The authors would like to thank Adam Burgasser, Brendan Bowler, Kelle Cruz, Mike Cushing, Michael Liu, and Emily Rice for useful discussions on benchmark systems, data treatment, and various data-model comparison approaches. The authors thank Richard Freedman and Roxana Lupu for providing gas opacities and Caroline Morley for radiative transfer code comparisons and helpful discussions. We thank Jacob Lustig-Yeager and Kyle Luther for rewriting portions of the code in python and C for significant speed improvements and also Dan Foreman-Mackey for making EMCEE available to the community. Finally, we thank the anonymous referee and statistics consultant for useful and insightful comments. J.T. acknowledges financial support from the Carnegie Origins Postdoctoral Fellowship Program. B.B. acknowledges financial support from the European Commission in the form of a Marie Curie International Outgoing Fellowship (PIOF-GA-2013-629435). J.F. acknowledges funding support from NSF award AST-1312545. M.M. acknowledges support from the NASA Astrophysics Theory and Planetary Atmospheres programs. Facility: Magellan:Clay


The authors would like to thank their numerous colleagues for the many hours of fruitful discussions on the complex subject of interstellar dust. In particular we wish to thank Alain Abergel for a careful reading of the manuscript. This research was, in part, made possible through the financial support of the Agence National de la Recherche (ANR) through the programmes Cold Dust (ANR-07-BLAN-0364- 01) and CIMMES (ANR-11-BS56-0029) and, currently, through the EU FP7 funded project DustPedia (grant No. 606847).


Work by J.D.L. and G.A.W. has been supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. O.K. acknowledges financial support from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council, and the Swedish National Space Board. S.M. acknowledges funding by the European Research Council through ERC grant SPIRE 647383. S.M. thanks E. Bolmont for fruitful discussions on pseudo-synchronous states.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS GAMA is a joint European–Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The GAMA input catalogue is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is being obtained by a number of independent survey programs including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE, Herschel -ATLAS, GMRT, and ASKAP providing UV to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA website is http://www.gama-survey.org/ . This work is based in part on observations made with the Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX). GALEX is a NASA Small Explorer, whose mission was developed in cooperation with the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) of France and the Korean Ministry of Science and Technology. GALEX is operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology, under NASA contract NAS5-98034. This work made extensive use of topcat (Taylor 2005 ) software packages, which are supported by an STFC grant to the University of Bristol.


I thank all three anonymous referees, who reviewed this manuscript at different stages. I am also grateful to AA editor Malcolm Walmsley for his contribution in improving the presentation. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for a useful and supportive report. It is a pleasure to thank Mike Irwin for discussions on multiregression analysis. NK acknowledges the financial support from the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge, the Nehru Trust for Cambridge University during the PhD, and the Schlumberger Foundation for the post-doctoral research. RM and MC acknowledge ERC Advanced Grant 695671 ‘QUENCH’ and support by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). This research has used the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; SAOImage DS9, developed by Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory; Astropy, a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ). Based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme IDs 095.B-0532(A), 096.B-0309(A), and 097.B-0165(A).


We thank an anonymous referee for valuable comments that helped improve the paper. We thank Santiago García-Burillo for insightful discussions and Sebastian Hönig and Leonard Burtscher for making their fully reduced spectra available to us. We acknowledge financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through the Plan Nacional de Astronomía y Astrofísica grants AYA2012-31447 (AA-H and AH-C), and AYA2015-64346-C2-1-P (AA-H), which were partly funded by the FEDER programme, and AYA2015-70815-ERC and AYA2012-31277 (AH-C) and AYA2012-32295 (MP-S and LC). AA-H is also partly funded by CSIC/PIE grant 201650E036. RP acknowledges the Oxford University Summer Research Programme. IA and MM-P are partly supported by Mexican CONACyT through research grant CB-2011-01-167291. MM-P acknowledges support by the CONACyT PhD fellowship programme. CRA acknowledges the Ramón y Cajal Programme of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. NAL is supported by the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., on behalf of the international Gemini partnership of Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, and the United States of America. TD-S acknowledges support from ALMA-CONICYT project 31130005 and FONDECYT 1151239. Based on observations made with the GTC, installed in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, in the island of La Palma. This research has made use of the NED which is operated by JPL, Caltech, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work is based in part on observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA.


This research was partially supported by the National Science Foundation under AST-1109288. G.G.K. acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council through the award of a Future Fellowship (FT140100933). We thank the referee for useful suggestions. We thank Mark Seibert for the discussion on GALEX photometry. We gratefully acknowledge conversations with Peng Oh and Andrey Kravtsov, which contributed to shaping our interpretation of these data. Most of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Some presented data are based on observations obtained with the Apache Point Observatory 3.5 m telescope, which is owned and operated by the Astrophysical Research Consortium. Facilities: Keck:I (LRIS) , Keck:II (NIRC2) , Gemini:Gillett (GMOS) , GALEX , ARC.


We are indebted to the referee for very thoughtful advice that substantially improved the previous version of the paper. We wish to deeply thank Tomer Holczer for his tests to identify EB contamination, Gil Nachmani, Suzanne Aigrain and Simchon Faigler for illuminating and helpful discussions, and Eric Agol for useful comments. The research leading to these results has received funding to T.M. from the European Research Council under the EU's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/(2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement No. 291352). T.M. also acknowledges support from the Israel Science Foundation (grant No. 1423/11). T.M. and H.B.P. acknowledge support from the Israeli Centers of Research Excellence (I-CORE, grant No. 1829/12). H.B.P. acknowledges support from the European Union's—Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013]) under grant agreement No. 333644–MC–GRAND, as well as the “Minerva center for life under extreme planetary conditions.” T.M. is grateful to the Jesus Serra Foundation that enabled an extended visit to the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, and to his hosts, Hans Deeg and Rafael Rebolo in particular. The last phase of this work has been completed during this visit. This research has made use of the NASA Exoplanet Archive, which is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under the Exoplanet Exploration Program. All of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts.


We used data from the DASCH project, which is supported by the NSF grant AST-1313370. The analysis was performed using the HPC Cluster Yeti at Columbia University.


We acknowledge the anonymous referee for suggestions regarding the phase-connection analysis and the position accuracy. We thank Peng Wei and Eugene Magnier for helpful discussion about the search of the optical/IR counterpart. This work was supported by NSFC grants 11503008 and J1210039, and Top-notch Academic Programs Project of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions. P.Z. acknowledges the support from the NWO Veni Fellowship, grant No. 639.041.647, and NSFC grant 11233001. W.Y. was supported in part by NSFC grant No. 11333005 and by the National Program on Key Research and Development Project (grant No. 2016YFA0400804). X.L. was supported by the National Program on Key Research and Development Project (grant No. 2016YFA0400803), and NSFC grants 11133001 and 11333004. X.X. is grateful for the support of NSFC grant 11303015.


Rosetta is a European Space Agency (ESA) mission with contributions from its member states and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). This study was supported by the Academy of Finland and, in part, by the Research Council of Norway grant No. 240000. The work on RPC-ICA was funded by the Swedish National Space Board under contracts 108/12 and 112/13. Work at the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy was supported by the Belgian Science Policy Office through the Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence and by PRODEX/ROSETTA/ROSINA PEA 4000107705. First selection of events in this study was performed with the AMDA science analysis system provided by the Centre de Données de la Physique des Plasmas (CDPP) supported by CNRS, CNES, Observatoire de Paris and Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse. G.G. is supported by the NASA Astrobiology Institute Grant NNX15AE05G and by the NASA HIDEE program Grant NNH15CO73C. C.S.W. thanks T.E. Cravens (University of Kansas, USA), W.J. Miloch (University of Oslo, Norway) and, last but not least, M. Simon Wedlund for useful discussions.


This research was supported under the Australian Research Councils funding scheme (FT110100263). This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science.


We would are deeply grateful to our colleagues who have provided us with valuable guidance. Special thanks to Professor Cui X. Q. (NIAOT) and Professor Granham J. Murray (Durham University) for productive discussions. Without their enlightening instruction, impressive kindness and patience, this paper could not have been completed. The Guoshoujing Telescope (the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope, LAMOST) is a National Major Scientific Project built by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Funding for the project has been provided by the National Development and Reform Commission. LAMOST is operated and managed by the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences.


We wish to commemorate our colleague and friend Gregory Ruchti (1980–2019) who originally branched off this pipeline from the LUMBA-internal GIRAFFE pipeline. We thank the GES team for the work behind the M 67 spectra and for making them available to us. We thank Caroline Soubiran, Paula Jofré, and Maria Bergemann for contributions to the work behind the pipeline. AG, UH, and AJK acknowledge support from the Swedish National Space Agency and the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. PG thanks the European Science Foundation (ESF) for support in the framework of EuroGENESIS. KL acknowledges funds from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation in the framework of the Sofja Kovalevskaja Award endowed by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and funds from the Swedish Research Council (Grant no. 2015-00415_3 ) and Marie Skłodowska Curie Actions (Cofund Project INCA 600398). This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.


