We warmly thank the anonymous referee for his/her helpful comments and suggestions. AS acknowledges the PRIN INAF 2011 ‘Multiple populations in globular clusters: their role in the Galaxy assembly’ (PI E. Carretta) and the PRIN INAF 2014 ‘Probing the internal dynamics of globular clusters. The first one is comprehensive radial mapping of individual star kinematics with the generation of multi-object spectrographs’ (PI: L. Origlia). ED and CP acknowledge support from the European Research Council (ERC-2010-AdG-267675, COSMIC-LAB). Based on FOcal Reducer and low dispersion Spectrograph (FORS) observations collected with the Very Large Telescope of the European Southern Observatory, Cerro Paranal, Chile, within the observing programmes 091.D-0562(A) and 093.D-0228(A) (PI: Dalessandro), and on observations made with the Large Binocular Camera at the Large Binocular Telescope within program INAF.D07-2010A (PI: Ferraro) and with the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) on board to the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope under programs GO-10775 (PI: Sarajedini).


We thank the referee for his/her very helpful comments. We appreciate Jian Li, Feifei Kou, Xian Hou, and Shanshan Weng for their useful suggestions and discussions. We thank the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center and Fermi Science Support Center for maintaining its online archive service that provided the data used in this research. This work is supported by the National Key RD Program of China (2016YFA0400803, 2016YFA0400800), National Science Foundation of China (11233001, 11503027 and 61471003), the Strategic Pionner Program on Space Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, grant No. XDA15051400, and Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Intelligent Building Building Energy Saving.


We gratefully acknowledge support from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 through their Research Fellowship scheme (A.J.B.R.), the European Commission through HESPE (FP7-SPACE-2010-263086) (P.J.A.S., L.F.) and the Science and Technology Facilities Council through grants ST/I001808 (P.J.A.S., L.F.) and ST/L000741/1 (L.F.) to the University of Glasgow, as well as ST/K000993/1 (A.J.B.R.) to the University of Dundee. AIA data were supplied courtesy of SDO (NASA) and the AIA science team.


This study makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00033.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. The authors are grateful to Koichiro Nakanishi and Hiroshi Nagai for their valuable comments and useful website for ALMA data reduction. T.I. wishes to thank Mitaro Namiki of the Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology and staff of the Information Technology Center of the University of Tokyo for their dedicated work and suggestions for the computing and understanding of the entire research works. The authors are grateful to an anonymous reviewer who gave important comments on manuscript from the professional point of view. This work was financially supported by a Telecommunications Advancement Foundation (T.I.), the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Kakenhi grant (17K14420 and 19K14782, T.I.), and an Astrobiology Center Program of National Institutes of Natural Sciences (NINS) grant.


Acknowledgements LGQ is grateful to the Institute of Astronomy for hospitality during his stay. CAT thanks Churchill college for his fellowship. We thank the reviewer for helpful comments.


We thank the anonymous referee for insightful comments which greatly improved the quality of this manuscript. This work is based on observations at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among Caltech, the University of California and NASA. S.H. wishes to thank B. Siana for very constructive comments and I. Shivaei for useful discussions. D.S. acknowledges financial support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific research (NWO) through a Veni fellowship, from FCT through a FCT Investigator Starting Grant and Start-up Grant (IF/01154/2012/CP0189/CT0010) and from FCT grant PEst-OE/FIS/UI2751/2014.


We dedicate this work to the memory of our dear colleague and co-author Dennis Lindle, who passed away during the writing of this paper. The authors thank J. Kaastra, T. R. Kallman, R. K. Smith, and E. M. Gullikson for stimulating conversations. W.C.S. and D.W.L. wish to acknowledge support by the National Science Foundation under NSF Grant No. PHY-09-70125. V.J. was funded by the European Social Fund under the Global Grant Measure (No. VP1-3.1-ŠMM-07-K-02-015). M.M.S. was supported by the CNPq-Brazil. D.W.S. was supported in part by the NASA Astrophysics Research and Analysis Program and the NASA Heliophysics Supporting Research Program. The experimental portion of this work was performed at the Advanced Light Source, which is supported by DOE (DE-AC03-76SF00098).


Acknowledgements The authors thank the anonymous referee for their constructive comments that have improved the quality of the paper. The authors also thank Ana Duarte-Cabral, Paul Clark and Camilo Peñaloza for many helpful discussions relating to this work. A.J.R. would like to thank the STFC for postdoctoral support under the consolidated grant number ST/N000706/1, as well as funding for a Ph.D. studentship. S.E.R. acknowledges support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement # 706 390. This research made use of Astropy ( https:// astropy.org/ ), a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration 2013 , 2018 ), as well as iPython ( https://ipython.org/ ), an enhanced interactive Python ( Perez Granger 2007 ), and the Python packages NumPy ( https://numpy.org/ ; Oliphant 2006 ), SciPy ( https://scipy.org/ ; Jones et al. 2001 ), and Matplotlib ( https://matplotlib.org/ ; Hunter 2007 ). This publication has also made use of TOPCAT ( http://www.star.bris.ac.uk/~mbt/topcat/ ), an interactive graphical viewer and editor for tabular data software ( Taylor 2005 ), and SAOImageDS9 ( http://ds9.si.edu/ ; Joye Mandel 2003 ), an astronomical imaging and data-visualization application. The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope has historically been operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the National Research Council of Canada and the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. This research used the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre operated by the National Research Council of Canada with the support of the Canadian Space Agency, and has made use of the NASA Astrophysical Data System. The Starlink software ( Currie et al. 2014 ) is currently supported by the East Asian Observatory.


We thank the anonymous referee, whose comments improved the clarity of the manuscript. M.N. acknowledges the support from the Vacation Scholarship program at the Centre for Astrophysics Supercomputing at Swinburne University of Technology. N.M.N. and G.G.K. acknowledge the support of the Australian Research Council through a Discovery Project DP170103470. S.K.P. acknowledges support through the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. Parts of this research were supported by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project No. CE170100012. S.M. acknowledges support from European Research Council (ERC), Grant Agreement 278594-GasAroundGalaxies. C.W.C. and J.C.C. acknowledge the support from award 1517831 from the National Science Foundation. J.C.C. is also supported by National Science Foundation grant AST-1312686. This work made use of Python packages NumPy and SciPy (Oliphant 2007 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), IPython (Pérez Granger 2007 ), tqdm (da Costa-Luis et al. 2018 ), and Numba (Lam et al. 2015 ) and of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. Galaxy data presented here were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. Observations were supported by Swinburne Keck programs 2014A_W178E, 2014B_W018E, 2015_W018E, and 2016A_W056E. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. Facility: Keck:II (ESI).


Acknowledgements We are grateful to Mark Booth for commenting on the manuscript and Hiroshi Kobayashi for providing us with the details of his planetesimal growth simulations. A speedy and insightful referee report by an anonymous reviewer is very much appreciated. AVK, TL, and JB thank the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) for financial support through grants Kr 2164/13-1, Lo 1715/2-1, and Bl 298/24-1, respectively. AJ thanks the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (grants 2012.0150, 2014.0017, 2014.0048), the Swedish Research Council (grant 2014-5775) and the European Research Council (ERC Consolidator Grant 724687-PLANETESYS) for their financial support.


Acknowledgements I would like to thank Charalampos Markakis, Volker Perlick and Pavel Jefremov for useful discussions on this topic. I am also grateful for the support from a PhD grant of the German Research Foundation within its Research Training Group 1620 Models of Gravity .


Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for very helpful comments and suggestions. The ASTE project is led by Nobeyama Radio Observatory (NRO), a branch of National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ), in collaboration with University of Chile and Japanese institutes including University of Tokyo, Nagoya University, Osaka Prefecture University, Ibaraki University, Hokkaido University and the Joetsu University of Education. The INT is operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. SP, MO and AP are members of the Carrera del investigador científico of CONICET, Argentina. MCP is a doctoral fellow of CONICET, Argentina. This work was partially supported by grants awarded by CONICET, ANPCYT and UBA (UBACyT) from Argentina. AP acknowledges support from the Varsavsky Foundation. MR acknowledges support from FONDECYT(CHILE) grant No. 1140839. SP and AP are grateful to Dr Takeshi Okuda for the support received during the ASTE observations.


Acknowledgments EP acknowledges the Jeremiah Horrocks Institute of the University of Central Lancashire for the hospitality while this paper was in progress. EP was partially supported by Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei and Fondazione Ing. Aldo Gini. Additional support while the paper was completed was provided by the Italian Ministry for Education University and Research (MIUR). VPD was supported by STFC Consolidated grants no. ST/J001341/1 and no. ST/M000877/1. VPD acknowledges being a part of the network supported by the COST Action TD1403 Big Data Era in Sky and Earth Observation. DRC was supported by STFC Consolidated grant no. ST/J001341/1. EMC, EDB, LM and AP are supported by Padua University through grants 60A02-5857/13, 60A02-5833/14 and 60A02-4434/15 and BIRD 164402/16. The simulation was run at the DiRAC Shared Memory Processing system at the University of Cambridge, operated by the COSMOS Project at the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/J005673/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008586/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K00333X/1. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. EP would like to thank R. Ragazzoni for his support while this work was in progress.


