We thank the referee for his/her helpful comments/suggestions that have improved this Letter. We thank K. Maguire, X-F. Wang for useful discussions. Y-Z.C is supported by the China Scholarship Council (No. 201606040170). KM and SJP are supported by H2020 ERC grant no. 758638. MF is supported by a Royal Society - Science Foundation Ireland University Research Fellowship. SB and AF are partially supported by PRIN-INAF 2017 of Toward the SKA and CTA era: discovery, localization, and physics of transient sources.(PI: M. Giroletti). T.R. acknowledges the financial support of the Jenny and Antti Wihuri and the Vilho, Yrjö and Kalle Väisälä foundations. AR acknowledges financial support by the “Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS)” of the Iniciativa Cientìfica Milenio. CG acknowledges support by the VILLUM FONDEN research grant (project number 00025501) and Investigator grant (project number 16599). MG is supported by the Polish NCN MAESTRO grant 2014/14/A/ST9/00121. FO acknowledges the support of the H2020 Hemera program, grant agreement No 730970. The Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT), operated by the NOT Scientific Association at the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. Observations from the NOT were obtained through the NUTS1 and NUTS2 collaboration which are supported in part by the Instrument Centre for Danish Astrophysics (IDA). The data presented here were obtained (in part) with ALFOSC, which is provided by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA) under a joint agreement with the University of Copenhagen and NOTSA. The Liverpool Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. Based on observations made with the GTC telescope in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofssica de Canarias, under Director’s Discretionary Time (GTC2019-127; PI: A. Morales-Garoffolo). This research makes use of Lasair data ( https://lasair.roe.ac.uk/ ), which is supported by the UKRI Science and Technology Facilities Council and is a collaboration between the University of Edinburgh (grant ST/N002512/1) and Queen’s University Belfast (grant ST/N002520/1) within the LSST:UK Science Consortium. IRAF is written and supported by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories (NOAO) in Tucson, Arizona. NOAO is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), Inc. under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. SNOoPy is a package developed by E. Cappellaro which performs photometry of point-like sources in complex environments using PSF-fitting and template subtraction methods. A package description can be found at http://sngroup.oapd.inaf.it/snoopy.html .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS GO acknowledges the constructive comments from the referees helped to greatly improve this Letter and thanks Oliver Hahn and Frank van den Bosch for careful reading of the draft. GO was supported by funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research andinnovation programme (grant agreement No. 679145, project ‘COSMO-SIMS’).


This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the participating institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration, including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. Part of this work is based on archival data, software, or online services provided by the ASI Science Data Center. The NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. TOPCAT 14 14 http://www.star.bris.ac.uk/mbt/topcat/ (Taylor 2005 ) was used for the preparation and manipulation of the tabular data and the images. F. M. gratefully acknowledges the financial support of the Programma Giovani Ricercatori—Rita Levi Montalcini—Rientro dei Cervelli (2012) awarded by the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR).


The author acknowledges NSF grant AGS1550566 to the University of Maryland, and the BK21 plus program from the National Research Foundation (NRF), Korea, to Kyung Hee University. He also acknowledges the Science Award Grant from GFT Inc. to the University of Maryland.


An anonymous referee made challenging yet stimulating comments which resulted in substantial improvements in the paper. This work presents results from the European Space Agency (ESA) space mission Gaia . Gaia data are being processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC is provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia MultiLateral Agreement (MLA). The Gaia mission website is https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia . The Gaia archive website is https://archives.esac.esa.int/gaia . This research makes use of the SIMBAD database and the Vizier catalog service, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. We also make heavy use of R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria ( http://www.R-project.org/ ).


We thank the referee for valuable comments that prompted improvements in the manuscript. We thank Markus Böttcher, Dominique Sluse, Tommaso Treu, and Jabran Zahid for the valuable comments on the manuscript. A.B. is supported by the Department of Energy Office of Science, NASA, and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory with financial support from the NCN grant DEC-2011/01/M/ST9/01891. M.J.G. is supported by the Smithsonian Institution.


The SAMI Galaxy Survey is based on observations made at the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The SAMI was developed jointly by the University of Sydney and the Australian Astronomical Observatory. The SAMI input catalogue is based on data taken from the SDSS, the GAMA Survey and the VST ATLAS Survey. The SAMI Galaxy Survey is funded by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020, and other participating institutions. The SAMI Galaxy Survey website is http://sami-survey.org/ . GAMA is a joint European-Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the AAT. The GAMA input catalogue is based on data taken from the SDSS and the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is being obtained by a number of independent survey programs including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE , Herschel -ATLAS, GMRT ASKAP providing UV to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA website is http://www.gama-survey.org/ . SMC acknowledges the support of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT100100457). LC acknowledges financial support from the Australian Research Council (DP130100664). SB acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship (FT140101166). MSO acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship Fellowship (FT140100255).


The authors would like to thank S. Cabrit for stimulating discussions, G. Sandell for help with scheduling the observations, and the referee for valuable comments that helped improving the clarity of the paper. Submillimeter astronomy in Copenhagen is supported by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 646908) through ERC Consolidator Grant “S4F”. Research at the Centre for Star and Planet Formation is funded by the Danish National Research Foundation. J.C.M. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the European Community’s Horizon 2020 framework program (20142020) via the ERC Consolidator grant “From Cloud to Star Formation (CSF)” (project number 648505). A.K. acknowledges support from the Polish National Science Center grants 2013/11/N/ST9/00400 and 2016/21/D/ST9/01098. Based on observations made with the NASA/DLR Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). SOFIA is jointly operated by the Universities Space Research Association, Inc. (USRA), under NASA contract NAS2-97001, and the Deutsches SOFIA Institut (DSI) under DLR contract 50 OK 0901 to the University of Stuttgart.


The SDO/AIA images are available courtesy of NASA/SDO and the AIA science teams. This work made extensive use of the AIA archive at MEDOC, http://medoc-sdo.ias.u-psud.fr .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with NASA. We gratefully thank the staff of the Palomar Observatory and Frank Loya for their assistance, and the referee for many questions that led to an improved paper.


This work is based on data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. This collaboration was partially supported by funding from the Laboratoire Lagrange 2015 BQR. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS, 143, 23. This work was supported in part by NASA grants NNX13AE91G and NNX16AB97G. Computational time at the Texas Advanced Computing Center was provided through XSEDE allocation TG-AST090107. D.S. and R.A.G. acknowledge the financial support from the CNES GOLF grants. D.S. acknowledges the Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur for support during his stays. Some of these computations have been done on the “Mesocentre SIGAMM” machine, hosted by the Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur. The authors wish to thank Sylvain Korzennik for his very careful reading of the paper and valuable suggestions for improving the presentation and the scientific arguments.


We thank the anonymous referee for the valuable comments. This work has been supported by PRIN-MIUR 2010-2011 (Chemical and dynamical evolution of the Milky Way and Local Group galaxies, PI F. Matteucci) and PRIN-INAF 2012 (The M4 Core Project with Hubble Space Telescope, PI L. Bedin).


We thank William Gray, Christopher Matzner, Prateek Sharma, and Robert Thacker for helpful discussions and the anonymous referee for comments. S.S. and E.S. were supported by the National Science Foundation grant AST11-03608 and NASA theory grants NNX09AD106 and NNX15AK82G. E.S. gratefully acknowledges the Simons Foundation for funding the workshop Galactic Winds: Beyond Phenomenology which helped to inspire this work. He also gratefully acknowledges Joanne Cohn, Eliot Quataert, and the UC Berkeley Theoretical Astronomy Center, and Uroš Seljak and the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab Cosmology group for hosting him during the period when much of this work was carried out. Part of this research was carried out during the visit of E.S. and E.C.O. at the KITP in UC Santa Barbara, which is supported by the National Science Foundation under grant PHY-1125915. The work of E.C.O. on this project was supported by the National Science Foundation under grant AST-1312006. The authors thank the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC) at The University of Texas at Austin (URL: http://www.tacc.utexas.edu ) and the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE) for providing HPC resources via grant TG-AST140004 that have contributed to the results reported within this paper. The FLASH code is developed in part by the DOE-supported Alliances Center for Astrophysical Thermonuclear Flashes (ASC) at the University of Chicago.