The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for helping to improve the quality of this paper. SK, PMW, and CS received funding through BMBF Verbundforschung (grants 05A14BAC, 05A14MGA, ERASMUS-F, grant 05A08BA1, and ELT-MOS, grant 05A15BA1). SD acknowledges BMBF support through grant 05A14MGA, and from DFG through DR281/35-1. AMI acknowledges support from the Spanish MINECO through project AYA2015-68217-P. MMR acknowledges fruitful discussions with PER and TJR. The authors are thankful to A. Vazdekis for providing the (unpublished) MIUSCAT library. Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space TelescopevScience Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA), and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). This research has made use of the Spanish Virtual Observatory ( http://svo.cab.inta-csic.es ) supported from the Spanish MINECO/FEDER through grant AyA2014-55216.


The research leading to the presented results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement no 338251 (StellarAges). E.B. undertook this research in the context of the International Max Planck Research School for Solar System Research. S.B. acknowledges partial support from NSF grant AST-1514676 and NASA grant NNX13AE70G. We thank Alexy Mints and the anonymous referee for their useful comments and discussions, which helped improve this manuscript. Software: Stellar models were calculated with Modules for Experiments in Stellar Astrophysics r8118 (MESA, Paxton et al. 2011 ) and stellar oscillations with the ADIPLS pulsation package 0.2 (Christensen-Dalsgaard 2008 ). Analysis in this manuscript was performed with python 3.5.1 libraries scikit-learn 0.17.1 (Pedregosa et al. 2011 ), NumPy 1.11.0 (Van Der Walt et al. 2011 ), matplotlib 1.5.1 (Hunter 2007 ), biokit 0.3.2 16 16 T. Cokelaer et al. 2016, (Version 0.3.2), https://github.com/biokit/biokit , and pandas 0.19.0 (McKinney 2010 ) as well as R 3.3.2 (R Core Team 2014 ) and the R libraries magicaxis 2.0.0 (Robotham 2015 ), RColorBrewer 1.1-2 (Neuwirth 2014 ), parallelMap 1.3 (Bischl Lang 2015 ), data.table 1.9.6 (Dowle et al. 2015 ), ggplot2 2.1.0 (Wickham 2009 ), GGally 1.2.0 (Schloerke et al. 2014 ), scales 0.4.0 (Wickham 2015 ) and Corrplot 0.77.


We thank the anonymous referee for comments that significantly improved the manuscript. We additionally thank X. Bai, R. Fu, and J. Bryson for useful discussions. We gratefully acknowledge support from the NASA Emerging Worlds program (grant No. NNX15AH72G) , the U.S. Rosetta program (CREI 1576768), and Thomas F. Peterson Jr. Software: Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), NumPy (Van Der Walt et al. 2011 ), SciPy (Jones et al. 2001 ).


This work has benefited from the discussions at the meeting “Solar UV bursts – a new insight to magnetic reconnection” at the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) in Bern. NASA’s Astrophysics Data System (ADS) and the 3D visualization tool Vapor were extensively used in this study.


SDO is a mission of NASA’s Living With a Star Program. Hinode is a Japanese mission developed and launched by ISAS/JAXA, with NAOJ as a domestic partner and NASA and STFC (UK) as international partners. I thank the referee for specific comments and suggestions that improved the scientific presentation of the content. P.V. is supported by an INSPIRE grant of AORC scheme under the Department of Science and Technology. I am thankful to Prof. P. Venkatakrishnan for introducing me to this problem of net current neutralization.


We appreciate Professor L. Perivolaropoulos for useful discussions. We are grateful to M.-H. Li, X. Li and S. Wang for meaningful suggestions. This work has been funded by the National Natural Science Fund of China under Grant no. 11375203.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank both Andrew Gilbert and the anonymous referee for their comments that greatly improved the content of the manuscript. AH is supported by his STFC Ernest Rutherford Fellowship grant number ST/L00397X/2 and by STFC grant ST/R000891/1. AB was supported by the Leverhulme Trust through the award of an Early Career Fellowship and by STFC Grant ST/R00059X/1. IA acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) through projects AYA2014-55456-P (Bayesian Analysis of the Solar Corona), AYA2014-60476-P (Solar Magnetometry in the Era of Large Telescopes), from FEDER funds, and through a Ramon y Cajal fellowship.


Support from the Junta de Extremadura (Research Group Grant GR15137) and from the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of the Spanish Government (AYA2014-57556-P) is gratefully acknowledged. I.U. acknowledges support by the Center of Excellence ReSoLVE (Academy of Finland Project No. 272157).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS C.A. would like to acknowledge support by the NSF research grant AST-1613472. M.D.S. acknowledges support by a research grant (13261) from VILLUM FONDEN. The work presented in this paper has been supported in part by NSF awards AST-1613472 (PI: E. Y. Hsiao), P. Hoeflich AST-1715133 (PI: P. Hoeflich), and AST-1613426 (PI: M. M. Phillips). We also acknowledge the Florida Space Grant Consortium. C.G. acknowledges support by the Carlsberg Foundation. The UCSC team is supported by NSF grant AST-1518052, the Gordon Betty Moore Foundation, and from fellowships from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation to R.J.F. Support for programme #GO–12592 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5–26555.


E.C. acknowledges financial support from the Chinese Academy of Sciences Presidents’ International Fellowship Initiative, Grant No. 2015PM054. E.C., X.K., and A.R. acknowledge financial support by the 973 program (No. 2015CB857003, 2013CB834900), NSF of Jiangsu Province (No. BK20140050), and the NSFC (No. 11333008, 11550110182, 11550110183). E.C. and S.K.Y. acknowledge support from the Korean National Research Foundation (NRF-2017R1A2A1A05001116) and from the Brain Korea 21 Plus Program (21A20131500002). This study was performed under the umbrella of the joint collaboration between Yonsei University Observatory and the Korean Astronomy and Space Science Institute.


This project has been funded by the BBVA Foundation under the Convocatoria 2015 de Ayudas Fundación BBVA a Investigadores y Creadores Culturales. We thank E. Vázquez-Semadeni and J. Alves for very useful comments, and R. Lorente and I.Yamamura for their help with the AKARI data. We are indebted to the Calar Alto Observatory staff for their excellent work taking the near-IR data under the Service Mode program. NH thanks the ALMA Science Center in Santiago for hosting her during 2.5 months. I.d.G. acknowledges support fromMICINN (Spain) AYA2011-30228-C03 grant (including FEDER funds). A.P. and L.Z. acknowledge the financial support from UNAM-DGAPA-PAPITT IA102815 grant (México). D.B. has been funded by Spanish grant AYA2012-38897-C02-01. H.B. is funded by the Ramón y Cajal fellowship program number RYC-2009-04497. A.B. acknowledges financial support from the Proyecto Fondecyt de Iniciación 11140572, and scientific support from the Millenium Science Initiative, Chilean Ministry of Economy, Nucleus RC130007. M.T.R. acknowledges partial support from CATA (PB06, CONICYT-Chile). C.E. is partly supported by Spanish Grant AYA 2014-55840-P. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


Based on observations made with the Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC), installed in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, in the island of La Palma. All the figures presented here were made using Matplotlib ( Hunter 2007 ).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are glad to thank the referee, Andrej Prša, for his valuable comments and recommendations that helped improve this work. B-CO would like to thank Kyle Conroy for his support with technical details in the implementation of phoebe .


The imaging data used in this work was provided courtesy of the NASA/ SDO and the AIA and HMI science teams. The OMNI data were obtained from the GSFC/SPDF OMNIWeb interface at https://omniweb.gsfc.nasa.gov . The authors thank the Helioviewer project for providing easy browsing access to many solar imaging data sets. The authors are also grateful to the anonymous referee for numerous helpful comments that improved the final paper.


We thank the anonymous referee for a constructive review. We thank Simon Radford and William Tan for help with the CSO observation and data reduction, and Junhao Liu for helpful discussions on RADEX modeling. X.L. acknowledges the support of a Smithsonian Predoctoral Fellowship and the program A for outstanding PhD candidate of Nanjing University. J.M.D.K. gratefully acknowledges support in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), grant number KR4801/1-1. C.B. is supported by the National Science Foundation under Award No. 1602583. Z.Y.Z. acknowledges support from the European Research Council in the form of the Advanced Investigator Programme, 321302, cosmicism . We acknowledge the support by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant No. 11629302). This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), and NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. This material is based upon work at the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory, which was operated by the California Institute of Technology. This publication is also based on data acquired with the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX). APEX is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Institut fur Radioastronomie, the European Southern Observatory, and the Onsala Space Observatory. Facilities: SMA , VLA , CSO , APEX , GBT . Software: CASA, MIRIAD, MIR, GILDAS/CLASS, Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), RADEX (van der Tak et al. 2007 ), myRadex, correl_images.pro.


