adsabs/FOCAL huggingface dataset:
Our N-body planet-formation simulations utilize the well-established Mercury6 Hybrid integration package (Chambers 1999). While the resolution of our simplified numerical models is admittedly low compared to many contemporary models of planet formation (e.g., Morishima et al. 2010; Carter et al. 2015; Woo et al. 2021), this is acceptable for our purposes as the goal of our study is broadly investigate planet formation around M-dwarfs and follow the dynamical evolution of debris (i.e., collisional fragments and leftover planetesimals: Genda et al. 2012; Stewart & Leinhardt 2012; Quintana et al. 2016; Clement et al. 2019b) generated and stranded during the ultimate epoch of giant impacts in these systems. Thus, we limit the number of simulation particles employed in our initial simulation set and do not include a pebble accretion model to minimize compute time and perform a broad parameter space sweep before switching to higher-resolution models in our investigation of post-formation bombardment (Section 2.2). Moreover, as the initial conditions for planet formation around low-mass stars remain poorly understood and largely unconstrained, we begin our investigation by deviating only slightly from the accepted paradigm of rocky planet accretion in the solar system (e.g., Chambers & Wetherill 1998; Chambers 2001; Hansen 2009). An important limitation of this methodology is the absence of a gas-disk model in our simulations. If short-period planets around M-dwarfs form in situ, their growth is sufficiently rapid that it must have coincided with the gas-disk phase (unless planetesimal formation is delayed for some reason (Ogihara et al. 2015, see Section 4 for a more detailed discussion of these caveats). We plan to expound upon the results of this preliminary study in future work with more detailed models and artificial gas-disk treatments (e.g., Clement et al. 2020) specifically tuned to form specific systems of M-dwarf-hosted planets (e.g., Ormel et al. 2017; Coleman et al. 2019; Schoonenberg et al. 2019).
Citation: Stewart & Leinhardt 2012
Citation function: Motivation; Motivation
We modelled the TESS photometry and HARPS RV measurements and accounted for the gravitational interactions between the adopted components of the system using a photodynamical model. The TESS transits are the most numerous of the transit observations and dominate the determination of the planet-to-star radius ratio. For simplicity, we did not model the transit observations with other instruments. The planet positions and velocities in time were obtained through an n-body integration. The sky-projected positions were used to compute the light curve (Mandel & Agol 2002) using a quadratic limb-darkening law (Manduca et al. 1977) that we parametrised following Kipping (2013). The light-time effect (Irwin 1952) was included in the model. To account for the integration time, the model was over-sampled by a factor 3 and was then binned back to match the cadence of the data points (Kipping 2010). The line-of-sight projected velocity of the star issued from the n-body integration was used to model the RV measurements. We used the n-body code REBOUND (Rein & Liu 2012) with the WHFast integrator (Rein & Tamayo 2015) and an integration step of 0.005 days, which resulted in a model error smaller than 1 ppm for the photometric model. The model was parametrised using the stellar mass and radius, planet-to-star mass ratios, planet b-to-star radius ratio, and Jacobi orbital elements (Table 3) at reference time, tref = 2458 370.418461 BJDTDB. Due to the symmetry of the problem, we fixed the longitude of the ascending node of the interior planet ΩB at tref to 180°, and we limited its inclination to ic  90°. We used a GP regression model with an approximate Matern kernel (celerite, Foreman-Mackey et al. 2017) for the model of the error terms of the transit light curves, and the QPC kernel (Perger et al. 2021; Ambikasaran et al. 2015) for the RVs. For the photometric dataset, we added a transit normalisation factor and a jitter parameter. For the RV, we added a systemic RV and a jitter parameter. In total, the model has 28 free parameters. We used normal priors for the stellar mass and radius from Sect. 3, non-informative sinusoidal priors for the orbital inclinations (uniform in cos i), and non-informative uniform prior distributions for the rest of the parameters. The joint posterior distribution was sampled using the emcee algorithm (Goodman & Weare 2010; Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013) with 200 walkers with starting points based on the results of Sect. 4.2. We ran 1.2×106 steps of the emcee algorithm and used the last 200 000 steps for the final inference. In Table 3, we list the prior, the median, and the 68% CI of the inferred marginal distributions of the system parameters.
Citation: Kipping 2010
Citation function: Uses
