adsabs/AstroCLIMB huggingface dataset:
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Evolution of our nonrotating single-star models with SMC metallicity (upper) and LMC metallicity (lower) in the HRD. Gray lines indicate the pre-helium-ignition phase, while blue lines represent the central helium-burning phase. Orange crosses mark the positions where central helium ignition occurs. The reddish shaded area indicates the region where stars are classified as RSGs in this study.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Predicted luminosity extension ﹩{\rm{\Delta }}\mathrm{log}L=\mathrm{log}L-\mathrm{log}{L}_{0}﹩ for RSGs originating from stable mass transfer as a function of age. The color scale indicates the predicted number of RSGs in clusters with a total initial mass of 1.3 × 105 M⊙ produced through stable mass transfer. The exact value in each pixel is labeled. 1D projections of the distribution are displayed in the top panel.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Same as Figure 1 but for the comparison of observed RSGs in three LMC clusters, NGC 2004, NGC 2100, and NGC 1818 (E. R. Beasor & B. Davies 2016; E. R. Beasor et al. 2019; N. Britavskiy 2024, private communication), with our LMC single-star models.
Paper: A Time-resolved High-resolution Spectroscopic Analysis of Ionized Calcium and Dynamical Processes in the Ultra-hot Jupiter HAT-P-70 b
Authors: Adam B. Langeveld, Emily K. Deibert, Mitchell E. Young, Ernst de Mooij, Ray Jayawardhana, Chris Simpson, Jake D. Turner, Laura Flagg
Figure caption: Top panel: change in airmass throughout the observations. One exposure was discarded during the transit. There was a temporary loss of guiding during the pre-transit sequence. Bottom panel: average SNR across the full spectrum for each blue and red exposure (marked with filled blue circles and filled red triangles, respectively). The black dashed lines and gray shaded region highlight the in-transit phases.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Luminosity–age diagram for our SMC (upper) and LMC (lower) single-star models. Thin gray lines show the evolution of stellar luminosity over time for models of various masses, as labeled. The red and blue lines denote the RSG phase and BSG/YSG phase, respectively. Turquoise dashed lines delineate the luminosity range during the helium-burning phase. The orange line represents the evolution of L0 (see text) as a function of age. The black dotted line in the lower panel is the same as the orange line in the upper panel.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Evolution outcomes of our detailed binary models. Each marker represents a binary model with the initial primary mass within the indicated mass range. The initial mass ratio (defined as the primary star’s mass divided by the secondary star’s mass) and orbital periods are shown on the x- and y-axis, respectively. The total number of binaries in each panel is also provided. We identify six distinct evolutionary outcomes for our binary models: MS mergers (orange circles), stable mass transfer (green upside-down triangles), post-MS mergers (blue squares), inverse mass transfer/errors (gray circles), Case C mass transfer (dark blue diamonds), and wide binaries that do not interact (light blue triangles). In our simulations, RSGs can originate from MS mergers, stable mass transfer, noninteraction binaries, and Case C binaries before mass transfer occurs.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: The impact of SN kicks and reverse mass transfer on the formation of RSGs in young open clusters originating from stable mass transfer. The yellow bars represent the predicted number of RSGs in clusters with an initial mass of 1.3 × 105 M⊙, originating from stable mass transfer in our simulations, as a function of age (the same as the yellow bars in Figure 5). The bluish bars show the predicted number of RSGs after accounting for the effects of SN kicks and reverse mass transfer, with light blue, medium blue, and dark blue corresponding to RSGs with BH, NS, and WD companions, respectively. The bluish bars are stacked. The fraction of these newly predicted RSGs relative to the values from our standard simulations is indicated by the gray dashed line and corresponds to the scale on the right y-axis.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Evolution of Geneva single-star models with different initial rotation rates at SMC metallicity in the HRD. The masses are indicated in the figure. Dashed, solid, and dashed–dotted lines represent phases before central helium ignition, during helium burning, and after helium exhaustion, respectively. For each mass, three initial rotational velocities, 0%, 60%, and 95% of the critical angular velocity, are included. Observations of RSGs in NGC 330 are overplotted for comparison.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Evolution of both components of two binary systems (upper: Case A; lower: Case B) with initial parameters indicated. The orange and blue solid lines depict the evolutionary tracks of the primary and secondary star, respectively. The gray dashed line represents the evolution of a single-star model that has the same mass as the initial mass of the secondary star. The inset of the lower panel is a zoom-in of the tip of the supergiant phase.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Upper: luminosity evolution of exemplary models in our noninteracting binaries, shown before (gray lines) and after (blue lines) central helium exhaustion. Lower: the ratio of the AGB star lifetime to that of their helium-burning counterparts. The gray line represents the entire AGB phase, while the orange and blue lines correspond to AGB stars with luminosities exceeding the maximum luminosity during their helium-burning phase by 0.2 dex and 0.5 dex, respectively.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Same as Figure 4 but for RSGs originating from binaries that have not undergone mass transfer or will never do so.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Left: predicted number of RSGs as a function of age from a population synthesis simulation based on 3670 single-star models with initial rotational velocities at 55% of their critical values. Right: fraction of RSGs originating from binary evolution, assuming different initial binary fractions as indicated.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Cumulative distribution of ﹩{\rm{\Delta }}\mathrm{log}L﹩ for RSGs in four young open star clusters, as indicated in the legend. For each cluster, ﹩{\rm{\Delta }}\mathrm{log}L﹩ represents the luminosity difference, in logarithmic space, between each RSG and the least luminous RSG in that cluster.
