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Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Data coverage maps displaying the percentage of angular bins with data points across area I. Lower to higher values are represented by darker to lighter shades of gray, respectively. The top row displays the backward-scattering regime, and the bottom row displays the forward-scattering regime. The columns, from left to right, display the percent coverage in incidence, emission, and phase angle. The ranges of percentage values in the backward-scattering regime are 16.7–100, 33.3–94.4, and 64.3–78.6, respectively. The ranges of percentage values in the forward-scattering regime are 5.6–55.6, 5.6–61.1, and 5.6–11.1, respectively.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Data coverage maps displaying the percentage of angular bins with data points across area III. Lower to higher values are represented by darker to lighter shades of gray, respectively. The top row displays the backward-scattering regime, and the bottom row displays the forward-scattering regime. The columns, from left to right, display the percent coverage in incidence, emission, and phase angle. The ranges of percentage values in the backward-scattering regime are 22.2–100, 38.9–94.4, and 57.1–78.6, respectively. The ranges of percentage values in the forward-scattering regime are 0–55.6, 0–50, and 0–11.1, respectively.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Data coverage maps displaying the percentage of angular bins with data points across area II. Lower to higher values are represented by darker to lighter shades of gray, respectively. The top row displays the backward-scattering regime, and the bottom row displays the forward-scattering regime. The columns, from left to right, display the percent coverage in incidence, emission, and phase angle. The ranges of percentage values in the backward-scattering regime are 22.2–94.4, 33.3–83.3, and 50.0–85.7, respectively. The ranges of percentage values in the forward-scattering regime are 0–66.7, 0–77.8, and 0–16.7, respectively. The red line marks a boundary in angle coverage that affects the modeling results, as discussed in Section 5. A larger angle range, representing better coverage, is present below the red line.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Mapping of the single-scattering albedo (top left), surface roughness (top right), scattering function amplitude (bottom left), and scattering function partition parameters (bottom right) for area II. The gray scale represents values from low (dark) to high (bright). The table displays the gray scale for each of the parameter maps. The red line shows a transition in angle coverage (see Figure A3) that affects the parameter solutions (less coverage in the forward-scattering direction). The area below the red line has the better angular coverage within the data set.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Mapping of the single-scattering albedo (top left), surface roughness (top right), scattering function amplitude (bottom left), and scattering function partition parameters (bottom right) for area III. The gray scale represents values from low (dark) to high (bright). The table displays the gray scale for each of the parameter maps.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Mapping of the single-scattering albedo (top left), surface roughness (top right), scattering function amplitude (bottom left), and scattering function partition parameters (bottom right) for area I. The gray scale represents values from low (dark) to high (bright). The table displays the gray scale for each of the parameter maps.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Data point coverage for areas I (top row), II (center row), and III (bottom row), shown in gray scale with lower numbers darker and higher numbers brighter. An image of the area is shown in the left column, with north upward. Backward-scattering regime data counts are displayed in the center column, and forward-scattering regime data counts are displayed in the right column. Data counts in area I range from 1800 to 2900 and from 14 to 300 in the backward- and forward-scattering regimes, respectively. Data counts in area II range from 1700 to 3300 and from 0 to 300 in the backward- and forward-scattering regimes, respectively. Data counts in area III range from 1500 to 3207 and from 0 to 200 in the backward- and forward-scattering regimes, respectively.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: An illustration of how surface tilts vary on the scale of grain sizes with variation in grain size and porosity in a regolith. The scenario on the left represents larger, compact grains, whereas the scenario on the right represents the fairy-castle structure of the lunar regolith. The central diagram shows an intermediate, multiple grain size, compact scenario. The colored lines represent the shape of the topography that influences the photometric behavior of the surface.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Color representation of the photometric model parameters compared to the regional morphology. The first column presents area I, the center column presents area II, and the right column presents area III. The top row is an image of the corresponding area (Figure 1) with morphologic boundaries shown in blue and the area I high single-scattering albedo regions outlined in red. The second row displays the surface roughness, the single-scattering albedo, and the phase function amplitude in red, green, and blue, respectively. The morphologic boundaries are displayed in white, with the area I high single-scattering albedo regions outlined in black. The black line across area II shows the demarcation between data quality regions.