P.D. thanks Philippe Laurent for his help in calculating elliptical integral numerical values. This research has made use of TOPCAT ( Taylor (2005) , http://www.starlink.ac.uk/topcat/ ) and SAOImage/DS9, developed by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory ( http://hea-www.harvard.edu/RD/ds9/ ). This work profits from data downloaded from the SIMBAD database, operated at the CDS, and the VizieR catalogue access tool (CDS, Strasbourg, France; Ochsenbein et al. 2000 ). SPIRE was developed by a consortium of institutes led by Cardiff Univ. (UK) and including Univ. Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, Univ. Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); Stockholm Observatory (Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, Univ. Sussex (UK); Caltech, JPL, NHSC, Univ. Colorado (USA). This development has been supported by national funding agencies: CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); STFC (UK); and NASA (USA). PACS was developed by a consortium of institutes led by MPE (Germany) and including UVIE (Austria); KU Leuven, CSL, IMEC (Belgium); CEA, LAM (France); MPIA (Germany); INAF-IFSI/OAA/OAP/OAT, LENS, SISSA (Italy); IAC (Spain). This development has been supported by the funding agencies BMVIT (Austria), ESA-PRODEX (Belgium), CEA/CNES (France), DLR (Germany), ASI/INAF (Italy), and CICYT/MCYT (Spain). T.H. was supported by a CEA/Marie-Curie Eurotalents Fellowship. Part of this work was supported by the ANR (Agence Nationale pour la Recherche) project “PROBeS”, number ANR-08-BLAN-0241.


Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments and suggestions that helped to significantly increase the quality of this work.


Acknowledgments We thank Mikoaj Jerzykiewicz for carefully reading the manuscript and language corrections. This work was financially supported by the Polish National Science Centre (grant 2015/17/B/ST9/02082). The calculations were carried out using resources provided by the Wrocaw Centre for Networking and Supercomputing ( http://wcss.pl ; grant 265).


This work is a part of the project 176002 ‘Influence of collisional processes on astrophysical plasma line shapes’ supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of Serbia. It is also the result of Short term Scientific Mission CM0805 within COST programme on The Chemical Cosmos: Understanding Chemistry in Astronomical Environments. Partial financial support from project No 6572-20 Technical University – Sofia within Euroatom Programme is also acknowledged. This work has been supported as well, by the Paris Observatory, the CNRS and the PNPS (Programme National de Physique Stellaire, INSU-CNRS).


This work has been financially supported by the Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES), the Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers (INSU), Airbus Group, Thales Alenia Space and the Région Limousin. We gratefully acknowledge Wolfgang Sohler for many helpful and stimulating discussions. Our thanks go also to A. Dexet for the development and his advices for all the specific mechanical components.


We would like to thank the Department of Physics and Astronomy at BYU and the Departments of Physics at BYUI and UVU for support throughout this research. We are indebted to Kristin Chiboucas for many patient explanations of GMOS observing and to John Salzer for a helpful discussion. This report is based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnologa e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovaçäo (Brazil), for program GN-2015B-FT-15. This research is also based on observations at Kitt Peak National Observatory, National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO Prop. ID: 2013A-0106; PI: J.W. Moody), which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The authors are honored to be permitted to conduct astronomical research on Iolkam Du’ag (Kitt Peak), a mountain with particular significance to the Tohono O’odham. Facilities: Mayall (MOSAIC-1.1 wide-field camera) , Gemini:Gillett (GMOS).


F.W. is supported by the National Science Foundation (USA) under Grant PHY-1411708. S.S. acknowledges access to the computer facilities of the CSC Frankfurt. R.N. acknowledges financial support from the CAPES and CNPq.


We thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments and suggestions. This work is supported by the NSFC (grants 11103003, 11133005, 11573009 and U1431124), National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program, No. 2014CB8455800), and New Century Excellent Talents in University (NCET-13-0238).


Acknowledgements We thank the SN community, both professional and amateur, for its tireless efforts discovering and classifying SNe. We especially thank those who make discoveries, classifications, and data immediately public. Timely, public access to this information was both critical for this work and a significant benefit for all of science. We especially thank A. Castro-Tirado, R. Chornock, A. Gal-Yam, B. Shappee, I. Shivvers, J. Strader, and O. Yaron for providing additional information about their observations. We thank S. Downing, A. Duarte, M. Garcia, R. Hounsell, A. Kniazev, M. Kotze, B. Miszalski, B. Patel, E. Romero Colmenero, R. Skelton, and J. Tonry for assisting in some of the observations presented here. We thank C. Stubbs for his continued support of this project and other intellectual contributions. This manuscript is based upon work supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Contract No. NNG16PJ34C issued through the WFIRST Science Investigation Teams Programme. RJF and DS were supported in part by NASA grant 14-WPS14-0048. The UCSC group is supported in part by NSF grant AST-1518052, the Gordon Betty Moore Foundation, and from fellowships from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation to RJF. DS acknowledges support from NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51383.001 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555 and the Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago through grant NSF PHY-1125897 and an endowment from the Kavli Foundation and its founder Fred Kavli. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC Grant agreement no. [291222] (PI: SJS). Pan-STARRS is supported in part by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grants NNX12AT65G and NNX14AM74G. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen's University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST–1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. This paper is based on observations (NOAO Prop. IDs: 2015A-0253 and 2015B-0313; PI: RJF) obtained at the Southern Astrophysical Research (SOAR) telescope, which is a joint project of the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, e Inovação (MCTI) da República Federativa do Brasil; the U.S. National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO); the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC); and Michigan State University (MSU), and at Kitt Peak National Observatory, NOAO, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The authors are honoured to be permitted to conduct astronomical research on Iolkam Du'ag (Kitt Peak), a mountain with particular significance to the Tohono O'odham. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Research at Lick Observatory is partially supported by a generous gift from Google. Some of the observations reported in this paper were obtained with the Southern African Large Telescope (SALT), and we thank the SALT Astronomers for assistance. Based on observations obtained with the Apache Point Observatory 3.5-m telescope, which is owned and operated by the Astrophysical Research Consortium. We acknowledge use of some data collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere, Chile as part of PESSTO, (the Public ESO Spectroscopic Survey for Transient Objects Survey) ESO programme 188.D-3003, 191.D-0935. This manuscript was initiated during the ‘Dynamic Universe: Understanding ExaScale Astronomical Synoptic Surveys’ workshop at the Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported in part by the NSF under grant No. PHYS-1066293. RJF and DS thank the Aspen Center for Physics for its hospitality during the ‘Dynamic Universe’ workshop in 2015 June. Facility: Pan-STARRS-1 (GPC1); SOAR (Goodman spectrograph); Mayall (KOSMOS spectrograph); FLWO:1.5m (FAST); ARC (DIS); SALT (RSS); Keck:I (LRIS); Keck:II (DEIMOS) Shane (Kast)


We are grateful to the referee’s constructive comments. BBSO operation is supported by NJIT, US NSF AGS-1250818, NASA NNX13AG14G, AFOSR-FA9950-15-1-0322, and NST operation is partly supported by the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute and Seoul National University, and by stategic priority research program of CAS with Grant No. XDB09000000. IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by ESA and the Norwegian Space Centre. The SDO data were (partly) provided by the Korea Data Center (KDC) for SDO in cooperation with NASA and SDO /HMI Team, which is operated by the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute. This work was conducted as a part of the effort of NASA’s Living with a Star Focused Team “Jets” funded by NASA LWS NNX11A073G grant. V. Yu also acknowledges support from AFOSR FA9550-12-0066 and NSF AGS-1146896 grants and the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute. This work was supported by a grant from the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, under agreement number FA 2386-14-1-4078 and by the planetary system research for space exploration from KASI. This work was also supported by the Maintenance of Korean Space Weather Center, a project of KASI, and the KASI basic research fund.


This paper is based on observations collected with the 2.2 m telescope at the Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA) in Calar Alto (Spain) and the publicly available data obtained with the NASA space satellite Kepler . Operations at the Calar Alto telescopes are jointly performed by the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie (MPIA) and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (CSIC). This research was partially funded by Spanish grant AYA2012-38897-C02-01. J.L.-B. thanks the CSIC JAE-predoc programme for Ph.D. fellowship support. R.B. is supported by CONICYT-PCHA/Doctorado Nacional. R.B. acknowledges additional support from project IC120009 “Millenium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS)” of the Millennium Science Initiative, Chilean Ministry of Economy. We wish to thank Ennio Poretti for very helpful comments. We acknowledge the use of the following internet-based resources: the ESO Digitized Sky Survey; the TEPCat catalogue; the SIMBAD database operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France; and the arXiv scientific paper preprint service operated by Cornell University.


