This paper made use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA 2011.0.00902.S and 2013.1.01004.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada) and NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. The 2011.0.00902.S data was obtained by N.M.M. while she was a Master student at National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, under the supervision of S.P.L. The authors thank J. C. Mottram for his help in using RATRAN; and M. Hogerheijde for permission to use the 2D version of RATRAN. Astrochemistry in Leiden is supported by the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA), by a Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) professor prize, and by the European Union A-ERC grant 291141 CHEMPLAN. This work is supported by grant 639.041.335 from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) and by the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA) and by the Space Research Organization Netherlands (SRON). S.P.L. acknowledges support from the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan with Grants MOST 102-2119-M-007-004-MY3.


We thank the referee Ioannis Contopoulos for valuable comments and suggestions. We would like to thank Jérôme Pétri for some useful discussions. We acknowledge the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China 11573060 and 11661161010, the National Science Foundation of China 11673060, the National Science Foundation of China 11871418.


We thank Andy Fabian, Rich Plotkin, Amy Reines, Claudia Scarlata, and Anil Seth for helpful discussions, and an anonymous referee for constructive comments. This work was supported in part by Chandra Award Number 11620915, by the National Science Foundation under grant no. NSF PHY11-25915 and by NASA through grant HST-GO-12591.01 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. J.H.W. acknowledges support by the National Research Foundation of Korea grant funded by the Korea government (No. 2012-006087 and No. 2010-0027910).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank an anonymous reviewer whose comments greatly improved the manuscript. We also thank EPnetFaN members for providing us with the computational environment and technical advice. We would like to thank Enago ( http://www.enago.jp ) for the English language review. This work was supported by MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers 23103003, 22540427, 11740117, and 17H06457.


The authors thank Lorne Nelson for sharing computing facilities. The computations were partially carried out on facilities managed by Calcul Québec and Compute Canada. This work has been supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP16H03986 and JP17K18792. The work has also been supported by a Humboldt Research Award to Ph.P. at the University of Bonn. R.H. was supported by the JSPS Overseas Research Fellowship No. 29–514. Software: MESA (v10108; Paxton et al. 2011 , 2013 , 2015 , 2018 ).


This research has made use of data obtained through the HEASARC Online Service, provided by the NASA/GSFC, in support of NASA High Energy Astrophysics Programs. MC acknowledges the many discussion with suggestions provided by Professor A R Rao, TIFR, Mumbai, India. This research has made use of the General High-energy Aperiodic Timing Software (GHATS) package developed by T. M. Belloni at INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera.


We thank Scott Dodelson, Enrique Gaztanaga, Ashley Ross, Martin Crocce, Eduardo Rozo, Jonathan Blazek, Adam Amara, Benjamin Joachimi, Catherine Heymans, Rachel Mandelbaum, Josh Frieman and the DES MPP group for helpful conversations. SS recognizes receipt of a UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) Doctoral Training Grant. SLB, MT, JZ and DK acknowledge support from the European Research Council.


Breakthrough Listen is funded by the Breakthrough Initiatives ( breakthroughinitiatives.org ). Y.G.Z. thanks Dan Werthimer, Deepthi Gorthi, Aman Dhar, and Liam Conner for helpful discussions. V.G. would like to acknowledge NSF grant 1407804 and the Marilyn and Watson Alberts SETI Chair funds.


We thank Sergey Koposov and collaborators for sending a copy of their submitted paper with their nine discoveries, and Helmut Jerjen for pointing out the association between Kim 2 and DES J2108.8−5109. Marla Geha provided useful comments on the presentation of these results. K.B. and A.D.W. thank Beth Willman for advice regarding the search for ultra-faint galaxies. A.D.W. thanks Ellen Bechtol for her generous hospitality during the preparation of this manuscript. We acknowledge helpful suggestions from the anonymous referee. This work made use of computational resources at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and University of Chicago Research Computing Center. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number (1138766). A.C.R. acknowledges financial support provided by the PAPDRJ CAPES/FAPERJ Fellowship. A.A.P. was supported by DOE grant DE-AC02-98CH10886 and by JPL, run by Caltech under a contract for NASA. Funding for the DES Projects has been provided by the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. National Science Foundation, the Ministry of Science and Education of Spain, the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Kavli Institute of Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago, the Center for Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Mitchell Institute for Fundamental Physics and Astronomy at Texas AM University, Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos, Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico and the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Collaborating Institutions in the Dark Energy Survey. The DES data management system is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number AST-1138766. The DES participants from Spanish institutions are partially supported by MINECO under grants AYA2012-39559, ESP2013-48274, FPA2013-47986, and Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa SEV-2012-0234, some of which include ERDF funds from the European Union. The Collaborating Institutions are Argonne National Laboratory, the University of California at Santa Cruz, the University of Cambridge, Centro de Investigaciones Enérgeticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas-Madrid, the University of Chicago, University College London, the DES-Brazil Consortium, the University of Edinburgh, the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zürich, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Institut de Ciències de l’Espai (IEEC/CSIC), the Institut de Física d’Altes Energies, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München and the associated Excellence Cluster universe, the University of Michigan, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, the University of Nottingham, The Ohio State University, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Portsmouth, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford University, the University of Sussex, and Texas AM University.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS MNSQ acknowledges financial support from the Higher Education Commission (HEC), Pakistan to visit INAF-IAPS in Rome, Italy under the HEC Program of Short Research Visit Abroad: Pakistan Program for Collaborative Research (PPCR) and HEC Project No. 7558/Punjab/NRPU/RD/HEC/2017. We also acknowledge the PEACE instrument team and ESA Cluster Active Archive from where the data has been downloaded.


LSP, EKG, and IAZ acknowledge support within the framework of Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 on ‘The Milky Way System’ (especially subproject A5), which is funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG). LSP and IAZ thank the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut at Heidelberg University, where part of this investigation was carried out, for the hospitality. LSP and IAZ acknowledge the support of the Volkswagen Foundation under the Trilateral Partnerships grant no. 90411. IAZ also acknowledges the special support by the NASU under the Main Astronomical Observatory GRID/GPU computing cluster golowood project. This work was partly funded by a subsidy allocated to the Kazan Federal University for the state assignment in the sphere of scientific activities (LSP). SFS thanks the CONACYT-125180 and DGAPA-IA100815 projects for providing him support in this study. This study uses data provided by the Calar Alto Legacy Integral Field Area (CALIFA) survey ( http://califa.caha.es/ ). Based on observations collected at the Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA) at Calar Alto, operated jointly by the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (CSIC). This research made use of Montage, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Earth Science Technology Office, Computational Technnologies Project, under Cooperative Agreement Number NCC5-626 between NASA and the California Institute of Technology. The code is maintained by the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS Web Site is http://www.sdss.org/ .


This study was supported by the ERDF – Research and Development Operational Programme under the project ‘University Scientific Park Campus MTF STU – CAMBO’ ITMS: 26220220179. AD acknowledges the Slovak grant VEGA 1/0335/16. Furthermore, we acknowledge constructive comments of the anonymous reviewer, who helped us to improve this work.


We thank an anonymous referee for some useful comments and suggestions. This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Fond Québécois pour la Recherche—Nature et Technologie, the Canadian Foundation for Innovation, and time allocation on the computing infrastructures of Calcul Québec, a member of the Compute Canada consortium.


Acknowledgements We thank C. Mason and T. Yuan for providing their data and models. This work made use of I mfit and B arolo softwares. EMDT acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council through grant DP160100723. CG acknowledges support by VILLUM FONDEN Young Investigator Programme through grant no. 10123. FF acknowledges hospitality at the European Southern Observatory in Garching as a scientific visitor. AM, PR, GBC and ML acknowledge financial support from PRIN-INAF 2014 1.05.01.94.02.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to sincerely thank the referee for a critical review which proved to be crucial for this study. We acknowledge the work of people involved in the designing, construction and deployment of the COS onboard HST . We also wish to extend our thanks to all those who had carried out data acquisition through Far-UV observations towards the sightlines mentioned in this paper. The plots in Figs 2 , 3 , and 9 were generated using the graphics environment developed by Hunter ( 2007 ).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank M. Sun for help with setting up the binary model, Y. Shen and K. Gültekin for helpful discussions, Z. Haiman for useful comments, and an anonymous referee for a quick and constructive report that significantly improved this work.


Acknowledgements We thank the referee for his/her comments during the reviewing process.. F.M., A.S.M., P.S., A.S. research is carried out within the Collaborative Research Centre 956, sub-projects A6 and C3, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) - project ID 184018867. MP acknowledges funding from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 664931. This research made use of Astropy 4 , a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration 2013 , 2018 ).