Paper: Orbital Inclination of Astrometric Binaries and the Dearth of Face-on Orbits in Gaia DR3 Solutions
Authors: Valeri V. Makarov
Figure caption: The 2D distribution of 25,000 MC-simulated solutions for apparent orbital size a0 and inclination i obtained from the nominal Thiele-Innes values and their formal uncertainties in Gaia DR3 (orange dots). The median values of these parameters in bins of 100 trials sorted by i are shown with the solid stepwise black curve. The {0.16, 0.84} quantile values for the same bins are represented by the black dashed lines.
Paper: Orbital Inclination of Astrometric Binaries and the Dearth of Face-on Orbits in Gaia DR3 Solutions
Authors: Valeri V. Makarov
Figure caption: Histogram of estimated orbital inclination angles i for 1.35 million Gaia DR3 astrometric binaries (gray-shaded area). The orange curve shows the expected PDF for random isotropic orientation of obits.
Paper: Orbital Inclination of Astrometric Binaries and the Dearth of Face-on Orbits in Gaia DR3 Solutions
Authors: Valeri V. Makarov
Figure caption: Histograms of inclination angles imc (left plot) and amc for the nominal set of TI values from the Gaia DR3 solution for Gaia DR3 6422387644229686272 = WDJ201221.17−703642.44, which corresponds to a nearly edge-on orbit (i = 94﹩\mathop{.}\limits^{\unicode{x000B0}}﹩9 and a = 2.62 mas). Each MC sample includes 25,000 simulations.
Paper: Orbital Inclination of Astrometric Binaries and the Dearth of Face-on Orbits in Gaia DR3 Solutions
Authors: Valeri V. Makarov
Figure caption: Histograms of inclination angles imc (left plot) and amc for the nominal set of TI values from the Gaia DR3 solution for star 1988288559178163840, which corresponds to a nearly face-on orbit (i = 2﹩\mathop{.}\limits^{\unicode{x000B0}}﹩63, a = 0.467 mas). Each MC sample includes 25,000 simulations.
Paper: Orbital Inclination of Astrometric Binaries and the Dearth of Face-on Orbits in Gaia DR3 Solutions
Authors: Valeri V. Makarov
Figure caption: Dependence of ﹩w=\cos i+\sec i﹩ on the inclination angle i. Note the flatness of the curves around i ∼ 0 and i ∼ π.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Luminosity difference of RSGs as a function of cluster age, caused by real age differences. At a given age, ﹩{\rm{\Delta }}\mathrm{log}L﹩ represents the difference between the baseline luminosity L0 (see Appendix -Appendix link code C) at that age and the baseline luminosity at an age that is younger by specific values (ranging from 1 to 10 Myr), as shown by lines in different colors. The luminosity differences of observed RSGs relative to the least luminous RSG in four young open clusters are overplotted as open markers. Observational uncertainties are illustrated by the gray error bar in the lower right corner.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Impact of a real age difference on the distribution of MS stars in the color–magnitude diagram. The red line represents the 40 Myr isochrone from our single-star models with initial rotation rates of 55% of their breakup velocities. The blue lines correspond to the younger isochrones derived from these models, ranging from 30 to 38 Myr (from left to right). Observed MS stars in the cluster NGC 330 are overplotted as gray dots.