Acknowledgments The authors have benefited from many inspiring discussions with Hlne Curtois, Noam Libeskind and Brent Tully. We also like to thank the anonymous referee for their constructive report that helped to increase the quality of this work. The hospitality of the Technion Israel Institute of Technology enjoyed by WAH, MF and MB at the early stages of this project is warmly acknowledged. WAH acknowledges support from European Research Council (grant number 646702 CosTesGrav). WAH and MB were also supported by the Polish National Science Center under contract #UMO-2012/07/D/ST9/02785. This research was supported by the I-CORE Program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee, THE ISRAEL SCIENCE FOUNDATION (grant Nos. 1829/12 and 203/09) and the Asher Space Research Institute. MF acknowledges support through the Grant Spin(e) ANR-13-BS05-0005 of the French National Research Agency.


We thank Maxim Makukov, Chingis Omarov, Emmanuil Y. Vilkoviskij and Ari Laor for valuable comments, discussion, support and supervision. We also thank the anonymous referee for useful comments and suggestions. This work has benefitted very much from funding of exchange and collaboration between Germany and Kazakhstan by Volkswagen Foundation under the project ‘STARDISK – Simulating Dense Star-Gas Systems in Galactic Nuclei using special hardware’ (I/81 396). GRAPE and GPU hardware at Fesenkov Astrophysical Institute in Kazakhstan used for this work have been supported by the STARDISK project too. We acknowledge support from the Strategic Priority Research Program ‘The Emergence of Cosmological Structure’ of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. XDB09000000) (Pilot B programme). We acknowledge support by Chinese Academy of Sciences through the Silk Road Project at NAOC, through the Chinese Academy of Sciences Visiting Professorship for Senior International Scientists, Grant Number 2009S1-5 (RS), and through the ‘Qianren’ special foreign experts programme of China. RS has also been partially supported by NSFC (National Natural Science Foundation of China), grant no. 11073025. GK acknowledges a Chinese Academy of Sciences Young International Postdoctoral Fellowship Grant No. 2011Y2JB09. YM acknowledges support from the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation through grant no. 2015T80011 and from excellence initiative at the University of Heidelberg, through mobility measures for international research collaborations project no. 7.1.47, and the European Research Council under the European Union's Horizon 2020 Programme, ERC-2014-STG grant GalNUC 638435. PB acknowledges the special support by the NASU under the Main Astronomical Observatory GRID/GPU computing cluster project. The special GPU accelerated supercomputer laohu at the Center of Information and Computing at National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, funded by Ministry of Finance of People's Republic of China under the grant ZDYZ2008-2, has been used for some of the largest simulations. We also used smaller GPU clusters titan , hydra and kepler , funded under the grants I/80041-043 and I/84678/84680 of the Volkswagen Foundation and grants 823.219-439/30 and /36 of the Ministry of Science, Research and the Arts of Baden-Württemberg, Germany.


We thank the anonymous referee for a meticulous and thoughful set of comments. B.P. thanks NSERC for an undergraduate summer fellowship, and Nikhil Mahajan for assistance. Y.W. acknowledges NSERC funding, as well as conversations with Yoram Lithwick, Doug Lin (who pointed out that Johannes Kepler did ponder the planet packing problem), and Scott Tremaine.


We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments and suggestions. This work was partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant Nos. 11673060, 11763005, and 11873043), the Key Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. KJZD-EW-M06), the Strategic Priority Research Program “The Emergence of Cosmological Structure” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant No. XDB09000000), and the Natural Science Foundation of Yunnan Province (grant Nos. 2016FB003 and 2017FD072). Additional support was provided by the Specialized Research Fund for Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory (grant No. KLWH201804), by the Key Laboratory of Particle Astrophysics of Yunnan Province (grant No. 2015DG035) and by the Research Foundation for Scientific Elitists of the Department of Education of Guizhou Province (grant No. QJHKYZ[2018]068).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank an anonymous referee for a careful reading of the manuscript. We benefitted from numerous sisyphean conversations about the grey area between explosions and winds with Stan Owocki, Dave Arnett, Eliot Quataert, and Chris Matzner, and informative conversations about binary L2 mass-loss and mergers with Ondrej Pejcha, Stephen Justham, Kaitlin Kratter, and Philipp Podsiadlowski. We have also discussed binary evolution, on occasion, with Selma de Mink. NS’s research on Eta Carinae’s light echoes and eruptive transients was supported by National Science Foundation (NSF) grants AST-1312221 and AST-1515559. Partial support for this work was provided by NASA grants AR-12618, AR-14586, and GO-13390 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. Support for JLP is provided in part by FONDECYT through the grant 1151445 and by the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourism’s Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, MAS. DJJ gratefully acknowledges support from the NSF through award AST-1440254. This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5 m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. This project used data obtained with the Dark Energy Camera (DECam), which was constructed by the Dark Energy Survey (DES) collaborating institutions. Funding for DES, including DECam, has been provided by the U.S. DoE, NSF, MECD (Spain), STFC (UK), HEFCE (England), NCSA, KICP, FINEP, FAPERJ, CNPq (Brazil), the GRF-sponsored cluster of excellence ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’ and the DES collaborating institutions. This work makes use of observations from the LCO network. Based, in part, on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil) (Program GS-2014B-Q-24).


We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments which improved the quality of this paper. This research has made use of data and/or software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. This research has also made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


We thank the anonymous referees for many useful comments and suggestions. This work is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 11175147,11547311.


This work is based on the data from NASA's GALEX spacecraft. GALEX is operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology under NASA contract NAS5-98034. We acknowledge the NASA's Astrophysics Data System and NASA's SkyView facility ( http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov ) located at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Jyothy is grateful to Sri Mata Amritanandamayi Devi, the Chancellor of Amrita University for her spiritual guidance. Jyothy would like to thank Mr Sathyanarayanan for his help. We thank the referee for a prompt response and for pointing out inconsistencies in the first draft.


We thank the referee for useful discussion that helped in improving the content of this paper. Funding for the SDSS-IV has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the US Department of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. SDSS-IV acknowledges support and resources from the Center for High-Performance Computing at the University of Utah. The SDSS web site is www.sdss.org . SDSS-IV is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU)/University of Tokyo, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Leibniz Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik (MPA Garching), Max-Planck-Institut für Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), National Astronomical Observatory of China, New Mexico State University, New York University, University of Notre Dame, Observatário Nacional/MCTI, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, University of Arizona, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford, University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and Yale University. YYZ acknowledges support by the German BMWI through the Verbundforschung under grant 50 OR 1506. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ .


We are grateful to Scott Adams and Kevin Croxall for helpful discussions about the analysis of MODS prism data. We also appreciate helpful comments from the referee. Support for this work was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra Award No. G04-15134X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. The work of P.M. is partially supported by the National Science Foundation under grant 1615553 and by the Department of Energy under grant DE-SC0015525.