This work was supported by NASA through grants NNX14AG05G, NNX14AC05G, and NNX09AB04G. We thank the SDO team for the use of AIA/SDO data. R.J. would like to acknowledge the support of the University of Sheffield (UK) and thanks R. Maurya for discussions regarding AIA/SDO images.


We acknowledge the financial support by the Academy of Finland to the ReSoLVE Centre of Excellence (project no. 307411). The National Solar Observatory (NSO) is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, AURA Inc under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation (NSF). The data used in this work were produced in the framework of the NSO synoptic program. HMI data are courtesy of the Joint Science Operations Center (JSOC) Science Data Processing team at Stanford University. This work was partially supported by the International Space Science Institute (Bern, Switzerland) via International Team 420 on Reconstructing Solar and Heliospheric Magnetic Field Evolution over the Past Century.


This research has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 682462) and is supported by the Research Council of Norway through its Centres of Excellence scheme, project number 262622. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2011.0.00020.SV. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by ESA and the Norwegian Space Centre. The AIA and HMI data are courtesy of the NASA/SDO, as well as AIA and HMI science teams. SJ is grateful to L. Rouppe van der Voort, S.K. Solanki, T.M.D. Pereira, and L. Mas-Ribas for useful discussions.


Construction of the LWA has been supported by the Office of Naval Research under Contract N00014-07-C-0147. Support for operations and continuing development of LWA-1 is provided by the National Science Foundation under Grant AST-1139974 of the University Radio Observatory program. Thanks are due to NASA and NRL for their maintenance and provision of the SOHO and SDO data sets and to C. de Koning for producing the base-difference images in Figure 1 . T.A.H. is supported in part by the NSF SHINE Competition (Grant AGS-1260321), the NASA H-GI program (Grant NNX13AE01G), and the AFOSR program (Grant FA9550-14-0296).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. R. Matsumoto, Dr. K. Takahashi, and Dr. S. Ideguchi for useful discussion. We thank to Mr. Y. Morita who helped us a part of the visualization. We also thank to anomalous referee whose comments are very useful to improve our manuscript. Numerical computations were carried out on SX-9 and XC30 at the Center for Computational Astrophysics, CfCA of NAOJ (P.I. MM). A part of this research used computational resources of the HPCI system provided by (FX10 of Kyushu University) through the HPCI System Research Project (Project ID:hp140170).This work is financially supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) from JSPS (P.I. MM:23740153, 16H03954, TA:15K17614, 15H03639).


We thank J. Bernal, L. Verde, and D. Scolnic for useful conversations and E. Calabrese for providing the ACTpol r s constraint in Figure 3 . We use the CosmoSlik package Millea ( 2017 ) to sample our results. The work of K.A. and L.K. was supported in part by NSF support for the South Pole Telescope collaboration via grant OPP-1248097. The work of M.J. was supported via the NSF REU program at UC Davis via grant PHY-1560482. S.R. is supported by the Australian Research Council’s Discovery Projects scheme via grant DP150103208. W.L.K.W. was supported in part by the Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago through an endowment from the Kavli Foundation and its founder, Fred Kavli.


We are grateful to A. Montero-Dorta for helpful discussions about his work, and the staff of the LYTE centre for its hospitality when this work was completed.


We thank the anonymous referee for detailed comments. This work is supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, through grants MOST 105-2119-M-007-029-MY3 and 106-2112-M-007-006-MY3. Software: IPython (Pérez Granger 2007 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), NumPy (van der Walt et al. 2011 ), SciPy (Jones et al. 2001 ), SymPy (Meurer et al. 2017 ).


Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for his useful comments and suggestions. The authors acknowledge support from the Swiss NCCR PlanetS and the Swiss National Science Foundation. We thank Juan Cabrera for useful discussions. J.S. is grateful to Françoise Roques for preliminary discussions. P. R. acknowledges financial support from the Programme National de Planétologie (INSU-CNRS). A.C. acknowledges support from projects UID/FIS/04564/2019, POCI-01-0145-FEDER-022217, and POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029932, funded by COMPETE 2020 and FCT, Portugal. This work was granted access to the HPC resources of MesoPSL financed by the Region Ile de France and the project Equip@Meso (reference ANR-10-EQPX-29-01) of the programme Investissements d’Avenir supervised by the Agence Nationale pour la Recherche.


The Fermi -LAT Collaboration acknowledges support from a number of agencies and institutes for both development and the operation of the LAT as well as scientific data analysis. These include NASA and DOE in the United States, CEA/Irfu and IN2P3/CNRS in France, ASI and INFN in Italy, MEXT, KEK, and JAXA in Japan, and the K. A. Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council, and the National Space Board in Sweden. Additional support from INAF in Italy and CNES in France for science analysis during the operations phase is also gratefully acknowledged. W.L. was supported by NASA HGI grant NNX16AF78G and LWS grant NNX14AJ49G. V.P., W.L., and F.R.d.C. are supported by NASA grants NNX14AG03G, NNX13AF79G, and NNX12AO70G. V.P. and L.K. are grateful for RFBR grant 15-02-03717. We thank Nariaka Nitta and Meng Jin for friutful discussions on SEPs and magnetic connectivity.


We are grateful to the anonymous referee for offering constructive comments, which have contributed to substantially improving this paper. The VLBA and the VLA are operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The study was partially supported by the Sasakawa Scientific Research Grant of The Japan Science Society (SN, 28-220) and by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) (24340042, AD) of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).


NC kindly acknowledges support by the AvH foundation and MPIK, and FMR by a DFG Heisenberg Fellowship (RI 1187/4-1). We thank Werner Hofmann and Luigi Tibaldo for insightful comments. We also thank the referee for the comments that were useful in improving the paper.


We thank the referee for valuable suggestions and comments that greatly improved the paper. The data used here are courtesy of the NVST, SDO , WIND , RHESSI , and GOES science teams. NVST is jointly operated and administrated by Yunnan Observatories and Center for Astronomical Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Science. This work is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China under grants 11333007, 11403098, 11573012, 11503081, 11503082, and 11633008, and the CAS “Light of West China” Program.


M.R.M. and A.M.G. are supported by NSF grants AST-0909218 and AST-1412615. A.M.G. is also supported by the Lauren Leichtman Arthur Levine Chair in Astrophysics. This work is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. These observations are associated with programs 11671, 12667, 12318, and 14613. We thank the anonymous referee for their thorough reading and insightful comments, which improved the content and presentation of this paper. Facility: HST (WFC3-IR). Software: Astropy (The Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), IPython (Pérez Granger 2007 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), NumPy (Oliphant 2007 ; van der Walt et al. 2011 ), SciPy (Jones et al. 2001 ; Oliphant 2007 ; Millman Aivazis 2011 ), MultiNest (Feroz et al. 2009 ), PyMultiNest (Buchner et al. 2014 ).


We thank the anonymous referee for useful comments which helped to improve the paper. This work is partly based on the XMM-Newton AO-12 proposal “The XMM-Newton view of chemical enrichment in bright galaxy clusters and groups” (PI: de Plaa), and is a part of the CHEERS (CHEmical Evolution Rgs cluster Sample) collaboration. The authors thank its members, as well as Liyi Gu and Craig Sarazin for helpful discussions. P.K. thanks Steve Allen and Ondrej Urban for support and hospitality at Stanford University. Y.Y.Z. acknowledges support from the German BMWI through the Verbundforschung under grant 50 OR 1506. This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton , an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA member states and the USA (NASA). The SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research is supported financially by NWO, the Netherlands Organisation for Space Research.


The authors wish to thank Sara Ellison, Crystal Martin, and George Djorgovski for aiding in collection and reduction of the Keck/ESI spectroscopy used in this study. We also wish to thank the anonymous referee for useful comments which improved the manuscript. It is our pleasure to thank Neil Crighton, Simeon Bird, Jeff Cooke, Claude-André Faucher-Giguère, Michele Fumagalli, John O’Meara, Celine Péroux, Ali Rahmati, and Sijing Shen for valuable discussion of this work, and to acknowledge Sijing Shen for sharing the results of her analysis of the CGM properties of the Eris2 simulation. Finally, we are grateful to Art Wolfe for sharing his insight on these results and for his inspiring and pioneering work in this field. K.H.R.R. acknowledges the generous support of the Clay Postdoctoral Fellowship, and J.F.H. acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt foundation in the context of the Sofja Kovalevskaja Award. The Humboldt foundation is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research. J.X.P. and M.L. acknowledge support from National Science Foundation (NSF) grants AST-1010004, AST-1109452, AST-1109447, and AST-1412981. This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5 m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.


We thank the referee for giving suggestions that improved the paper. We warmly thank the California- Kepler Survey team for making their reduced data publicly available. We thank the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia and NASA Exoplanet Archive for the data used in this work. C.M. acknowledges the financial support from Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq). C.M. also thanks D.F. Morell for his kindly assistance in the R language. K.C. and V.S. acknowledge that their work is supported in part by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant 16-XRP16 2-0004, issued through the Astrophysics Division of the Science Mission Directorate. L.G. is thankful for the financial support from Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES). Software: Python packages: astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), isoclassify (Huber et al. 2017 ); and R packages: astro (Lee 2014 ), mclust (Scrucca et al. 2016 ), MASS (Venables Ripley 2002 ).


