adsabs/FOCAL huggingface dataset:
The fact that all massive ETGs fall into a single FP, coupled with the segregation of the highest ranked objects from lesser galaxies, entails that any non-edge-on projection of this flat surface must also lead to segregated 2D scaling laws. To investigate this issue we now use M⋆ to represent scale, shifting to the (logarithmic) RVM coordinate system defined by the three most basic global parameters connected by the standard plane. In this manner we set the framework for the study of two of the most firmly established empirical scaling relations of elliptical galaxies: the Kormendy-like RM relation (Shen et al. 2003) and the VM relation, a mass analogue of the classical FJR. In good agreement with observational studies of BCG/BGGs (Bernardi et al. 2007; Lauer et al. 2007; Bernardi 2009; Méndez-Abreu et al. 2012), we find that our simulated first-ranked galaxies lie off the standard 2D scaling relations defined by the bulk of the ETG population. In particular, as shown in Fig. 3, BGGs are larger and have lower effective velocity dispersions than ordinary ellipticals of the same stellar mass. The combination of this latter result with the fact that light appears to be similarly concentrated for BGGs than for non-BGGs (Paper I), tells us that the total mass-to-light fraction interior to Re is lower for the former than for the latter. Our numerical experiments, however, do not seem to support claims of the steepening of the R ∝ Mα relation for CGs towards values α ≳ 1 (Lauer et al. 2007; Bernardi 2009). We find instead that our first-ranked objects, which occupy a locus moderately offset from the central axis of the observational data in Fig. 3A, are well fitted by a model with α = 0.60 ± 0.03. This value of the power-law index agrees well with the slope α ∼ 0.65 found for non-BCG galaxies in the Sloan r-band (Shen et al. 2003; Bernardi et al. 2007), while a plain orthogonal fit to the general elliptical population data included in Fig. 3A (green dots and small grey circles) also gives α ∼ 0.6. Approaching closer to our findings, Liu et al. (2008) obtain α ∼ 0.9 from surface measurements up an isophotal limit of 25 r-mag arcsec−2, which reduces to ∼0.8 when their magnitudes are transformed into mass in old stars, whereas they get α ∼ 0.75 for a control sample of non-BCGs. Differences in the photometry, the waveband of the observations, sample construction (i.e. incompletenesses and selection biases), and fitting methods would help explain the lack of a closer agreement between these results about the most robust of the 2D relationships.
Citation: Bernardi 2009
Citation function: Similarities; Similarities
In general, a precise measurement of the instrumental line-spread function can only be obtained from the LFC lines since only these are truly unresolved. Unfortunately, the LFC covers only 57% of the ESPRESSO spectral range. So even if a proper modeling of the line-spread function would resolve some of the discovered discrepancies, it might only be available for a limited wavelength range. The transitions used to constrain the fine-structure constant are, however, distributed over a wide range in wavelengths. The exact location of the lines depends of course on the absorber redshift, but restricting the range to the region covered by the LFC (approximately 5000 Å–7000 Å, see Fig. 8) would render many well-studied absorption systems basically unobservable with ESPRESSO. For example, for the zabs = 1.69 systems along the HE 2217-1818 sightline (Molaro et al. 2013a), the Mg II lines would not be covered anymore, leaving only the Fe II lines around ≃ 2500 Å for a constraint of the fine-structure constant (compare to Fig. 1). However, these five lines have a limited spread in sensitivity with respect to α. In addition, relying only on the LFC wavelength range will make it at any redshift impossible to observe the Fe II 1608 Å line together with the other Fe II lines at λrest > 2300 Å. Usually, this is a very valuable combination of transitions, since the Fe II 1608 Å line shifts in opposite direction compared to the other Fe II lines and using only transitions originating from the same ion avoids possible systematics related to different velocity structures and isotopic abundances. For many absorption systems, it is thus crucial to use the full spectral range of ESPRESSO and a restriction to the limited range covered by the currently installed laser frequency comb would substantially diminish the scientific return. Therefore, it is important that future improvements of the ESPRESSO wavelength calibration are applicable to the full spectral range of ESPRESSO.