The magnetic field in the crust of a neutron star is simple. In the crust, ions are fixed in a lattice, while only the electrons are mobile. These dynamics may be described based on electron magnetohydrodynamics. The evolution of the magnetic field owing to the Hall drift and Ohmic dissipation has been studied in several researchers. The magnetic fields are numerically simulated on a secular time-scale (refer Pons & Geppert 2007; Kojima & Kisaka 2012; Viganò et al. 2013; Gourgouliatos et al. 2013; Gourgouliatos & Cumming 2014, for axially symmetric cases). Recently, three-dimensional calculations of the evolution have been performed (Wood & Hollerbach 2015; Gourgouliatos, Wood & Hollerbach 2016; Gourgouliatos & Hollerbach 2018). The simulation shows that non-axisymmetric features such as magnetic hotspots produced by an initial perturbation persist over a long time-scale ∼106 yr. Small-scale features are likely to decay owing to the action of Ohmic dissipation, but they seem to be steadily supported by the Hall effect. This effect becomes more important as the field-strength increases. At the same time, magnetic stress causes deformations in the ion lattice. The crust responds elastically when the deviation is within a critical limit. Beyond this limit, the crust cracks or responds plastically. The effect of elastic deformation on the crustal magnetic-field evolution has been studied (Bransgrove, Levin & Beloborodov 2018). Sudden crust breaking could produce a magnetar outburst and/or a fast radio burst (Li, Levin & Beloborodov 2016; Baiko & Chugunov 2018; Suvorov & Kokkotas 2019). Plastic flow beyond the critical point is crucial for long-term evolution (Lander 2016), and a coupled system between the flow and magnetic field can be solved numerically in a two-dimensional square box of a crust-depth size (Lander & Gourgouliatos 2019). Their simulation shows significant motion near the surface at a rate of 10–100 cm yr−1 for a certain viscosity range. At 103 yr, the path-length reaches ∼1 km, which is the size of the simulation in plane-parallel geometry. The magnetic-field structure comprises a poloidal loop field confined in a two-dimensional box. It is important to examine the effect of the plastic flow on the global features. In particular, changes in the external dipole field in 103–105 yr are interesting.
Citation: Wood & Hollerbach 2015
Citation function: Background; Background
Theoretical features of CB-SMBHs have been predicted for observations; however, observational data can be alternatively explained by complicated broad-line region (BLR) models around a single black hole. Thus, they are still elusive, though there is growing evidence for the appearance of CB-SMBHs. As one of the several signatures of CB-SMBHs, radial velocity curves of double-peaked Hβ emission line have been suggested by Popović et al. (2000), Shen & Loeb (2010), Tsalmantza et al. (2011) and Popović (2012),  but the asymmetry is a better tracer than the double-peakedness in the reverberations (Shen & Loeb 2010). Candidates with this feature are NGC 4151 (Bon et al. 2012) and NGC 5548 (Li et al. 2016a, 2016b), which show opposite motions of red and blue peaks. A large sample of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) with double-peaked Hβ profiles built up by Eracleous et al. (2012) has been monitored for systematic shifts of the two peaks for a couple of years (Runnoe et al. 2017). Periodical variations could be regarded as a signature of binary black holes, such as OJ 287 (Valtonen et al. 2008), PG 1320 (Graham et al. 2015), Akn 120 (Li et al. 2017), and others (Liu et al. 2015; Zheng et al. 2016; Dorn-Wallenstein et al. 2017). It usually takes at least three times the period to determine the periodicity of varying AGNs, such as, more than 10 yr to justify their periodicity if the orbital periods are 3 yr or so (Li & Wang 2018). An X-shaped radio jet has been suggested as a signature of binary black holes (Merritt & Ekers 2002; Cheung 2007), but only one could be plausible (Kharb et al. 2017). A deficit of UV emissions of spectral energy distributions is formed by the interaction between the secondary and circumbinary disks (Hayasaki et al. 2008; Schnittman 2011a, 2011b; Sesana et al. 2012; Roedig et al. 2014). However, there are alternative explanations for these phenomena, such as a processing jet as an alternative explanation of AGN periodical variabilities (since most of them are radio-loud AGNs), dust extinction for the UV deficit in Mrk 231 (Ye et al. 2016; but see Leighly et al. 2016), elliptical disks (Eracleous et al. 1995), and hot spots (e.g., Jovanović et al. 2010) or spiral arms (e.g., Storchi-Bergmann et al. 2017) for the double-peaked profiles of the broad Hβ line. Three candidates with double-peaked profiles, Arp 102B, 3C 390.3, and 3C 332, have been excluded by long-term monitoring campaigns (Eracleous et al. 1997). No CB-SMBHs have been unambiguously identified so far.
Citation: Li et al. 2016a
Citation function: Background; Background; Background
We have used the Code Investigating GALaxy Emission (CIGALE; Burgarella et al. 2005; Noll et al. 2009; Boquien et al. 2019) SED fitting package to model the full SED of ADFS-27. We have run the code on all spatially integrated photometry from Table 2 for the entire galaxy and also on the two source components ADFS-27N and S individually, using only the photometry in those bands where the emission is resolved into both sources. We ran two series of fits, with star formation histories (SFHs) limited either to approximately the age of the universe at z = 5.655 (i.e., ≤1.0 Gyr) or to an age of ≤0.2 Gyr, as is characteristic for young dusty starbursts (e.g., Greve et al. 2005; Bergvall et al. 2016). We sampled standard ranges for all main parameters within CIGALE and used a Bruzual & Charlot (2003) single stellar population and a Chabrier (2003) stellar initial mass function with a “delayed” SFH (i.e., where SFR(t) ∝ t/τ2 × exp(−t/τ), and the fit parameter τ is the time at which the SFR peaks; Boquien et al. 2019; see also Burgarella et al. 2020) for all fits. We fixed the power-law slope of the dust attenuation law to −0.7 for both the interstellar medium and birth clouds and assumed a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) mass fraction (which is not directly constrained by the data) of qPAH = 3.9% (i.e., similar to dust found in the Milky Way and nearby galaxies with near-solar metallicity; e.g., Draine & Li 2007, and references therein).13