We thank Andreas Lagg and Markus Fränz (MPS) for extensive software support and Martha Kusterer and Jon Vandegriff (both JHUAPL) for reducing the MIMI data. Cassini data analysis at MPS was supported by the German Space Agency (DLR) through contracts 50 OH 1101 and 50 OH 1502 and by the Max Planck Society. The JHUAPL authors, as well as K.D., were partially supported by the NASA Office of Space Science under task order 003 of contract NAS5-97271 between NASA/GSFC and JHU and subcontract to the Academy of Athens. E.E. thanks the Brazilian Federal Research Foundation agency (CNPq302583/2015-7) for financial support.


Acknowledgements The authors thank the anonymous referee who’s comments helped improve the manuscript and Cléa Serpollier for her early investigative work in the subject. This work has been carried out within the frame of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). The authors acknowledge the financial support from the SNSF under grant 200020_172746.


This research has received funding by the Sêr Cymru II, part-funded by the European Regional Development Fund through the Welsh Government. H.M. is partly funded by an STFC consolidated grant to Aberystwyth University. The Swedish 1 m Solar Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by the Institute for Solar Physics of Stockholm University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. The Institute for Solar Physics is supported by a grant for research infrastructures of national importance from the Swedish Research Council (registration number 2017-00625). The work of D.K. was supported by Georgian Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation project FR17_323. J.K. acknowledges the project VEGA 2/0004/16. This work was also supported by the project ITMS No. 26220120029, based on the operational Research and Development Program financed from the European Regional Development Fund. The authors acknowledge support from the grant 19-17102S of the Czech Funding Agency. P.H. was supported also by the grant 19-09489S. S.J. acknowledges the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency No. P1-0188. The data were acquired within Spanish SST time allocation. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. The authors wish to thank the anonymous referee who provided constructive remarks that greatly improved the quality of this paper. Facilities: SST (CRISP , CHROMIS).


Acknowledgments BK, SK and LT acknowledge Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation and Ilia State University for the fundamental research grant FR/377/6-290/14. KM and DD acknowledge the funding by the German BMBF (Verbundforschung Astro- und Astroteilchenphysik) and HAP (Helmholtz Alliance for Astro-particle Physics). PR acknowledges the contract ASI-INAF I/004/11/0. We acknowledge the helpful service of heasarc , and the use of public data from the Swift and Fermi archives. This research has made use of the xrtdas software, developed under the responsibility of the ASDC, Italy, and the data from the OVRO 40-m monitoring programme that is supported in part by NASA grants NNX08AW31G and NNX11A043G, and NSF grants AST-0808050 and AST-1109911. In our study, the data from the Steward Observatory spectropolarimetric monitoring project supported by Fermi Guest Investigator grants NNX08AW56G, NNX09AU10G, NNX12AO93G and NNX15AU81G were used. We thank the FACT Collaboration for making their analysis results publicly available, and appreciate their long-term monitoring initiative that provides precious input for MWL studies. We thank the anonymous referee for his/her very useful comments and suggestions that helped to improve the quality of the paper.


Acknowledgements DAA acknowledges support by a CIERA Postdoctoral Fellowship. CAFG was supported by NSF grants AST-1412836 and AST-1517491, NASA grant NNX15AB22G, STScI grant HST-AR-14562.001 and CXO grant TM7-18007X. EQ was supported by NASA ATP grant 12-ATP-120183, a Simons Investigator award from the Simons Foundation, and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. Support for PFH was provided by an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship, NASA ATP Grant NNX14AH35G, and NSF grant AST-1411920 and CAREER award #1455342. RF acknowledges support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant no. 157591). PT acknowledges support from NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF-51384.001-A awarded by STScI. AW was supported by a Caltech-Carnegie Fellowship, the Moore Center for Theoretical Cosmology and Physics at Caltech and NASA grant HST-GO-14734 from STScI. DK was supported by NSF Grant AST1412153 and a Cottrell Scholar Award from the Research Corporation for Science Advancement. The simulations were run using XSEDE, supported by NSF grant ACI-1053575, and Northwestern Universitys compute cluster Quest.


We thank the referee for a very helpful report. C.-Y.C. is grateful for the support from Virginia Institute of Theoretical Astronomy (VITA) at the University of Virginia through the VITA Postdoctoral Prize Fellowship, and the support partly from NSF grant AST-1815784. The work of E.C.O. was supported by grant 510940 from the Simons Foundation.


We are grateful to the anonymous referee for the valuable comments and advices. In this study, we used the SDSS DR9 data. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS website is http://www.sdss.org/ . We acknowledge the use of the HyperLeda data base. This work was supported by Russian Foundation for Basic Research (projects nos. 12-02-00685 and 14-22-03006-ofi-m). IYK is also grateful to Dmitry Zimin's non-profit Dynasty Foundation. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The observations at the 6-meter BTA telescope were carried out with the financial support of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (agreement No. 14.619.21.0004, project ID RFMEFI61914X0004).


This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2012.1.00988.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada) and NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. We are grateful to the European ALMA Regional Centres, particularly those in Garching and Manchester, for their dedicated end-to-end support of data associated with this paper. We have also received immense support from the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This work is also based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under programme ID 094.A-0959 (PI: Hamer). We also present observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , obtained from the data archive at the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. G.R.T. thanks E.S.T. and A.S.T. for educating him on nature’s many sources of uplift. G.R.T. also acknowledges support from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) through Chandra Award Number GO7-8128X as well as Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship Award Number PF-150128, issued by the Chandra X-ray Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-03060. B.J.W., S.W.R., J.A.Z., P.E.J.N., R.P.K., W.R.F., C.J., and Y.S. also acknowledge the financial support of NASA contract NAS8-03060 ( Chandra X-ray Center). F.C. acknowledges the European Research Council for the Advanced Grant Program # 267399-Momentum. M.G. is supported by NASA through Einstein Postdoctoral Fellowship Award Number PF5-160137, as well as Chandra grant GO7-18121X. The work of S.A.B., C.P.O., and B.R.M. was supported by a generous grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. H.R.R. and T.A.D. acknowledge support from a Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) Ernest Rutherford Fellowship. A.C.E. acknowledges support from STFC grant ST/P00541/1. A.C.F. acknowledges support from ERC Advanced Grant “Feedback.” M.N.B. acknowledges funding from the STFC. Basic research in radio astronomy at the Naval Research Laboratory is supported by 6.1 Base funding. This research made use of Astropy , 39 39 http://www.astropy.org/ a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (The Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 , 2018 ). Some MUSE data reduction and analysis was conducted on Hydra, the Smithsonian Institution’s High Performance Cluster (SI/HPC). Facilities: CXO (ACIS-S) , HST (ACS , NICMOS) , VLT: Yepun . Software : Astropy (The Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 , 2018 ), CASA (McMullin et al. 2007 ), CIAO (Fruscione et al. 2006 ), IPython (Perez Granger 2007 ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ), NumPy (van der Walt et al. 2011 ), PySpecKit (Ginsburg Mirocha 2011 ), scipy (Jones et al. 2001 ). DOI-linked software repository for this paper .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the Science and Technology Facilities Council (United Kingdom), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia (Brazil) and Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), for the observational data in the projects GS-2009A-Q-5 and GS-2010A-Q-26. This work is based in part on data products produced in big surveys, so we also thank the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) which is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Science de l'Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France, and the University of Hawaii and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV funding by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. ACS thanks the financial support provided by CAPES. LSJ thanks support from CNPq and FAPESP (00800-4/2012). RMO thanks the financial support provided by CAPES and CNPq (142219/2013-4). ESC acknowledges support from CNPq and FAPESP (2014/13723-3). GLN also thanks support from CNPq.


The authors acknowledge the staff members of the Qinghai Radio Observing Station at Delingha for their support of the observations. We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments and suggestions that helped to improve this paper. This work is supported in part by National Key RD Program of China (2017YFA0402700). Y.S. acknowledges support from NSFC grants 11233001 and 11233007. X.Z. acknowledges support from NSFC grant 11403104 and Jiangsu Provincial Natural Science Foundation grant BK20141044. Y.C. acknowledges support from 973 Program grant 2015CB857100 and NSFC grant 11633007. Y.G. acknowledges support from NSFC grant 11127903. Facility: PMO 13.7m . Software: GILDAS/CLASS (Pety 2005 ).


Work on this project by K.T.V. and A.C.S. was supported by AST-1350389. J.S. acknowledges support from NSF grant AST-1514763 and the Packard Foundation. A.J.R. was supported by National Science Foundation grant AST-1515084 and as a Research Corporation for Science Advancement Cottrell Scholar. I.C.’s research is supported by the Telescope Data Center, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. I.C. also acknowledges support by the Russian Science Foundation grant 17-72-20119 and by the ESO Visiting Scientist programme. Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , and obtained from the Hubble Legacy Archive, which is a collaboration between the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI/NASA), the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF/ESA) and the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC/NRC/CSA). Facilities: HST , VLT/SINFONI .