This work was supported by grant No. 2014/13/D/ST9/ 01818 from the National Science Centre, Poland. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme, under Grant Agreement No. 687378. V.K. was supported by the grant from the Slovak Research and Development Agency with number APVV-15-0458. The Joan Oró Telescope (TJO) of the Montsec Astronomical Observatory (OAdM) is owned by the Catalan Government and is operated by the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia (IEEC). The 0.82 m IAC80 Telescope is operated on the island of Tenerife by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias in the Spanish Observatorio del Teide. Based on observations obtained with the SARA Observatory 1.0 m Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope at ORM, and 0.6 m telescope at CTIO, which are owned and operated by the Southeastern Association for Research in Astronomy ( http://saraobservatory.org ).


We thank Dr. O. Pirali and S. Gruet for helpful discussions and advices in the far-infrared analysis using the Loomis-Wood program. I.K. and A.J. are indebted to Dr. V.V. Ilyushin for helpful discussions and careful reading of the manuscript. A.J. and I.K. thank the Groupe de Recherche International GDRI HighRes (especially Dr. A. Perrin) and the Programme Chimie Milieu Interstellaire PCMI for travel funding. V. V. thanks the Fonds der Chemischen Industrie (FCI) for a Ph.D. fellowship.


R.A.G.L., L.L., and G.B. acknowledge the financial support of DGAPA, UNAM (respectively, projects IN108518, IN112417, and IG100319), and CONACyT, Mexico. We sincerely thank the anonymous referee for the very constructive and insightful comments. This work is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA), and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). Facilities: GTC:OSIRIS , HST , CFHT , Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope . Software: SExtractor (Bertin Arnouts 1996 ), IRAF, rvsao (Kurtz Mink 1998 ), sm (Lupton Monger 1991 ), der_snr, Kapteyn (Terlouw Vogelaar 2015 ).


We thank Achim Weiss for the GARSTEC models used in this work, Zazralt Magic for the grid of model photospheres, and the anonymous referee for critical comments that improved the introduction section and the overall presentation of the text.


We thank the anonymous referee for the constructive comments and suggestions. GB acknowledges financial support under the INTEGRAL ASI-INAF agreement 2013-025-R.1. EP acknowledges financial support from the Italian Space Agency (ASI) under the contracts ASI-INAF I/037/12/0 and ASI-INAF n.2017-14-H.0. LZ acknowledges financial support under ASI/INAF contract I/037/12/0. FT acknowledges support by the Programma per Giovani Ricercatori – anno 2014 Rita Levi Montalcini. This research project was supported by the DFG Cluster of Excellence “Origin and Structure of the Universe” ( www.universe-cluster.de ). Funding for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the US Department of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. SDSS-IV acknowledges support and resources from the Center for High-Performance Computing at the University of Utah. The SDSS web site is www.sdss.org . SDSS-IV is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU)/University of Tokyo, the Korean Participation Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Leibniz Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik (MPA Garching), Max-Planck-Institut für Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), National Astronomical Observatories of China, New Mexico State University, New York University, University of Notre Dame, Observatário Nacional/MCTI, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, University of Arizona, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford, University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and Yale University.


The authors acknowledge helpful discussions with Amitava Bhattacharjee, Kristopher G. Klein, William H. Matthaeus, Michael A. Shay, and Jason M. TenBarge. The research at University of Southern California was supported largely by the National Science Foundation (NSF) grant AGS-1202603 under the NSF/DOE Partnership in Basic Plasma Science and Engineering. S.P.G. and T.N.P. were primarily supported by NSF-SHINE grant AGS-1460130; S.P.G. was also supported in part by NASA LWS grant NNX17AH87G. Computational resources were provided by the NASA High-End Computing (HEC) Program through the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Division at Ames Research Center, as well as by the Yellowstone supercomputer sponsored by the NSF at the Computational and Information Systems Laboratory of the National Center for Atmospheric Research. The data used to produce the results described here are archived at the University of Southern California and are available from Dr. Joseph Wang.


We thank Smadar Naoz for kindly sharing the triple-evolution code OSPE . We also thank the referee for the useful suggestions. This work was supported by NASA ATP Grant NNX14AP92G and NSF Grants AST-1312945 and AST-1716762. K.K. acknowledges support by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under Grant DGE-1324585. S.C. acknowledges support from CIERA, and from NASA Chandra Award TM5-16004X/NAS8-03060, issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center (operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060), and Hubble Space Telescope Archival research grant HST -AR-14555.001-A (from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555). Software: CMC (Joshi et al. 2000 , 2001 ; Fregeau et al. 2003 ; Fregeau Rasio 2007 ; Chatterjee et al. 2010 , 2013 ; Umbreit et al. 2012 ; Morscher et al. 2015 ; Rodriguez et al. 2016b ), Fewbody (Fregeau et al. 2004 ), BSE (Hurley et al. 2002 ), OSPE (Naoz et al. 2011 , 2013 ).


Acknowledgements J.K. has been funded by ERDF postdoctoral grant No. 1.1.1.2/VIAA/I/16/194 “Chemical effects of cosmic ray induced heating of interstellar dust grains”. The work of J.R.K. has been funded by ERDF project “Physical and chemical processes in the interstellar medium”, No 1.1.1.1/16/A/213. Both projects are being implemented in Ventspils University of Applied Sciences. We also thank Ventspils City Council for its persistent support.


The cosmological simulations were performed using the ENZO code ( http://enzo-project.org ) and were partially produced at Piz Daint (ETHZ-CSCS, http://www.cscs.ch ) in the Chronos project ID ch2 and s585, and on the JURECA supercomputer at the NIC of the Forschungszentrum Jülich, under allocations nos. 7006 and 9016 (FV) and 9059 (MB). DW acknowledges support from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) through grants SFB 676 and BR 2026/17. FV acknowledges personal support from the grant VA 876/3-1 from the DFG. FV and MB also acknowledge partial support from the grant FOR1254 from DFG. The distances in Section 3.4 and Appendix C have been computed using the Ned Cosmology Calculator (Wright 2006 ). We thank our anonymous referee for the useful feedback that helped improving the final quality of this paper. We also acknowledge fruitful discussions with T. Jones, K. Dolag and C. Gheller.


We thank Jacqueline van Gorkom, Robyn Sanderson, and Adrian Price-Whelan for useful comments and discussions and the anonymous referee for a constructive review. The authors acknowledge the Shared Research Computing Facility (Yeti 2 ) at Columbia University for providing HPC resources that have contributed to the results reported in this paper. This work was supported by NSF grant no. AST-131296.


RS acknowledges IUCAA visitor programme and AP acknowledges seed money grant from Tezpur University and visiting associateship of IUCAA, Pune. This research made use of data obtained from the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), provided by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for useful suggestions which has enhanced the quality of the paper.


We thank the collaboration of Richard Saxton to the correction of the pile-up in the EPIC-pn camera, and fruitful conversations with Jordi José. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. G.S. acknowledges support from the Faculty of the European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC) and the Max-Planck-Institut für extraterrestrische Physik (MPE). We acknowledge the support of the Spanish MINECO grants AYA2014-59084-P (G.S.) and ESP2015-66134-R (M.H.), and the Generalitat de Catalunya grants SGR0038/2014 (G.S.) and SGR 1458/2014 (M.H.).


I am grateful to Dr. Ralf Klessen for discussions at an early stage of this research and to the referee for a careful reading of the manuscript.


Comments from the anonymous referee helped to sharpen the presentation of our results. H.Y. thanks Jonah Miller for discussion of the numerical implementation of wave equations. This research was supported in part by NSERC and in part by the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. Research at Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through the Department of Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Research Innovation, and Science.


We would like to thank M. McCarthy, A. Vanderburg, and B. Montet for productive discussion and helpful comments on the manuscript. We also thank two anonymous referees for providing comments that greatly improved the quality of the manuscript. RAL gratefully acknowledges support from a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. CNS wishes to thank the National Science Foundation for supporting the Astrochemistry programme at the University of Virginia. BAM and PBC are grateful to G. A. Blake for his support. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.