Citation: Molaro et al. 2013a
Citation function: Compare/Contrast; Compare/Contrast
Recently, forms of feedback that are fundamentally different from SNe have been shown to be essential to galaxy formation. Murray, Quataert & Thompson (2010) analysed the dynamical effects of several forms of stellar feedback on parent molecular clouds. In their models they include momentum input from ionized gas in H ii regions, shocked stellar winds, hot gas pressure, protostellar jets and cosmic rays. Murray et al. (2010) conclude that radiation pressure (RP) on dust grains is likely to be the dominant form of feedback in star-forming galaxies. A variety of other studies have reached the same conclusions, placing the combination of RP and photoionization of gas by massive stars as the dominant mechanism for disruption of molecular clouds and internal regulation of the SF process (Indebetouw et al. 2009; Krumholz & Matzner 2009; Murray et al. 2010; Andrews & Thompson 2011; Hopkins, Quataert & Murray 2011; Lopez et al. 2011; Pellegrini, Baldwin & Ferland 2011). RP alone might also be the only mechanism that explains galactic fountains and the warm gas outflows observed in absorption in high-redshift galaxies (Murray, Ménard & Thompson 2011). In addition, recent numerical work by Krumholz & Thompson (2012) shows that radiation feedback fully accounts for the large gas velocity dispersions measured in young star clusters in the MW. There are at least three reasons why radiative feedback is an essential ingredient of the galaxy formation process. First, observations show that molecular clouds begin to disperse shortly after the O stars form and before the first SNe explode and deposit their energy into the gas (Kawamura et al. 2009). Secondly, the total energy output of a stellar cluster is dominated by radiation. The rate of radiative energy output by O and B stars is ∼200 times larger than the average power injected by SNe and stellar winds during the lifetime of the most massive stars. Thirdly, it is difficult to explain the large gas turbulence values observed in star-forming regions without including the momentum input by radiation (Murray et al. 2010).
Citation: Murray et al. (2010)
Citation function: Background
Previous observations of AGN that investigate correlations between αOX and Eddington ratio have revealed some similarities with X-ray binary outbursts at high Lbol/LEdd, but these comparisons have not been possible below the critical Lbol/LEdd ≲ 10−2, where an inversion in this correlation is predicted to occur. At higher Eddington ratios of Lbol/LEdd ≳ 10−2, single-epoch X-ray and UV observations of large samples of AGN have previously revealed a hardening of αOX as Lbol/LEdd drops from ∼1 to ∼10−2 (e.g., Vignali et al. 2003; Strateva et al. 2005; Steffen et al. 2006; Just et al. 2007; Grupe et al. 2010; Jin et al. 2012; Wu et al. 2012; Trichas et al. 2013; Vagnetti et al. 2013). This correlation was also observed in multi-epoch UV/X-ray observations of the fading of Mrk 1018 (Noda & Done 2018), which confirms this behavior in an individual AGN. However, the predicted softening of αOX below Lbol/LEdd ≲ 10−2 (thus causing an inversion in the correlation between αOX and Lbol/LEdd) has not been previously observed. This is primarily due to the difficulty of robustly measuring both αOX and Lbol/LEdd for AGN below Lbol/LEdd ≲ 10−2, for three main reasons. First, at low Eddington ratios, AGN are often dust-obscured (Fabian et al. 2008), and thus measuring their intrinsic UV luminosities (and αOX) is difficult. Second, broad emission lines often disappear in low-luminosity AGN below Lbol/LEdd ≲ 10−2, making it difficult to measure MBH (and LEdd). Third, using a sample of AGN with a wide range of Eddington ratios to trace how αOX changes as a function of Lbol/LEdd can be hampered by the 





 scaling of the thin disk temperature with MBH at a fixed Eddington ratio. If the AGN sample has a large range in MBH, this can cause an additional scatter in αOX. Thus, we would ideally use a sample of AGN with a narrow range in MBH, but the difficulty of measuring MBH at Lbol/LEdd ≲ 10−2 also hampers the construction of such a sample. In this paper, we will use a new method to bypass all of these issues, with the goal of extending this spectral comparison between X-ray binaries and AGN to Lbol/LEdd ≲ 10−2.