This work was supported by a U.S. Department of Energy Early Career grant. We thank Dan Matthews, David Schlegel, Arjun Dey, and Eduardo Rozo for helpful discussions. Funding for the DEEP2 survey has been provided by NSF grants AST-0071048, AST-0071198, AST-0507428, and AST-0507483. (Some of) the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. The DEEP2 team and Keck Observatory acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community and appreciate the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. CFHT LS is based on observations obtained with MegaPrime/MegaCam, a joint project of CFHT and CEA/IRFU, at the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), which is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Science de l’Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France, and the University of Hawaii. This work is based in part on data products produced at Terapix available at the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre as part of the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey, a collaborative project of NRC and CNRS. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the entire COSMOS collaboration, consisting of more than 100 scientists. The HST COSMOS program was supported through NASA grant HST -GO-09822.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant no. 2017R1A3A3001362, funded by the Korea government (MSIP). MH acknowledges the support from Global PhD Fellowship Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (NRF-2013H1A2A1033110). This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5 m Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile, and the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope (UKIRT) which is supported by NASA and operated under an agreement among the University of Hawaii, the University of Arizona, and Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center; operations are enabled through the cooperation of the Joint Astronomy Centre of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the UK.


I am grateful to the referee for helpful comments and suggestions. This work has been supported by the French National Research Agency (ANR) through the grant no. ANR-13-JS05-0003-01 (project EMPERE).


The authors thank Joshua Moloney for helpful discussions and assistance with emission line identification. Support for program number HST -GO-13302.01 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute. EMT acknowledges support from NASA Earth and Space Science Fellowship grant NNX14-AO18H. Facilities: HST (COS, STIS) .


Acknowledgements We would are deeply grateful to our colleagues who have provided us with valuable guidance. Special thanks to Dr Julia Bryant (CAASTRO) and Prof Matthia Jäger (Institut für Photonische Technologien) for productive discussions.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for insightful comments and suggestions that improved not only the original manuscript, but the algorithm itself as well. This publication was made possible by NPRP grant ♯ X-019-1-006 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the author.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TRC acknowledges support from the Associateship Scheme of ICTP, Trieste. PD acknowledges support from the European Research Council’s starting grant DELPHI (717001) and from the European Commission’s and University of Groningen’s CO-FUND Rosalind Franklin program. PD thanks R. Bouwens, N. Gnedin, P. Oesch, and Z. Haiman for illuminating discussions.


This research has made use of data and/or software provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), which is a service of the Astrophysics Science Division at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. This work made use of data supplied by the UK Swift Science Data Centre at the University of Leicester. Authors thank the Russian Science Foundation (grant 19-12-00423), National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC U1838201), German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD, project 57405000, VD), and the Academy of Finland travel grants 324550 (ST) and 316932 (AL) for support.


We acknowledge the use of data from the Fermi Science Support Center (FSSC) at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. JNZ thanks Dr Yizhong Fan for help in improving the presentation. This work is supported in part by 973 Programme of China under grant 2013CB837000, the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grants 11273064 and 11443004, the Strategic Priority Research Programme ‘The Emergence of Cosmological Structures’ of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDB09000000) and by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation under grant 2014M551680.


LSO and RW received support from a NWO TOP Grant, module 1, awarded to RW. DP is partially supported by the Mexican Conacyt (CB-2014-01, #240512). This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHY-1430152 (JINA Center for the Evolution of the Elements).


This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 programme through ERC grant number 320360 and by the Leverhulme Trust through grant RPG-2012-541. We acknowledge the support from INAF and Ministero dell’ Istruzione, dell’ Università’ e della Ricerca (MIUR) in the form of the grant “Premiale VLT 2012”. The results presented here benefit from discussions held during the Gaia -ESO workshops and conferences supported by the ESF (European Science Foundation) through the GREAT Research Network Programme. A. Recio-Blanco, P. de Laverny and V. Hill acknowledge the Programme National de Cosmologie et Galaxies (PNCG) of CNRS/INSU, France, for financial support.


Acknowledgements SPIRE has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by Cardiff Univ. (UK) and including: Univ. Lethbridge (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, LAM (France); IFSI, Univ. Padua (Italy); IAC (Spain); Stockholm Observatory(Sweden); Imperial College London, RAL, UCL-MSSL, UKATC, Univ. Sussex (UK); and Caltech, JPL, NHSC, Univ. Colorado (USA). This development has been supported by national funding agencies: CSA (Canada); NAOC (China); CEA, CNES, CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); MCINN (Spain); SNSB (Sweden); STFC, UKSA (UK); and NASA (USA). PACS has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by MPE (Germany) and including UVIE (Austria); KUL, CSL, IMEC (Belgium); CEA, OAMP (France); MPIA (Germany); IFSI, OAP/AOT, OAA/CAISMI, LENS, SISSA (Italy); IAC (Spain). This development has been supported by the funding agencies BMVIT (Austria), ESA-PRODEX (Belgium), CEA/CNES (France), DLR (Germany), ASI (Italy), and CICT/MCT (Spain). V.K. would like to thank Richard Allison, and Richard Parker for their help and discussions on mass segregation with the MST method. This work has received support from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (ERC Advanced Grant Agreements no. 291294 – ORISTARS – and no. 267934 – MISTIC) and from the French National Research Agency (Grant no. ANR–11–BS56–0010 – STARFICH). D.A. acknowledges support by FCT/MCTES through national funds (PIDDAC) by the grant UID/FIS/04434/2019. N.S. and S.B. acknowledge support by the French ANR and the German DFG through the project GENESIS (ANR–16–CE92–0035–01/DFG1591/2–1). G.J.W. gratefully acknowledges support from The Leverhulme Trust. We also acknowledgesupport from the French national programs of CNRS/INSU on stellar and ISM physics (PNPS and PCMI). This research hasmade use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg (France), and of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


Acknowledgments This work is based on observations with INTEGRAL , an ESA project with instruments and the science data centre funded by ESA member states (especially the PI countries: Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Spain), and Poland, and with the participation of Russia and the USA. This research has made use of: data obtained from the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC) provided by NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center; the SIMBAD database operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France; the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; the Palermo BAT Catalogue and data base operated at INAFIASF Palermo. The data were obtained from the European 8 and Russian 9 INTEGRAL Science Data Centers. The authors are grateful to E. M. Churazov, who developed the INTEGRAL /IBIS data analysis methods and provided the software, and thank the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics for computational support. This work was financially supported by Russian Science Foundation grant 14-22-00271.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AVN acknowledges the Russian Science Foundation (RSF) grant 16-12-10225. DB, YS, and FL were supported by the ‘Programme National Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire’ (PCMI) of CNRS/INSU with INC/INP co-funded by CEA and CNES. YS would like to thank support from the Computing Center of the ‘Institut National de Physique Nucléaire’ (IN2P3). We are grateful to Dr. Wan for providing the collisional rate coefficients for H 2 –H 2 collisions.


Acknowledgements Comments from an anonymous referee are gratefully acknowledged. The authors thanks Sergio Dzib, Carlos Carrasco-González, Mark Reid, Riccardo Cesaroni, and Roberto Galván-Madrid for fruitful discussion in preparation. A.S. gratefully acknowledges financial support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) Priority Program 1573.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the reviewer for the careful and thorough reading of this manuscript and for the thoughtful comments and constructive suggestions which help to improve the quality of this manuscript.


Acknowledgments The authors thank Reed Essick, Tanja Hinderer and the referee for valuable comments. This work is supported in part by NASA ATP grant NNX14AB40G. HY is also supported in part by the National Science Foundation and the LIGO Laboratory. LIGO was constructed by the California Institute of Technology and Massachusetts Institute of Technology with funding from the National Science Foundation and operates under cooperative agreement PHY-0757058.


Acknowledgements We thank our referee, Ulrike Heiter, for providing constructive feedback that improved the content and clarity of this manuscript. This work has made use of the VALD data base, operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow and the University of Vienna. This research made use of Astropy, a community-developed core python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013 ). This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in AAS 143, 23. We acknowledge support from NSF-AST 1009314 (E.R., J.W.) and NASA Origins of Solar System program under NNX13AK17G (J.W.).


Acknowledgements The IMEX model was developed under ESA funding (contract 4000106316/12/NL/AF - IMEX). H.K. and P.S. are grateful to the MPI für Sonnensystemforschung and the University of Stuttgart for their support. We are grateful to an anonymous referee whose comments substantially improved the presentation of our results.