Acknowledgements The SAMI Galaxy Survey is based on observations made at the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The Sydney/AAO Multi-object Integral-field spectrograph (SAMI) was developed jointly by the University of Sydney and the Australian Astronomical Observatory. The SAMI input catalogue is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, the GAMA survey, and the VST ATLAS survey. The SAMI Galaxy Survey is funded by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020, and other participating institutions. The SAMI Galaxy Survey website is http://sami-survey.org/ . JTA acknowledges the award of a SIEF John Stocker Fellowship. MSO acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship (FT140100255). BG is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT140101202). NS acknowledges support of a University of Sydney Postdoctoral Research Fellowship. SB acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship (FT140101166). JvdS is funded under Bland-Hawthorn's ARC Laureate Fellowship (FL140100278). SMC acknowledges the support of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT100100457). Support for AMM is provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant #HST-HF2-51377 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. CF gratefully acknowledges funding provided by the Australian Research Council's Discovery Projects (grants DP150104329 and DP170100603). BC is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT120100660). Author contributions .AWG and SMC oversaw DR1 and edited the paper. SMC is the survey's Principal Investigator. JBH and SMC wrote the introduction. JB oversaw the target selection and wrote those parts of the paper. NS wrote sections on the changes to the data reduction, and oversaw the data reduction with JTA and RS. ITH oversaw the emission-line fits and produced Figs 11 and 12 , with BG providing additional clarifying text. AMM ran quality control on the emission-line fits, produced the higher order value-added data products, and coordinated ingestion of these to the data base. BG helped coordinate preparation of value-added products for release. MJD and LC oversaw the formatting and preparation of all data for inclusion in the online data base. JvdS prepared the survey overview diagram, Fig. 4 . SMC checked the flux calibration accuracy and wrote Section 3.4.3 and prepared Fig. 7 . ADT and SMC measured the accuracy of the WCS information and wrote the corresponding Section 3.4.4 . RMM provided heliocentric velocity corrections. FDE and JTA created Figs 6 and 7 and contributed to the data reduction software and to the assessment of the data quality, Section 3.4 . AWG, EM, LH, SO, MV, KS, and AMH built the online data base serving the data. Remaining authors contributed to overall team operations including target catalogue and observing preparation, instrument maintenance, observing at the telescope, writing data reduction and analysis software, managing various pieces of team infrastructure such as the website and data storage systems, and innumerable other tasks critical to the preparation and presentation of a large data set such as this DR1.


We thank the anonymous referee for a thoughtful and constructive report. This work is based on observations carried out with the IRAM NOEMA Interferometer and the IRAM 30 m telescope. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). This work was carried out as part of the PHANGS collaboration (formerly SFNG) and the PAWS collaboration. The work of A.K.L., M.G., and J.S. is partially supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Nos. 1615105, 1615109, and 1653300. E.S. acknowledge financial support to the DAGAL network from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013/ under REA grant agreement number PITN-GA-2011-289313. E.S. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 694343). A.H. acknowledges support from the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES). J.M.D.K. and M.C. gratefully acknowledge financial support in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), grant number KR4801/1-1 (PI: Kruijssen). J.M.D.K. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the ERC Starting Grant MUSTANG (grant agreement number 714907, PI Kruijssen). G.B. is supported by CONICYT/FONDECYT, Programa de Iniciacion, Folio 11150220. A.U. acknowledges support from Spanish MINECO grants AYA2012-32295 and FIS2012-32096. F.B. ac- knowledges support from DFG grant BI1546/1-1. S.G.B. thanks economic support from grants ESP2015-68964-P and AYA2016-76682-C3-2-P.


We thank the anonymous referee for the insightful comments. EC and RS acknowledges partial support from the Russian Science Foundation grant 19-12-00369. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00760.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. Basic research in radio astronomy at the US Naval Research Laboratory is funded by 6.1 Base funding, supporting T. Clarke. The scientific results reported in this article are obtained using the following softwares: AstroPy , a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration et al. 2018 ); dynesty ( Speagle 2019 ); galario ( Tazzari et al. 2018 ).


The authors are particularly grateful to Mohsen Shadmehri, De-Fu Bu and Richard Lovelace for their help and useful suggestions. We also appreciate the thoughtful and constructive comments of the referees, which clarified some points in the early version of the article. S. Abbassi acknowledges support from the International Center for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) for a visit through the regular associateship scheme. This work was supported by the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad under the grant 2/29823 (1393/1/19).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS J.J. acknowledges support by the Cambridge Trust and the Chinese Scholarship Council Joint Scholarship Programme (201604100032). D.J.W. acknowledges support from an Science and Technology Facilities Council Ernest Rutherford fellowship. M.L.P. is supported by a European Space Agency (ESA) research fellowship. A.C.F. acknowledges support by the European Research Council Advanced Grant 340442. This work made use of data from the NuSTAR mission, a project led by the California Institute of Technology, managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and funded by NASA, and data obtained from the Suzaku satellite, a collaborative mission between the space agencies of Japan (JAXA) and the USA (NASA). This research has made use of the NuSTAR Data Analysis Software ( nustardas ) jointly developed by the ASI Science Data Center and the California Institute of Technology.


We acknowledge the SVT team at ESO HQ for their help during the preparation of the OBs and the VLT team for conducting the observations. We thank C. P. Dullemond, G. Lesur, M. Min, and M. Tauras for fruitful discussions, and the referee for providing useful comments. M.B. acknowledges financial support from “Programme National de Physique Stellaire” (PNPS) of CNRS/INSU, France. C.G. was supported under the NASA Origins of Solar Systems program on NNG13PB64P. T.B. acknowledges support from NASA Origins of Solar Systems grant NNX12AJ04G.


The NANOGrav Project receives support from NSF Physics Frontiers Center award number 1430284. Pulsar research at UBC is supported by an NSERC Discovery Grant and by the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research. The Arecibo Observatory is operated by SRI International under a cooperative agreement with the NSF (AST-1100968) and in alliance with Ana G. Méndez-Universidad Metropolitana and the Universities Space Research Association. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory and the Green Bank Observatory are facilities of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. W.W.Z. is supported by the CAS Pioneer Hundred Talents Program and the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, grant No. XDB23000000. Author Contributions. M.T.L. developed the mathematical framework for this work, created the modified set of profiles and short-term residuals, performed the analysis, and prepared the majority of the manuscript. M.A.M. assisted with the preparation of the manuscript. All authors performed observations and/or helped produce the initial pulse-profile data set. Additional specific contributions will be described in the future NANOGrav 12.5 yr data set paper. Software: PSRCHIVE (Hotan et al. 2004 ; van Straten et al. 2012 ), nanopipe (Demorest 2018 ), PyPulse (Lam 2017 ).


We are grateful to M. Mori, K. Yoshikawa, A. Y. Wagner, A. Burkert, F. Nakamura, H. Yajima, and A. Inoue for fruitful discussion. The numerical simulations have been performed with coma provided by Interdisciplinary Computational Science Program in Center for Computational Sciences, University of Tsukuba, and with cray xc30 at Center for Computational Astrophysics, NAOJ. This research was supported in part by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) by JSPS (15H03638) (MU) and a grant from NAOJ (KH).


RCN acknowledges the financial support from CAPES Scholarship Box 13222/13-9. SP acknowledges the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Govt. of India, for a Post-Doctoral grant (File No. 2/40(60)/2015/RD-II/15420). SP also acknowledges the Department of Mathematics, Jadavpur University, where the work was initiated and some of the parts were carried out. The authors are very grateful to Diego Pavón for his useful comments. The authors are also very grateful to the anonymous referee for many illuminating comments which improved the manuscript considerably. Lastly, we must acknowledge the assistant editor for pointing out some setting problems in the figures.


We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that improved the presentation of the work. We also thank Mauro Sereno, Marco De Petris and Dominique Eckert for discussion and comments on the manuscript. We acknowledge the financial contribution from contracts ASI-INAF I/009/10/0 and PRIN-INAF 2012.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for insightful comments. We acknowledge support from NSF AST 16-15688, the NASA/NY Space Grant fellowship, and contributions made by The Marvin Clan, Babette Josephs, Manit Limlamai, and the 2015 Crowd Funding Campaign to Support Milky Way Research. JLC acknowledges support from AST 11-51462. TCB acknowledges partial support for this work from grant PHY 14-30152; Physics Frontier Center/JINA Center for the Evolution of the Elements (JINA-CEE), awarded by the US National Science Foundation. PD acknowledges partial funding from a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada grant to D. VandenBerg. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III Website is http://www.sdss3.org/ .


The Parkes Observatory is part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. We thank the reviewer, Dipankar Bhattacharya, for suggestions which helped improve the manuscript.