We thank Martin White, Vinu Vikram, and Adam Lidz for useful discussions. We thank Carlos Hernández-Monteagudo for useful comments on an early version of our paper. AdG was supported by the Edinburgh School of Physics and Astronomy Career Development Summer Scholarship and the RSE Cormack Vacation Research Scholarship. YC, JAP, and CH were supported by the European Research Council under grant numbers 670193 (YC; JAP) and 647112 (CH). We thank the Planck collaboration for making the full-sky y -map and κ -map publicly available and the SDSS collaboration for making public the CMASS galaxy catalogue. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has benefitted significantly from the leading contributions to our field over many years of three sadly departed colleagues: Neil Gehrels, Javier Gorosabel, and Peter Curran . The authors acknowledge useful discussions with Avi Loeb, Andrew Pontzen, Martin Haehnelt, and Alex de Koter. Partly based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 280.D-5059, 081.A-0856, 082.A-0301, 083.A-0644, 091.A-0442, 100.D-0649, and 102.D-0662. Partly based on observations made with the Nordic Optical Telescope, operated by the Nordic Optical Telescope Scientific Association at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain, of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, under programs 31-014, 32-010, 39-023, 48-005, and 51-504. Partly based on observations made with the Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC), installed in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofśica de Canarias, in the island of La Palma, Spain. Partly based on observations made with the Italian Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG) operated on the island of La Palma by the Fundación Galileo Galilei of the INAF (Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica) at the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, under programs A26TAC_63 and A32TAC_5. The WHT and its override programme (for 090715B: programme W09AN001, P.I. Curran; for 161017A: programme W/2017A/23, P.I. Levan) are operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. We thank A. Kamble, R. Starling, and P. Curran for their help with the 090715B observations, and Marie Hrudkova for executing the 161017A observations. Partly based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil). Partially based on data from the Grand Telescopio Canarias (GTC) Public Archive at the Centro de Astrobiología (CAB), under the Spanish Research Council (CSIC) and the National Institute of Technical Aerospace (INTA). This work made use of the GRBspec data base http://grbspec.iaa.es . JJ acknowledges support from Nederlandse Onderzoekschool Voor Astronomie (NOVA) and The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) - The São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) grant for advanced instrumentation in astronomy. KEH acknowledges support by a Project Grant (162948–051) from The Icelandic Research Fund. DAK acknowledges support from the Spanish research project AYA 2014-58381-P and Juan de la Cierva Incorporación IJCI-2015-26153. AJL and ERS acknowledge Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) consolidated grant ST/L000733/1. NRT and KW acknowledge Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) consolidated grant ST/N000757/1. AC acknowledges National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) grant NNX15AP95A. AdUP acknowledges support from a Ramón y Cajal fellowship (RyC-2012-09975), a 2016 Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria (BBVA) Foundation Grant for Researchers and Cultural Creators, and from the Spanish research project AYA 2014-58381-P. RC acknowledges partial support from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Swift grant NNX16AB04G. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen’s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey-III (SDSS-III) web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 725246).


We sincerely thank the referee for valuable comments and suggestions that improved the paper significantly. The research work at the Physical Research Laboratory is funded by the Department of Space, Government of India. The authors would like to thank all the members of the Suzaku team for their contributions to the instrument preparation, spacecraft operation, software development and in-orbit instrumental calibration. This research has made use of data obtained through the HEASARC Online Service, provided by NASA/GSFC, in support of NASA High Energy Astrophysics Programmes.


We are grateful to S. Okuzumi and S. Arakawa for their fruitful discussion and help. We also appreciate the careful reading and fruitful comments by the anonymous referee. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (15K05266).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank M. Takada, T. Sunayama, and T. Nishimichi for useful discussions. RH is supported by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Research Fellowships for Young Scientists (No. 16J01773) and as a doctoral course student in Division for Interdisciplinary Advanced Research and Education, Tohoku University. DJE is supported by U.S. Department of Energy grant DE-SC0013718 and as a Simons Foundation Investigator.


AR is indebted to Programa Banco de Santander for a UAB-distinguished postdoctoral research contract. Financial support from MINECO (projects CTQ2015-62635-ERC and CTQ2014-60119-P) and DIUE (project 2014SGR482)are gratefully acknowledged. NB acknowledges the financial support from the Université Joseph Fourier de Grenoble and the Observatoire de Grenoble, CC acknowledges the financial support from the French Space Agency CNES.


This work is based on observations made at the Apache Point Observatory, operated by New Mexico State University. The scientific results reported in this article are based on observations made with the Chandra X-ray Observatory. Support for this work was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra Award Number GO3-14112X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. This research has made use of software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application packages CIAO and ChIPS. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) and the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive (IRSA), which are operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA), and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). Data for this paper are provided in a presistent repository Chandra ObsId 14988. Facilities: ARC , CXO , VLBA .


This work was made possible by the efforts of Gerard Lemson and colleagues at the German Astronomical Virtual Observatory in setting up the Millennium Simulation database in Garching. We acknowledge useful discussions with participants of the Shanghai Assembly Bias workshop in the final stages of this work. We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that improved the presentation of the paper. I.Z., S.C., E.J., and N.P. acknowledge the hospitality of the ICC at Durham University. I.Z. and S.E.K. acknowledge support by NSF grant AST-1612085. S.C. is supported by a Juan de la Cierva Formacion Fellowship (FJCI-2017-33816). E.J. acknowledges support from “Centro de Astronomía y Tecnologías Afines” BASAL 170002. N.P. acknowledges support from Fondecyt Regular 1191813. This project received financial support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement number 734374.


The authors are grateful to the anonymous referee for constructive comments and suggestions that have improved this paper. Ch.H. and C.R.S. are grateful for the financial support of the European Community under the FP7 by an ERC starting grant number 257431. D.A.D. is grateful for funding from the UK Science and Technology Funding Council via grant number ST/I001808/1. It is a pleasure to acknowledge stimulating discussions with Drs H. E. Potts and P. B. Rimmer. Further to this, the authors would like to thank D. Juncher for discussions regarding dust opacity. The authors would like to acknowledge our local IT support.


This work has made use of data obtained at the TNO on Doi Inthanon, operated by NARIT, and the PROMPT-8 telescope, operated by the Skynet Robotic Telescope Network. SA gratefully acknowledges the support from the Thai Government Scholarship and the University of Manchester President's Doctoral Scholar Award. VSD acknowledges the support of the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) and the Leverhulme Trust for ULTRASPEC operations. TRM acknowledges the support of STFC through grant ST/L0007333.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Omer Bromberg, Pawan Kumar, and Dimitrios Giannios for helpful discussions.