We thank the referee for his/her thorough report, in particular for pointing out the misinterpretation of broad-band colours. TR acknowledges support from CONICYT project Basal AFB-170002. He also acknowledges an ESO senior visitorship, during which the data reductions were performed, which was essential for this contribution. T.H.P. gratefully acknowledges support by FONDECYT Regular Project No. 1161817 and by CONICYT project Basal AFB-170002. Dominik Bomans is thanked for discussions on STARLIGHT and literature hints. We use QFitsView (version 3.2, developed by Thomas Ott and Alex Agudo Berbel at the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching) for extracting and averaging spectra.


The authors thank Dr. J.J. Tobin for providing the CARMA N 2 H + (1–0) data for Figure 1 . We are grateful to Dr. A. Palau for providing the data points in Figure 13 . We thank Dr. T. Stanke for providing us with the JCMT CO (3–2) data for comparison. The authors acknowledge the staff at APEX, IRAM 30 m, SMA, and JVLA for assistance with operations. The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. T.H.H. and S.P.L. are thankful for the support of the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) of Taiwan through grants NSC 98-2112- M-007-007-MY3, NSC 101-2119-M-007-004, MoST 102-2119-M-007-004-MY3, and MoST 104-2119-M-007-021. T.H.H. appreciates the grant from MOST with the PhD exchange student award (MOST 103-2917-I-007-005) and also thanks the MPIfR for supporting him as a visiting astronomer in Bonn, Germany.


This project was supported by the Polish National Center of Science under decision UMO-2016/20/S/ST9/00142.


We gratefully acknowledge support from NSF grants AST-1716093 (EMH, AS) and AST-1715145 (AJB) and from the trustees of the William F. Vilas Estate and the University of Wisconsin–Madison Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research and Graduate Education with funding from the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation (AJB). The NB921 filter was supported by KAKENHI (23244025) Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A) through the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). The NB816 filter was supported by a grant from Ehime University. We would like to thank Claudia Scarlata for permission to quote unpublished data, David Sobral and Jorryt Matthee for extremely helpful comments on a first draft of the paper, and the anonymous referee for a very useful and constructive report that improved the paper. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sharanya Sur acknowledges computing time at CDAC National Param Supercomputing Facility Pune, Texas Advanced Computing centre and the use of HPC facilities at IIA. Pallavi Bhat is supported by NSF-DOE Award No. DE-SC0016215. The software used in this work was in part developed by the DOE NNSA-ASC OASCR Flash Center at the University of Chicago.


Acknowledgements We thank the referee for his/her constructive suggestions that improved the paper. The research work at Physical Research Laboratory is funded by the Department of Space, Government of India. This research has made use of data obtained through HEASARC Online Service, provided by NASA/GSFC, in support of NASA High Energy Astrophysics Programs.


T.K.S. is supported by the Astrobiology Center Project of National Institute of Natural Sciences (NINS) (Grant Number AB271020, AB281018). A.M., A.C. and T.G. acknowledge support by the French ANR, project number ANR-13–13-BS05-0003-01 project MOJO (Modeling the Origin of JOvian planets). T.K.S. thanks Hiroshi Kobayashi and Shinsuke Takasao for fruitful discussions. The authors thank the referee for many valuable comments.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is supported by the CHE-ISF I-Core centre for excellence in Astrophysics. TM is supported by JSPS Overseas Challenge Program for Young Researchers and by Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellow 17J09895. TP is supported by an advanced ERC grant TReX and by the Templeton foundation. EN is partially supported by an consolidator ERC grant (JetNS) and an ISF grant.


The work at NC State (S.C., K.E., and C.F.) was supported by the Department of Energy through an Early CAREER Award (DOE grant No.SC0010263). C.F. acknowledges support from the Research Corporation for Science Advancement through a Cottrell Scholar Award. The effort at the Universität Basel was supported by the Schweizerischer Nationalfond and by the ERC Advanced Grant “FISH.” K.E. acknowledges support from the GSI. A.P. acknowledges support from the INFN project “High Performance data Network” funded by the Italian CIPE. Software : Agile (Liebendörfer 2001 ), CFNET (Fröhlich et al. 2006b ), Matplotlib (Hunter 2007 ).


Acknowledgements We acknowledge financial support from the U.S. National Science Foundation, Grant No. CHE-1565872. JK acknowledges XSEDE.org Grant No. CHE-130120 and University of Maryland High-Performance Deepthought facilities for computational time. FL and SDLP acknowledge the programme ‘Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire’ (PCMI) of CNRS/INSU with INC/INP co-funded by CEA and CNES. FL and SDLP acknowledge financial support from the Institut Universitaire de France.


We would like to thank Will Percival for helpful conversations. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant no. PHYS-1066293 and the hospitality of the Aspen Center for Physics. NP and FZ are supported in part by a DOE Early Career Grant DE-SC0008080. Funding for SDSS-III has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy Office of Science. The SDSS-III website is http://www.sdss3.org/ . SDSS-III is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS-III Collaboration including the University of Arizona, the Brazilian Participation Group, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Florida, the French Participation Group, the German Participation Group, Harvard University, the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Michigan State/Notre Dame/JINA Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, New Mexico State University, New York University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the Spanish Participation Group, University of Tokyo, University of Utah, Vanderbilt University, University of Virginia, University of Washington, and Yale University. Some of the codes in this paper made use of the Chapel programming language. 1


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the anonymous referee for a careful reading of this paper. We thank Carlos De Breuck, Palle Mø ller, and the APEX team for their support. Based on observations collected by the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO program 098.B-0657 and 099.B-0063 (APEX) and 196.B-0578 (VLT/MUSE). We acknowledge funding from the INAF PRIN-SKA 2017 program 1.05.01.88.04. YLJ acknowledges support from CONICYT PAI (Concurso Nacional de Inserción en la Academia 2017) No. 79170132. BV acknowledges the support from an Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (PD0028506). This work made use of the KUBEVIZ software, which is publicly available at http://www.mpe.mpg.de/dwilman/kubeviz/ .


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TEEO gratefully acknowledges funding from the Vermont Space Grant Consortium. The authors wish to acknowledge Ben Stappers for providing timing solutions for some pulsars and Joel Weisberg for providing ionospheric rotation-measure estimates. Portions of this work were carried out with support from US National Science Foundation grants AST 0968296 and 1814397. DM acknowledges funding from the grant ‘Indo-French Centre for the Promotion of Advanced Research – CEFIPRA’. The National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (also known as Arecibo Observatory) is operated by the University of Central Florida under a cooperative agreement with the US National Science Foundation, and in alliance with Yang Enterprises and the Ana G. Méndez-Universidad Metropolitana. This work made use of the NASA ADS astronomical data system.


MS thanks Keiichi Umetsu for useful discussions and Adi Zitrin and Julian Merten for providing useful information on the SL analysis of the CLASH clusters. LM and MS acknowledge financial contributions from contracts ASI/INAF I/023/12/0, by the PRIN MIUR 2010-2011 ‘The dark Universe and the cosmic evolution of baryons: from current surveys to Euclid’ and by the PRIN INAF 2012 ‘The Universe in the box: multiscale simulations of cosmic structure’. CG's research is part of the project GLENCO, funded under the European Seventh Framework Programme, Ideas, Grant Agreement no. 259349.


We thank Nacho Martín-Navarro for comments on the manuscript, and the anonymous referee for an excellent and thorough report that improved the paper. Support from NASA grant NNX15AK14G, STScI grant GO-13681, and NSF grants AST-1313280, AST-1515084, AST-1518294, AST-1616598, and AST-1616710 is gratefully acknowledged. C.C. acknowledges support from the Packard Foundation. A.V. is supported by an NSF Graduate Research Fellowship. A.J.R. is supported as a Research Corporation for Science Advancement Cottrell Scholar. Based on data obtained with the W.M. Keck Observatory, on Maunakea, Hawaii. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.


Acknowledgements This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1411943. Part of the work presented herein is supported by NASA Grant No. NNX15AK92G. This study is based on data taken with the Karl G. Jansky VLA which is operated by the NRAO. The NRAO is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This work is based, in part, on data collected at the Subaru Telescope and obtained from the Subaru Mitaka Okayama Kiso Archive (SMOKA), which is operated by the Astronomy Data centre, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan; observations made with the Spitzer Space Telescope , which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA; and data collected at UKIRT which is supported by NASA and operated under an agreement among the University of Hawaii, the University of Arizona, and Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology centre; operations are enabled through the cooperation of the East Asian Observatory. When the data reported here were acquired, UKIRT was operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the U.K. This study is also based, in part, on observations obtained with WIRCam, a joint project of Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), Taiwan, Korea, Canada, France, and the CFHT which is operated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique of France, and the University of Hawai'i. The scientific results reported in this article are based in part on observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory and data obtained from the Chandra Data Archive. The spectrographic data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. We wish to thank the indigenous Hawaiian community for allowing us to be guests on their sacred mountain, a privilege, without with, this work would not have been possible. We are most fortunate to be able to conduct observations from this site.