This research has made use of data obtained from the Suzaku satellite, a collaborative mission between the space agencies of Japan (JAXA) and the USA (NASA). We acknowledge the use of public data from the Swift data archive. This research is also based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and NASA. It has made use of data and/or software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. We appreciate constructive advice and comments by the referee. A.C.F. acknowledges ERC Advanced Grant 340442. S.T. and A.C.L. are supported by NASA grant NNX16AF82G. Facilities: Suzaku , Swift , XMM-Newton . Software: SAS, HEASoft.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper was based on the observation data collected at OHP Observatory, France. TM, TG, MP, and FKT are grateful for the support from the Swiss National Science Foundation, project SCOPES No. IZ73Z0152485. MP acknowledges significant support to NuGrid from NSF grant PHY-1430152 (JINA Center for the Evolution of the Elements) and STFC (through the University of Hull’s Consolidated Grant ST/R000840/1), and access to viper , the University of Hull High Performance Computing Facility. MP acknowledges the support from the ‘Lendlet-2014’ Programme of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences(Hungary), and from the BRIDGCE UK network. FKT acknowledges support from the European Research Council (FP7) under ERC Advanced Grant Agreement 321263 FISH. BC and MP acknowledges support from the ERC Consolidator Grant(Hungary) funding scheme (project RADIOSTAR, G.A. n. 724560) and from the National Science Foundation (USA) under grant No. PHY-1430152 (JINA Center for the Evolution of the Elements). This article is based upon work from the ChETEC COST Action (CA16117), supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology). TM thanks to S. Korotin for discussions. The authors appreciate very useful comments provided by the anonymous referee.


We thank M. Auger for useful discussions. SS, GC, SHS, and AY thank the Max Planck Society for support through the Max Planck Research Group for SHS. This research was supported in part by Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. Research at Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through the Department of Innovation, Science and Economic Development and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Research, Innovation and Science. The analysis is based on the following: (1) observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. These observations were done in May 2010 with Proposal ID 11602 and in November 2011 with Proposal ID 12266; (2) observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil).


We are indebted to Brian Marsden, who performed the orbit calculations that made these observations possible. S.G. and J.C.R. thank the International Space Science Institute (Bern, Switzerland) for the opportunity to discuss this work within the International Study Team program. SOHO is a project of international cooperation between ESA and NASA. UVCS is a joint project of NASA, Italian Space Agency (ASI), and the Swiss Funding Agencies. LASCO was built by a consortium of the Naval Research Laboratory, USA; the Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Marseille (formerly Laboratoire d'Astronomie Spatiale), France; the Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung (formerly Max Planck Institute für Aeronomie), Germany; and the School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Birmingham, UK. This work was supported by NASA grant NAG5-12814. Facility: SOHO (UVCS, LASCO)


T.W. thanks Durham University Department of Mathematical Sciences for funding his Ph.D. studentship. A.R.Y. thanks STFC for financial support. A.R.Y. and G.J.D.P. thank ISSI, Bern for supporting their collaboration as part of an International Team on global magnetic modelling. A.M.J. is very grateful to George Fisher and Stuart Bale for their support at the University of California, Berkeley, and Phil Scherrer for his support at Stanford University. This research is partly funded by the NASA Grand Challenge grant NNH13ZDA001N and NASA LWS grant NNX16AB77G. Data were acquired by SOLIS instruments operated by NISP/NSO/AURA/NSF. We are grateful to David Hathaway for also supplying data for this study and to Ian Vernon for his invaluable statistical advice as well as to the anonymous referee for useful suggestions.


We acknowledge useful conversations with Dan Coe on this topic, who has been attempting similar measurements on his triply imaged z ∼ 11 candidate. SMW acknowledges support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council. IL acknowledges support from the European Research Council grant HIGHZ no. 227749 and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research Spinoza grant. The Dark Cosmology Centre is funded by the Danish National Research Foundation.


We would like to thank J.C. Augereau for providing the GraTeR code used to create our disk models. R. Asensio-Torres and M. Janson gratefully acknowledge funding from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg foundation. J. Carson acknowledges support via the US National Science Foundation under Award No. 1009203.


S.B. thanks the Wihuri Foundation for continued funding throughout the project, the Finnish Cultural Foundation for funding the last part of the research, and the University of Turku Foundation and the StarryStory Foundation for funding travel related to the project. We are grateful for the help provided by Marina Rejkuba during the telescope application period and analysis of the 40 kpc NGC 5128 halo field, to Glen Mackie for very useful discussions, and for the care and interest taken by the referee during the reviewal process. This work has made use of BaSTI web tools.


Acknowledgements Most of this work was made possible by support from the US National Science Foundation grant 09-68296 as well as National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Space Grants. One of us (JR) also thanks the Anton Pannekoek Astronomical Institute of the University of Amsterdam for their support. The Arecibo Observatory is operated by SRI International under a cooperative agreement with the US National Science Foundation, and in alliance with SRI, the Ana G. Méndez-Universidad Metropolitana and the Universities Space Research Association. This work made use of the NASA ADS astronomical data system. One of us (KS) thanks the US National Science Foundation for their support under the Physics Frontiers Center award number 1430284.


A.I. and N.J.T. thank Mario Flock, Cornelis Dullemond, Thomas Henning, Wilhelm Kley, Wladimir Lyra, and Roy van Boekel for helpful discussions, and Ruobing Dong, Nienke Van der Marel, and Myriam Benisty for sharing images of SAO206463 and J1604. A.I. and N.J.T. acknowledge support from the NASA Origins of Solar Systems program through award NNX15AB06G and from the JPL Research Technology Development Program through award R.16.183.037. A.I. acknowledges support from the NSF Grants Nos. AST-1535809 and AST-1715718. This work was carried out in part at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with NASA.


Acknowledgments We thank the anonymous referee for their constructive comments. AC (ORCID 0000-0003-4578-514X) acknowledges support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) consolidated grant ST/L000652/1. MTS acknowledges support from a Royal Society Leverhulme Trust Senior Research Fellowship (LT150041). We acknowledge financial support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (AC, project PBEZP2_137312), from the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (AC and ElF, contract no. ANR- 12-JS05-0008-01) and from the E. C. through an ERC grant (AC and FB, StG-257720). GEM acknowledges support from the ERC Consolidator Grant funding scheme (project ConTExt, grant no. 648179) and a research grant (13160) from Villum Fonden. WR is supported by a CUniverse Grant (CUAASC) from Chulalongkorn University and JSPS KAKENHI grant no. JP15K17604. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.01271.S. ALMA is a partnership of European Southern Obseratory (ESO, representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) under grant agreement no. 283393 (RadioNet3).


We thank the anonymous referee for the very useful comments that improved the content and clarity of the manuscript. This work was partially supported by the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientficas y Tcnicas (CONICET, Argentina) and the Secretara de Ciencia y Tecnologa de la Universidad Nacional de Crdoba (SeCyT-UNC, Argentina). Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington and Yale University. This research has made use of NASAs Astrophysics Data System and Cornell University arXiv repository. We made an extensive use of the following python libraries: http://www.numpy.org/ , http://www.scipy.org/ , http://roban.github.com/CosmoloPy/ and http://www.matplotlib.org/ .


Acknowledgements JLS and EJL acknowledge the support of the STFC. We thank members of the Institute of Astronomy Streams group for discussions and comments as this work was in progress. The anonymous referee is thanked for a number of helpful suggestions.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AO acknowledges support from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) through the excellence cluster ‘The Hamburg Center for Ultrafast Imaging - Structure, Dynamics and Control of Matter at the Atomic Scale’ (CUI, EXC1074). SY acknowledges support from the COST action MOLIM No. CM1405. VS acknowledges the research project RVO:61388963 (IOCB) and support from the Czech Science Foundation (grant P209/15-10267S).


We thank the enitre T’DA team for useful comments and discussions, in particular Andrew Tkachenko. We also acknowledge Marc Hon, Keaton Bell, and James Kuszlewicz for useful comments on the manuscript. L.B. and R.A.G. acknowledge the support from PLATO and GOLF CNES grants. S.M. acknowledges support by the Ramon y Cajal fellowship number RYC-2015-17697. O.J.H. and B.M.R. acknowledge the support of the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). M.N.L. acknowledges the support of the ESA PRODEX programme (PEA 4000119301). Funding for the Stellar Astrophysics Centre is provided by the Danish National Research Foundation (Grant DNRF106).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work is a part of the Project 176002 ‘Influence of collisional processes on astrophysical plasma line shapes’ supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of Serbia.


Acknowledgements The authors thank the ESO staff for conducting the observations. We are grateful to D. Lachapelle for providing the spectra of HIP 78530 B and USco 1610-1913 B. We also thank J. Bouvier for advising us on accretion process and chromospheric activity effects. We acknowledge financial support from the Programme National de Planétologie (PNP), the Programme National de Physique Stellaire (PNPS) of CNRS-INSU in France, and the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (GIPSE project; grant ANR-14-CE33-0018). This research has made use of the SIMBAD database and VizieR catalogue access tool (operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System and of the Extrasolar Planet Encyclopedia ( http:// exoplanet.eu/ ). This publication makes use of VOSA, developed under the Spanish Virtual Observatory project supported from the Spanish MINECO through grant AyA2017-84089. G-DM acknowledges the support of the DFG priority program SPP 1992 “Exploring the Diversity of Extrasolar Planets” (KU 2849/7-1).