Neil Gehrels sadly died during the late stage of the production of this paper. As Swift PI he was an enthusiastic supporter of multi-messenger observations; he will be sorely missed. The IceCube Collaboration acknowledges the support from the following agencies: US National Science Foundation-Office of Polar Programs, US National Science Foundation-Physics Division, University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation, the Grid Laboratory of Wisconsin (GLOW) grid infrastructure at the University of Wisconsin – Madison, the Open Science Grid (OSG) grid infrastructure; US Department of Energy, and National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, the Louisiana Optical Network Initiative (LONI) grid computing resources; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, WestGrid and Compute/Calcul Canada; Swedish Research Council, Swedish Polar Research Secretariat, Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing (SNIC), and Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden; German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP), Research Department of Plasmas with Complex Interactions (Bochum), Germany; Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS-FWO), FWO Odysseus programme, Flanders Institute to encourage scientific and technological research in industry (IWT), Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (Belspo); University of Oxford, United Kingdom; Marsden Fund, New Zealand; Australian Research Council; Japan Society for Promotion of Science (JSPS); the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), Switzerland; National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF); Villum Fonden, Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF), Denmark This work made use of data supplied by the UK Swift Science Data Centre at the University of Leicester. Funding for the Swift project in the UK is provided by the UK Space Agency. Part of this work was facilitated by the GROWTH project, a partnership in international research and education, NSF PIRE Grant No. 1545949. ASAS-SN is supported by NSF grant AST-1515927. Development of ASAS-SN has been supported by NSF grant AST-0908816, the Center for Cosmology and AstroParticle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Mt. Cuba Astronomical Foundation, and by George Skestos. The Fermi LAT Collaboration acknowledges generous ongoing support from a number of agencies and institutes that have supported both the development and the operation of the LAT as well as scientific data analysis. These include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Department of Energy in the United States, the Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules in France, the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana and the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare in Italy, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), high-energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) in Japan, and the K. A. Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council and the Swedish National Space Board in Sweden. Additional support for science analysis during the operations phase is gratefully acknowledged from the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica in Italy and the Centre National d’Études Spatiales in France. The HAWC Collaboration acknowledges the support from: the US National Science Foundation (NSF); the US Department of Energy Office of High-Energy Physics; the Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program of Los Alamos National Laboratory; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT), México (grants 271051, 232656, 260378, 179588, 239762, 254964, 271737, 258865, 243290, 132197), Laboratorio Nacional HAWC de rayos gamma; L’OREAL Fellowship for Women in Science 2014; Red HAWC, México; DGAPA-UNAM (grants IG100317, IN111315, IN111716-3, IA102715, 109916, IA102917); VIEP-BUAP; PIFI 2012, 2013, PROFOCIE 2014, 2015;the University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation; the Institute of Geophysics, Planetary Physics, andSignatures at Los Alamos National Laboratory; Polish Science Centre grant DEC-2014/13/B/ST9/945; Coordinación de la Investigación Científica de la Universidad Michoacana. We thank Luciano Díaz and Eduardo Murrieta for technical support of the HAWC detector. Support for I. Arcavi was provided by NASA through the Einstein Fellowship Program, grant PF6-170148. D. A. Howell, C. McCully, and G. Hosseinzadeh are supported by NSF-1313484. This work makes use of observations from the LCO network. VERITAS research is supported by grants from the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, the U.S. National Science Foundation and the Smithsonian Institution, and by NSERC in Canada. VERITAS acknowledges the excellent work of the technical support staff at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory and at the collaborating institutions in the construction and operation of the instrument. E. O. Ofek and A. Gal-Yam acknowledge a Minerva grant.


This work was supported by the National Science Foundation, grant AST-1210285. M.R. acknowledges support from CONICYT (Chile) through FONDECYT grant No. 1140839 and partial support through project BASAL PFB-06. We also thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments.


The authors acknowledge the open policy for the use of NRAOs VLA. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) is operated by Associated Universities Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Kambiz Fathi acknowledges support from the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences’ Crafoord Foundation. Furthermore, the extensive support from the Swedish National Space Board (Rymdstyrelsen) is gratefully acknowledged by Aage Sandqvist. We also acknowledge with gratitude the support from Miller Goss with concatenation of the observations with the VLA in its BnA and DnC configurations.


This research has made use of the MAXI data provided by RIKEN, JAXA and the MAXI team; Swift /BAT transient monitor results provided by the Swift /BAT team and data from the Fermi /GBM pulsar project. The authors thank Iain Steele for his help. E.L. is grateful for the warm hospitality of the MAXI team and thanks the IPA program in RIKEN for the support.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS JWM dedicates the work in this paper to his father, William McKee. We thank Francis Graham-Smith, Gemma Janssen, Benjamin Shaw, Patrick Weltevrede, and Cristina Ilie for very helpful discussions, and the anonymous referees for useful comments. The authors acknowledge the support of their colleagues at Jodrell Bank Observatory. This work was supported by the UK Science and Technology Research Council, under grant number ST/L000768/1.


We acknowledge Dr. Angeles Pérez-Villegas for critical reading of the manuscript and useful suggestions. This work was supported by the São Paulo State Science Foundation, FAPESP, and the Brazilian National Research Council, CNPq. R.S.S.V. acknowledges FAPESP grant 2015/10577-9. This work has made use of the facilities of the Laboratory of Astroinformatics (IAG/USP, NAT/Unicsul), whose purchase was made possible by FAPESP (grant 2009/54006-4) and the INCT-A. We acknowledge the anonymous referee for the detailed review and for the helpful suggestions which allowed us to improve the manuscript.


Acknowledgments We thank Diederik Kruijssen and Henny Lamers for constructive and helpful discussions on cluster mass-loss. We, in particular FN, NB, IP and VK-P, gratefully acknowledge financial support for this project provided by NASA through grant HST-GO-14069 for the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS526555. NB gratefully acknowledges financial support from the Royal Society (University Research Fellowship) and the European Research Council (ERC-CoG-646928-Multi-Pop). We are grateful to Jay Anderson for sharing with us his ePSF software. DG gratefully acknowledges support from the Chilean BASAL Centro de Excelencia en Astrofsica y Tecnologas Afines (CATA) grant PFB-06/2007.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the referee Alessandro Sonnenfeld for the thorough and helpful comments. CEP thanks Leon Doddema, Martin Vogelaar, and Ewout Helmich for help and support. CEP, CT, GV, and LVEK are supported through an NWO-VICI grant (project number 639.043.308). CT also acknowledges funding from the INAF PRIN-SKA 2017 program 1.05.01.88.04. SC has been financially supported by a grant (project number 614.001.206) from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO). GVK acknowledges financial support from the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA) and Target. Target is supported by Samenwerkingsverband Noord Nederland, European fund for regional development, Dutch Ministry of economic affairs, Pieken in de Delta, Provinces of Groningen and Drenthe. NRN acknowledges financial support from the European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 721463 to the SUNDIAL ITN network. This work is supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in the framework of the TR33 ‘The Dark Universe’. MB is supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, NWO, through grant number 614.001.451 and by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education through grant DIR/WK/2018/12. BG acknowledges support from the European Research Council under grant number 647112. JTAdJ is supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) through grant 621.016.402. CH acknowledges support from the European Research Council under grant number 647112. KK acknowledges support by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. CS has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie actions grant agreement No 664931. This work is based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 177.A-3016, 177.A-3017, and 177.A-3018, and on data products produced by Target/OmegaCEN, INAF-OACN, INAF-OAPD, and the KiDS production team, on behalf of the KiDS consortium. OmegaCEN and the KiDS production team acknowledge support by NOVA and NWO-M grants. Members of INAF-OAPD and INAF-OACN also acknowledge the support from the Department of Physics and Astronomy of the University of Padova, and of the Department of Physics of University of Federico II (Naples). GAMA is a joint European–Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The GAMA input catalogue is based on data taken from the SDSS and the UKIDSS. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is being obtained by a number of independent survey programmes including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE, Herschel -ATLAS, GMRT, and ASKAP, providing ultraviolet to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA website is www.gama-survey.org . Funding for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the US Department of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. SDSS acknowledges support and resources from the Center for High-Performance Computing at the University of Utah. The SDSS web site is www.sdss.org . SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU)/University of Tokyo, the Korean Participation Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Leibniz Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), Max-Planck-Institut fur Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut fur Astrophysik (MPA Garching), Max-Planck-Institut fur Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), National Astronomical Observatories of China, New Mexico State University, New York University, University of Notre Dame, Observatorio Nacional/MCTI, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, University of Arizona, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford, University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and Yale University. The topcat (Taylor 2005 ) and stilts (Taylor 2006 ) software have been extensively used in this project. Author Contributions: all authors contributed to the development and writing of this paper. The authorship list is given in three groups: the lead authors (CEP, CT, GV, LVEK, GVK), followed by two alphabetical groups. The first alphabetical group includes those who are key contributors to both the scientific analysis and the data products. The second group covers those who have either made a significant contribution to the data products, or to the scientific analysis.