We acknowledge M. Barkov, E. Derishev, Ya. Istomin, M. Drozdova and especially N. Zakamska for useful comments. We also thank the anonymous referee for helpful remarks. This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation , grant 16-12-10051 .


Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to the anonymous referee for his/her useful comments. HB acknowledges the Inspire Faculty Grant Support (IFA11-PH02) of the Department of Science and Technology, India. The observations reported in this paper were obtained using the 1-m Sampurnanand Telescope, Nainital, India, and the 2-m HCT at IAO, Hanle, the High Altitude Station of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore, India. This publication makes use of data from the Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.


This work was supported by a Procter Fellowship at Princeton University, and the US Department of Energy Grant DE-AC02-09-CH11466. We would like to thank A. Schekochihin, J. Krommes, I. Rogachevskii, and G. Lesur for enlightening discussion and useful suggestions.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the reviewer for his/her useful comments. We thank Volker Springel for kindly providing the simulation code arepo and Thomas Greif for providing the outputs of his simulations. This study was supported by World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI), MEXT, Japan and by SPPEXA through JST CREST JPMHCR1414. SI receives the funding from KAKENHI Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B), No. 17K17677. Final note: This letter is dedicated to our friend and colleague Dr. Thomas H. Greif (1981–2019).


We thank the referee for her/his suggestions on sharpening the focus of our Letter. PM, GP, MT acknowledge the support from the ERC Consolidator Grant funding scheme ( project STARKEY , G.A. n. 615604).


The authors would like to thank Timo Reinhold, Alexander Shapiro, and Gibor Basri for useful discussions. MBN and LG acknowledge support from NYUAD Institute grant G1502. This paper includes data collected by the Kepler mission. Funding for the Kepler mission is provided by the NASA Science Mission directorate. Data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts.


Acknowledgements The research of AP is supported by the Associateship Scheme of ICTP, Trieste and the Ramanujan Fellowship awarded by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are also very grateful to the anonymous referee for her/his instructive comments which significantly improved the content of the paper. This work is supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2017YFA0402703). This work has been supported by the National Science Foundations of China (Nos. 11973029 and 11873032).


Based on observations obtained at the SOAR telescope, which is a joint project of the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, Inovações e Comunicações (MCTIC) do Brasil, the U.S. National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO), the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC), and Michigan State University (MSU). A.K. gratefully acknowledges support from the German Research Foundation (DFG) via Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 (“The Milky Way System,” subproject A08). We thank C.I. Johnson and A. Mucciarelli for useful comments. We thank the referee for the thorough reading of the manuscript and timely suggestions to improve it.


F.M. thanks the Agence Nationale de la Recherche for financial support (grant ANR-11-JS56-0007). We thank John Hillier for making his atmosphere code CMFGEN available and for constant help with it. G.A.W. acknowledges Discovery Grant support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). We thank an anonymous referee for a prompt and positive report.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The groundwork for this paper began as an MPhys project completed by Alison Young and Jemma Holloway at the University of Exeter. We are grateful to David Acreman for assistance with running TORUS. We would also like to thank Nathan Mayne and Tim Naylor for helpful discussions regarding SED fitting and photometry. Finally, we thank the anonymous referee and Michael Dunham for comments that helped to improve the paper. Some figures were produced using the publically available SPLASH visualization software (Price 2007 ). This work was supported by the European Research Council under the European Commission’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013 Grant Agreement No. 339248). The calculations discussed in this paper were performed on the University of Exeter Supercomputer, a DiRAC Facility jointly funded by Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the Large Facilities Capital Fund of Department for Business Innovation Skills (BIS), and the University of Exeter. This work used the DiRAC Complexity system, operated by the University of Leicester IT Services, which forms part of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility ( www.dirac.ac.uk ). This equipment is funded by BIS National E-Infrastructure capital grant ST/K000373/1 and STFC DiRAC Operations grant ST/K0003259/1. DiRAC is part of the National E-Infrastructure. The JCMT has historically been operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the National Research Council of Canada and the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. Additional funds for the construction of SCUBA-2 were provided by the Canada Foundation for Innovation. Chris Mowat is supported by an STFC studentship. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. This research used the services of the Canadian Advanced Network for Astronomy Research (CANFAR), which is supported by CANARIE, Compute Canada, University of Victoria, the National Research Council of Canada, and the Canadian Space Agency. This research used the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre operated by the National Research Council of Canada with the support of the Canadian Space Agency. Starlink software (Currie et al. 2014 ) is supported by the East Asian Observatory. matplotlib is a 2D graphics package used for Python for application development, interactive scripting, and publication-quality image generation across user interfaces and operating systems. This research made use of aplpy (Robitaille Bressert 2012 ), an open-source plotting package for Python hosted at http://aplpy.github.com . Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led principal investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. This research has made use of data from the Herschel Gould Belt survey (HGBS) project ( http://gouldbelt-herschel.cea.fr ). The HGBS is a Herschel Key Programme jointly carried out by SPIRE Specialist Astronomy Group 3 (SAG 3), scientists of several institutes in the PACS Consortium (CEA Saclay, INAF-IFSI Rome and INAF-Arcetri, KU Leuven, MPIA Heidelberg), and scientists of the Herschel Science Center (HSC). The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.


Acknowledgments We thank Alireza Rahmati, Alexandre Refregier and Sergey Koposov for useful discussions, and Robert Crain for kindly providing the data from the EAGLE simulations. This work has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. The original description of the VizieR service was published in the AAS 143, 23. HP's research is supported by the Tomalla Foundation. GK gratefully acknowledges support from the ERC Advanced Grant 320596 ‘The Emergence of Structure During the Epoch of Reionization’.


K. S. Croker warmly acknowledges: N. Kaiser (ENS) for numerous conversations clarifying the historical understanding of pressure within FLRW models; X. Tata (Hawai‘i) for penetrating feedback and explicit revisions; E. Mottola (LANL) for traveling to Hawai‘i for discussions concerning applications of this work and for pointing out omissions in early arguments; D. Farrah (Hawai‘i) for comments on clarity; J. D. Bjorken (SLAC) for regular correspondence and encouragement; and I. Szapudi (IfA) for criticism, which significantly strengthened the arguments presented. Portions of this work were performed with financial support from the Fulbright U.S. Student Program and the UH Vice Chancellor for Research. Software : Maxima 8 8 http://maxima.sourceforge.net (Maxima 2019 ).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PRB is supported by Track I award OIA-1458952 and is a member of the NANOGrav Physics Frontiers Center, which is supported by National Science Foundation award number 1430284. The Parkes radio telescope is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. Data taken at Parkes is available via a public archive. We thank the referee Patrick Weltevrede for valuable comments that helped to improve the text.


This research has made use of the 2MASS archive, provided by NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Additionally, this research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.


This research was primarily supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) through a Canada Graduate Scholarship (J. West) and the Canada Research Chairs and Discovery Grants Programs (S. Safi-Harb). The modeling was performed on a local computing cluster funded by the Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI) and the Manitoba Research and Innovation Fund (MRIF). The radio images presented in this paper and companion website made use of data obtained with the following facilities: CHIPASS 1.4 GHz radio continuum map, Canadian Galactic Plane Survey (CGPS) and other data from the Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory, Southern Galactic Plane Survey, Effelsberg 100 m Telescope and Stockert Galactic plane survey (2720 MHz; via MPIfR’s Survey Sampler), Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope (MOST) Supernova Remnant Catalogue (843 MHz), Sino-German 6 cm survey. Additionally we acknowledge the use of NASA’s SkyView facility ( http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov ) located at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center for the data from the 4850 MHz Survey/GB6 Survey, NRAO VLA Sky Survey, Sydney University Molonglo Sky Survey (843 MHz), and the Westerbork Northern Sky Survey (325 MHz Continuum). Very Large Array (VLA) data was acquired via the NRAO Science Data Archive and the Multi-Array Galactic Plane Imaging Survey. We thank Michael Bietenholz and David Kaplan for providing the VLA images of G021.6–00.8 and G042.8+00.6, respectively. This research made use of APLpy, an open-source plotting package for Python ( http://aplpy.github.com ) and Astropy, a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy (Astropy Collaboration 2013). This research also made use of Montage, which is funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number ACI-1440620, and was previously funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Earth Science Technology Office, Computation Technologies Project, under Cooperative Agreement Number NCC5-626 between NASA and the California Institute of Technology. This research has made use of the NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS). We thank the referee for comments that improved the manuscript.


The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Unions Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) / ERC Grant Agreement No. 308024. This work was partly supported by the European Union FP7 programme through ERC grant number 320360. The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for the comments that greatly helped us to improve the paper.