Paper: Using Detailed Single-star and Binary-evolution Models to Probe the Large Observed Luminosity Spread of Red Supergiants in Young Open Star Clusters
Authors: Chen Wang, Lee Patrick, Abel Schootemeijer, Selma E. de Mink, Norbert Langer, Nikolay Britavskiy, Xiao-Tian Xu, Julia Bodensteiner, Eva Laplace, Ruggero Valli, Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, Jakub Klencki, Stephen Justham, Cole Johnston, Jing-ze Ma
Figure caption: Luminosity vs. age for Geneva single-star models (thin gray lines) with corresponding masses indicated. For each mass, the three tracks represent initial rotational velocities of 0%, 60%, and 95% of the critical angular velocity, shown from left to right. The RSG and BSG/YSG phases are highlighted with thick red and blue lines, respectively. The observed RSGs in the four clusters analyzed in this study are shown as cyan dots with error bars.
Paper: A Time-resolved High-resolution Spectroscopic Analysis of Ionized Calcium and Dynamical Processes in the Ultra-hot Jupiter HAT-P-70 b
Authors: Adam B. Langeveld, Emily K. Deibert, Mitchell E. Young, Ernst de Mooij, Ray Jayawardhana, Chris Simpson, Jake D. Turner, Laura Flagg
Figure caption: Top row: residual spectra around the Ca II triplet lines after removing the telluric and stellar components, and dividing each observed spectrum by the master out-of-transit spectrum. The first (C1) and fourth (C4) transit contact points are marked with horizontal white lines, and the expected trails of the planetary atmospheric signals are highlighted by the white dotted lines (which are diagonal due to the Doppler motion of the planet). Atmospheric absorption from Ca II is clearly visible from the dark diagonal features following the projections of the expected planetary trails. The spurious features caused by the RM effect are visible as bright diagonal trails in the opposite direction. Middle row: same as the top row, with the dominant RM trail masked out. The residual spectra now only contain the planetary signals. Bottom row: combined transmission spectrum calculated using the weighted average of the in-transit data in the middle panel after Doppler shifting into the planetary rest frame. The data are displayed in their full resolution (gray) and binned 10 × (black). Gaussian fits to the Ca II absorption lines are shown in red, and the blue dashed lines mark the expected position of the absorption lines in the planetary rest frame.
Paper: A Time-resolved High-resolution Spectroscopic Analysis of Ionized Calcium and Dynamical Processes in the Ultra-hot Jupiter HAT-P-70 b
Authors: Adam B. Langeveld, Emily K. Deibert, Mitchell E. Young, Ernst de Mooij, Ray Jayawardhana, Chris Simpson, Jake D. Turner, Laura Flagg
Figure caption: Variation of the measured absorption depths (left) and observed velocity offsets (right) of the three Ca II triplet lines at several phases throughout the transit of HAT-P-70 b. The phases where the RM features overlapped with the planetary absorption features were ignored (gray shaded region). The remaining in-transit residual spectra were binned into six groups, each containing 10 spectra that were subsequently combined with a weighted average. Each point is measured from Gaussian fits to the Ca II absorption lines with rest-frame positions at 8498.02 (orange crosses), 8542.09 (filled dark blue circles), and 8662.14 Å (filled green squares). Measurements for the egress phases (outlined with red circles) that probe mostly the trailing limb (evening terminator) show a distinct difference from the other phases—i.e., stronger blueshifted velocities and weaker absorption depths.
Paper: A Time-resolved High-resolution Spectroscopic Analysis of Ionized Calcium and Dynamical Processes in the Ultra-hot Jupiter HAT-P-70 b
Authors: Adam B. Langeveld, Emily K. Deibert, Mitchell E. Young, Ernst de Mooij, Ray Jayawardhana, Chris Simpson, Jake D. Turner, Laura Flagg
Figure caption: The Ca II triplet lines in the GHOST transmission spectrum of HAT-P-70 b compared to NLTE models generated for different planetary masses and Ca abundances. The same data from Figure 2 is displayed (full resolution in gray, binned 10 ×  in black, Gaussian fit in red), now in velocity space with the rest-frame line positions at 0 km s−1. Top row: NLTE models for constant abundance (1 ×  solar) and three different planetary masses (6.78 MJ, 2 MJ, and 1 MJ); the cores of the absorption lines become wider and deeper for decreasing masses. Bottom row: NLTE models for constant mass (2 MJ) and three different Ca abundances (1 ×, 10 ×, and 100 ×  solar); the line cores become deeper and the wings become wider for higher abundances.