We would like to thank Ruud Visser for providing a detailed and clear referee’s report that helped to improve the paper. We also want to thank Zhaohuan Zhu for providing the burst spectrum of FU Orionis. CH.R. and E.V. acknowledge funding by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): project number I2549-N27. CH.R. and M.G. acknowledge funding by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): project number P24790. M.A. and A.P. acknowledge funding by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF): project number: 200021L_163172. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme FP7-2011 under grant agreement No. 284405. This publication was partly supported from the FFG ASAP 12 project JetPro* (FFG-854025). This publication was supported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF). The computational results presented have been achieved using the Vienna Scientific Cluster (VSC). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. All figures were made with the free Python module Matplotlib ( Hunter 2007 ). This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ).


We are grateful to M. Geller, J. Najita, D. Wilner, and an anonymous referee for comments and helpful discussions. NASA provided essential support for this program through a generous allotment of computer time on the NCCS “discover” cluster and Outer Planets Program grant NNX11AM37G.


We thank the staff at the JAO and the EU ARC Network who have participated in the EOC and Science Verification activities, observations and data reduction that made the release of the data to the community possible. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2011.0.00018.SV and ADS/JAO.ALMA#2012.1.00453.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada) and NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany) and IGN (Spain). J.C. and A.F. thank the ERC for support under grant ERC-2013-Syg-610256-NANOCOSMOS. They also thank Spanish MINECO for funding support under grants AYA2012-32032, and from the CONSOLIDER Ingenio program “ASTROMOL” CSD 2009-00038. KS acknowledges grant 105-2119-M-001-036 from the Taiwanese Ministry of Science and Technology.


We thank Lars Bildsten, Jared Brooks, Rob Farmer, Jason Ferguson, Ken Shen, and Frank Timmes for helpful discussions. We thank Marius Dan and Cody Raskin for providing the results of their SPH simulations as part of previous work. We thank Ken'ichi Nomoto, Todd Thompson, and Stan Woosley for useful conversations following the presentation of these results in preliminary form. We thank an anonymous referee for comments that led to improvements in the manuscript. We acknowledge stimulating workshops at Sky House and Palomar Observatory where these ideas germinated. JS is supported by the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Program under grant DGE-1106400 and by NSF grant AST-1205732 . EQ is supported in part by a Simons Investigator award from the Simons Foundation and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. This research is funded in part by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation through Grant GBMF5076 . DK was supported in part by a Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Physics Early Career Award, and by the Director, Office of Energy Research, Office of High Energy and Nuclear Physics, Divisions of Nuclear Physics, of the US Department of Energy under Contract no. DE-AC02-05CH11231 . This research used the SAVIO computational cluster resource provided by the Berkeley Research Computing program at the University of California Berkeley (supported by the UC Chancellor, the UC Berkeley Vice Chancellor of Research, and the Office of the CIO). This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System and GNU Parallel (Tange 2011 ).


We thank Chris Pritchet and Dennis Zaritsky for help carrying out the MENeaCS spectroscopic survey, Patrick Kelly for making his python SLR code publicly available, and Radek Wojtak for suggesting an assessment of orientation bias. C.S., H.H., and M.V. acknowledge support from the European Research Council under FP7 grant number 279396. H.H., M.C. and R.F.J.vdB. acknowledge support from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research grant number 639.042.814. Based on observations obtained with MegaPrime/MegaCam, a joint project of CFHT and CEA/IRFU, at the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) which is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Science de l’Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France, and the University of Hawaii. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http:// [0]www. [0]sdss3. [0]org/. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. This work has made use of the python packages scipy (http:// [0]www. [0]scipy. [0]org) and matplotlib (http:// [0]matplotlib. [0]org; Hunter 2007 ) and of IPython ( Pérez Granger 2007 ).


We thank the referee for their careful reading of this paper and the very useful comments that greatly helped to improve the paper. P.T. and V.P. were funded for this work by the NASA Heliophysics Guest Investigator grant NNX15AF50G. P.T. was also supported by contracts 8100002705 and SP02H1701R from Lockheed Martin to SAO, and NASA contract NNM07AB07C to the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. B.D.P. was supported by NASA contract NNG09FA40C ( IRIS ). This work has benefited from discussions at the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) meetings on “New Diagnostics of Particle Acceleration in Solar Coronal Nanoflares from Chromospheric Observations and Modeling,” and “Heating in the Magnetic Chromosphere,” where topics relevant to this work were discussed with other colleagues. IRIS is a NASA Small Explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by ESA and the Norwegian Space Centre. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System and of the SolarSoft package for IDL.


The authors are especially grateful for the numerous discussions with Bidya Karak and Banibrata Mukhopadhyay. We thank the editor and the anonymous reviewer for comments that led to substantial improvements in the presentation of this paper. The authors are also thankful to Saikat Ghosh, Anand Jha, Aditya Kelkar, Anuj Nandi, Mahendra Verma, and Harshawardhan Wanare for helpful discussions. S.C. acknowledges financial support through the INSPIRE faculty award (DST/INSPIRE/04/2013/000365) conferred by the Indian National Science Academy (INSA) and the Department of Science and Technology (DST), India.


We acknowledge AYA2014-54348-C3-1-R by MINECO/Spain and FEDER funds/EU (P.J.A., C.R.-L., and Z.M.B.); FPIBES-2011-049647 MINECO/Spain (Z.M.B.). A.R. acknowledges research funding from ERC Starting Grant 279347 and DFG Grant RE1664/9-2. M.Z. is funded through DFG Grant RE 1664/12-1. J.S.J. acknowledges funding by Fondecyt through grant 1161218 and partial supportfrom CATA-Basal (PB06, Conicyt).


This research has made use of data obtained through the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center Online Service, provided by the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. This work made use of data from the NuSTAR mission, a project led by the California Institute of Technology, managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work made use of observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. V.M.K. is supported by a Lorne Trottier Chair in Astrophysics Cosmology, a Canada Research Chair, CIFAR, by an NSERC Discovery Grant and Herzberg Award, and by FRQNT/CRAQ. R.F.A. acknowledges support from an NSERC Postdoctoral Fellowship. P.S. is a Covington Fellow at DRAO. Facilities: Swift , NuSTAR , XMM-Newton . Software: astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), xspec 12.8.2 ( http://xspec.gfsc.nasa.gov ), heasoft v6.19,6.20 ( https://heasarc.nasa.gov/lheasoft/ ), SAS v16.0 (Gabriel et al. 2004 ).


F.T. thanks A. Bolatto and A. Marscher for useful comments. F.T. and C.S.R. acknowledges support for this work by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) through Chandra Award Number GO4-15103A issued by the Chandra X-Ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060. F.T. acknowledges partial support by the Programma per Giovani Ricercatori-anno 2014 “Rita Levi Montalcini.” E.B. is supported by the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska Curie grant agreement No. 655324, and by the ICORE program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee (grant No. 1937/12).


We thank François Lanusse, Anthony Pullen, Alex Geringer-Sameth, Sébastien Fromenteau and Shirley Ho for useful discussions related to this work. We also thank Uroš Seljak, Emmanuel Schaan, David Spergel and the anonymous referee for helpful feedback on this work. We thank Martin White and Beth Reid for providing us halo catalogue from simulations. We also thank the SDSS-I/II/III and Planck collaboration for their efforts in providing the data sets used in this work. RM acknowledges the support of the Department of Energy Early Career Award programme. SS acknowledges support from John Peoples Jr Presidential Fellowship from Carnegie Mellon University. Some of the results in this paper have been derived using the healpix package (Górski et al. 2005 ). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.SDSS3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington and Yale University. Author Contributions . SS and RM contributed to the analysis and writing the paper. JB is an SDSS-III BOSS architect who contributed to the development of the BOSS survey.