We thank Shugo Michikoshi and Hiroshi Kobayashi for fruitful discussion. We also thank the anonymous referee for insightful and constructive comments that helped to improve the manuscript. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant Nos. JP18J20360, 16H02160, 18H05436, 18H05437, and 19K14764, and in part by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Scientific Research grant No. 2016-02A (SZT).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SDC and SW acknowledges support from the ERC starting grant No. 679852 ‘RADFEEDBACK’. APW, ADC and PCC gratefully acknowledge the support of a consolidated grant (ST/N000706/1) from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. STS acknowledges funding by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) via the Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 956 Conditions and Impact of Star Formation (subproject A4) and the Bonn-Cologne Graduate School. RLS gratefully acknowledges the support of a UK Science and Technology Facilities Council postgraduate studentship. SEJ gratefully acknowledge the support of postgraduate scholarships from the School of Physics Astronomy at Cardiff University and the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. SW further thanks the DFG for funding through the Collaborative Research Center (SFB956) on the ‘Conditions and impact of star formation’. PCC acknowledges support from the European Community’s Horizon 2020 Programme H2020-COMPET-2015, through the StarFormMapper Project (number 687528). SDC would like to thank Volker Ossenkopf for useful discussions about radiation transfer. The authors would also like to thank the anonymous referee for their helpful comments on the paper. This work was performed using the facilities of the Advanced Research Computing at Cardiff Division, Cardiff University.


The project was funded by FONDATION MERAC. We acknowledge support from the Programme National de Physique Stellaire (PNPS) of the Institut Nationale de Sciences de l’Univers of CNRS. S.M.A. and S.A.K. acknowledge the SCOPES grant No. IZ73Z0-152485 for financial support.


We are grateful to the referee for helpful comments. This work was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of China under grant numbers 11133001 and 11333004, and the Strategic Priority Research Program of CAS (under grant number XDB09000000).


This research was supported under the Australian Research Council funding scheme (FT110100263). GADS warmly thanks Chien Peng for useful discussions. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED). Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained through program GO-13050.


Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for his/her careful review and insightful comments. TH is financially supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JP15J10520 and JP26800113).


The authors thank the anonymous referee for useful and constructive comments which improved the paper. We want to thank A. Tielens and J. Slavin for providing the hot gas spectrum shown in Fig. 5 . The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme FP7-2011 under grant agreement No. 284405. C.R. and M.G. acknowledge funding by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): project number P24790. The computational results presented have been achieved using the Vienna Scientific Cluster (VSC). This publication was supported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. All figures were made with the free Python module Matplotlib ( Hunter 2007 ). This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ).


This work was supported by the NASA Astrobiology Institute's Virtual Planetary Laboratory Lead Team, funded through the NASA Astrobiology Institute under solicitation NNH12ZDA002C and Cooperative Agreement Number NNA13AA93A. T.R. gratefully acknowledges support from an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at NASA Ames Research Center, administered by Oak Ridge Affiliated Universities. This work benefited from the use of advanced computational, storage, and networking infrastructure provided by the Hyak supercomputer system at the University of Washington. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System. We thank Dave Crisp and Robin Wordsworth for helpful comments and discussion. We are grateful for the comments of an anonymous reviewer, which allowed us to greatly improve this manuscript.


Roman R. Rafikov is an IBM Einstein Fellow at the Institute of Advanced Study; his financial support is provided by the NSF via grants AST-1409524, AST-1515763, NASA via grants 14-ATP14-0059, 15-XRP15-2-0139, and The Ambrose Monell Foundation. Jenny E. Greene acknowledges funding from the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AAG: #1310405. We are thankful to Dr. Adam Myers, Dr. Michael Eracleous, and Dr. Zoltan Haiman for useful comments and suggestions.


We thank Mary Putman, David Schiminovich, Yong Zheng, and our referee for their useful discussions and thoughtful feedback, which have helped us improve various drafts of this manuscript. Many thanks to Lauren Corlies for sharing her C loudy models used in our mock observations. We acknowledge support from NSF grants AST-1312888, AST-1615955, and DGE-1644869 and NASA grant NNX15AB20G, as well as computational resources from NSF XSEDE and Columbia University’s compute cluster. Simulations were run on the Texas Advanced Computing Center Stampede supercomputer and were performed using the publicly available Enzo code ( http://enzo-project.org ) and analyzed with the yt package (Turk et al. 2011 ). Enzo is the product of a collaborative effort of many independent scientists from numerous institutions around the world. Their commitment to open science has helped make this work possible. The Flatiron Institute is supported by the generosity of the Simons Foundation.


We would like to thank the anonymous referee for their comments and suggestions. The authors also wish to thank Ivan Milić for useful discussions during the analysis of the presented work. Financial support by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through projects AYA2014-60476-P and AYA2014-60833-P are gratefully acknowledged. CJDB acknowledges Fundación La Caixa for the financial support received in the form of a PhD contract. AAR also acknowledges financial support through the Ramón y Cajal fellowships. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. JdlCR is supported by grants from the Swedish Research Council (2015-03994), the Swedish National Space Board (128/15) and the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB). This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (SUNMAG, grant agreement 759548). The Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by the Institute for Solar Physics of Stockholm University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. The Institute for Solar Physics is supported by a grant for research infrastructures of national importance from the Swedish Research Council (registration number 2017-00625). This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services. We acknowledge the community effort devoted to the development of the following open-source packages that were used in this work: numpy ( http://www.numpy.org/ ), matplotlib ( https://matplotlib.org/ ) This research has made use of SunPy, an open-source and free community-developed solar data analysis package written in Python ( SunPy Community et al. 2015 ). The author thankfully acknowledges the technical expertise and assistance provided by the Spanish Supercomputing Network (Red Española de Supercomputación), as well as the computer resources used: the LaPalma Supercomputer, located at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias.


This work is based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555.


This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00634.S and ADS/JAO.ALMA#2011.0.00004.SV. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This work is partially based on observations carried out with the IRAM IRAM 30 m telescope. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). The work of M.G. and A.K.L. is partially supported by the National Science Foundation under grant nos. 1615105, 1615109, and 1653300. E.S. acknowledges financial support to the DAGAL network from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007–2013/under REA grant agreement no. PITN-GA-2011-289313. A.H. acknowledges support from the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES). A.U. acknowledges support from Spanish MINECO grants ESP2015-68964 and AYA2016-79006. E.R. is supported by a Discovery Grant from NSERC Canada. F.B. acknowledges funding from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement no. 726384—EMPIRE) This paper made use of the NASA Astrophysics Data Abstract service, AstroPy, the IDL Astronomy User’s Library, CASA, and the NASA Extragalactic Database. M.G. and A.K.L. gratefully acknowledge helpful discussions with Todd Thompson and the OSU galaxy and ISM discussion groups. Diane Cormier is supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 702622. M.J.J.-D. and F.B. acknowledge support from DFG grant BI 1546/1-1. E.O. is supported by grant AST-7173949 from the National Science Foundation.


We thank L. Cortese and L. Spitler for useful discussions. DAF thanks the ARC for financial support via DP130100388. This work was supported by NSF grant AST-1211995. Finally, we thank the referee for a prompt report and several useful suggestions to improve the paper.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Gravitational Wave Discovery (OzGrav), through project number CE170100004. EJH acknowledges support from a Australian Research Council DECRA Fellowship (DE170100891). AdUP and CCT acknowledge support from Ramón y Cajal fellowships RyC-2012-09975 and RyC-2012-09984 and the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through project AYA2017-89384-P. DAK acknowledges support from the Spanish research project AYA2017-89384-P. MB acknowledges funding as ‘personal tecnico de apoyo’ under fellowship number PTA2016-13192-I. MC is supported by the David and Ellen Lee Postdoctoral Fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. SA is supported by the CNES Postdoctoral Fellowship at Laboratoire AstroParticule et Cosmologie. SA, AC, CL, and RM acknowledge the financial support of the UnivEarthS Labex program at Sorbonne Paris Cité (ANR-10-LABX-0023 and ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02). SA and NL acknowledge the financial support of the Programme National Hautes Energies (PNHE). DT acknowledges the financial support of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) PIFI post-doctoral fellowship program (program C). UBAI acknowledges support from the Ministry of Innovative Development through projects FA-Atech-2018-392 and VA-FA-F-2-010. IRiS has been carried out thanks to the support of the OCEVU Labex (ANR-11-LABX-0060) and the A*MIDEX project (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) funded by the ‘Investissements d’Avenir’ French government program. IRiS and T120 thank all the Observatoire de Haute-Provence staff for the permanent support. SB, NK, RN, and MV acknowledge the Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation (SRNSF grant No 218070). TAROT has been built with the support of the Institut National des Sciences de l’Univers, CNRS,France. TAROT is funded by the CNES and thanks the help of the technical staff of the Observatoire de Haute Provence, OSU-Pytheas.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Support for this work was provided by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF4-150127 awarded by the Chandra X-ray Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for NASA under contract NAS8-03060. TI thanks the Undergraduate Summer Research Program (USRP) at the department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, for support. JS thanks the Niels Bohr Institute for its hospitality while part of this work was completed, and the Kavli Foundation and the DNRF for supporting the 2017 Kavli Summer Program.