SDO is a mission of NASA’s Living With a Star Program. We thank the referee for the suggestions, which helped to improve the paper. P.V. is supported by an INSPIRE grant of AORC scheme under the Department of Science and Technology. W.M. is funded by Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative Grant No. 2015PE015 and NSFC Grant Nos. 41131065, 41574165, and 41421063. C.M. and T.R. thank the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): [P26174-N27]. The presented work has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement No. 606692 [HELCATS]. C.J.F. was partially funded by STEREO FARSIDE grant to UNH and NASA STEREO grant NNX15AU01G (decline of cycle 24). We thank the ACE SWEPAM and MAG instrument teams and the ACE Science Center for providing the ACE data.


Results in this paper are based on observations made with the NASA/DLR Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). SOFIA is jointly operated by the Universities Space Research Association, Inc. (USRA), under NASA contract NAS2-97001, and the Deutsches SOFIA Institut (DSI) under DLR contract 50-OK-0901 to the University of Stuttgart. Financial support for this work was provided by NASA through awards SOF-04-0205 and SOF-05-0014, issued by USRA. The authors wish to thank an anonymous referee for very useful comments. Parts of the observations described in this paper were obtained at the Hale Telescope, Palomar Observatory, as part of a continuing collaboration between the California Institute of Technology, NASA/JPL, Yale University, and the National Astronomical Observatories of China. The authors wish to thank Chris Martin, the CWI team, and the staff of the Palomar observatory for permission to use, and assistance with, the semi-private PCWI instrument. The authors also thank S. Laine (Caltech/IPAC) and M. Krause (MPIFR) for permission to use the radio continuum, CO 1–0, and processed IRAC images used in this paper. This work was initiated, in part, at the Aspen Center for Physics, which is supported by NSF grant PHY-1607611. T.D.-S. acknowledges support from ALMA-CONICYT project 31130005 and FONDE-CYT regular project 1151239.


R. Hounsell acknowledges support from the Space Telescope Science Institute and the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. The USAF/NASA SMEI is a joint project of the University of California San Diego, Boston College, the University of Birmingham (UK), and the Air Force Research Laboratory. P.P.H., A.B., B.V.J., and J.M.C. acknowledge support from NSF grant ATM-0852246 and NASA grant NNX08AJ11G. A.W.S. acknowledges support from NSF grant AST-1009566. S.S. acknowledges partial support from NASA and NSF grants to ASU. We would like to thank Dr. Zach Cano (Centre for Astrophysics and Cosmology at the University of Iceland) for his thoughtful ideas and help during this project. Finally, we would like to thank the referee for their helpful comments and guidance.


The authors would like to thank the institutional support of the Faculty of Philosophy and Science of the Silesian University in Opava, and the Albert Einstein Centre for Gravitation and Astrophysics supported by the Czech Science Foundation Grant No. 14-37086G.


Acknowledgements We would like to thank our colleagues Ernesto Vieira Neto, Helton da Silva Gaspar, Luiz Augusto Guimarães Boldrin, Rafael Ribeiro de Sousa and Rodolfo José Bueno Rogerio for valuable discussions. This research was supported by the Brazilian agencies Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo - FAPESP (proc. 2016/24561-0).


This research is based on observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory and has made use of software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application packages CIAO, ChIPS, and Sherpa. P.E. and N.R. acknowledge funding in the framework of the NWO Vidi award A.2320.0076. M.M. is supported by an STFC Ernest Rutherford fellowship (ST/L003597/1). R.P. was partly supported by NSF award AST-1616157. We thank the anonymous referee for many valuable comments. P.E. is grateful to Lia Corrales, Sandro Mereghetti, Elisa Costantini, and Mathieu Renzo for useful discussions. R.P. and P.E. are grateful to Richard McCray for relevant information. Facility: Chandra (ACIS, HRC). Software: ChaRT (Carter et al. 2003 ), CIAO (v4.8; Fruscione et al. 2006 ), FTOOLS (v6.21; Blackburn et al. 1995 ), MARX (v5.3; Davis et al. 2012 ), Sherpa (Freeman et al. 2001 ), XSPEC (v12.9.1; Arnaud et al. 1996 ).


Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments that contributed to this paper. We acknowledge helpful conversations with Dave Alexander, Francesca Civano, Andy Fabian, Ryan Hickox, James Mullaney, Kirpal Nandra and Marta Volonteri. JA acknowledges support from ERC Advanced Grant FEEDBACK 340442. AG acknowledges the thales project 383549 that is jointly funded by the European Union and the Greek Government in the framework of the programme ‘Education and lifelong learning’. This work is based in part on observations taken by the CANDELS Multi-Cycle Treasury Program and the 3D-HST Treasury Program (GO 12177 and 12328) with the NASA/ESA HST, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. The scientific results reported in this article are based to a significant degree on observations made by the Chandra X-ray Observatory.


We thank Li Zeng for helpful discussions and an anonymous referee for a detailed review that greatly enhanced the quality of this paper.


The authors thank Steve Finkelstein for helpful discussions, and the anonymous referee for insightful comments on the manuscript. AGS was supported by an AGEP-GRS supplement to NSF grant AST-1009973. MBK acknowledges support provided by NASA through Hubble Space Telescope theory grants (programs AR-12836 and AR-13888) from the Space Telescope Institute (STScI), which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. DRW is supported by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF-51331.01 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute. JSB was supported by HST AR-12836 and NSF AST-1009973.


We thank Christine Wilson for making the Caltech Millimeter Array CO map available to us. We also thank the referee for valuable and supportive comments that have significantly helped us to improve the first submitted version of this paper. AMI acknowledges support from the Spanish MINECO through project AYA2015-68217-P. PMW received support through BMBF Verbundforschung (projects MUSE-AO, grant 05A14BAC, and MUSE-NFM, grant 05A17BAA). Based on observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO programmes 095.B-0042, 096.B-0017, and 097.B-0346. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This paper uses the plotting package jmaplot developed by Jesús Maíz-Apellániz 7 . We are also grateful to the communities who developed the many python packages used in this research, such MPDAF ( Piqueras et al. 2017 ), Astropy ( Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013 ), numpy ( Walt et al. 2011 ), scipy ( Jones et al. 2001 ) and matplotlib ( Hunter 2007 ).


M.M.-P. acknowledges support by the KASI and UNAM-DGAPA postdoctoral fellowships. This work is partially supported by the KASI project 2019184100 and Conacyt project CB-2016-281948. O.G.-M. acknowledges support by the PAPIIT projects IA100516. A.A.-H. acknowledges support through grant PG C2018-094671-B-I00 (MCIU/AEI/FEDER,UE). Work by A.A.H. was done under project No. MDM-2017-0737 Unidad de Excelencia “María de Maeztu”- Centro de Astrobiología (INTA-CSIC). Y.K. acknowledges support from grant DGAPA-PAPIIT 106518, and from program DGAPA-PASPA. T.H. acknowledges the support from the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT; 2019R1A2C1087045). C.R.A. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN) through project PN AYA2013-47742- C4-2-P. C.R.A. also acknowledges the Ramon y Cajal Program of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. This work is based on observations obtained with the Spitzer Space Observatory , which is operated by JPL, Caltech, under NASA contract 1407. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by JPL, Caltech, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. CASSIS is a product of the Infrared Science Center at Cornell University, supported by NASA and JPL.


This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. L.F.R. and L.L. are grateful to CONACyT, Mexico and DGAPA, UNAM for their financial support. S.L. acknowledges support from project DGAPA IN105815 and CONACytT 238631. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2012.1.00123.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada) and NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ.


We thank E. Barr, J-P. Macquart and an anonymous referee for extensive helpful comments which have hugely improved the quality of this manuscript. EFK and EP acknowledge the support of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110 001 020.


The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for her or his valuable comments, which substantially helped to improve the quality of the paper. This research has made use of SIMBAD, 2MASS, the GCVS catalogue, and the AAVSO variable search index. D.A. acknowledges the USRA NASA postdoctoral programme and the support of the Center for Space and Habitability of the University of Bern. S.C. acknowledges the Hungarian OTKA Grant K113117. D.K. gratefully acknowledges the support of the Center for Space and Habitability of the University of Bern and the MERAC Foundation for partial financial assistance. This work has been carried out within the frame of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. D.K. acknowledges the financial support of the SNSF. HIPO work at Lowell is supported by USRA subcontract 8500-98-003. FLITECAM work at UCLA is supported by USRA subcontract 08500-05, PI Ian McLean. M.G. acknowledges financial support by the Helmholtz association, PD-015, and the Technische Universität Berlin.


Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Department of Space, Government of India. The research has made use of the SIMBAD data base operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France; the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA; and the data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. We acknowledge the dusty team for making their codes available for the astronomy community. We sincerely thank the anonymous referee for very useful comments, which improved the quality of the article.


Acknowledgements MS and MJ acknowledge the support of the Academy of Finland Grant No. 285769. JMa acknowledges the support of ERC-2015-STG No. 679852 RADFEEDBACK.