Citation: Vignali et al. 2003
Citation function: Background
To study this, one must represent the dynamics in coordinates that focus on the mechanism. Action-angle expansions do this very well and are useful for systems which do not evolve with time (Binney & Tremaine 2008). However, we know that galaxies do evolve in time, and this time dependence influences the evolution itself. The nature of galactic dynamics requires analysis that can accurately treat multiple time-scales. For example, interesting evolution takes place on time-scales longer than the characteristic period, largely driven by resonant exchange and phase mixing. To do this efficiently, one may follow the gravitational field in evolving systems using basis-function expansions (BFE). BFE represents the potential and density of near-equilibrium galaxies in basis functions: pairs of biorthogonal functions that satisfy the Poisson equation and are mutually orthogonal (Clutton-Brock 1972, 1973; Kalnajs 1976; Fridman & Polyachenko 1984; Hernquist & Ostriker 1992; Weinberg 1999; Lilley et al. 2018a; Lilley, Sanders & Evans 2018b). Each of these basis sets (op. cit.) share the same properties but differ in the dimensionality, node location, profile shape, and method of construction. Most of these use integral transform methods following Clutton–Brock and Kalnajs. Alternatively, Weinberg (1999) solves radial part of the Poisson equation directly to best represent the underlying galaxy density profile. We adopt this method here. In effect, this windows the length scales to particular ones of interest based on the equilibrium model. We describe the relationship between these methods in the next section. Additionally useful, one can take any set of biorthogonal functions and create a new biorthogonal set of functions by a vector-space rotation. In particular, one may select the rotation by diagonalizing the variance matrix of the expansion coefficients given the particle distribution; this generates a new set of orthogonal functions that looks like the particle distribution (Petersen, Weinberg & Katz 2021). This new data-motivated basis is sometimes called empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs) after Lorenz (1956).
Citation: Lilley et al. 2018a
Citation function: Uses; Uses
We only recall here the main features of this model. Heavy elements are produced through three main enrichment channels, namely by SNIa, SNII, and AGB stars, depending on their typical lifetimes and yields. To this purpose, we assume the initial mass function by Chabrier (2003) as a distribution of initial masses for the population of stars, and the mass-dependent lifetimes by Padovani & Matteucci (1993) to account for the different time-scales of stars of different masses. The abundance of the various metal species produced during the evolution of a stellar particle is then estimated by considering different sets of stellar yields for SNIa, SNII, and AGB (namely Thielemann et al. 2003, for SNIa; Woosley & Weaver 1995 combined with those by Romano et al. 2010, for SNII; Karakas 2010, for AGB stars). Once metals are produced, they are distributed from stars to surrounding gas particles by smoothing them on the SPH kernel, consistently with the other thermodynamical quantities, while no process of metal diffusion is explicitly included in the simulations. Previous studies in the literature have investigated the influence of changing the details of the metal spreading on the final enrichment pattern in simulated clusters (e.g. Tornatore et al. 2007; Wiersma et al. 2009b). From various tests presented in Tornatore et al. 2007 for the same chemical evolution model used in the current simulations, we conclude that changes in the numerical details of the metal injection scheme (e.g. number of neighbouring particles or weighting scheme for the metal diffusion to the gas) have only a minor impact on the resulting star formation history, stellar population, and chemical enrichment pattern. The differences, in particular, are smaller than the scatter from cluster to cluster. Moreover, for a given scheme of metal spreading, the final enrichment level of the simulated clusters is more strongly influenced by the physical processes included in the simulations, such as the energy feedback (see Fabjan et al. 2010; Planelles et al. 2014; Biffi et al. 2017).
Citation: Woosley & Weaver 1995
Citation function: Uses; Uses
Besides AGN feedback, additional clues on the SMBH–galaxy connection can be obtained from constraints on AGN obscuration, which can also occur on a range of physical scales (see review by Ramos Almeida & Ricci 2017). The most basic AGN unification model predicts that the obscuring medium is a small (parsec-scale) nuclear torus surrounding the active black hole (BH), and the degree of obscuration simply depends on the viewing angle (Antonucci 1993; Urry & Padovani 1995). However, there is compelling evidence for AGN obscuration being closely related to their host galaxies. For example, previous work has revealed different hosts and dust structures between Seyfert 1’s and 2’s down to fine angular scales, strongly disfavoring the conventional torus orientation picture (e.g., Malkan et al. 1998; Prieto et al. 2021). Furthermore, spatially resolved mid-IR or hard-X-ray studies of nearby heavily absorbed systems found that the obscuration is fully consistent with moderate- to large-scale dust lanes and features with a range of hydrogen column densities (Bianchi et al. 2007; Arévalo et al. 2014; Bauer et al. 2015), and with AGN ionization cone collimation taking place at distances well beyond the inner torus (Prieto et al. 2014; Mezcua et al. 2016). Additionally, the observed relationship between the 9.7 μm silicate absorption depth and the inclination of the host galaxies of heavily absorbed AGNs support large-scale obscuration (Goulding et al. 2012), and an intriguing trend for intermediate redshift star-forming galaxies points to an increasing fraction of heavily absorbed AGNs with increasing galaxy-wide specific star formation rate (= SFR/stellar mass, a tracer of galaxy gas fractions; Juneau et al. 2013). The latter suggests either a direct role of host galaxies gas in the absorption of X-rays from the AGN or a true physical link between the small-scale torus and the multiscale interstellar medium. Some studies find cases with high X-ray absorption (i.e., Compton-thick regime), which are consistent with small-scale torus absorption (e.g., Baloković et al. 2014; Markowitz et al. 2014; Ricci et al. 2014; Koss et al. 2017), or evidence for both nuclear and possible host galaxy contributions, where the latter might be dependent on galaxy mass and redshift (Brightman et al. 2014; Buchner et al. 2015; Buchner & Bauer 2017). Therefore, assessing AGN feedback, AGN obscuration, and the possible interplay with host galaxy properties and substructure can shed light on the SMBH–galaxy connection.