NuGrid acknowledges significant support from NSF grants PHY 02-16783 and PHY 09-22648 (Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, JINA). RH and CG acknowledge the support from Eurocore project Eurogenesis and ERC Starting Grant No. 306901. RH acknowledges support from the World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI Initiative), MEXT, Japan. MP acknowledges the support from the Ambizione grant of the SNSF and the SNF grant (Switzerland). AH acknowledges the support by NSF through grant AST-1109394, by US DOE grants FC02-09ER41618 (SciDAC), DE-FG02-87ER40328 and by an ARC Future Fellowship (FT120100363).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for their thorough and careful reading of this paper and many constructive suggestions. We acknowledge Nicolas Peretto for help with CO data at the locations of some of our sources. HC, HLG, and PC acknowledge support from the European Research Council (ERC) in the form of Consolidator Grant cosmicdust (ERC-2014-CoG-647939). MJB and IDL acknowledge support from the ERC in the form of Advanced Grant SNDUST (ERC-2015-AdG-694520). MM acknowledges support from an STFC Ernest Rutherford fellowship (ST/L003597/1). Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported in part by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) Astrophysics Theory Program grant NNX14AB37G and NSF (National Science Foundation) grant AST-1411879. UD is immensely grateful to Ben Brown for allocating time on the LCD machines, where all the calculations using dedalus were performed. UD specially thanks Phil Armitage, Bhupendra Mishra, and Vladimir Zhdankin for general discussions. The authors thank the anonymous referee for their constructive comments.


Acknowledgements This project has been supported by Australian Research Council via the Discover Early Career Research Award (DE150100301). Auchettl kindly thanks La Trobe University for funding via a PhD scholarship. Theoretical work (Project AY7) was undertaken with the assistance of resources and services from the NCI, which is supported by the Australian Government. We finally thank the reviewers for their thoughtful comments and suggestions for future work.


We thank Uwe Lammers, who contributed to the idea and progress of this study, and its funding under ESA Contract No. 4000108677/13/NL/CB. We are grateful to Ulrich Bastian, Alex Bombrun, Anthony Brown, Sergei Klioner, Uwe Lammers, Paul McMillan, Mercedes Ramos-Lerate, and the referee, Floor van Leeuwen, for their helpful feedback to our manuscript. This work was supported by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC) and uses the AGIS/AGISLab and GaiaTools software packages; special thanks to their maintainers and developers. We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Swedish National Space Board and the Royal Physiographic Society in Lund.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study is based on observations made with the SALT under programme 2017-1-MLT-010. BM acknowledges support from the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa and thanks the Institute of Astronomy at KU Leuven for their hospitality. We thank the anonymous referee for a helpful report whose comments helped improve this paper. This paper is based on spectroscopic observations made with the Southern African Large Telescope (SALT) under programme 2017-1-MLT-010 (PI: B. Miszalski). We are grateful to our SALT colleagues for maintaining the telescope facilities and conducting the observations. We thank A.Y. Kniazev for making available his HRS pipeline data products. HVW and RM acknowledge support from the Belgian Science Policy Office under contract BR/143/A2/STARLAB. HVW acknowledges additional support from the Research Council of K.U. Leuven under contract C14/17/082. Polish participation in SALT is funded by grant no. MNiSW DIR/WK/2016/07. This research has been partly founded by the National Science Centre, Poland, through grant OPUS 2017/27/B/ST9/01940 to JM. IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation.


We thank Mark Lacy for his advice and useful discussion with regards to the Sajina model, as well as George Helou for suggesting the extended Schmidt law as another point of analysis, and Yong Shi, Michael Brown, and Aditya Togi, whose comments improved the revised version of this paper. This work made use of the remote access computing accounts of the NASA Herschel Science Center, which were very helpful in reducing the Herschel data. L.L. and P.M.O. acknowledges support for this work provided by NASA through an award issued by JPL/Caltech. Support for K.A. is provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant # HST -HF2-51352.001 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. This work is based in part on observations made with Herschel , a European Space Agency Cornerstone Mission with significant participation by NASA. This publication used observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)/California Institute of Technology (Caltech) under a contract with NASA. Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and JPL/Caltech, funded by NASA, were also used. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC)/Caltech, funded by NASA and the NSF, as well as from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (Sloan-III), whose funding has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the NSF, and the U.S. DOE Office of Science, and which is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the Sloan-III Collaboration. Finally, this publication makes use of data from the Galaxy Evolution Explorer , retrieved from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST), part of the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) and the Infrared Science Archive (IRSA) which are operated by the JPL/Caltech, under contract with the NASA, and NASA’s Astrophysics Data System (ADS). We also used software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Facilities: Herschel , Spitzer , WISE , 2MASS , Sloan , GALEX .


This work was supported by NASA’s Planetary Science Division Internal Scientist Funding Program through the Fundamental Laboratory Research (FLaRe) work package at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Also acknowledged is the NASA Astrobiology Institute through funding to the Goddard Center for Astrobiology under proposal 13-13NAI7-0032. Stephen Brown, Eugene Gerashchenko, and Martin Carts of NASA Goddard’s Radiation Effects Facility are thanked for the operation and maintenance of the Van de Graaff accelerator. Many helpful conversations with Marla Moore and Perry Gerakines are acknowledged.


The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program (FP/2007–2013)/ERC grant Agreement No. 279954. C.M. would like to thank Antonio J. Cuesta, Bruce A. Bassett, Jarah Evslin, and Hendrik Hildebrandt for their helpful comments, and to acknowledge the support from the joint research training program of CAS and CNRS. We gratefully acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for their commentary that helped improve this paper. Software: CAMB 12 12 http://camb.info/ (Lewis et al. 2000 ; Lewis et al. 2017 ), matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ; Droettboom et al. 2018 ), statsmodels (Seabold et al. 2017 ), NumPy (Walt et al. 2011 ), and SciPy (Jones et al. 2001 ).


This work has been made possible thanks to the ESAC Science Operations Division research funds, code EXPRO IPL-PSS/GP/gp/44.2014, plus support from the ESAC Space Science Faculty. Pablo Riviere-Marichalar and Carlo Manara acknowledge funding from the ESA Research Fellowship program. H. Bouy is funded by the Spanish Ramn y Cajal fellowship program number RYC-2009- 04497. This research made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at the CDS, Strasbourg, France. This work made extensive use of Topcat (TOPCAT http:// www.star.bristol.ac.uk/~mbt/topcat/ and STILTS, Taylor 2005, 2006). We thank the referee, Manuel Güdel, for his comments and corrections, which help to make this work complete. We would also like to thank Benjamin Montesinos and Nuria Huelamo for their comments and help.


Based on observations with the 100-m Telescope of the MPIfR (Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie) at Effelsberg. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. S.E.R. and R.J.S. acknowledge support from the DFG via the SPP 1573 Physics of the ISM (grants RA 2158/1-1 and SM321/1-1). R.J.S. also acknowledge support from the SFB 881 The Milky Way System.


We thank the referee for many insightful comments and for discussion that helped to improve this paper significantly. The authors thank Merel van ’t Hoff, Jeong-Eun Lee, and Marc Audard for providing valuable discussions. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2017.1.01693.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. T.H.H. and N.H. acknowledge the support by Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan (MoST) 107-2119-M-001-041 and 108-2112-M-001-048. N.H. acknowledges a grant from MoST 108-2112-M-001-017. C.W. acknowledges financial support from the University of Leeds and from the Science Facilities and Technology Council (STFC), under grant No. ST/R000549/1. J.K.J. acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 646908). S.-P.L. acknowledges the support from the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) of Taiwan with grant MOST 106-2119-M-007-021-MY3. Software: CASA (McMullin et al. 2007 ), RADMC-3D (Dullemond et al. 2012 ), Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), APLpy (Robitaille Bressert 2012 ).


We would like to give our special thanks to the authors of Pierbattista et al. ( 2012 ), particularly to Dr. M. Pierbattista for producing new fits for the simulated data and Prof. P. Gonthier for reading a draft of our paper and giving us constructive feedback. We also thank Prof. K. Tollefson and Dr. J. Pretz for useful suggestions and Dr. G. Sinnis and Prof. M. Voit for their encouragement to publish this work. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation.


RC would like to thank Raphael Gavazzi for useful discussions. The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee, whose comments were helpful in improving the paper, and the telescope staff at the IRAM 30-m telescope for their excellent support during observations. We are also very grateful to the former director of IRAM, P. Cox, for his generous attribution of Director’s Discretionary Time early on during the program, and to Daniel Dicken for sharing telescope time. This work is based on observations carried out under projects number 082-12, D09-12, 065-13, 094-13, 223-13, 108-14, and 217-14 with the IRAM 30-m telescope. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany) and IGN (Spain). This work was supported by the Programme National Cosmology et Galaxies (PNCG) of CNRS/INSU with INP and IN2P3, co-funded by CEA and CNES. RC was supported by DFF – 4090-00079. ML acknowledges CNRS and CNES for support. CY was supported by an ESO Fellowship.