This work has been supported by the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana under the contract ASI-INAF 2015-039-R.O ‘Missione M4 di ESA: Partecipazione Italiana alla fase di assessment della missione THOR’. SP and GZ acknowledge support from the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) in Bern through the International Team no. 297 ‘Superdiffusive transport in space plasmas and its influence on energetic particle acceleration and propagation’.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for their constructive review, which helped improve the paper. We thank Rachel Mason for making the XDGNIRS reduction pipeline available. CMB acknowledges support from the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. Based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil). RMcD is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (project number FT150100333). CC acknowledges support from NASA grant NNX15AK14G, NSF grant AST-1313280 and the Packard Foundation.


These data products have been processed by the Cambridge Astronomy Survey Unit (CASU) at the Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, and by the FLAMES/UVES reduction team at INAF/Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri. These data have been obtained from the Gaia -ESO Survey Data Archive, prepared and hosted by the Wide Field Astronomy Unit, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, which is funded by the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 programme through ERC grant number 320360 and by the Leverhulme Trust through grant RPG-2012-541. We acknowledge the support from INAF and Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca (MIUR) in the form of the grant “Premiale VLT 2012”. This work has been partially supported by PRIN-INAF-2014. The results presented here benefited from discussions held during the Gaia -ESO workshops and conferences supported by the ESF (European Science Foundation) through the GREAT Research Network Programme. M.M. acknowledges financial support from the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR) through grant FIRB 2012 RBFR12PM1F, from INAF through grant PRIN-2014-14, and from the MERAC Foundation. S.G.S. acknowledges the support by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) through national funds and a research grant (project Ref. UID/FIS/04434/2013, and PTDC/FIS-AST/7073/2014). S.G.S. also acknowledge the support from FCT through Investigador FCT contract of reference IF/00028/2014 and POPH/FSE (EC) by FEDER funding through the program Programa Operacional de Factores de Competitividade COMPETE.


Acknowledgements Based on observations made with APEX under programme IDs O-097.F-9318, O-098.F-9305, 077.F-9310, and 079.F-9325. This work is based on observations carried out under project number 010-13 with the IRAM 30 m telescope. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). The Onsala 20 m telescope is operated by the Swedish National Facility for Radio Astronomy, Onsala Space Observatory at Chalmers University of Technology. L.D. acknowledges support from the ERC consolidator grant 646758 AEROSOL and the FWO Research Project grant G024112N. E.D.B. acknowledges financial support from the Swedish National Space Board. H.O. acknowledges financial support from the Swedish Research Council.


D.Z. and H.Z. acknowledge financial support from NSF grant AST-171384. J.W. acknowledges support from a 2018 Sloan Foundation Fellowship. The authors gratefully acknowledge the SDSS-III team for providing a valuable resource to the community. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Eric Baxter, Joe DeRose, Ian Dell'Anotonio, Daniel Gruen, Hung-Jin Huang, Benjamin Joachimi, Andrey Kravtsov, Rachel Mandelbaum, Surhud More, Yuedong Fang, Mike Jarvis, Masahiro Takada, Joop Schaye, Frank van den Bosch, Mark Vogelsberger, Anja von der Linden, and Risa Wechsler for helpful discussions. We are very grateful to Erin Sheldon for allowing us to use his SDSS shear catalogues and source photometric redshift distributions. J.C., B.J., and G.B. are partially supported by the US Department of Energy grant DE-SC0007901 and funds from the University of Pennsylvania.


Acknowledgments We are grateful to G. I. Ogilvie for his important remarks and suggestions. SVC and PBI were supported in part by RFBR grants 15-02-08476 and 16-02-01043, by programme 7 of the Presidium of Russian Academy of Sciences and also by Grant of the President of the Russian Federation for Support of the Leading Scientific Schools NSh-6595.2016.2.


Acknowledgments We thank Elisa Costantini for helpful discussions and comments. CJ acknowledges valuable discussions with Lynne Valencic about the cosmic abundances. The anonymous referee is appreciated for providing insightful comments and suggestions, which allowed us to improve this paper significantly. We would also like to thank the XMMNewton team for providing important instructions on technical and calibration issues. This project is supported by the Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt (BMWI/DLR, FKZ 50 OR 1408 and FKZ 50 OR 1604) and the Max Planck Society. This work is based on observations obtained with XMMNewton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. The scientific results reported in this paper are also based on observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory, as well as data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive. This research has made use of software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application packages ciao , chips and sherpa .


This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/ JAO.ALMA#2011.0.00611.S, 2012.1.00239.S, and 2015.1.00340.S. ALMA is a partnership of the ESO, NSF, NINS, NRC, NSC, and ASIAA. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by the ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. This work was supported by NAOJ ALMA Scientific Research Grant Numbers 2016-03B and JSPS KAKENHI (Grant No. 22244014, 23403001, 26247026, 15K05039, and 18K13582).


We are grateful to the reviewer of this paper, Dr Bojan Novaković, for comments and suggestions that greatly improved the quality of this paper. We would like to thank the São Paulo State Science Foundation ( FAPESP ) that supported this work via the grant 2016/04476-8 , and the Brazilian National Research Council (CNPq, grant 305453/2011-4 ). This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) and NEOWISE, which are a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration .


We are grateful to the anonymous referee for constructive comments that significantly improved the manuscript. We are also grateful for the hospitality and financial support of the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics that allowed IA to work directly with the MRS particle files in Garching, Germany. The Millennium Simulation databases used in this paper, and the web application providing online access to them, were constructed as part of the activities of the German Astrophysical Virtual Observatory. This work was partially supported by the National Science Foundation via grant AST-0708468.


J.C.A.M.J. is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT140101082). This work has been supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra Award Number GO3-14046X issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. We are grateful for the contributions of Tom Maccarone, Mike Garcia, and Jerry Orosz, who provided crucial input in the initial design and execution of the observations. Facilities: CXO (ACIS) , VLA , CTIO:1.3 m. Software: CIAO (v4.8; Fruscione et al. 2006 ), CASA (v.4.2.0; McMullin et al. 2007 ), IRAF (v2.15.1a; Tody 1986 , 1993 ), Matplotlib (v2.0.2; Hunter 2007 ), Sherpa (Freeman et al. 2001 ).


We are grateful to R. Trampedach for clarifications about his results, and for making available the routine to calculate Rosseland opacities. We also thank J. Christensen-Dalsgaard for interesting discussions on this topic, and the anonymous referee for comments that have improved the presentation of our results. S.C. gratefully acknowledges financial support from PRIN-INAF2014 (PI: S. Cassisi).


IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by the Norwegian Space Center (NSC, Norway) through an ESA PRODEX contract. The author gratefully acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitivity through project AYA2014-60476-P (Solar Magnetometry in the Era of Large Solar Telescopes). Part of this work was supported by the DFG grant RE 3282/1-2. This work has made use of the VALD database, operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow, and the University of Vienna. We would like to thank the referee for the constructive suggestions.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for her/his suggested improvements. IB is supported by an Alexander von Humboldt postdoctoral research fellowship. KG was supported by the German-Russian Interdisciplinary Science Center funded by the German Federal Foreign Office via the German Academic Exchange Service. We thank Graeme Candlish for sharing his data on the velocity field in MOND cosmology and Hosein Haghi for useful discussions about the properties of NGC 1052-DF2.