Citation: Malkan et al. 1998
Citation function: Compare/Contrast
The observed two-point correlation function ωobs(θ) is corrected for an underestimation due to a finite coverage of the observation data. The correction is conducted by adding an integral constraint (IC; Groth & Peebles 1977) as follows:
(6)$$\begin{eqnarray}
\omega (\theta) = \omega _{\rm obs}(\theta) + \rm {IC}.
\end{eqnarray}$$With the assumption of a single power-law correlation function ω(θ) = Aωθ−δ, IC is expressed by the formalism in Roche et al. (1999) as
(7)$$\begin{eqnarray}
\mathrm{IC} = \frac{\Sigma _{i}[RR(\theta _{i})\omega (\theta _{i})]}{\Sigma _{i} RR(\theta _{i})},
\end{eqnarray}$$where RR(θi) is the non-normalized number of random–random pairs. Combined with equation (7), equation (6) becomes
(8)$$\begin{eqnarray}
\omega _{\rm obs}(\theta) = A_{\omega }\biggl [\theta ^{-\delta } - \frac{\Sigma _{i}[RR(\theta _{i})\theta _{i}^{-\delta }]}{\Sigma _{i} RR(\theta _{i})}\biggr ].
\end{eqnarray}$$The observed two-point correlation function ωobs(θ) is fitted by equation (8) to obtain the corrected two-point correlation function ω(θ). We conducted the fit by fixing a slope parameter δ to 0.8. Since δ is sensitive to the sample size, constraining the slope δ is not effective because of the small number of sgzK galaxies. The result with fixed δ is useful for direct comparison with previous studies since many studies assumed the slope parameter δ fixed to 0.8 (Kong et al. 2006; Hayashi et al. 2007; Blanc et al. 2008; Hartley et al. 2008; Ishikawa et al. 2015). The least-squares fit procedure in mpfit1 (Markwardt 2009) was used to determine Aω. The two-point correlation functions for sgzKs with Ks  21.1 and 21.5 are presented in Fig. 4. Ishikawa et al. (2015) reported that the two-point correlation function of sgzKs at small angular scale (θ ≲ 0${_{.}^{\circ}}$01) has a steeper slope compared to that at large angular scale, which represents the difference of contributions from the one-halo term (pairs of sgzKs in the same halo) and the two-halo term (pairs of sgzKs in different haloes) as predicted from the analysis by the dark matter halo model. However, such characteristic is unclear in Fig. 4 due to the small number of sgzK galaxies. The results of clustering analysis for the two magnitude-limited sgzKs are listed in Table 1. In Fig. 5, the amplitudes of two-point correlation functions for sgzKs are presented together with the results in the literature. For the estimation of the error, we considered the effect of cosmic variance. For this, we used four sub-regions presented in Fig. 1. Two-point correlation functions were estimated four times separately after excluding each of the sub-regions in turn. A standard deviation of the four two-point correlation functions can be treated as the uncertainty of two-point correlation function due to cosmic variance. It was added quadratically in the estimation of the error of two-point correlation function. As shown in Fig. 5, our result is comparable to the previous studies. In addition to the results in the literature, our result shows Ks-band magnitude dependence of the clustering strength.