We thank the anonymous referee for the valuable comments that helped us to improve the paper. PB thanks CSIR, India for Research Fellowship grant.


PC acknowledges the financial support of the European Research Council (ERC; project PALs 320620)


We thank the referee for helpful comments that improved the quality of our work. R.M. is grateful to the Aspen Center for Physics and the NSF Grant #1066293 for hospitality during the completion of this work and for providing a stimulating environment that inspired this project. Support for this work was provided by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation Fellowship for Science and Engineering awarded to A.M.S.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the French–Brazilian exchange program CAPES-COFECUB. We are grateful to T. Been, C. Grygiel, A. Domaracka and J. M. Ramillon for their invaluable support. The Brazilian agencies CNPq (INEspaço), CNPq (301868/2017-4), CAPES (BEX 5383/15-3) and FAPERJ (E-26/213.577/2015, E-26/216.730/2015, E-05/2015-214814 and E-03/2017-203.204) are also acknowledged.


I am grateful to the referee, for helpful comments and suggestions that improved the paper.


Acknowledgements Rosetta is an ESA mission with contributions from its member states and NASA. We thank CNES for sponsoring the French participations to Alice hardware and VIRTIS_H development, operations and scientific analysis. The Alice team acknowledges continuing support from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory through contract 1336850 to the Southwest Research Institute. We thank an anonymous reviewer for the valuable comments and suggestions that has improved the manuscript.


We thank Barbara De Marco and Agata Różańska for discussion and comments. This research was supported by Polish National Science Centre grant nos. 2015/17/B/ST9/03422 and 2015/18/M/ST9/00541 and by Ministry of Science and Higher Education grant W30/7.PR/2013. This research was supported by “the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities.” It received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under grant agreement no. 312789, Polish National Science Center grant Polonez 2016/21/P/ST9/04025, the National Program on Key Research and Development Project (grant no. 2016YFA0400803), and the Chinese National Science Foundation (grant no. 11622326). This research was partly financed by grant DEC-2011/03/B/ST9/03459 from the Polish National Science Centre. This work made use of the High Performance Computing Resource in the Core Facility for Advanced Research Computing at Shanghai Astronomical Observatory.


We thank the anonymous referee for a very careful reading of our manuscript that has led to a marked improvement in the clarity of this paper. M.B.K. is grateful to the University of Sheffield and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences for the support received. M.B.K. also acknowledges the open research program of CAS Key Laboratory of Solar Activity, National Astronomical Observatories, No. KLSA201610. P.C. thanks the University of Sheffield for hospitality and support for a visit during which this work was initiated and the CAS PIFI project 2017VMC0002 and National Astronomical Observatories, Beijing, for support. The simulation was carried out on NASA’s Pleiades supercomputer under GID s1061. P.C. also acknowledges computing time awarded on the PARAM Yuva-II supercomputer at C-DAC, India, under the grant name Hydromagnetic-Turbulence-PR. We have used the 3D visualization software Paraview for volume rendering and field line plotting. R.E. is grateful to the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC; grant Nos. ST/L006316/1 and ST/M000826/1) UK and the Royal Society for their support. The authors also express their gratitude to Christopher J. Nelson and Michael S. Ruderman (both at University of Sheffield, UK) for a number of useful discussions and improving the manuscript.


M. I. R.-B. and Ch. H. acknowledge financial support of the European Community under the FP7 by the ERC starting grant 257431. Ch. H. thanks for the hospitality of the Kaptyn Astronomical Insititut at the University of Groningen, and travel support from NWO and LKBF. We thank A. Sicilia-Aguilar and P. Rimmer for the insightful and valuable discussions of the manuscript. Most literature search was performed using the ADS. We gratefully acknowledge our local computer support.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the referee for useful comments and suggestions that improved the clarity of this paper. LC is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT180100066) funded by the Australian Government. This research was conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013. JvdS is funded under Bland-Hawthorn’s ARC Laureate Fellowship (FL140100278). CPL has received funding from a Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DE150100618) and the MERAC Foundation for a Post-doctoral Research Award. SB acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship (FT140101166). MSO acknowledges the funding support from the Australian Research Council through a Future Fellowship (FT140100255). The SAMI Galaxy Survey is based on observations made at the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The Sydney-AAO Multi-object Integral field spectrograph (SAMI) was developed jointly by the University of Sydney and the Australian Astronomical Observatory. The SAMI input catalogue is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, the GAMA Survey, and the VST ATLAS Survey. The SAMI Galaxy Survey is supported by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), through project number CE170100013, the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020, and other participating institutions. The SAMI Galaxy Survey website is http://sami-survey.org/ GAMA is a joint European–Australasian project based around a spectroscopic campaign using the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The GAMA input catalogue is based on data taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey. Complementary imaging of the GAMA regions is being obtained by a number of independent survey programs including GALEX MIS, VST KiDS, VISTA VIKING, WISE, Herschel -ATLAS, GMRT, and ASKAP providing UV to radio coverage. GAMA is funded by the STFC (UK), the ARC (Australia), the AAO, and the participating institutions. The GAMA website is http://www.gama-survey.org/ . Part of this work was performed on the gSTAR national facility at Swinburne University of Technology. gSTAR is funded by Swinburne and the Australian Government’s Education Investment Fund. We acknowledge the Virgo Consortium for making their simulation data available. The EAGLE simulations were performed using the DiRAC-2 facility at Durham, managed by the ICC, and the PRACE facility Curie based in France at TGCC, CEA, Bruyeres-le-Chatel.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DT acknowledges financial post-doctoral support from The Claude Leon Foundation (South Africa). YZM would like to acknowledge the supports from National Research Foundation with grant no. 105925 and 110984, and from the National Science Foundation of China, no. 11828301. The Parkes radio telescope is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility which is funded by the Australian Government for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation). The authors would like to thank Dr. Christopher Anderson for granting access to the processed Parkes 21-cm maps, and for several valuable suggestions about the analysis presented in this work.


D.M., E.K., and M.C. acknowledge support from the European Research Council through the Consolidator Grant ERC-2017-CoG-771310-PI2FA. R. O. acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness through the grant AYA2017-85465-P. R.O. also acknowledges the travel support received from the International Space Science Institute (Bern, Switzerland) as well as discussions with members of the ISSI team on “Observed multi-scale variability of coronal loops as a probe of coronal heating”, led by C. Froment and P. Antolin. The authors thankfully acknowledge the technical expertise and assistance provided by the Spanish Supercomputing Network (Red Espanola de Supercomputacion), as well as the computer resources used: the LaPalma Supercomputer, located at the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias.


CH acknowledges the support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) for PhD funding. We thank the groups that have spent time developing molecular line lists, particularly ExoMol, HITEMP and HITRAN, without which this work would not be possible. We also thank Richard Freedman, Iouli Gordon, Jonathan Tennyson and Sergey Yurchenko for helpful discussions. We would like to thank the anonymous reviewer for a very helpful review.


This work has been funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 11403015, 11203016, 11143012 and U1531105. This work is partly supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province under grant no. ZR2012AQ008 and ZR2014AQ007.


ELR would like to thank the anonymous referee for their useful comments, which improved the Letter significantly. ELR acknowledges support from the University of Texas at San Antonio and University of Texas at Austin.


We would like to thank Cees Bassa and Jason Hessels for helping to conceive and develop toaster . We would also like to thank Paulo Freire and Gregory Desvignes for useful discussions, as well as Stefan Osłowski, Golam Shaifullah, Antoine Lassus, and John Antoniadis for helping to observe. PL and EG acknowledge support from IMPRS Bonn/Cologne. RNC acknowledges the support of IMPRS Bonn/Cologne and the Bonn–Cologne Graduate School. KJL gratefully acknowledges support from National Basic Research Program of China, 973 Program, 2015CB857101 and NSFC 11373011. The PSRIX backend was constructed as part of the LEAP project, which was funded by the ERC Advanced Grant LEAP, Grant Agreement Number 227947 (PI M. Kramer).


We thank the anonymous referee for her/his useful comments. Fruitful discussions with F. Fraternali, J.P. Naiman, R. Sancisi, M. Tosi, and G. Zamorani are also acknowledged. FD'A and AD'E acknowledge support from PRIN INAF 2014 (principal investigator S. Cassisi). EV acknowledges support from grant NASA-NNX13AF45G .


The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for his/her fruitful comments, R. Lecocguen, D. Crussaire and the team at the MSDP for acquiring the H observations. We thank G. Aulanier for fruitful discussions and the sketch of a “tornado”, which has been drawn by Sylvain Cnudde. We deeply thank L. Fletcher for giving many comments on the manuscript to improve its clarity.P.J.L. acknowledges support from an STFC Research Studentship ST/K502005/1. N.L. acknowledges support from STFC grant ST/L000741/1. L.O. would like to acknowledge support by NASA Cooperative Agreement grant NNG11PL10A to CUA. The AIA data are provided courtesy of NASA/SDO and the AIA science team.