ZH acknowledges support from NASA grant NNX11AE05G. JP and RJ acknowledge support from Mineco grant FPA2011-29678-C02-02. JP acknowledges support from Anillo de Ciencia y Tecnologia (Project ACT1101). JP also thanks Yohan Dubois for providing the tracer particle patch for the ramses code. REG was supported by Proyecto Financiamiento Basal PFB-06’Centro de Astronomia y Tecnologias Afines’ and Proyecto Comité Mixto ESO 3312-013-82. The Geryon cluster at the Centro de Astro-Ingenieria UC was extensively used for the analysis calculations performed in this paper. The Anillo ACT-86, FONDEQUIP AIC-57 and QUIMAL 130008 provided funding for several improvements to the Geryon cluster. Finally, we thank the anonymous referee for useful comments on the manuscript.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Marat Gilfanov for helpful comments. O.G. is supported by an NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Fellowship under award AST-1602595. This work is based on data obtained with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope , all of which was obtained from MAST. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with NASA.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the Swedish National Space Board (SNSB) through grants 108/12, 112/13, and 96/15. We are indebted to the whole Rosetta mission team, Science Ground Segment, and Rosetta Mission Operation Control for their hard work making this mission possible.


T.R. and D.H. are supported by the German Aerospace Center (DLR, grants 05 OR 1507 and 50 OR 1501, respectively). The GAVO project had been supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) at Tübingen (05 AC 6 VTB, 05 AC 11 VTB) and is funded at Heidelberg (05 AC 11 VH3). Financial support from the Belgian FRS-FNRS is also acknowledged. PQ is research director of this organization. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for MAST for non-HST data is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science via grant NNX09AF08G and by other grants and contracts. We thank Ralf Napiwotzki for putting the reduced ESO/VLT spectra at our disposal, Monica Raineri who sent us the electronic versions of the Kr iv ( Bredice et al. 2000 ) and Kr v ( Raineri et al. 2012 ) data, and Liang Liang who provided the Kr vii data ( Liang et al. 2013 ). This work used the profile-fitting procedure, OWENS, that was developed by M. Lemoine and the FUSE French Team. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System and the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. The TheoSSA service ( http://dc.g-vo.org/theossa ) used to retrieve theoretical spectra for this paper and the TOSS service ( http://dc.g-vo.org/TOSS ) that provides weighted oscillator strengths and transition probabilities were constructed as part of the activities of the German Astrophysical Virtual Observatory.


The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 745782. B.V. and M.D. acknowledge financial support by the Croatian Science Foundation under project 6212 “Solar and Stellar Variability.” M.T. acknowledges the support by the FFG/ASAP Programme under grant no. 859729 (SWAMI) and from the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) V195-N16.


This work was sponsored by the Chief of Naval Research and NASA’s Hinode project. Hinode is a Japanese mission developed and launched by ISAS/JAXA, with NAOJ as domestic partner and NASA and STFC (UK) as international partners.


G.M.W. acknowledges discussions with Frank Rieger, who pointed out the numerical error in the expression for the particle gyro-radius in Equation (99) of Webb et al. ( 2018a ). We thank the referee for a very thorough report and for pointing out inconsistencies and errors in the original manuscript. G.M.W. and G.L. were supported in part by NASA grant 80NSSC19K0075. P.M. acknowledges the support of a NASA Earth and Space Science Fellowship Grant 16-HELIO16F-0022. J.A.L.R. is supported in part by NASA grants NNX15A165G, 80NSSC19K0276, and NSF-DOE grant PHY-1707247. G.P.Z. has been supported in part by the NSF EPSCoR RII-Track-1 Cooperative Agreement OIA-1655280 and an NSF/DOE Partnership in Basic Plasma Science and Engineering via NSF grant PHY-1707247. A.F.B. acknowledges valuable insights and discussions with Prof. Peter Biermann on UHECR and candidate sources and radio galaxies.


We thank Dr. Jin Matsumoto for fruitful discussions and comments. Shinsuke Takasao acknowledges support from the Research Fellowship of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). This work was supported by the Grant-in-Aids from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (No. 25287039).


The authors acknowledge the efforts of the Kepler Mission team in obtaining the light curve data used in this publication. These data were generated by the Kepler Mission science pipeline through the efforts of the Kepler Science Operations Center and Science Office. The Kepler Mission is lead by the project office at NASA Ames Research Center. Ball Aerospace built the Kepler photometer and spacecraft which is operated by the mission operations center at LASP. These data products are archived at the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes. The authors would thank the University at Albany Physics Department for its ongoing support in our exoplanet research. Daniel Angerhausen’s Research was supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Goddard Space Flight Center, administered by Oak Ridge Associated Universities through a contract with NASA. The authors thank Em DeLarme, Jon Morse, William B. Rossow, and Barbara J. Thompson for discussions about this exciting extrasolar system.


E.H. acknowledges support by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) and the Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) through grant ESP2016-80435-C2-1-R, as well as the support of the Generalitat de Catalunya/CERCA program. D. D. acknowledges support provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51372.001-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. E.S. acknowledges support by the Russian Science Foundation grant No. 14-50-00043 for conducting international photometric observing campaign. I.S. acknowledges support by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project No. 17-02-00542). R.B. acknowledges support from FONDECYT Post-doctoral Fellowship Project No. 3180246. M.L. acknowledges support from the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG) under project 859724 “GRAPPA”. S.-H.G. acknowledges the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.U1531121). L.C. recognizes funding from DLR – 50OR1804. Funding for the Stellar Astrophysics Centre is provided by The Danish National Research Foundation (Grant agreement no.: DNRF106). We thank the staff at the various participating observatories STELLA, CASLEO, Calar Alto, TJO, and others for their support. Partly based on data obtained with the STELLA robotic telescopes in Tenerife, an AIP facility jointly operated by AIP and IAC, on data acquired at Complejo Astronómico El Leoncito, operated under agreement between the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina and the National Universities of La Plata, Córdoba and San Juan, on observations collected at the Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA) at Calar Alto, operated jointly by the Max-Planck Institut für Astronomie and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (CSIC), and on data obtained with the Joan Oró Telescope (TJO) of the Montsec Astronomical Observatory (OAdM), owned by the Generalitat de Catalunya and operated by the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia (IEEC). This research has made use of the SIMBAD data base and VizieR catalog access tool, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, and of the NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS).


This research has made use of data and software obtained from the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), provided by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. We acknowledge the use of Fermi -LAT data and analysis tools from Fermi Science Support Center. We thank Dr. David Paneque for providing published multiwaveband campaign data of Mrk 501.


SDO is a mission of NASA’s Living With a Star Program. SOHO is a project of international cooperation between ESA and NASA. This work used the DAVE4VM code written and developed by P. W. Schuck at the Naval Research Laboratory. I thank the referee, Prof. P. Démoulin, and Prof. B. Ravindra for useful comments and suggestions. P.V. is supported by an INSPIRE grant of AORC scheme under the Department of Science and Technology.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge partial financial support from the Center for Space and Habitability (CSH), the PlanetS National Center of Competence in Research (NCCR), the Swiss National Science Foundation, a European Research Council (ERC) Consolidator Grant, and the Swiss-based MERAC Foundation. CF acknowledges partial financial support from a University of Bern International 2021 Ph.D. Fellowship. We thank Simon Grimm, Daniel Kitzmann, Maria Oreshenko, Shami Tsai, and Matej Malik for constructive conversations.


H.F. and G.Z. are supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant nos. 11390371, 11233004, and 11603033. D.G.Y. was supported by NSF grant AST-1009603, D.E.W. by NSF grant AST-1238926, J.A.D. by NSF grant AST-1008424, T.P.S. by NSF grant AST-1009929, and B.L.R. by NSF grant AST-1008801. Based in part on data obtained from the ESO Science Archive Facility by user “zihaoj.” Facilities: APO (ARCES) , ESO/Max Planck: 2.2 m (FEROS) , Magellan : Clay (MIKE) .


This work is based upon research supported by the Science Faculty at University of Cape Town (UCT), the South African National Research Foundation and the Department of Science and Technology . Part of this research was conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020 . WLW acknowledges support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council [ST/M001008/1]. We thank Dr Tom Mutabazi and Hiroki Onozato for running some of the observations. We also thank Dr Yasushi Nakajima, Dr Takahiro Nagayama and Dr Ihab Riad for many discussions regarding the reduction pipeline. We are very grateful to Dr Christina Magoulas for her careful reading and comments on the paper. We are grateful to Dr Anja Schroeder for making the 2MASX bright galaxy ZOA list available prior to publication.