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Schematic of the peak ring system (tan), flow-like features (dark orange), and basin floor (gray). The relationship between the interior basin floor (light gray), which displays the most distinctive photometric properties in the machine learning analyses, is used as the comparative regolith. The exterior basin floor (dark gray) is of similar composition but is comparatively more porous and contains larger regolith grains than the interior floor’s regolith. Excavated materials from beneath the interior basin floor (light orange) show finer-grained, more compact characteristics than the interior floor commensurate with hollow regolith, suggesting the deposition of devolatilized material from the peak ring prior to basin floor flooding by volcanism and the subsequent emplacement of the glacier-like flows (J. A. P. Rodriguez et al. 2023). Hollows and their associated halos (bluish) are compositionally distinct, and their presence dominates the color properties of the mesas and hollow areas within the peak ring. The halos are finer-grained and more compact than all other units, and the hollows have comparatively larger grains and are more porous than the halos. The flow-like features (dark orange) show regolith properties intermixed between the interior basin floor and hollow, where the regolith is generally more compact and finer-grained than the interior basin floor. The interior peak ring flows, or anomalous regions (brown), are also more fine-grained and porous than the interior basin floor, commensurate in regolith properties to the hollows and halos. The peak ring is uplifted material that forms a distinct surface feature.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Histograms of area III showing the percent differences of normalized reflectance from all images used to model the reflectance behavior in each area in terms of the fraction of pixels from the total in each percent difference category.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Histograms of area I showing the percent differences of normalized reflectance from all images used to model the reflectance behavior in each area in terms of the fraction of pixels from the total in each percent difference category.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Examples of model solutions from locations in area I (top), area II (center), and area III (bottom).
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Histograms of area III showing the percent differences for all images used to model the reflectance behavior in terms of the fraction of pixels from the total in each percent difference category.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Histograms of area I showing the percent differences for all images used to model the reflectance behavior in terms of the fraction of pixels from the total in each percent difference category.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Histograms of area II showing the percent differences of normalized reflectance from all images used to model the reflectance behavior in each area in terms of the fraction of pixels from the total in each percent difference category.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Histograms of area II showing the percent differences for all images used to model the reflectance behavior in terms of the fraction of pixels from the total in each percent difference category.
Paper: Parameter Space Exploration of Low-to-moderate-temperature Hydrothermal Systems on Ocean Worlds Using a Monte Carlo Framework
Authors: Ryunosuke Akiba, Andrew T. Fisher
Figure caption: Comparison of analytical calculations (this study) with numerical simulations of equivalent systems for sustained hydrothermal siphons. Lines show analytical results, whereas symbols show numerical results, with colors indicating basal heat flux and symbols indicating gravity values. Dashed and dotted curves show analytical results for deep (zaq = 1050 m) and shallow (zaq = 450 m) aquifers, respectively. The x-axis relates suppression of aquifer temperature (and thus the seafloor heat flux in the overlying region) between recharge and discharge sites to the siphon flow rate normalized by depth to the aquifer top and distance between outcrops, derived from Equation (6). The vertical line is for the value −(1 − 1/e), with little suppression to the left and significant suppression to the right.
Paper: Parameter Space Exploration of Low-to-moderate-temperature Hydrothermal Systems on Ocean Worlds Using a Monte Carlo Framework
Authors: Ryunosuke Akiba, Andrew T. Fisher
Figure caption: Similar analysis to that shown in Section 3.2 (Figure 3) but with Enceladus gravity rather than that for Europa and using a heat flux of 80 mW m−2. The results presented are restricted to calculations that sustain a siphon with TD > 90 °C. These calculations enforce single-phase flow by assigning the seafloor pressure to 40 MPa, but hydrothermal siphons that reach TD ≈ 280 °C would result in two-phase conditions near Enceladus’s seafloor (at 7–8 MPa) that are shaded red.
Paper: The Visibility of the Ōtautahi–Oxford Interstellar Object Population Model in LSST
Authors: Rosemary C. Dorsey, Matthew J. Hopkins, Michele T. Bannister, Samantha M. Lawler, Chris Lintott, Alex H. Parker, John C. Forbes
Figure caption: Summary statistics for the modeled absolute magnitude distributions of the observed (left) and discovered ISOs (right), for all considered values of slope qs. A simple power-law function with a sigmoid rollover was fitted to each binned distribution. The resulting 1σ, 2σ, and 3σ limits for each slope qs are indicated by vertical black lines of decreasing opacity. The mode (cyan squares) and median (magenta diamonds) values are also indicated.