The authors warmly thank Evelyne Roueff, Jonathan Tennyson and Alexandre Faure for numerous fruitful discussions. We acknowledge the support of the European COST Actions ‘Our Astrochemical History’ CM1401 and ‘Molecules in motion’ (MOLIM) CM1405. We are grateful to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA, Vienna) for scientific and financial support through the Contract No. 16712 with the University of Douala (CAMEROON) and through the Coordinated Research Projects ‘Atomic and Molecular Data for State-Resolved Modelling of Hydrogen and Helium and their Isotopes in Fusion Plasmas’ and ‘Light Element Atom, Molecule and Radical Behaviour in the Divertor and Edge Plasma Regions’. We thank the financial support from the French CNRS via the programmes ‘Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire’, the ‘Physique théorique et ses interfaces’ projects TheMS, TPCECAM and ‘InPhynity MEXAT’. We are very grateful for the generous support of Agence Nationale de la Recherche via the projects ‘SUMOSTAI’ (ANR-09-BLAN-020901) and ‘HYDRIDES’ (ANR-12-BS05-0011-01), of IFRAF-Triangle de la Physique via the project ‘SpecoRyd’, and of Fédération de Recherche Fusion par Confinement Magnétique - ITER. We acknowledge the constant financial support from La Région Haute-Normandie via the CPER ‘THETE’ project, and the GRR Electronique, Energie et Matériaux. Part of this work has been performed in the frame of the ‘Fédération de Recherche Energie, Propulsion, Environnement’, and of the LabEx EMC 3 , via the project PicoLIBS (ANR-10-LABX-09-01). Finally, MDEE and OM thank the Laboratoire Ondes et Milieux Complexes of the University of Le Havre for hospitality.


The authors are grateful to Joe Weingartner, Tiffany Lewis and Michael Efroimsky for numerous discussions which contributed to the development of this work. We would also like to thank Nick Cowan for his many helpful comments and suggestions that improved the quality of this study.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS JMDK gratefully acknowledges funding from the German Research Foundation (DFG) in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group (grant number KR4801/1-1, PI Kruijssen), from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the ERC Starting Grant MUSTANG (grant agreement number 714907, PI Kruijssen), and from Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 ‘The Milky Way System’ (subproject B2) of the DFG. JP and NB gratefully acknowledge funding from the ERC under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the ERC Consolidator Grant Multi-Pop (grant agreement number 646928, PI Bastian). NB and RAC are Royal Society University Research Fellows. This work made use of high-performance computing facilities at Liverpool John Moores University, partly funded by the Royal Society and LJMU’s Faculty of Engineering and Technology. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grants ST/H008519/1 and ST/K00087X/1, STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. This work has made use of numpy (van der Walt, Colbert Varoquaux 2011 ), scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ), and astropy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ). All figures in this paper were produced using the python library matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ). The authors thank Marta Reina-Campos, Benjamin Keller, and Mélanie Chevance for advice and helpful discussions during the development of this work. We thank an anonymous referee for comments that improved the presentation of this paper.


The authors thank the referee for comments that helped to improve this paper. We acknowledge the use of the data from SOHO , STEREO , Wind , DSCOVR , and GOES satellites and the world data center (WDC) for Geomagnetism, Kyoto. This work is supported by grants from CAS (Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS and Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences QYZDB-SSW-DQC015), NSFC (41774181, 41774178, 41574165, 41474164, 41761134088), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (WK2080000077), and the Specialized Research Fund for State Key Laboratories.


We thank all the python , numpy and scipy communities for the high-quality free software they made available. MS thanks Philipp Edelmann for all the technical support during the developing of this work. EEOI acknowledges financial support from Brazilian agencies FAPESP (2011/09525-3) and CAPES (9229-13-2). Supported by German DFG Cluster of Excellence ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’ and the DFG Transregio Project 33 ‘Dark Universe’. We thank Dan Birchall for observing assistance, the technical and scientific staffs of the Palomar Observatory, the High Performance Wireless Radio Network (HPWREN) and the University of Hawaii 2.2-m telescope. We recognize the significant cultural role of Mauna Kea within the indigenous Hawaiian community, and we appreciate the opportunity to conduct observations from this revered site. This work was supported by the Director, Office of Science, Office of High Energy Physics, of the US Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231; by a grant from the Gordon Betty Moore Foundation; in France by support from CNRS/IN2P3, CNRS/INSU, PNCG and the Lyon Institute of Origins under grant ANR-10-LABX-66; and in Germany by the DFG through TRR33 ‘The Dark Universe’. Some results were obtained using resources and support from the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, supported by the Director, Office of Science, Office of Advanced Scientific Computing Research, of the US Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231. HPWREN is funded by National Science Foundation Grant Number ANI-0087344, and the University of California, San Diego. This work was written using the collaborative ShareLaTeX platform.


This research was supported by the Victorian Life Sciences Computation Initiative (VLSCI), grant ref. UOM0005, on its Peak Computing Facility hosted at the University of Melbourne, an initiative of the Victorian Government, Australia. Part of this work was performed on the gSTAR national facility at Swinburne University of Technology. gSTAR is funded by Swinburne and the Australian Governments Education Investment Fund. This research programme is funded by the Australian Research Council through the ARC Laureate Fellowship FL110100072 awarded to JSBW. CP acknowledges support of ARC DP130100117 and DP140100198, and ARC Future Fellowship FT130100041. AM acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement no. 638809 AIDA). We thank Volker Springel for making his gadget-2 and subfind codes available to us and Peter Behroozi for making his rockstar code available. We also thank N. Gnedin for several very useful comments on our manuscript.


We thank the McDonald Observatory staff in West Texas for their hospitality during the observing runs for this research. P. W. C. especially thanks David Doss for his help, without which the collection of some of this data would not have been possible. P. W. C. would also like to acknowledge Pat Hartigan for his comments and discussion throughout this project. We thank the referee for their helpful comments which improved the quality of this manuscript. This research has made use of the SIMBAD database and the NASA Astrophysics Data System. We acknowledge partial support for this research from the NSF through grant 1212122, from NASA Astrophysics Data Analysis Program through grant NNX13AF09G, and from Space Telescope Science Institute through grant HST-60-12996.001, all made to Rice University.


The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. We like to thank Juan Pablo Perez-Beaupuits for providing the ionized, atomic, and molecular data of M17 presented in Fig. 13 . H.B. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under the Horizon 2020 Framework Program via the ERC Consolidator Grant CSF-648505. R.S.K. and S.C.O.G. acknowledge support from the European Research Council via the ERC Advanced Grant STARLIGHT (project number 339177). R.S.K. and S.C.O.G. furthermore thank for financial help from the DFG via SFB 881 “The Milky Way System” (subprojects B1, B2, and B8) and SPP 1573 “Physics of the Interstellar Medium”.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Javier Román and Raúl Infante for providing the extended SDSS r -band PSF, and Sebastién Comerón for a number of useful suggestions. We acknowledge support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under grant numbers AYA2013-41243-P, AYA2016-76219-P and AYA2016-77237-C3-1-P. J.H.K. and I.T.C. acknowledge financial support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 721463 to the SUNDIAL ITN network and from the Fundación BBVA under its 2017 programme of assistance to scientific research groups, for the project ‘Using machine-learning techniques to drag galaxies from the noise in deep imaging’. J.H.K. thanks the Leverhulme Foundation for the award of a Visiting Professorship at Liverpool John Moores University. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. This work is based on archival data from the Spitzer Space Telescope available in the NASA/ IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non- HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts.This research has made use of different Python packages and of NASA’s Astrophysics Data (NED) System Bibliographic Services, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautic and Space Administration. We acknowledge constructive remarks by an anonymous referee.


Acknowledgements I thank David M. Hernandez for a critical reading and Scott Tremaine for useful conversations on symplecticity and time symmetry. WD is partly supported by STFC grant ST/N000757/1.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We greatly appreciate valuable comments from Christopher M. Hirata and Patrick Mcdonald. We also thank Tim Eifler for providing the source galaxy redshift information for the PWL-Stage III and IV surveys adopted in this work. ZD, DC, and H-JS are supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science,Office of High Energy Physics under Award Number DE-SC0014329. SS was supported in part by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP15H05896 and by World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI Initiative), MEXT, Japan. This research used the DESI allocation resources of the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC), a U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science User Facility operated under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231.