We would like to thank Thorsten Lisker for the valuable help and discussions during the whole FDS project. A.V. would like to thank the Vilho, Yrjö, and Kalle Väisälä Foundation of the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters for the financial support during the writing of this paper. GvdV acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No 724857 (Consolidator Grant ArcheoDyn). R.F.P., T.L., E.L., H.S., E.I., and J.J. acknowledge financial support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 721463 to the SUNDIAL ITN network. H.S., E.L., and A.V. are also supported by the Academy of Finland grant n:o 297738. C.W. is supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) through project 394551440. J.F-B acknowledges support from grant AYA2016-77237-C3-1-P from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO).


Studies of the evolution of hot gas in elliptical galaxies at UC Santa Cruz were supported during the earlier phases of this work by the NSF and are currently supported by a NASA-funded Chandra Theory Grant for which we are very grateful. F.B. is supported in part by the Prin MIUR grant 2010LY5N2T “The Chemical and Dynamical Evolution of the Milky Way and Local Group Galaxies.”


The Arecibo Observatory is operated by SRI International under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation (AST-1100968) and in alliance with Ana G. Méndez-Universidad Metropolitana and the Universities Space Research Association. Facilities : Planck , Arecibo, IRAS.


We thank Hanno Rein, Daniel Tamayo, and Edmund Bertschinger for helpful discussions. DMH acknowledges support by an NSF Graduate Research Fellowship under grant no. 1122374.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee Duncan Lorimer for constructive suggestions that improved this Letter and Prof. D. Li for helpful conversation. This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 11603010, 11133001, 11333004, 11773015, and 11563003), the National Program on Key Research and Development Project (Grant No. 2016YFA0400803), and the Natural Science Foundation for the Youth of Jiangsu Province (No. BK20160611).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for his/her detailed reading of our work and the many suggestions which improved this manuscript considerably. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Gauss Centre for Supercomputing e.V. ( www.gauss-centre.eu ) for funding this project by providing computing time on the GCS Supercomputer SuperMUC at Leibniz Supercomputing Centre ( http://www.lrz.de ) through project pr49zo, and the Leibniz Gemeinschaft for funding this project through grant SAW-2012-AIP-5 129.


The authors thank Russell Keeney for his tireless efforts in maintaining and operating the OVRO 40 m Telescope. We thank Sterl Phinney and Shrinivas Kulkarni for useful discussions. The OVRO 40 m program has been supported by NASA grants NNG06GG1G, NNX08AW31G, NNX11A043G, and NNX13AQ89G and NSF grants AST-0808050, and AST-1109911. The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. H. Vedantham is an RA and GB Millikan fellow of experimental physics. T. Hovatta was supported in part by the Academy of Finland project number 267324. R. Reeves gratefully acknowledges support from the Chilean Basal Centro de Excelencia en Astrofisica y Tecnologias Afines (CATA) grant PFB-06/2007. Facilities: OVRO:40 m, Keck:I (LRIS), Metsähovi Radio Observatory, SMA.


Acknowledgments We would like to thank Aseem Paranjape, Sowgat Muzahid and Charles Danforth for useful discussion on statistics and observations. All the computations were performed using the PERSEUS cluster at IUCAA and the HPC cluster at NCRA.


We wish to thank the anonymous referee for a careful reading and useful comments on our manuscript. The Kagoshima University 1 m telescope is a member of the Optical and Near-infrared Astronomy Inter-University Cooperation Program and supported by it. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. R.B. acknowledges support through the EACOA Fellowship from the East Asian Core Observatories Association.


We would like to thank M. Serylak and the anonymous referee for useful comments which have improved this manuscript. NJY also acknowledges financial support from the South African SKA (SKA SA) project.


This work is supported by NASA Origins of the Solar System grant No. NNX13AH79G. The authors thank A.A. Vidotto (Geneva) L. Fletcher (Glasgow) for providing helpful comments and suggestions. We would also like to thank the anonymous referee for feedback and thought-provoking questions on the manuscript.


This project has received funding from the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological development, and demonstration under grant agreement no. 284515 (SHOCK). Website: project-shock.eu/home/. A.V. acknowledges the Interuniversity Attraction Poles Programme initiated by the Belgian Science Policy Office (IAP P7/08 CHARM). P.H. acknowledges grant P209/12/2023 of the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic. Computational resources were provided by CINECA (grant 2014 HP10CLF0ZB and HP10CNMQX2M).


Acknowledgements The authors warmly thank Julien Milli, Grant Kennedy, and Jean-Charles Augereau for enlightening discussions.


We thank the ISCRA staff for allowing us to perform our simulations on the Cineca Supercomputing Cluster GALILEO. We acknowledge P. F. Hopkins and G. Lodato for very useful discussion and comments on this work. E.R.C. acknowledges support by NASA through the Einstein Fellowship Program, grant PF6-170150. This work was also supported by the Packard grant and NASA ATP grant NNX14AH37G (ER). We also thank the referee, H. B. Perets, for valuable comments on the manuscript and very constructive suggestions.


We acknowledge the CLUSTER FGM and EFW P.Is. and teams and the ESA Cluster Science Archive team for making the data used in this work available. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme ([FP7/2007–2013]) under grant agreement No. 313038/STORM. S.G. acknowledges support from the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) under contract ASI-INAF n. I/022/10/2.


This paper is based on observations made at the Laboratório Nacional de Astrofísica (LNA), Itajubá-MG, Brazil. The authors thank the referee Dr D. Pascu for his constructive comments. BM thanks the financial support by the CAPES/Brazil. MA thanks the CNPq (Grants 473002/2013-2 and 308721/2011-0) and FAPERJ (Grant E-26/111.488/2013). RVM acknowledges the following grants: CNPq-306885/2013, CAPES/Cofecub-2506/2015, FAPERJ/PAPDRJ-45/2013 and FAPERJ/CNE/05-2015. JIBC acknowledges CNPq for a PQ2 fellowship (process number 308489/2013-6). ADO is thankful for the support of the CAPES (BEX 9110/12-7) FAPERJ/PAPDRJ (E-26/200.464/2015) grants. ARGJ thanks CAPES/Brazil.


We thank the anonymous referee for the useful comments and suggestions that improved the manuscript. G.B.C, G.R. and K.I.C. acknowledge funding from the European Research Council through the award of the Consolidator Grant ID 681627-BUILDUP. C.G. acknowledges support by VILLUM FONDEN Young Investigator programme grant 10123. A.M. acknowledges funding from the INAF PRIN-SKA 2017 programme 1.05.01.88.04. K.U. acknowledges support from the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan (grant MOST 106-2628-M-001-003-MY3) and from Academia Sinica (grant AS-IA-107-M01). R.D. gratefully acknowledges support from the Chilean Centro de Excelencia en Astrofísica y Tecnologías Afines (CATA) BASAL grant AFB-170002 This research made use of Astropy, ( http://www.astropy.org ) a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration 2013 , 2018 ). This work made use of the CHE cluster, managed and funded by ICRA/CBPF/MCTI, with financial support from FINEP (grant 01.07.0515.00 from CT-INFRA – 01/2006) and FAPERJ (grants E-26/171.206/2006 and E-26/110.516/2012). This work made use of data taken under the ESO programme IDs 186.A-0798, 095.A-0525, 096.A-0105, 096.A-0650, 097.A-0909 and 098.A-0590.


Acknowledgments We thank the anonymous referee for a helpful report that allowed us to improve the manuscript. We thank Arwa Dabbech, Chiara Ferrari, Ivan Marti-Vidal, Stephen Wilkins and Ilana Feain for useful discussions. DM acknowledges support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant number ST/M503836/1). MTS acknowledges support from a Royal Society Leverhulme Trust Senior Research Fellowship. PPP is supported by an Ernest Rutherford Fellowship. JS was supported in part by ERC Project No. 267117 (DARK) hosted by Universit Pierre et Marie Curie (UPMC) Paris 6. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This research made use of aplpy , an open-source plotting package for python hosted at http://aplpy.github.com . This research made use of astropy , a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ).


We thank the anonymous referee for their careful reading and constructive comments that improved the presentation of our work. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the VizieR catalog access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. D.C.L. acknowledges support from NSF grants AST-1009571 and AST-1210311, under which part of this research was carried out. This research was also supported by NSF grants AST-1210599 (UA) and AST-1210372 (U. Denver). Some observations reported here were obtained at the MMT Observatory, a joint facility of the University of Arizona and the Smithsonian Institution.


C. A. M. is supported by an Irish Research Council Government of Ireland Postgraduate Scholarship. E. P. C. is supported by the European Commission Horizon 2020 INFRADEV-1-2017 LOFAR4SW project, no. 777442. We would like to acknowledge NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Information SUVI team for providing data on the 2017 September 2 event, particular thanks to Dan Seaton for preparing the data. We are grateful to the GOES, Wind and LASCO teams for open access to their data. I-LOFAR received funding from Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) grant no. 15/RI/3204. ORFÉES is part of the FEDOME project, partly funded by the French Ministry of Defense. We would like to thank Pietro Zucca for his assistance with the Zucca et al. (2014a) model.