Paper: The Visibility of the Ōtautahi–Oxford Interstellar Object Population Model in LSST
Authors: Rosemary C. Dorsey, Matthew J. Hopkins, Michele T. Bannister, Samantha M. Lawler, Chris Lintott, Alex H. Parker, John C. Forbes
Figure caption: Expected on-sky rates of motion and acceleration for simulated ISOs with q ≤ 5 au (black contours) within LSST visits, regardless of whether they are observed in an image, compared to a selection of bound solar system objects and the two known ISOs. The regions of the on-sky velocity–acceleration phase space containing 90%, 95%, and 99% of all simulated ISO visits are traced by dotted, dashed, and solid lines, respectively. The planets and NEOs were simulated over the 10 yr duration of LSST using ephemerides from JPL Horizons, whereas 1I/‘Oumuamua and 2I/Borisov were simulated for the same duration but centered around their perihelion passage through the solar system. Objects with low perihelia appear toward the top right, while objects with high perihelia appear toward the bottom left; Neptune has the slowest on-sky motion rate of all the bound solar system objects. Note that an on-sky rate of motion of 1° day−1 is equivalent to 150″ hr−1. While the on-sky motion of the ISO population spans multiple orders of magnitude in both velocity and acceleration phase space, the expected range for ≥99% of ISO visits is completely compatible with the collection of bound objects in the solar system.
Paper: The Visibility of the Ōtautahi–Oxford Interstellar Object Population Model in LSST
Authors: Rosemary C. Dorsey, Matthew J. Hopkins, Michele T. Bannister, Samantha M. Lawler, Chris Lintott, Alex H. Parker, John C. Forbes
Figure caption: Ōtautahi–Oxford model distribution of ISO radiants, the directions ISOs approach the solar system from on the celestial sphere. The blue and orange lines indicate the Galactic and ecliptic planes, respectively. The solar apex (yellow square), and the incoming radiants of 1I/‘Oumuamua (pink triangle) and 2I/Borisov (green triangle) are also indicated.
Paper: The Visibility of the Ōtautahi–Oxford Interstellar Object Population Model in LSST
Authors: Rosemary C. Dorsey, Matthew J. Hopkins, Michele T. Bannister, Samantha M. Lawler, Chris Lintott, Alex H. Parker, John C. Forbes
Figure caption: Influence of the geometric and kinematic observational biases on the detection probability of all instances where an ISO’s orbital position is synchronized with the LSST cadence. The axes refer to the last three terms in Equation (5), corresponding to the change in apparent magnitude of an object due to distance (Δmdist), geometric viewing (Δmphase), and trailing loss (Δmtrail). The nonlinearity in the transition from completely observable (P = 1) to completely unobservable (P = 0) ISOs is due to the seeing and limiting magnitude varying across all LSST images.
Paper: The Visibility of the Ōtautahi–Oxford Interstellar Object Population Model in LSST
Authors: Rosemary C. Dorsey, Matthew J. Hopkins, Michele T. Bannister, Samantha M. Lawler, Chris Lintott, Alex H. Parker, John C. Forbes
Figure caption: Combined effect of phase function and trailing loss as a function of Δmdist. The top x-axis indicates the geometric mean distance to the object, which affects the second term of Equation (5). Best fits using a first-order and second-order polynomial are provided for qualitative reference only. The trend is almost linear but diverges near the inner solar system (Δmdist ≲ 4.0). Note that this relationship is independent of morphological effects such as absolute magnitude (Hr) and color.
Paper: The Visibility of the Ōtautahi–Oxford Interstellar Object Population Model in LSST
Authors: Rosemary C. Dorsey, Matthew J. Hopkins, Michele T. Bannister, Samantha M. Lawler, Chris Lintott, Alex H. Parker, John C. Forbes
Figure caption: Discovery completeness functions for the absolute magnitude of observed ISOs in LSST per Hr interval (dashed lines) and cumulatively (solid lines). For Hr < 13, 50% of observed ISOs are discovered; however, this discovery rate decreases for objects with Hr ≥ 13, where the lowest discovery rate is associated with the smallest objects (<10% for Hr ≥ 22). Regardless of the intrinsic absolute magnitude distribution, <40% of the ISOs observed by LSST were discovered.