Acknowledgements Optical, Spectroscopic and Infrared Remote Imaging System (OSIRIS) was built by a consortium of the Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung, in Göttingen, Germany, CISAS-University of Padova, Italy, the Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Marseille, France, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia, CSIC, Granada, Spain, the Research and Scientific Support Department of the European Space Agency, Noordwijk, the Netherlands, the Instituto Nacional de Tecnica Aeroespacial, Madrid, Spain, the Universidad Politechnica de Madrid, Spain, the Department of Physics and Astronomy of Uppsala University, Sweden and the Institut für Datentechnik und Kommunikationsnetze der Technischen Universität Braunschweig, Germany. The support of the national funding agencies of Germany (DLR), Italy (ASI), France (CNES), Spain (MEC), Sweden (SNSB) and the ESA Technical Directorate is gratefully acknowledged. We thank the ESA teams at ESAC, ESOC and ESTEC for their work in support of the Rosetta mission. We made use of the arcgis 10.2 software together with idl and matlab software to perform the presented analysis.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. We thank the referee for his/her thorough reading of the manuscript and timely suggestions to improve it.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge stimulating discussions with Frank van den Bosch, Adi Nusser, Shany Danieli, Yuval Birnboim, Elad Zinger, and Nicolas Cornuault. We thank the editor and the anonymous referee for helping to make the paper more rounded. This work was partly supported by the grants ISF 124/12, I-CORE Program of the PBC/ISF 1829/12, BSF 2014-273, PICS 2015-18, and NSF AST-1405962. FJ is partly supported by the PBC Fellowship. AJR was supported by National Science Foundation (NSF) grant AST-1616710, and as a Research Corporation for Science Advancement Cottrell Scholar. ADC acknowledges financial support from a Marie-Skłodowska-Curie Individual Fellowship grant, H2020-MSCA-IF-2016 Grant agreement 748213 DIGESTIVO. The simulations were performed on the High Performance Computing resources at New York University Abu Dhabi; on the THEO cluster of the Max Planck Institute fr Astronomie and on the HYDRA clusters at the Rechenzentrum in Garching.


We warmly thank A. K. Vivas for useful discussions and information regarding her team’s variability search around Cen. We also thank the anonymous referee for useful comments that helped improve the presentation of our results. Support for this project is provided by the Ministry for the Economy, Development, and Tourism’s Programa Iniciativa Científica Milenio through grant IC 120009, awarded to the Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS); by Proyecto Basal PFB-06/2007; and by FONDECYT grants #1141141 (C.N., F.G., M.C.), #1130196 (F.G., D.M.), #3130320 (R.C.R.), and #3130552 (J.A.-G.). C.N. and F.G. acknowledge additional support from CONICYT-PCHA/Magíster Nacional (grants 2012-22121934 and 2014-22141509, respectively).


The authors thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments on the manuscript. Hinode is a Japanese mission developed and launched by ISAS/JAXA, with NAOJ as domestic partner and NASA and STFC (UK) as international partners. It is operated by these agencies in co-operation with ESA and NSC (Norway). L.-M. Yan thanks H. Peter, Y. Chen, B. Li, L.-P. Yang, and L. Zhang for helpful discussion. The group from Shandong University was supported by grants NSBRSF 2012CB825601 and NNSFC 41274178. The group from Peking University was supported by NNSFC under 41174148, 40890162, and 40931055.


This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 638809 – AIDA). J.C.P. is supported by an NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Fellowship under award AST-1302774.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper uses observations made at the South African Astronomical Observatory; is based partly upon work supported financially by the University of the Western Cape and the National Research Foundation of South Africa; and has made use of the SIMBAD data base operated at the Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg (CDS) in Strasbourg, France. We are grateful to the referee, Prof. M.D. Reed, for comments which have enabled the authors to improve this paper.


Acknowledgements This research has made use of the high performance computing cluster at the Abdus Salam Centre for Physics, Pakistan and the supercomputer Leftraru, Chile. The first author (R.R.) gratefully acknowledges support from the Department of Astronomy, University of Concepcion, Chile. The first author R.R. and third author D.R.G.S. are thankful for funding through the “Concurso Proyectos Internacionales de Investigación, Convocatoria 2015” (project code PII20150171). D.R.G.S. is further thankful for funding via Fondecyt regular (project code 1161247) and via the Chilean BASAL Centro de Excelencia en Astrofísica yTecnologías Afines (CATA) grant PFB-06/2007, and ALMA-Conicyt project (proyecto code 31160001). The second author (S.V.) developed the computer code that has been used in this work on the HPC system Thinking at KU Leuven, which is part of the infrastructure of the FSC (Flemish Supercomputing Center). We thank the KU leuven support team for helping with the use of this system. The second author also gratefully acknowledges the support of Prof. Dr. Stefaan Poedts and Prof. Dr. Rony Keppens for having provided both access and funding, which made the use of the KU Leuven HPC infrastructure possible.


We thank Vicky Kaspi and Sterl Phinney for helpful comments on the manuscript. This work was supported in part by NSF grant AST-1312034.


We thank I. Liodakis and A. Marsher for helpful discussions of jet polarization physics. This work was supported in part by NASA grant NNM17AA26C.


AZ acknowledges funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. 617001. NDK acknowledges partial support by the ‘RoboPol’ project, which is implemented under the ‘ARISTEIA’ Action of the ‘Operational Program Education and Lifelong Learning’ and is co-funded by the European Social Fund (ESF) and National Resources. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System. This research has made use of data and/or software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.


The authors acknowledge the referee for his/her useful comments that helped to improve the manuscript. JAFO acknowledges financial support by the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) under the research contract 2018-31-HH.0. JAFO and KMD acknowledge financial support by the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI), under the first call for the creation of research groups by postdoctoral researchers that was launched by the General Secretariat For Research and Technology (project number 1882). MPS acknowledges support from the Comunidad de Madrid, Spain, through Atracción de Talento Investigador Grant 2018-T1/TIC-11035 and STFC through grants ST/N000919/1 and ST/N002717/1. CR acknowledges support from the CONICYT+PAI, Convocatoria Nacional subvención a instalación en la academia, convocatoria año 2017 PAI77170080. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2017.1.00236.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.


I sincerely thank Pavel Naselsky, Sebastian von Hausegger and James Creswell for valuable discussions and suggestions, as well as the anonymous referee for carefully reading the article and giving very helpful comments. This research has made use of data/product from the WMAP (The WMAP data release 2013) and Planck (The Planck data release 2015) collaborations. Some of the results in this paper are derived using the HEALPix ( Górski et al. 2005 ) package. This work was partially funded by the Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF) through establishment of the Discovery Center and the Villum Fonden through the Deep Space project. Hao Liu is also supported by the Youth Innovation Promotion Association, CAS.


The material is based upon work supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Prime Contract Number NAS2-03144 awarded to the University of California, Santa Cruz, University Affiliated Research Center. This work was supported in part by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Ames Research Center under a center investment fund. It was carried out at the NASA Ames Research Center. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


The authors thank the anonymous referee for insightful comments that greatly improved this paper. We also thank Peter Gao and Diana Powell for providing paper manuscripts, and Shigeru Ida, Hidekazu Tanaka, Xi Zhang, Chris Ormel, Ryo Tazaki, Yamira Miguel, Masahiro Ogihara, Yuichi Ito, and Yui Kawashima for helpful comments. This work was supported by JSPS Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (#15H02065, 16H04081, 16K17661, 18J14557) and the Foundation for Promotion of Astronomy.


SDO is a mission of NASA's Living With a Star Program. This work used the DAVE4VM code, written and developed by P.W. Schuck at the Naval Research Laboratory. 3D rendering is due to VAPOR ( www.vapor.ucar.edu ) software. The authors sincerely thank Dr. T. Wiegelmann for providing NLFFF code. We acknowledge an extensive usage of the multi-node, multi-processor high performance computing facility at IIA. PV is supported by an INSPIRE grant of AORC scheme under the Department of Science and Technology. XC is supported by NSFC under grants 11303016. We thank the referee for constructive comments and suggestions that greatly helped to improve the manuscript.


The JCMT is operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the UK, the National Research Council of Canada and (until 2013 March 31) the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. Additional funds for the construction of SCUBA-2 were provided by the Canada Foundation for Innovation. DJ is supported by the National Research Council of Canada and by a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Grant. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.


The research of V.F. and J.H. was supported by NASA grants NNX12AH44G, NNX13AF99G, NNX14AF43G, NNX14AJ53G, and NNX14AP24G, and by NSF grant AGS-0955700. Resources supporting this work were provided by the NASA High-End Computing (HEC) Program through the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Division at Ames Research Center. The work of J.N. was supported by Narodowe Centrum Nauki through research project DEC-2013/10/E/ST9/00662. The authors thank P.A. Isenberg, K.-I. Nishikawa, G.P. Zank, and E.J. Summerlin for helpful discussions.


H.B.L. is grateful for support from ASIAA. We are extremely grateful to our referee Charles Hull,for the very useful comments. H.B.L. thanks Dr. Steve Myers for the information about polarization calibration sources, and thanks Drs. Akimasa Kataoka, Francisca Kemper, Hiroyuki Hirashita, and Michihiro Takami for useful suggestions. N.H. is supported by the MoST grant 104-2119-M-001-016. J.M.G. acknowledges support from the MICINN (Spain) AYA2014-57369-C3-1-P grant and the MECD (Spain) PRX15/00435 travel grant. C.C.-G. acknowledges support by UNAM-DGAPA-PAPIIT, grant number IA101214. Y.H. is currently supported by JPL/Caltech. Facilities: EVLA , SMA .