Paper: A Time-resolved High-resolution Spectroscopic Analysis of Ionized Calcium and Dynamical Processes in the Ultra-hot Jupiter HAT-P-70 b
Authors: Adam B. Langeveld, Emily K. Deibert, Mitchell E. Young, Ernst de Mooij, Ray Jayawardhana, Chris Simpson, Jake D. Turner, Laura Flagg
Figure caption: The instrumental drift of GHOST for the duration of these observations. Top panel: isolated region of the spectrum (continuum normalized) containing a number of strong telluric lines that was used as a template for the cross-correlation analysis. Bottom panel: result after cross-correlating each observed spectrum with the template (Doppler shifted between ±50 km s−1 in steps of 0.05 km s−1), displayed in phase–velocity space. Brighter colors indicate a stronger correlation. The maximum value of each cross-correlation function (each row), measured with Gaussian fits, is marked by the white line; the total drift is ∼0.22 km s−1 over the sequence of exposures.
Paper: PSR J1922+37: a 1.9 s Pulsar Discovered in the Direction of the Old Open Cluster NGC 6791
Authors: Xiao-Jin Liu, Rahul Sengar, Matthew Bailes, Ralph P. Eatough, Jianping Yuan, Na Wang, Weiwei Zhu, Lu Zhou, He Gao, Zong-Hong Zhu, Xing-Jiang Zhu
Figure caption: The position of J1922+37 and the member stars of NGC 6791. The filled circles in orange, pink, cyan, and olive show the tiled beams of all four observation pointings. The two discovery beams (M08) are indicated by the hollow stars, while the optimized position is labeled by the solid red star and the cluster members are marked by the gray stars. The blue and red circles show the boundaries of the tidal and Jacobi radii, respectively.
Paper: PSR J1922+37: a 1.9 s Pulsar Discovered in the Direction of the Old Open Cluster NGC 6791
Authors: Xiao-Jin Liu, Rahul Sengar, Matthew Bailes, Ralph P. Eatough, Jianping Yuan, Na Wang, Weiwei Zhu, Lu Zhou, He Gao, Zong-Hong Zhu, Xing-Jiang Zhu
Figure caption: The discovery plot of PSR J1922+37 from the pdmp routine in PSRCHIVE. The top panel shows the optimization of period and DM, while the middle panels are phase-time and phase-frequency plots and the bottom panel shows the pulse profile.
Paper: Near- and Mid-ultraviolet Observations of X-6.3 Flare on 2024 February 22 Recorded by the Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope on board Aditya-L1
Authors: Soumya Roy, Durgesh Tripathi, Sreejith Padinhatteeri, A. N. Ramaprakash, Abhilash R. Sarwade, Nived V. N., Janmejoy Sarkar, Rahul Gopalakrishnan, Rushikesh Deogaonkar, K. Sankarasubramanian, Sami K. Solanki, Dibyendu Nandy, Dipankar Banerjee
Figure caption: (a) Parts of the full-disk (2k × 2k) observation in NB04 (Mg II h) showing the flaring region and sunspot. The overplotted blue box shows the observed RoI, and the white dashed box locates the region used for the subsequent analysis. (b) SUIT narrowband images recorded at the peak of flares in the respective filters. The size of the images corresponds to the white-boxed region shown in panel (a). The arrows mark the two bright penumbral kernels.
Paper: Near- and Mid-ultraviolet Observations of X-6.3 Flare on 2024 February 22 Recorded by the Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope on board Aditya-L1
Authors: Soumya Roy, Durgesh Tripathi, Sreejith Padinhatteeri, A. N. Ramaprakash, Abhilash R. Sarwade, Nived V. N., Janmejoy Sarkar, Rahul Gopalakrishnan, Rushikesh Deogaonkar, K. Sankarasubramanian, Sami K. Solanki, Dibyendu Nandy, Dipankar Banerjee
Figure caption: Light curves obtained over the contoured region from AIA 1600 (blue dashed), AIA 1700 Å (black dotted–dashed), NB03 (black dotted), NB04 (green dotted–dashed), NB08 (magenta dashed), NB02 (blue dotted), NB05 (green dashed), NB01 (green triangles), NB06 (magenta squares), and NB07 (blue dotted), as labeled. For comparison, we have also overplotted the light curves obtained from coaligned GONG Hα observations (blue squares) in panel (b), full-Sun integrated GOES/SXR in 1–8 Å (red solid), and STIX/HXR (black dashed) in panel (d). In panel (f), we show the light curve obtained from SoLEXS 2–20 keV (black) observations and the calculated temperature (blue) and emission measure (red). The vertical dotted black line and dashed red line across the panels mark the peak time of NB03, NB04, NB08 and NB02, NB05, respectively.