Citation: Hayashi et al. 2007
Citation function: Compare/Contrast
NGC1068 is a nearby (D = 14 Mpc Bland-Hawthorn et al. 1997, 1″ ∼ 70 pc) Seyfert 2 galaxy and is considered to be the archetype of a composite AGN-starburst system. The proximity of this composite galaxy makes it an ideal laboratory for resolving the feedback from the starburst regions that are spatially distinct from the AGN activity. NGC 1068 has been extensively investigated by many single-dish and interferometric campaigns focused on the study of how its central region is fueled and the related feedback activity, using molecular line observations (e.g., Usero et al. 2004; Israel 2009; Kamenetzky et al. 2011; Hailey-Dunsheath et al. 2012; Aladro et al. 2013; García-Burillo et al. 2014, 2017, 2019; Viti et al. 2014; Impellizzeri et al. 2019; Imanishi et al. 2020). The available CO Observations of NGC 1068 by Schinnerer et al. (2000) reveal the molecular gas distributing over three regions, which has also been confirmed by, for instance, García-Burillo et al. (2014, 2019) and Sánchez-García et al. (2022): a starburst ring (SB ring) with a radius ∼1.5 kpc, a circumnuclear disk (CND) of radius ∼200 pc, and a ∼2 kpc stellar bar running north east, along PA ∼48° (Scoville et al. 1988), from the CND. In García-Burillo et al. (2014) and Viti et al. (2014), five chemically distinct regions were found to be present within the CND: the AGN, the East Knot, West Knot, and regions to the north and south of the AGN (CND-N and CND-S) using data from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). Viti et al. (2014) combined these ALMA data with Plateau de Bure Interferometer (PdBI) data and determined the physical and chemical properties of each region. It was found that a pronounced chemical differentiation is present across the CND and that each sub-region could be characterized by a three-phase component interstellar medium, where one of the components is comprised of shocked gas. In fact, García-Burillo et al. (2010) used the PdBI to map NGC 1068 and found strong emission of SiO(2–1) to the east and west of CND. The SiO kinematics of the CND point to an overall rotating structure and is distorted by non-circular or non-coplanar motions, or a combination of both. The authors have concluded that this could be due to large scale shocks through cloud-cloud collisions or through a jet-ISM interaction. Such shock-related non-circular kinematics of gas was also identified by Krips et al. (2011) using several molecular ratios of CO, 13CO, HCN, and HCO+. However, due to strong CN emission that is not easily explained by shock models nor photon-dominated region (PDR) chemistry, these authors also suggested that the CND could actually be one large X-ray dominated region (XDR).
Citation: Schinnerer et al. (2000)
Citation function: Uses; Uses; Similarities; Uses; Uses
There are some indications that available models of the post-AGB and CSPN phases are not accurate enough. First, the two available grids of post-AGB models (Vassiliadis & Wood 1994; Blöcker 1995a) do not agree with each other on the predicted timescales (Zijlstra et al. 2008). Second, consistency between the masses of white dwarfs and those of CSPNe seems to require faster evolutionary speeds than predicted by both sets of models (Gesicki et al. 2014). Third, present models of the CSPNe phase are unable to explain why the cut-off of the PNe luminosity function is constant in most galaxies (Marigo et al. 2001, 2004). Lastly, post-AGB stellar evolution models, computed with updated physics in a reduced mass range (Kitsikis 2008; Weiss & Ferguson 2009), show a strong disagreement with the previous grids. This is not a surprise since many improvements have been carried out in the field of stellar physics in recent decades. Most importantly, available grids have been computed with opacities, which are now 45 years old (Cox & Stewart 1970b,a) before the big changes introduced by the OPAL (Iglesias & Rogers 1996), and Opacity Project (Seaton 2007) redeterminations. Similarly, nuclear reaction rates, equation of states, conductive opacities, and neutrino emission rates adopted in the models date from the early eighties and even earlier. In addition, Herwig et al. (1997) showed that the existence of carbon stars at low luminosities can be explained by the addition of mixing beyond the formal convective boundaries during the thermal pulses (TP) on the AGB. Finally, Marigo (2002) showed that C-rich molecular opacities are essential to predict the correct effective temperatures once the AGB models become carbon rich (NC/NO> 1, by number fractions). This is particularly important because of the impact of effective temperatures on the mass loss rates. While all these improvements in stellar modeling have been implemented in AGB stellar models, and very detailed and exhaustive grids and models are available (Weiss & Ferguson 2009; Cristallo et al. 2009, 2011; Ventura & Marigo 2010; Karakas 2010; Lugaro et al. 2012; Constantino et al. 2014; Doherty et al. 2015), the inclusion of these improvements in post-AGB stellar models is still missing. It is time for a recomputation of the post-AGB models in the light of all these advances.
Citation: Weiss & Ferguson 2009
Citation function: Future Work; Future Work