13
We allowed for a range in metallicity in our fits, but the metallicity remains difficult to constrain directly without rest-frame optical spectroscopy.
 This is consistent with the range of qPAH = 0.47%–3.9% found for a sample of infrared-luminous galaxies at z = 0.5–4 (Magdis et al. 2012).14

14
The uncertainty due to this assumption is fully captured by the error bars for the most relevant parameters, like Mdust.
 For ADFS-27 as a whole and for ADFS-27S (which is detected in the near-infrared bands), the best-fit parameters for both series agree within the uncertainties. We thus adopt those from the series with less constraints on the SFH in the following, and we only use those from the other series in the evaluation of the true uncertainties. For ADFS-27N (which is not detected in the near-infrared bands), the series with more stringent constraints on the SFH appears to provide more reasonable results and thus are adopted in the following.
Citation: Greve et al. 2005
Citation function: Uses
The Galactic Center (GC) and the Central Molecular Zone (CMZ) in particular represent an environment with conditions that are not to be found anywhere else on large scales in the Milky Way. The CMZ received its name from the presence of a large reservoir of dense (





 cm−2) and molecular gas of a few times 107 M⊙ (Oka et al. 1998; Morris & Serabyn 1996; Ferrière et al. 2007) and covers the central ∼500 pc of the GC region. The large amount of molecular gas is found to be accompanied by a relatively high star formation rate (SFR) of ∼0.1 M⊙ yr−1 (Longmore et al. 2013a; Barnes et al. 2017). Star formation (SF) laws that build on the assumption of a constant gas-depletion time of 1 Gyr can fit the observed SFR (Bigiel et al. 2010; Leroy et al. 2008, 2015). However, these relations are derived from gas at much lower densities than observed in the CMZ. Density-dependent SF laws, on the other hand, strongly overpredict the SFR (Longmore et al. 2013a) at ∼0.4 M⊙ yr−1 (Kennicutt 1998; Krumholz & McKee 2005; Krumholz et al. 2012) to ∼0.8 M⊙ yr−1 Lada et al. (2010, 2012). Thus, the star formation efficiency (SFE) in the CMZ is significantly lower than expected for the observed gas densities. The complex interplay of energetic processes in the GC allows for different potential answers to this problem of low SFE, but none of these processes alone can explain the discrepancy (Kruijssen et al. 2014). A general picture of episodic starbursts in gas rings in galactic centers introduced by Krumholz & Kruijssen (2015) and Krumholz et al. (2017) might solve the SFE problem in the particular case of the CMZ and set the framework for another intriguing feature of the GC: a ring-like structure of dust and molecular gas. This structure (see Figure 1 for an overview) is projected onto an infinity (