Paper: The Visibility of the Ōtautahi–Oxford Interstellar Object Population Model in LSST
Authors: Rosemary C. Dorsey, Matthew J. Hopkins, Michele T. Bannister, Samantha M. Lawler, Chris Lintott, Alex H. Parker, John C. Forbes
Figure caption: Cumulative and probability density functions for the amount of time an ISO will spend during its solar system passage above the magnitude limit for spectroscopic observation after its discovery in LSST if the object is discovered brighter than mr = 23 (shown for qs = 2.8). Different colored lines indicate percentiles of interest: 5th and 95th (magenta), 25th and 75th (orange), and 50th (cyan). Bottom left: qualitative probability density functions for each magnitude interval, normalized individually. This plot type we term a “tally plot.” Bottom right: probability density function for the Hr distribution of discovered ISOs. Middle: probability density function for the whole population, produced by weighting each probability density function in the tally plot (bottom left) by the corresponding Hr probability density value (bottom right). Top: cumulative probability density function for the probability density function in the middle panel.
Paper: The Visibility of the Ōtautahi–Oxford Interstellar Object Population Model in LSST
Authors: Rosemary C. Dorsey, Matthew J. Hopkins, Michele T. Bannister, Samantha M. Lawler, Chris Lintott, Alex H. Parker, John C. Forbes
Figure caption: A series of numerical simulations with different absolute magnitude distribution slopes in the range qs = [2.0, 4.0]. Left: combined orbital and Hr-distribution weightings given by Equation (4). Right: probability density functions for the discovered ISO population for each slope qs.
Paper: The Visibility of the Ōtautahi–Oxford Interstellar Object Population Model in LSST
Authors: Rosemary C. Dorsey, Matthew J. Hopkins, Michele T. Bannister, Samantha M. Lawler, Chris Lintott, Alex H. Parker, John C. Forbes
Figure caption: Similar to Figure 16, but comparing the amount of time ISOs discovered inbound (blue) or outbound (green) spend above the spectroscopic limit mr = 23 after discovery.
Paper: The Visibility of the Ōtautahi–Oxford Interstellar Object Population Model in LSST
Authors: Rosemary C. Dorsey, Matthew J. Hopkins, Michele T. Bannister, Samantha M. Lawler, Chris Lintott, Alex H. Parker, John C. Forbes
Figure caption: A comparison of the normalization of the distribution in Equation (A5) to its approximation in Equation (A6) for different observable spheres of radius r, showing it to be a good approximation.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: An excerpt from the enhanced color mosaic extracted from the MESSENGER Quickmap (https://mercury.quickmap.io). This color mosaic is based on principal component 2 (red channel), principal component 1 (green channel), and the 430/1000 nm reflectance ratio (blue channel). The hollows and surrounding halos appear light blue, the flow-like features appear light brown (orange arrows), the basin floor appears dark brown (blue arrows), and the peak walls appear to be a mixture of dark to light brown (yellow arrows), varying with location within the peak ring.
Paper: Evolution of Mercury’s Volatile-bearing Crust within Raditladi Basin
Authors: Deborah L. Domingue, John R. Weirich, J. Alexis P. Rodriguez, Samuel W. Courville, Frank C. Chuang, Matthew D. Richardson, Bryan J. Travis, Eric E. Palmer, Mario Zarroca
Figure caption: Training areas for the MLC analysis are outlined on the study areas (left column), and their corresponding locations within the photometric parameter color maps (center column) and K-means analysis (right column; see Figure 16) are displayed for comparison. The training areas correspond to basin floor materials (blue boxes), glacier-like flow regions without the presence of hollows or halo materials (orange boxes), hollows (magenta boxes), and halos (green boxes). The selected boxes are predominately based on morphology. Training areas for area II (central row) were segregated into those from the top portion of the area (above the yellow line) and those from the bottom portion of the area (below the yellow line) based on the differences in the color and subsequently the K-means analysis due to data quality differences.