This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA2013.0.00458.S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA) and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO and NAOJ. The data presented here were first reduced by CASA (ALMA default calibration software), but a second iteration in the data reduction and later analysis for presentation was made by using the MAPPING package available in the GILDAS software ( http://www.iram.fr/IRAMFR/GILDAS ). Also, Fig. 5 was obtained from few 30 m-IRAM telescope acquisitions and data from the APEX telescope data archive. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany) and IGN (Spain). APEX is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Institut fur Radioastronomie, the European Southern Observatory, and the Onsala Space Observatory. This work has also been supported by the Spanish MINECO, grants AYA2016-78994-P and FIS2012-32096, and by the European Research Council (ERC) Grant 610256: NANOCOSMOS.


Acknowledgements This paper is based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), the Australian Research Council (Australia), Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil) and Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina) and also on observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern hemisphere under ESO programmes 079.C-0328(A) and 079.C-0328(B). This research has also made use of the NED, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Some of the data presented in this paper were based on observations made with the NASA/ESA HST, obtained from the data archive at the Space Telescope Institute. STScI is operated by the association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under the NASA contract NAS 5-26555. This publication also makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. TVRacknowledges CNPq for the financial support under the grant 304321/2016-8. JES acknowledges FAPESP for the financial support under the grant 2011/51680-6. DM acknowledges CNPq for the financial support under the grant 312987/2016-1. The optical data were obtained under grant support from Instituto do Milênio, MEGALIT (AGR). RBM acknowledges CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior). Finally, we thank Roberto Cid Fernandes for carefully reading the manuscript, which improved a lot the quality of this work, and also Juliana Cristina Motter, for English revision. We also thank the anonymous referee for valuable insights that also enriched this paper.


This paper is based on observations made with ESO telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under program ID 092.B-0104(A). We have made extensive use of the SIMBAD Database at CDS (Centre de Données astronomiques) Strasbourg, the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, CalTech, under contract with NASA, and of the VizieR catalog access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France. Support for J.B., D.M., J.C.B., R.K., M.H. is provided by the Ministry of Economy, Development, and Tourism’s Millennium Science Initiative through grant IC120009, awarded to The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, MAS. Support for R.K. is provided from Fondecyt Reg. No. 1130140. R.K.S. acknowledges support from CNPq/Brazil through project 310636/2013-2. We are grateful to the anonymous referee for useful suggestions that helped to improve the paper.


Work performed by F.E., F.R.d.C. and V.P. was supported by NASA grants NNX13AF79G and NNX14AG03G. M.O. was supported by NASA grants NNX08AO83G at UC Berkeley and NNH16AC60I at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). W.L. was supported by NASA HGI grant NNX16AF78G. L.G. was supported by an NSF Faculty Development Grant (AGS-1429512) to the University of Minnesota. Work performed by F.R.d.C. and W.L. is part of the team effort under the title of “Diagnosing heating mechanisms in solar flares through spectroscopic observations of flare ribbons” at the International Space Science Institute (ISSI). M.O. and F.E. are part of the ISSI team “Particle Acceleration in Solar Flares and Terrestrial Substorms.”


We thank the anonymous referee for a careful reading of our manuscript and for constructive comments and suggestions, which improved the paper. HIFI has been designed and built by a consortium of institutes and university departments from across Europe, Canada, and the United States under the leadership of SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Groningen, The Netherlands, and with major contributions from Germany, France, and the US. Consortium members are: Canada: CSA, U.Waterloo; France: CESR, LAB, LERMA, IRAM; Germany: KOSMA, MPIfR, MPS; Ireland: NUI Maynooth; Italy: ASI, IFSI-INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di ArcetriINAF; Netherlands: SRON, TUD; Poland: CAMK, CBK; Spain: Observatorio Astronmico Nacional (IGN), Centro de Astrobiologia (CSIC-INTA); Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology MC2, RSS GARD, Onsala Space Observatory, Swedish National Space Board, Stockholm University Stockholm Observatory; Switzerland: ETH Zurich, FHNW; USA: Caltech, JPL, NHSC. L.J. and Y.G. acknowledge support by NSFC grant nos. 11311130491 and 11420101002 and CAS Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences B program no. XDB09000000.


We thank the anonymous referee for their detailed comments, which have improved the clarity of this paper. JPS, AMS, RGB, CMH and IRS acknowledge support from STFC (ST/I001573/1 and ST/L00075X/1). JPS also gratefully acknowledges support from a Hintze Research Fellowship. IRS acknowledges support from an ERC Advanced Investigator programme DUSTYGAL 321334 and a Royal Society/Wolfson Merit Award. AJB gratefully acknowledges the hospitality of the Research School of Astronomy Astrophysics at the Australian National University, Mount Stromlo, Canberra where some of this work was done under the Distinguished Visitor scheme. DS acknowledges financial support from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific research (NWO) through a Veni fellowship and from FCT through an FCT Investigator Starting Grant and Start-up Grant (IF/01154/2012/CP0189/CT0010). PNB is grateful for support from STFC (ST/M001229/1). We thank Holly Elbert, Timothy Green and Laura Prichard for their observations and Alex Karim for providing main-sequence fits. We also thank Matthieu Schaller for discussions on the EAGLE simulation quantities and Omar Almaini for discussions on the UDS. Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under the programme IDs 60.A-9460, 092.B-0538, 093.B-0106, 094.B-0061 and 095.B-0035. This research uses data from the VIMOS VLT Deep Survey, obtained from the VVDS data base operated by Cesam, Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Marseille, France. This paper uses data from the VIMOS Public Extragalactic Redshift Survey (VIPERS). VIPERS has been performed using the ESO VLT, under the ‘Large Programme’ 182.A-0886. The participating institutions and funding agencies are listed at http://vipers.inaf.it . This paper uses data from zCOSMOS which is based on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the La Silla or Paranal Observatories under programme ID 175.A-0839. We acknowledge the Virgo Consortium for making their simulation data available. The EAGLE simulations were performed using the DiRAC-2 facility at Durham, managed by the ICC, and the PRACE facility Curie based in France at TGCC, CEA, Bruyres-le-Chtel. This work is based in part on data obtained as part of the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey.


I am very grateful to the anonymous referee for their very valuable comments and suggestions, which greatly improved the quality of this work. I thank Professor Richard V. E. Lovelace for his constructive comments in the initial version of this manuscript. Also, I would like to thank Dr. M. Nejad-Asghar and Dr. H. Ebadi for their fruitful discussions, which were helpful for revising the manuscript. This work has been supported financially by Research Institute for Astronomy Astrophysics of Maragha (RIAAM) under research project No. 1/4717-65.


The authors wish to thank the anonymous referee for comments that helped improved the presentation of this work. We thank August Evrard for comments on an early draft of this manuscript. We also thank Nabila Aghanim for help with accessing the full Planck cluster catalogue and validation table. This work was supported in part by the US Department of Energy contract to SLAC no. DE-AC02-76SF00515. JGB gratefully acknowledges support from the Institut Universitaire de France . A portion of the research described in this paper was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


M.V. acknowledges support from Grant 17-06065S by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic and from the AV ČR Grant RVO:67985815.


The figure production made use of the pgplot software at the NRC Canada in Victoria.


This research was carried out using data obtained from the Data Archive and Transmission System (DARTS), provided by the Center for Science-satellite Operation and Data Archive (C-SODA) at ISAS/JAXA. This work was partially supported by a MEXT-Supported Program for the Strategic Research Foundation at Private Universities, 2014–2018 (S1411024).


We thank the referee for an insightful report which helped to improve our paper. GS, NVA and RCF acknowledge the support from the CAPES–COFECUB project 30007ZD. LS acknowledges the support from CAPES and FAPESP. MVCD thanks FAPESP and CAPES/PDSE–BEX 8509/11-5 scholarships that allowed him to develop this project. He also acknowledges the hospitality of the LUTH, at Observatoire de Paris for a long-term visit. NVA acknowledges the support and hospitality of the LUTH, at Observatoire de Paris, for short term visits. This work has made use of the computing facilities of the Laboratory of Astroinformatics (IAG/USP, NAT/Unicsul), whose purchase was made possible by the Brazilian agency FAPESP (grant 2009/54006-4) and the INCT-A. All the authors wish to thank the team of the SDSS for their dedication to a project which has made this work possible. Funding for the SDSS and SDSS-II has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, the Max Planck Society, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England. The SDSS website is http://www.sdss.org/ . The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are the American Museum of Natural History, Astrophysical Institute Potsdam, University of Basel, University of Cambridge, Case Western Reserve University, University of Chicago, Drexel University, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, Johns Hopkins University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, the Korean Scientist Group, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (LAMOST), Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Ohio State University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington.


This work was supported by NSF AAG grant 1211329. J.R.M and K.M.M. were supported under contract with the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) funded by NASA through the Sagan Fellowship Program. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under Grant No. DGE-1143953. Any opinion, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.