We thank the referee for the helpful comments that have helped us to improve the presentation of the paper. This work is supported by the National Basic Research Program (973 Program) of China (grants 2014CB845800) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grants 11543005, U1431124, and 11361140349 (China–Israel joint program).


We thank the anonymous referee for a careful reading of the manuscript. H.J.Z. gratefully acknowledges the generous support of the Clay Postdoctoral Fellowship. I.D. is supported by the Harvard College Observatory Menzel Fellowship and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Postdoctoral Fellowship (NSERC PDF-421224-2012). I.C. acknowledges support from the Russian Science Foundation project #14-22-00041. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555.


We thank an anonymous referee for insightful comments that have improved the content and presentation of this paper. D.W.J. and D.Z. acknowledge financial support from NASA LTSA award NNG05GE82G and GALEX grant NNX11AI47G. G.D.L. acknowledges financial support from the European Research Council under European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement No. 202781. P.J. acknowledges support by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to Paul Bryans and an anonymous referee for useful comments. NCAR is sponsored by the National Science Foundation.


We thank the referee for valuable comments and suggestions. N.S. acknowledges financial support from the pole PAGE of the Université Grenoble Alpes. G.L., G.D. and M.F. are grateful to the participants of the KITP 2017 program on Confronting MHD Theories of Accretion Disks with Observations for the many useful conversations pertaining to this work (and thus this research was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. NSF PHY-1125915). This work was granted access to the HPC resources of IDRIS under the allocation A0020402231 made by GENCI (Grand Equipement National de Calcul Intensif). Some of the computations presented in this paper were performed using the Froggy platform of the CIMENT infrastructure ( https://ciment.ujf-grenoble.fr ), which is supported by the Rhône-Alpes region (GRANT CPER07_13 CIRA), the OSUG@2020 labex (reference ANR10 LABX56) and the Equip@Meso project (reference ANR-10-EQPX-29-01) of the programme Investissements d’Avenir supervised by the Agence Nationale pour la Recherche.


RH thanks Avi Shporer for providing the program to compute ingress and egress shapes, Tiffany Kataria for making available preliminary 3D atmospheric circulation simulations, Edwin Kite for discussion on the molten lava planet, Feng Tian for discussion on the atmospheric escape of rocky planets, and Wesley Traub and Yuk L. Yung for helpful discussions. This paper includes data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. Support for RH’s work was provided in part by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant #51332 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555. Part of the research was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NKL’s work was performed in part under contract with the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) funded by NASA through the Sagan Fellowship Program executed by the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute.


This work was supported by the Romanian Ministry of National Education under the contracts 1EU-10 (in the Programme of Complementary Research in Fusion) and PN 09 39 01 01.


Work is supported by grant of Russian Science Foundation 14-12-01287.


The authors acknowlede insightful comments from Moti Milgrom, Paola Di Matteo, Francoise Combes, Edouard Bernard, Gary Mamon, and an anonymous referee. F.R. acknowledges support from the European Research Council through grant ERC-StG-335936.


We wish to thank T. Fouchet, E. Jaupart, G. Laibe, and D. Stevenson for helpful discussions. G.C. acknowledges the warm hospitality of the OWL Institute at the University of Santa Cruz, where part of this work was accomplished. This work was supported by the Programme National de Planétologie (PNP) of CNRS-INSU cofunded by CNES.


Acknowledgements The authors contributed in the following way to this paper. DS undertook the calibration and completion of all simulations; the development of all analysis codes, including the ANN; the production of all figures and the first draft of the paper. II supervised the project and helped with the interpretation of results and feedback on the first draft. KD provided guidance throughout and significant feedback on the first draft. DS would like to thank Joakim Rosdahl for valuable technical feedback, Scott J. Clay for advice and feedback on the first draft, Peter A. Thomas, Paul R. Shapiro, and Benoît Fournier for useful discussions and feedback. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) DiRAC High-performance computing (HPC) Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). The DiRAC system is funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008519/1, STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1, and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. We acknowledge PRACE for awarding us computational time under project PRACE4LOFAR grant 2014102339 and ‘Multi-scale simulations of Cosmic Reionization’ grants 2014102281, 2015122822, and 2016153528 to resource Curie based in France at CEA and to resource Marenostrum based in Spain at BSC. This work was supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant numbers ST/F002858/1 and ST/I000976/1) and the Southeast Physics Network (SEPNet). Some of the analysis was done on the Apollo cluster at The University of Sussex. We made extensive use of the pymses (Guillet, Chapon Labadens 2013 ) and pynbody (Pontzen et al. 2013 ) python modules when developing our own analysis pipeline.


The authors are grateful to the referee for comments and suggestions that greatly improved the manuscript. This work was supported by the Programme National “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire” (PCMI) of CNRS/INSU with INC/INP co-funded by CEA and CNES and the DIM ACAV a funding programme of the Region Ile de France. T.N is granted by the LabEx MICHEM.


We thank the anonymous referee for careful review and valuable suggestions, the SMT staff for their help during the observations, Ran Wang for her help with the observation, and U. Lisenfeld for kindly making the H i data available to us. X.J. acknowledges support for this work from the Strategic Priority Research Program “The Emergence of Cosmological Structures” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), grant XDB09000000. This work is supported under the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 11273015 and 11133001), the National Basic Research Program (973 program No. 2013CB834905), and Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education (20100091110009). Z.-Y.Z acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC) in the form of an Advanced Grant, cosmicism . This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Arecibo Observatory is part of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center which is operated by Cornell University under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Based on observations made with the NASA Galaxy Evolution Explorer ( GALEX ). GALEX is operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology under NASA contract NAS5-98034. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III Web site is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University.


This work was supported by the ERC under the Advanced Investigator Project 267219 and the University of Jordan. JT and SNY thank the support of the COST action MOLIM (CM1405). We thank the Royal Society for supporting a visit by OVN to London.


We thank the anonymous referee for a careful review and suggestions that improved the manuscript. This research was partially supported by a Jet Propulsion Lab/NASA grant to the University of Minnesota (RSA 1541900/NNN12AA01C). Support for HST Programs GO-11696, 12283, 12568, 12902, 13517, 13352, and 14178 was provided by NASA through grants from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. T.G. is grateful to the LABEX Lyon Institute of Origins (ANR-10-LABX-0066) of the Université de Lyon for its financial support within the program “Investissements d’Avenir” (ANR-11-IDEX-0007) of the French government operated by the National Research Agency (ANR). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Gianfranco Bertone and Denis Erkal for useful discussions and comments. We thank the anonymous referee whose comments have greatly improved this manuscript. NB acknowledges the support of the D-ITP consortium, a programme of the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) that is funded by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW). JB acknowledges the support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), funding reference number RGPIN-2015-05235, and from an Alfred P. Sloan Fellowship.


We thank an anonymous referee for helpful comments that considerably improved the manuscript. GB thanks Judd Bowman, Andrea Ferrara, Adrian Liu and Aaron Ewall-Wice for useful inputs and comments on this work and Jordan Mirocha for help with ares . The LEDA experiment is supported by NSF grants AST/1106059 and PHY/0835713. JZ gratefully acknowledges a South Africa National Research Foundation Square Kilometre Array Research Fellowship. This research was supported by the Munich Institute for Astro- and Particle Physics (MIAPP) of the DFG cluster of excellence ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’. With the support of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Directorate General for the Country Promotion (Bilateral Grant Agreement ZA14GR02 – Mapping the Universe on the Pathway to SKA).


We thank the referee for his/her constructive comments. This research has been partly co-financed by the European Union (European Social Fund—ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program “Education and Lifelong Learning” of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF)—Research Funding Program: “Thales. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund.” S.P. acknowledges support from an FP7 Marie Curie Grant (FP7-PEOPLE-2010-RG/268288). A.V. was also supported by internal JHU/APL funds.