) shape that follows several arcs, the most prominent being the so-called “dust ridge” stretching from the massive molecular cloud G0.253+0.016 (“the Brick”) to the star-forming region Sgr B2 (Lis et al. 1999). It might be continued via an 





 arc and another loop at negative longitude ([





], 





]) passing through the star-forming region Sgr C. The syntax 





 denotes the four quadrants in Galactic coordinates at positive/negative Galactic longitude (l) and latitude (b). Clouds at 





 and 





 are thought to be located in front of Sgr A*, i.e., the near side of the GC that is visible in silhouette against the background, whereas most of the 





 and 





 gas is more likely to be on the far side, i.e., behind Sgr A* (Bally et al. 2010; Molinari et al. 2011).
Citation: Krumholz et al. 2012
Citation function: Compare/Contrast; Compare/Contrast
In the interstellar medium, CH3OH  and other “saturated” (hydrogen-rich) molecules are primarily believed to be formed on the surface of dust grains (Tielens & Hagen 1982; Charnley et al. 1992; Watanabe & Kouchi 2002), where CH3OH and NH3  are among the most abundant mantle species present relative to H2O, as measured in both low and high-mass young stellar objects (YSOs) and cold cloud cores (Tielens & Allamandola 1987; Dartois et al. 1999; Pontoppidan et al. 2004; Gibb et al. 2004; Boogert et al. 2008; Öberg et al. 2011). Notably, for CH3OH, the high abundances measured for maser sources are inconsistent with those predicted by gas-phase formation models (Menten et al. 1986; Hartquist et al. 1995). To get the CH3OH  off of the dust grains and into the gas phase in the observed large quantities then requires a mechanism to liberate the CH3OH  from the grain mantles. Proposed mechanisms include thermal desorption via heating from an embedded protostar, shocks, or cosmic rays (requiring grain temperatures ≳90 K Tielens 1995; Brown & Bolina 2007), or nonthermal desorption processes including photodesorption via far-UV photons from cosmic ray interactions (Prasad & Tarafdar 1983; D’Hendecourt et al. 1985; Öberg et al. 2009a), grain sputtering, wherein the ice mantles of grains are dislodged via collisions (often in shocks) with other grains, neutrals, ions, or cosmic rays (Johnson et al. 1991; Caselli et al. 1997), and finally exothermic chemical reactions on the grain surfaces Duley & Williams (1993), Roberts et al. (2007). In particular, the presence of molecules formed on grains in relatively cool and dense environments requires an efficient nonthermal desorption process (Willacy & Williams 1993; Roberts et al. 2007; Öberg et al. 2009b; Caselli et al. 2012). In the CMZ, the abundance of 36 GHz CH3OH  sources has been suggested to be due to photodesorption from cosmic rays in this region Yusef-Zadeh et al. (2013a). We reconsider this in the light of our new, high-resolution observations.
Citation: Menten et al. 1986
Citation function: Compare/Contrast
The classical framework in which theoretical galactic studies are performed these days is the Λ cold dark matter (ΛCDM) paradigm. However, both the cosmological constant Λ and the CDM part of the model could also be related to a modification of gravity. On galaxy scales, the model is indeed plagued by severe problems, the most famous ones being the cusp–core problem (de Blok 2010; Oman et al. 2015, but see also Read et al. 2016), the too-big-to fail problem (Boylan-Kolchin, Bullock & Kaplinghat 2011; Papastergis et al. 2015; Pawlowski et al. 2015) or the satellite planes problem (Kroupa, Theis & Boily 2005; Metz, Kroupa & Jerjen 2007; Metz, Kroupa & Libeskind 2008; Pawlowski, Pflamm-Altenburg & Kroupa 2012; Ibata et al. 2013, 2014; Pawlowski et al. 2015). There is also a more general problem linked to the finely tuned relation between the distribution of baryons and the gravitational field in galaxies, as encapsulated in various scaling relations involving a universal acceleration constant a0 ≈ 10−10 m s−2, including the tight baryonic Tully–Fisher relation (McGaugh et al. 2000; Lelli, McGaugh & Schombert 2016a; Papastergis, Adams & van der Hulst 2016), the diversity of shapes of rotation curves at a given maximum velocity scale (Oman et al. 2015) or the relation between the stellar and dynamical surface densities in the central regions of galaxies (Lelli et al. 2016b; Milgrom 2016), and many others (Famaey & McGaugh 2012). All this points to things happening as if the effects usually attributed to CDM on galaxy scales were actually due to a modified force law. The a priori simplest explanation for this would be that gravity is indeed effectively different in the weak field regime and accounts for the effects usually attributed to CDM. This paradigm is known as modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND), or Milgromian dynamics, suggested more than 30 years ago by Milgrom (1983). It predicted all the observed galaxy scaling relations well before they were precisely assessed by observations (Famaey & McGaugh 2012). Nevertheless, this paradigm cannot be complete, as a full theory of gravitation, also valid on cosmological scales, has not yet been found. But while successful on galaxy scales, the MOND paradigm has still been far from being fully explored even on these scales where it is currently successful. Hence, there is still potential for falsification of this paradigm in its a priori domain of validity. The main reason for this lack of exploration of all predictions of MOND on galaxy scales is its non-linear nature, and the previous lack of numerical codes devised to model galaxies in this framework.
Citation: Lelli, McGaugh & Schombert 2016a
Citation function: Background
Over 2500 known pulsars have been included in the database of the Australia Telescope National Facility (ATNF1

