Barclay 2012 ), a software package for the reduction and analysis of Kepler data. This open source software project is developed and distributed by the NASA Kepler Guest Observer Office. Part of this work is based on observations obtained with the HERMES spectrograph, which is supported by the Fund for Scientific Research of Flanders (FWO), Belgium, the Research Council of K.U. Leuven, Belgium, the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique (F.R.S.-FNRS), Belgium, the Royal Observatory of Belgium, the Observatoire de Genée, Switzerland, and the TLS, Germany. Calculations have been carried out in Wrocław Centre for Networking and Supercomputing ( http://www.wcss.pl ), grant no. 214. EN acknowledges support from the NCN grant no. 2014/13/B/ST9/00902. SJM acknowledges research support by the Australian Research Council. Funding for the Stellar Astrophysics Centre is provided by the Danish National Research Foundation (grant agreement no.: DNRF106). The research is supported by the ASTERISK project (ASTERoseismic Investigations with SONG and Kepler) funded by the European Research Council (grant agreement no.: 267864). MSC is supported by FCT through research grant UID/FIS/04434/2013 and through the Investigador FCT contract of reference IF/00894/2012 and POPH/FSE (EC) by FEDER funding through the programme COMPETE. Funds for this work were provided also by the EC, under FP7, through the project FP7-SPACE-2012-31284. LAB wishes to thank the National Research Foundation of South Africa for financial support. MB is F.R.S.-FNRS Postdoctoral Researcher, Belgium. AOT acknowledges support from Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (subprojects A4 and A5) of the German Research Foundation (DFG).


We thank the referee for his/her very helpful comments/suggestions on the manuscript. This work is supported by the NSFC (grants 11233006 and 11220101002), the Strategic Priority Research Program “The Emergence of Cosmological Structures” of CAS (grant No. XDB09000000), and Shanghai Municipality.


X.L. and J.Z. appreciate useful input from Maxim Lyutikov, in particular the suggestion to simplify the description of FFE eigenmodes by using the temporal gauge. A.M.B. is supported by NASA grant NNX17AK37G and a grant from the Simons Foundation No. 446228.


The authors thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments on the paper. MIS wants to thank Frank Verbunt, Chris Tout, Elliot Lynch, Avishai Gilkis, and Glenn-Michael Oomen for the science discussions during the development of this project.


We are grateful to the anonymous referee for useful suggestions. This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation (project no. 14-50-00034). The theoretical investigation was carried out in the Ussuriisk Astrophysical Observatory and the numerical calculations in the Far Eastern Federal University.


Acknowledgements This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.00296.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada) and NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan) and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, auI/NRAO, and NAOJ. This work was supported by the National Programs PCMI and PNPS from INSU-CNRS. DS acknowledges support from the Heidelberg Institute of Theoretical Studies for the project “Chemical kinetics models and visualization tools: Bridging biology and astronomy”. DF and CF acknowledge support from the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research, project SIR (RBSI14ZRHR). This research made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. The figures in this paper were constructed with the MATPLOTLIB package ( Hunter 2007 ) and APLPY package hosted at http://aplpy.github.io .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is supported by a Marsden Grant from the Royal Society of New Zealand (AFM). JMDK gratefully acknowledges funding from the German Research Foundation (DFG) in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group (grant number KR4801/1-1) and from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the ERC Starting Grant MUSTANG (grant agreement number 714907). We thank M. Krumholz, P. Crowther, and S. Glover for the useful discussions. This research made use of astropy , a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2018), as well as Astrodendro, a python package to compute dendrograms of Astronomical data ( http://www.dendrograms.org/ ), pyspeckit (Ginsburg Mirocha 2011 ), and Spectral Cube ( https://spectral-cube.readthedocs.io/ ).


O.M. acknowledges support from CNES. This work has been partly carried out thanks to the support of the A*MIDEX project (n° ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) funded by the “Investissements d’Avenir” French Government program, managed by the French National Research Agency (A.N.R.). This work also benefited from the support of CNRS-INSU national program for planetology (P.N.P.). J.I.L. appreciates support from NASA through the JWST project. A.L.-K. acknowledges support from NASA JPL (subcontract no. 1496541).


Acknowledgments This work has been supported by Narodowe Centrum Nauki through research projects DEC-2011/01/B/ST9/03183 (JN) and DEC-2013/10/E/ST9/00662 (OK, JN and AB). MP acknowledges support through grant PO 1508/1-2 of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. The numerical experiment was possible through a 7 Mcore-hour allocation on the 2.399 PFlop Prometheus system at ACC Cyfronet AGH. Part of the numerical work was conducted on resources provided by the North-German Supercomputing Alliance (HLRN) under project bbp00003 and also at the Pleiades facility at the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS).


We thank the anonymous referee for the constructive comments that helped us to improve the manuscript and the vertical reconstruction procedure. This work was supported by RFBR grant 17-02-00644. The simulations were performed on the Vienna Scientific Cluster (VSC-2), on the Shared Hierarchical Academic Research Computing Network (SHARCNET), on the Atlantic Computational Excellence Network (ACEnet). This publication is supported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I acknowledge computing time awarded at CDAC National Param supercomputing facility, India, under the grant ‘Hydromagnetic-Turbulence-PR’ and the use of ‘Nova’ cluster at IIA. I also thank the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) of the Department of Science Technology (DST), Government of India, for support through research grant ECR/2017/001535. It is a pleasure to thank Kandaswamy Subramanian for insightful discussions on decaying (M)HD turbulence and for his comments on the manuscript. I also thank the anonymous referee for a timely and and constructive report that helped to improve the quality of the paper. The software used in this work was in part developed by the DOE NNSA-ASC OASCR Flash Center at the University of Chicago.