We wish to thank our colleagues in the CANDELS, 3D-HST, and CLEAR collaborations for their intense work to make these data sets usable. The authors thank the anonymous referee for their constructive report, which improved the quality and clarity of this paper. We also thank them (and others) for productive conversations, comments, suggestions, and information, including Charlie Conroy, Romeel Davé, Sandy Faber, Kristian Finlator, Rob Kennicutt, Marcin Sawicki, Corentin Schreiber, and Sarah Wellons. V.E.C. acknowledges generous support from the Hagler Institute for Advanced Study at Texas AM University. This work benefited from generous support from George P. and Cynthia Woods Mitchell Institute for Fundamental Physics and Astronomy at Texas AM University. This work is based on data obtained from the Hubble Space Telescope through program number GO 14227. Support for program number GO 14227 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555.


Data from observations are courtesy of NASA SDO /AIA and the HMI science teams. The computational work was carried out on TianHe-1 (A) at the National Supercomputer Center in Tianjin, China. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC 41822404, 41731067, 41574170, 41531073), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (grant No. HIT.BRETIV.201901), and Shenzhen Technology Project JCYJ20170307150645407. C.J. and Q.H. also acknowledge NSF grant AGS-1650854 and NASA grant 80NSSC17K0016 for partial support. R.L. acknowledges support by NSFC 41474151, 41774150, and 41761134088. P.V. acknowledges support by an INSPIRE grant of the AORC scheme under the Department of Science and Technology of India. We are very grateful to the anonymous referee for his meaningful comments and suggestions.


Acknowledgments We thank Igor Soszynski for providing calibrated OGLE light curves of stars in our field. This work made use of python routines based on gatspy and astroML methods. This project was supported by DGAPA-UNAM grant through project IN106615. DMB acknowledges NPRP grant X-019-1-006 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). This work makes use of observations from the LCOGT network. This work has made a large use of the SIMBAD and ADS services.


This paper arose, in part, out of discussions early on with Don VandenBerg, to whom the authors are grateful. SJ is a fellow of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. FH acknowledges funding through a Discovery Grant from NSERC. MP acknowledges support from the ‘Lendület-2014’ Programme of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Hungary) and from SNF (Switzerland). MP is also thankful for support from EuroGENESIS. MGB's research is supported by the US Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Physics. BP is supported by the NSF under grants PHY 11- 25915, AST 11-09174, and ACI 13-39581.


The authors are grateful to Makoto Sakuda and Tomonori Totani for valuable comments. We would also like to thank Yusuke Koshio for providing us the data of upper limits from Super-Kamiokande. In this work, numerical computations were partially performed on the supercomputers at Research Center for Nuclear Physics (RCNP) in Osaka University. This work was partially supported by Grants-in-Aids for the Scientific Research (No. 24105008, No. 26104006, No. 26105515, and No. 26870615) from MEXT in Japan.


Acknowledgements The author is grateful to the referee, Lothar Frommhold, for his valuable remarks which contributed to improving the quality of this work, and to Burkhard Militzer for useful comments and to share numerical data used in Fig. 9 . Valuable comments from A. Dewaele and C. Iglesias are also acknowledged. This research was supported by the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET, Argentina) through grant no. PIP 114-201101-00208 and the Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina) through Grant No. PICT 2016-1128.


We would like to thank Jonathan Gair, James Guillochon, and Alberto Sesana for useful discussions and suggestions. C.J.H. acknowledges support from CIERA though a visiting pre-doctoral fellowship and a travel grant from the RAS. F.A. was supported by a CIERA postdoctoral fellowship and from a NASA Fermi Grant NNX15AU69G. We acknowledge the use of computing resources at CIERA funded by NSF PHY-1126812.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS JC thanks the Science and Technology Facilities Council and the Royal Astronomical Society for their financial support. DA thanks the Royal Society, and the International Space Science Institute ( ISSI ) for its support. ND is supported by a Vidi grant from the Dutch Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO). TB acknowledges financial contribution from the agreement ASI-INAF n.2017-14-H.0 between Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF) and the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI). The authors acknowledge the use of astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), numpy (Jones et al. 2001 ), and matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ) libraries for python . We also acknowledge the use of public data from the RXTE (Bradt et al. 1993 ) archive, as well as FTOOLS (Blackburn 1995 ) for data manipulation. Results provided by the ASM/ RXTE teams at MIT and at the RXTE Science Operations Facility and Guest Observer Facility at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Centre.


This research has made use of data obtained with NuSTAR , a project led by the California Institute of Technology, managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and funded by NASA. We thank the NuSTAR Operations, Software and Calibration teams for support with the execution and analysis of these observations. This research has made use of the NuSTAR Data Analysis Software (NuSTARDAS) jointly developed by the ASI Science Data Center (ASDC, Italy) and the California Institute of Technology (USA). Support for this work was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration through Chandra Award Number GO6-17080X issued by the Chandra X-ray Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration under contract NAS8-03060. This research has made use of software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application package ciao . We also acknowledge the use of public data from the Swift data archive. D.J.W. acknowledges support from an STFC Ernest Rutherford Fellowship. Facilities: Chandra (ACIS) , NuSTAR , Swift (XRT).


The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for their very constructive comments. LG thanks R. Valiante for the invaluable support during the gamete refactoring and re-engineering. SS acknowledges support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO), VENI grant 639.041.233. RS, AM and SS wish to thank the Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri where the project was originally conceived and developed in successive meetings. The authors acknowledge Andrea Ferrara and Benedetta Ciardi for their very constructive comments. We also thank the 4C Institute at the Scuola Normale Superiore of Pisa for the computational resources necessary to develop and test gamesh . We also acknowledge PRACE 9 for awarding us access to the CEA HPC facility CURIE@GENCI 10 under the Type B project: High Performance Release of the gamesh Pipeline. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. 306476.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee for the useful comments that improved the quality of the work. This project has received funding from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No.607254; this publication reflects only the authors view, and the European Union is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein. SD acknowledges support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant number ST/M503836/1). SO acknowledges support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (grant number ST/L000652/1). We would like to thank M. P. Viero for his very useful help with the simstack code. The Herschel spacecraft was designed, built, tested, and launched under a contract to ESA managed by the Herschel or Planck Project team by an industrial consortium under the overall responsibility of the prime contractor Thales Alenia Space (Cannes), and including Astrium (Friedrichshafen) responsible for the payload module and for system testing at spacecraft level, Thales Alenia Space (Turin) responsible for the service module, and Astrium (Toulouse) responsible for the telescope, with in excess of a hundred subcontractors SPIRE has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by Cardiff University (UK) and including University of Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, University of Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); Stockholm Observatory (Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, University of Sussex (UK); and Caltech, JPL, NHSC, University of Colorado (USA). This development has been supported by national funding agencies CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); STFC, UKSA (UK); and NASA (USA).


We thank the referee for comments that help us to improve the manuscript. We acknowledge the 2011 PRIN-INAF grant for financial support. We acknowledge the financial support of the UnivEarthS Labex program at Sorbonne Paris Cité (ANR-10-LABX-0023 and ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02). G.G. thanks the Observatoire de Paris (Meudon) for support and hospitality during the completion of this work. We thank S. Campana and G. Tagliaferri for contributing to useful discussions.


Acknowledgments This research was supported by projects GOA/2015-014 (2014-2018 KU Leuven) and the Interuniversity Attraction Poles Programme by the Belgian Science Policy Office (IAP P7/08 CHARM) The computational resources and services used in this work were provided by the VSC (Flemish Supercomputer Center), funded by the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) and the Flemish Government department EWI. BR likes to thank Lorenzo Sironi, Fabio Bacchini, Norbert Magyar, Jannis Teunissen, Kirit Makwana, Matthieu Leroy and Dimitris Millas for fruitful discussions and comments.


DM would like to thank Philip Massey, Scott Adams, Michael Fausnaugh, Rubab Khan, Ben Shappee and Obright Lorain for helpful discussions that contributed greatly to this paper. We also wish to thank the anonymous referee, who provided numerous useful comments and aided the betterment of this manuscript. Based on observations made with the NASA GALEX . Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX13AC07G and by other grants and contracts. Some/all of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts.


Acknowledgements The authors thank the referee for their very useful comments. This work has been financially supported by the Programme National Hautes Energies (PNHE), project 994584. LO and AN thank Integrated Activities in the High Energy Astrophysics Domain project for support that enabled this work. L.O. acknowledges support from the DLR grant 50 OR 1612. TB was supported by the FNP grant TEAM/2016-3/19. LO and TB thank Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics, University of California, where this project have been initiated, for their support. This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, the VizieR catalogue access tool, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, and the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. The scientific results reported in this article are based to a significant degree on the data obtained from the Chandra and XMM-Newton Data Archives.