1

http://www.atnf.csiro.au/research/pulsar/psrcat

), whose parameters can be queried and visualized, and more fascinating pulsars are waiting to be discovered (Manchester et al. 2005; Bates et al. 2012; Ng et al. 2015). Many of these stars have very stable rotation periods. Among them, the rotation periods of “normal” pulsars vary from a few tens of milliseconds to a few seconds, and the derivatives of their periods are between 10−17 and 10−13 (Manchester et al. 2001; Lorimer et al. 2006); they are called cosmic “lighthouses” because their broadband emission and steady rotation sweep out a beam of radiation across the sky. These lighthouse-like pulsars can radiate photon signals with stable periods and profiles, thus playing an important role in studying the evolution law of stars (Faucher-Giguere & Kaspi 2006), exploring the interstellar medium (ISM; Daniel et al. 2000; Bogovalov et al. 2005), detecting gravitational waves (Hobbs et al. 2009), establishing timing references (Hobbs et al. 2012) and realizing deep-space navigation (Sheikh et al. 2006; Emadzadeh & Speyer 2011). On-orbit application research on pulsars is being performed worldwide (Vikhlinin et al. 2009; Ge et al. 2012; Kaya et al. 2014). However, pulsars are far from the Earth, and compared with the receiving areas of gigantic ground-based radio observatories, that of an X-ray detector is more limited; therefore, the received photon signals are always submerged in observation noise. Meanwhile, compared with radio signals, which are more susceptible to interference from artificial signals, other forms of ground signals and photon signals from other stars, X-ray signals are almost immune to interference because of their small field of view and high energy. However, we cannot completely rule out the possibility of interference from instruments and other stars. The above factors hamper research on pulsar searches and timing observations. Therefore, it is quite important to study noise and interference mitigation methods for pulsar signals.
Citation: Faucher-Giguere & Kaspi 2006
Citation function: Motivation
Be stars are believed to rotate at ~60−80% of their critical velocity (Porter 1996; Rivinius et al. 2006). Earlier observations of the V850 Cen Hα line (Parkes et al. 1980; Corbet et al. 1986) detected a shell-type profile of the emission line, that is a double-peaked profile in which the central absorption extends below the stellar continuum flux. According to the seminal model by Struve (1931, yet largely accepted; see Rivinius et al. 2013, for a more recent review), shell-type profiles imply an inclination angle of i ~ 90° (i.e. an edge-on system). During our campaign we did not observe shell-type emission lines (see Fig. 2). Therefore, based on a qualitative comparison with Fig. 1 of Rivinius et al. (2013), the profiles detected in this work support a large (60° ≲  i  ≲ 80°) inclination angle, yet not an edge-on view. Later, more physical models (Hummel 1994; Hanuschik 1996; Hummel & Hanuschik 1997) also support a large inclination angle. However, we should note here that line profile shapes do not always give unambiguous information about the disk inclination angle (Silaj et al. 2010; Quirrenbach et al. 1997). In any case, transient shell lines do not demand a tilt of the disk plane. For example, shell profiles need a geometrically thick medium to form. Therefore, the Hα line profiles observed in the present work may simply be due to a decrease of the disk density, with respect to previous conditions. Assuming typical values of the mass and radius of a B2 type star as M⋆ = 9.9 M⊙, R⋆ = 5.4 R⊙ (Townsend et al. 2004; Pasinetti-Fracassini et al. 2000; Sugizaki et al. 2015), the critical velocity of rotation is (4)\begin{equation} V_{\rm break}=\sqrt{\frac{GM_\star}{R_\star}}\approx475\,\rm km\,s^{-1}. \end{equation}Vbreak=GM⋆R⋆≈475 km s-1.With an inclination angle i = 90° and Vsini = 330 km s-1, the resulting critical fraction is w = V/Vbreak ≈ 0.69. On the other hand, assuming w = 0.8 and Vsini = 330 km s-1, the resulting inclination angle is i ~ 60°, which is still consistent with the inclination inferred by the Hα line profile. We therefore conclude that, at least during our observations, a more conservative range for the inclination angle of V850 Cen is 60° ≲  i  ≲ 90° and that V850 Cen is likely rotating at 0.69 ≲  w  ≲ 0.80.
Citation: Silaj et al. 2010
Citation function: Background