Acknowledgements We thank Andrew Fletcher and Aritra Basu for fruitful discussions, and Aritra Basu also for helpful comments on the manuscript. We acknowledge a helpful suggestion of the anonymous referee. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. RAMW acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation through grant AST-1615594.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are very grateful to Bruce Draine and Joseph Weingartner for their valuable and rapid answers to questions regarding their work on the silicate–graphite–PAH dust model. We also thank Simone Bianchi and Andrea Ferrara for their insightful comments on the manuscript. Finally, we would like express our gratitude to the anonymous referee for reading the manuscript with great care and for providing challenging comments that resulted in a constructive discussion and substantial improvements.


This work was supported by a Postdoctoral Fellowship from Mahidol University, Basic Research Grant BRG5880009 from the Thailand Research Fund, the US National Science Foundation Solar Terrestrial program grant AGS-1063439, and NASA grants NNX14AI63G (Heliospheric Grand Challenge Research) and NNX15AB88G (Living with a Star Program). A.P.S. would like to thank Korn Pattanaseri for assistance with computer simulations.


We thank the Gemini Observatory staff for their help with our observing program and the anonymous referee for comments that improved the manuscript. J.W., L.J., L.C.H. and X.W. acknowledge support from the National Key RD Program of China (2016YFA0400702, 2016YFA0400703) and from the National Science Foundation of China (grant No. 11473002, 11533001, 11721303). Y.S. acknowledges support from an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship and National Science Foundation grant No. AST-1715579. D.R. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under grant No. AST-1614213. M.V. gratefully acknowledges support from the Independent Research Fund Denmark via grant Nos. DFF 4002-00275 and 8021-00130.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS JB acknowledges support from FONDECYT Postdoctorados grant 3160439 and the DFG cluster of excellence ‘Origin and Structure of the Universe’. This research used the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre operated by the National Research Council of Canada with the support of the Canadian Space Agency.


We are grateful to the referee for the constructive input which helped improve the paper. M.A. is grateful to Kim Tolbert and Richard Schwartz for useful discussions on uncertainty computation and general use of RHESSI data analysis tools. Thanks to Brian Dennis for his comments on making the best possible images with RHESSI and for numerous science discussions, and to Joel Allred for helpful discussions on the relative importance of energy loss mechanisms in solar plasmas. This work was supported by a NASA Heliophysics Guest Investigator grant and the RHESSI project.


The authors would like to thank the data provided by the SDO , SOHO /LASCO, and Wind science teams; the anonymous referee’s valuable comments and suggestions that largely improved the quality of the paper; and the helpful discussions with Dr. Yu Liu and Junchao Hong from Yunnan Observatories, CAS, China. This work is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (11773068, 1163308, and 11363007), the Yunnan Science Foundation (2017FB006), and the West Light Foundation of Chinese Academy of Sciences. H.C.C. acknowledges the support by NSFC 11703084, 11633008, and 11873088.


We are grateful to Antonia Rowlinson, Yuri Levin, Eric Thrane, Andrew Melatos, Eric Howell, and Pantelis Pnigouras for enlightening conversations and comments on the manuscript. We are also grateful to the anonymous referee for useful feedback that has improved the manuscript. PDL is supported by an Australian Research Council Discovery Project DP1410102578. KG is supported by the Ramón y Cajal Programme of the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, by a Humboldt Foundation research visit grant at the University of Tübingen, and also acknowledges travel support from NewCompstar (a COST-funded Research Networking Programme).


Special thanks goes to Pavol Bobik, Giuliano Boella, Karel Kudela, Marian Putis, and Mario Zannoni for their continuous support of the H el M od project and many useful suggestions. This work is supported by ASI (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana) through a contract ASI-INFN I/002/13/0 and by ESA (European Space Agency) through a contract 4000116146/16/NL/HK. Igor Moskalenko and Troy Porter acknowledge support from NASA grant No. NNX17AB48G. We thank the ACE CRIS instrument team and the ACE Science Center for providing the ACE data.


This work is supported by the National Basic Research Program (“973” Program) of China under Grant No. 2014CB845800 and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant Nos. 11573014 and 11473008).


AGILE is an ASI space mission developed with programmatic support by INAF and INFN. We acknowledge partial support through the ASI grant no. I/028/12/2. This research made use of Enrico, a community-developed Python package to simplify Fermi-LAT analysis (Sanchez Deil 2013 )


We would like to thank the anonymous referee for important comments and suggestions that have enormously improved the manuscript. This research has made use of data obtained with the Global Millimeter VLBI Array (GMVA), which consists of telescopes operated by the MPIfR, IRAM, Onsala, Metsahovi, Yebes, and the VLBA. The data were correlated with the correlator at the MPIfR in Bonn, Germany. The VLBA is an instrument of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.


Acknowledgements We would like to thank F. La Barbera for a referee report that greatly improved this work, as well as for making available the Na-MILES models used in this paper. SPV would like to thank P. Alton for fruitful discussions on the effect of Na on stellar atmospheres and A. Ferré-Mateu for making her optical measurements of NGC 1277 available. This paper made use of the astropy python package (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), as well as the matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ) and seaborn plotting software (Waskom et al. 2017 ) and the scientific libraries numpy (Van Der Walt, Colbert Varoquaux 2011 ) and scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ). The Oxford SWIFT integral field spectrograph was supported by a Marie Curie Excellence Grant from the European Commission (MEXT-CT-2003-002792, Team Leader: N. Thatte). It was also supported by additional funds from the University of Oxford Physics Department and the John Fell OUP Research Fund. Additional funds to host and support SWIFT at the 200-inch Hale Telescope on Palomar were provided by Caltech Optical Observatories. This work was supported by the Astrophysics at Oxford grants (ST/H002456/1 and ST/K00106X/1) as well as visitors grant (ST/H504862/1) from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. SPV is supported by a doctoral studentship supported by STFC grant ST/N504233/1. RCWH was supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC grant numbers ST/H002456/1, ST/K00106X/1 ST/J002216/1). RLD acknowledges travel and computer grants from Christ Church, Oxford, and support from the Oxford Hintze Centre for Astrophysical Surveys, which is funded through generous support from the Hintze Family Charitable Foundation.


Acknowledgments We would like to thank the anonymous referee for a prompt and useful report. This publication was made possible by NPRP grant number X-019-1-006 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the author.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), Govt. of India for monetary support in the form of Ramanujan Fellowship (SB/S2/RJN-061/2015) and Early Career Research Award (ECR/2016/000161). RM and MI would also like to thank IISER Bhopal for providing all the research and infrastructure facilities.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to thank David Campbell and Adrian Jenkins for generating the initial conditions and selecting the sample of the Auriga galaxies. IG acknowledges financial support from CONICYT Programa de Astronomía, Fondo ALMA-CONICYT 2017 31170048. AM acknowledges support from CONICYT FONDECYT Regular grant 1181797. FAG acknowledges support from CONICYT FONDECYT Regular grant 1181264. IG, AM, and FAG acknowledge funding from the Max Planck Society through a ‘Partner Group’ grant. FM acknowledges support through the program ‘Rita Levi Montalcini’ of the italian MIUR. This work used the DiRAC Data Centric system at Durham University, operated by the Institute for Computational Cosmology on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment was funded by BIS National E-infrastructure capital grant ST/K00042X/1, STFC capital grant ST/H008519/1, and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K003267/1 and Durham University. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure.


We wish to thank an anonymous referee for his/her helpful suggestions. I.P. acknowledges support by Chandra fund 16617814 contract GO2-13021X. The scientific results reported in this article are based on observations made by the Chandra and XMM-Newton X-ray Observatories. This paper also makes use of data obtained as part of the INT Photometric H Survey of the Northern Galactic Plane (IPHAS, www.iphas.org ) carried out at the Isaac Newton Telescope (INT). The INT is operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. All IPHAS data are processed by the Cambridge Astronomical Survey Unit, at the Institute of Astronomy in Cambridge. The bandmerged DR2 catalog was assembled at the Centre for Astrophysics Research, University of Hertfordshire, supported by STFC grant ST/J001333/1. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research makes use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. We also make heavy use of R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ( http://www.R-project.org/ ).


Acknowledgements This research is supported by the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (project BxB: ANR-17-CE31-0022). F.L. and F.B. acknowledge support from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research Innovation Framework Programme (ERC grant agreement ERC-2016-ADG-742719). S.M. and S.Z. acknowledge support by the ERC InvariantClass 320959. This work was also supported by the Programme National “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire” (PCMI) of CNRS/INSU with INC/INP co-funded by CEA and CNES. We gratefully acknowledge fruitful discussions with J.-F. Cardoso, K. Benabed, P. Lesaffre, B. Godard, A. Gusdorf, E. Falgarone, S. Prunet, and J. Neveu. We finally thank the anonymous referee, whose comments helped to significantly improve the manuscript.


Acknowledgements We are grateful to the anonymous referee for useful comments. HH thanks the staff at LAM for their hospitality and financial and technical support during my stay. HH is supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology grant MOST 105-2112-M-001-027-MY3.