EC acknowledges the support of the Royal Astronomical Society via a RAS Research Fellowship. EC would like to thank Ajinkya Patil, Cathryn Trott, Jonathan Pritchard, Geraint Harker and Harish Vedantham for useful discussions. FBA acknowledges the support of the Royal Society via a University Research Fellowship. VJ would like to thank the Netherlands Foundation for Scientific Research (NWO) for financial support through VENI grant 639.041.336. The work involving oskar was performed using the Darwin Supercomputer of the University of Cambridge High Performance Computing Service ( http://www.hpc.cam.ac.uk/ ), provided by Dell Inc. using Strategic Research Infrastructure Funding from the Higher Education Funding Council for England and funding from the Science and Technology Facilities Council.


J-M M acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (grants AYA2013-40979-P, and AYA2013-48226-C3-2-P) and from the local Autonomous Government (Generalitat Valenciana, grant Prometeo-II/2014/069). The author also acknowledges fruitful discussions with Professors J. A. Miralles and M. Perucho, and the anonymous referee for comments and criticism that helped to improve this manuscript.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the anonymous referee for his/her thoughtful and constructive comments which enabled us to improve the first edition of this paper. This work has been supported financially by Research Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics of Maragha (RIAAM) under research project No. 1/6275-1.


C. S. Peri and P.B. are supported by the ANPCyT PICT-2012/00878. P.B. also acknowledges support from CONICET PIP 0078 and UNLP G11/115 projects. This publication makes uses of the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We thank the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, and data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We also thank the HubbleSite, which is produced by the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. (AURA) for NASA, under contract with the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD. The Hubble Space Telescope is a project of international cooperation between NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA). We thank the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). Finally, we appreciate the suggestions of A. Noriega-Crespo, and insightful discussions with M. V. del Valle and L. J. Pellizza. We thank the anonymous AA referee for comments and suggestions that improved the article.


OSIRIS was built by a consortium of the Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung, Göttingen, Germany, CISAS-University of Padova, Italy, the Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Marseille, France, the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucia, CSIC, Granada, Spain, the Research and Scientific Support Department of the European Space Agency, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, the Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial, Madrid, Spain, the Universidad Politéchnica de Madrid, Spain, the Department of Physics and Astronomy of Uppsala University, Sweden, and the Institut für Datentechnik und Kommunikationsnetze der Technischen Universität Braunschweig, Germany. VIRTIS was built by a consortium from Italy, France, and Germany, under the scientific responsibility of IAPS, Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali of INAF, Rome, which lead also the scientific operations. The VIRTIS instrument development for ESA has been funded and managed by ASI (Italy), with contributions from Observatoire de Meudon (France) financed by CNES and from DLR (Germany). The VIRTIS instrument industrial prime contractor was former Officine Galileo, now Finmeccanica in Campi Bisenzio, Florence, Italy. The support of the national funding agencies of Germany (DLR), France (CNES), Italy (ASI), Spain (MEC), Sweden (SNSB), and the ESA Technical Directorate is gratefully acknowledged.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee for helpful comments and suggestions that have improved this manuscript. We thank Kathryn Disher for her helpful discussion. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under Grant No. DGE1255832. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. This research has made use of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Exoplanet Archive, which is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under the Exoplanet Exploration Program.


The authors acknowledge the anonymous referees for their valuable suggestions that have helped to improve this paper. The authors are also grateful to Takahiro Sumi for providing the MOA-II survey data. SA gratefully acknowledges the support from the Thai Government Scholarship and the University of Manchester President's Doctoral Scholar Award.


Acknowledgments We thank an anonymous referee for comments that improved this paper. The Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA) is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility that is funded by the Australian Government for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. This paper includes archived data obtained through the Australia Telescope Online Archive ( http://atoa.atnf.csiro.au ). This research has made use of the SIMBAD data base (Wenger et al. 2000 ), operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue (Ochsenbein, Bauer Marcout 2000 ) access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France.


Acknowledgements All calculations are run on MPCDF clusters Draco and Cobra. We thank Anish Amarsi for kindly providing us with the H collision rates computed using the Kaulakys recipe. This study is supported by SFB 881 of the DFG (subprojects A05, A10) and by the Research Council of Norway through its Centres of Excellence scheme, project number 262622. S.A.Y. and A.K.B. gratefully acknowledge support from the Ministry for Education and Science (Russian Federation), projects No. 3.5042.2017/6.7, 3.1738.2017/4.6. J.L. has received support through a grant from the Knut och och Alice Wallenberg foundation (2016.0019). Funding for the Stellar Astrophysics Centre is provided by The Danish National Research Foundation (Grant agreement no.: DNRF106). B.P. is partially supported by the CNES, Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales.


The authors would like to express special thanks to the Instituto de Fisica Teorica (IFT-UAM/CSIC in Madrid) for its hospitality and support, via the Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa Program under Grant No. SEV-2012-0249, during the three-week workshop ‘nIFTy Cosmology’ where this work developed. We further acknowledge the financial support of the University of Western 2014 Australia Research Collaboration Award for ‘Fast Approximate Synthetic Universes for the SKA’, the ARC Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO) grant number CE110001020, and the two ARC Discovery Projects DP130100117 and DP140100198. We also recognize support from the Universidad Autonoma de Madrid (UAM) for the workshop infrastructure. AK is supported by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) in Spain through grant AYA2012-31101 as well as the Consolider-Ingenio 2010 Programme of the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN) under grant MultiDark CSD2009-00064. He also acknowledges support from the Australian Research Council (ARC) grants DP130100117 and DP140100198. He further thanks France Gall for le coeur qui jazze. CP acknowledges support of the Australian Research Council (ARC) through Future Fellowship FT130100041 and Discovery Project DP140100198. WC and CP acknowledge support of ARC DP130100117. EP acknowledges support by the ERC grant ‘The Emergence of Structure during the epoch of Reionization’. STK acknowledges support from STFC through grant ST/L000768/1. RJT acknowledges support via a Discovery Grant from NSERC and the Canada Research Chairs program. Simulations were run on the CFI-NSRIT funded Saint Mary's Computational Astrophysics Laboratory. SB and GM acknowledge support from the PRIN-MIUR 2012 Grant ‘The Evolution of Cosmic Baryons’ funded by the Italian Minister of University and Research, by the PRIN-INAF 2012 Grant ‘Multi-scale Simulations of Cosmic Structures’, by the INFN INDARK Grant and by the ‘Consorzio per la Fisica di Trieste’. IGM acknowledges support from a STFC Advanced Fellowship. PJE is supported by the SSimPL program and the Sydney Institute for Astronomy (SIfA), DP130100117. JIR acknowledges support from SNF grant PP00P2 128540/1. CDV acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) through the 2011 Severo Ochoa Program MINECO SEV-2011-0187 and the AYA2013-46886-P grant. AMB is supported by the DFG Research Unit 1254 ‘Magnetisation of Interstellar and Intergalactic Media’ and by the DFG Cluster of Excellence ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’. RDAN acknowledges the support received from the Jim Buckee Fellowship. The arepo simulations were performed with resources awarded through STFCs DiRAC initiative. The authors thank Volger Springel for helpful discussions and for making arepo and the original gadget version available for this project. G3-PESPH simulations were carried out using resources at the Center for High Performance Computing in Cape Town, South Africa. The authors contributed to this paper in the following ways: FS, GY, FRP, AK, CP, STK and WC formed the core team that organized and analysed the data, made the plots and wrote the paper. AK, GY and FRP organized the nIFTy workshop at which this program was completed. GY supplied the initial conditions. PJE assisted with the analysis. All the other authors, as listed in Section 2 performed the simulations using their codes. All authors had the opportunity to proof read and comment on the paper. The simulation used for this paper has been run on Marenostrum supercomputer and is publicly available at the MUSIC website. 4 This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System (ADS) and the arXiv preprint server.


This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) under grant AST-1211146 to C.W.M. We also gratefully acknowledge support by Chandra X-Ray Center award 1170050. C.S.K. is supported by NSF grant AST-1009756, and F.C. and G.M. are supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). This research made extensive use of the USNA high performance computing cluster. We thank the reviewer for valuable comments which improved the manuscript. Facilities: CTIO:2MASS (ANDICAM) , HST ( NICMOS , ACS ), Euler1.2 m , CXO (ACIS)


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for their useful comments, and we are grateful to Stefania Marassi and Luca Graziani for their suggestions. MCA and MM acknowledge financial support from the Austrian National Science Foundation through FWF standalone grant P31154-N27 ‘Unraveling merging neutron stars and black hole–neutron star binaries with population synthesis simulations’. MM acknowledges financial support by the European Research Council for the ERC Consolidator grant DEMOBLACK, under contract no. 770017. MS acknowledges funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie-Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 794393. We acknowledge the Virgo Consortium for making their simulation data available. The eagle simulations were performed using the DiRAC-2 facility at Durham, managed by the ICC, and the PRACE facility Curie based in France at TGCC, CEA, Bruyères-le-Châtel.