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Paper: FOGGIE. X. Characterizing the Small-scale Structure of the Circumgalactic Medium and Its Imprint on Observables
Authors: Ramona Augustin, Jason Tumlinson, Molly S. Peeples, Brian W. O'Shea, Britton D. Smith, Cassandra Lochhaas, Anna C. Wright, Ayan Acharyya, Jessica K. Werk, Nicolas Lehner, Lauren Corlies, Raymond C. Simons, J. Christopher Howk, John M. O'Meara
Figure caption: Clump probability density distribution (﹩d{\rm{N}}/d{\rm{m}}﹩) as a function of cloud mass for all clumps in our sample. The red line is a weighted fit to the distribution for clump masses in the range Mcl = 105–107 M⊙, which has a slope of ﹩dN/dm\propto {M}^{-2.034}﹩ and is normalized to the data at Mcl = 106 M⊙. The gray dashed line is a weighted fit to the distribution for clump masses in the range Mcl = 105–109 M⊙, which has a slope of ﹩dN/dm\propto {M}^{-1.857}﹩ and is normalized to the data at Mcl = 106 M⊙.
Paper: FOGGIE. X. Characterizing the Small-scale Structure of the Circumgalactic Medium and Its Imprint on Observables
Authors: Ramona Augustin, Jason Tumlinson, Molly S. Peeples, Brian W. O'Shea, Britton D. Smith, Cassandra Lochhaas, Anna C. Wright, Ayan Acharyya, Jessica K. Werk, Nicolas Lehner, Lauren Corlies, Raymond C. Simons, J. Christopher Howk, John M. O'Meara
Figure caption: Six views of Tempest’s clumpy CGM from inside its disk. From upper left: projected density, temperature, radial velocity, metallicity, H I column density, and O VI column density. Projected density and the two column densities are sums over all cells in projection, while the other quantities are mass-weighted mean values at each place on the map. This view has been filtered to include only clumps, not the ambient halo gas between them, and only for clumps with ∣v∣ > 100 km s−1, to omit the ISM and mimic the Milky Way’s HVCs.
Paper: FOGGIE. X. Characterizing the Small-scale Structure of the Circumgalactic Medium and Its Imprint on Observables
Authors: Ramona Augustin, Jason Tumlinson, Molly S. Peeples, Brian W. O'Shea, Britton D. Smith, Cassandra Lochhaas, Anna C. Wright, Ayan Acharyya, Jessica K. Werk, Nicolas Lehner, Lauren Corlies, Raymond C. Simons, J. Christopher Howk, John M. O'Meara
Figure caption: Survivability criterion tool/tshear vs. clump size. We find that clumps with sphericalized radii ≳ 1 kpc are typically long-lived, whereas smaller ones may or may not be destroyed soon.
Paper: FOGGIE. X. Characterizing the Small-scale Structure of the Circumgalactic Medium and Its Imprint on Observables
Authors: Ramona Augustin, Jason Tumlinson, Molly S. Peeples, Brian W. O'Shea, Britton D. Smith, Cassandra Lochhaas, Anna C. Wright, Ayan Acharyya, Jessica K. Werk, Nicolas Lehner, Lauren Corlies, Raymond C. Simons, J. Christopher Howk, John M. O'Meara
Figure caption: Gas mass, volume, H I mass, and metal mass as a function of threshold density for Tempest in the range from 20 to 40 kpc. This radius bin is where most of the clumps are found, and has no contamination from the ISM. These curves show that most of the clump mass and volume lies in the range 10−4–10−2 M⊙ pc−3, which is directly related to the density ranges in Figure 2. Below this range the gas is mostly diffuse and not within clumps, whereas above this density the gas is often inside clumps but these high-density regions only represents a small part of the total halo mass and volume.
Paper: FOGGIE. X. Characterizing the Small-scale Structure of the Circumgalactic Medium and Its Imprint on Observables
Authors: Ramona Augustin, Jason Tumlinson, Molly S. Peeples, Brian W. O'Shea, Britton D. Smith, Cassandra Lochhaas, Anna C. Wright, Ayan Acharyya, Jessica K. Werk, Nicolas Lehner, Lauren Corlies, Raymond C. Simons, J. Christopher Howk, John M. O'Meara
Figure caption: Fractions of gas mass, volume, H I mass, and metal mass in clumps for each halo.
Paper: FOGGIE. X. Characterizing the Small-scale Structure of the Circumgalactic Medium and Its Imprint on Observables
Authors: Ramona Augustin, Jason Tumlinson, Molly S. Peeples, Brian W. O'Shea, Britton D. Smith, Cassandra Lochhaas, Anna C. Wright, Ayan Acharyya, Jessica K. Werk, Nicolas Lehner, Lauren Corlies, Raymond C. Simons, J. Christopher Howk, John M. O'Meara
Figure caption: Effect of the choice of the clump-finding initial parameters. Our fiducial choice is 20 cells as the minimum size and a factor 2 increase between density steps. We ran the algorithm on a small patch of CGM in one halo and illustrate how many more or fewer clumps we would find for a different choice of parameters.
Paper: FOGGIE. X. Characterizing the Small-scale Structure of the Circumgalactic Medium and Its Imprint on Observables
Authors: Ramona Augustin, Jason Tumlinson, Molly S. Peeples, Brian W. O'Shea, Britton D. Smith, Cassandra Lochhaas, Anna C. Wright, Ayan Acharyya, Jessica K. Werk, Nicolas Lehner, Lauren Corlies, Raymond C. Simons, J. Christopher Howk, John M. O'Meara
Figure caption: Fractions of gas mass, volume, H I mass, and metal mass in clumps for each halo split by radial distance from the central galaxy.
Paper: Evolution of the Physical Properties of the Most Massive Galaxies in Clusters and Their Protohalos
Authors: Qingyang Li, Xiaohu Yang, Antonios Katsianis, Paola Popesso, Ilaria Marini, Y. Sophia Dai, Chengze Liu, Yipeng Jing, Jia-Sheng Huang, Marcin Sawicki
Figure caption: The evolution of physical properties of MMGs, including stellar mass, luminosity, SFR, sSFR, color, and stellar age. The blue triangles and red points show the medians for cluster and protohalo MMGs. The solid and hollow symbols represent the physical properties of the first and second MMGs, respectively. The blue and red shaded regions show the 1σ error for the cluster and protohalo first MMGs, except for SFR and sSFR, where the shaded areas represent the 25th and 75th percentile errors. In the top left panel, the gray line with squared markers indicates the theoretical prediction of stellar mass growth for a galaxy with a stellar mass of 1011.65 M⊙ at z = 0, based on the formula provided by A. Katsianis et al. (2025). The luminosity is derived at i band with Equation (2). In the middle left panel, the gray line with square markers represents a theoretical SFR prediction, derived by converting the stellar mass growth of a galaxy shown in the top left panel using the SFR–M* relation from A. R. Tomczak et al. (2016). The gray dashed line at 10−11 yr−1 in the middle right panel marks the boundary between quenched and star formation galaxies following the criterion adopted by A. Katsianis et al. (2019). The color is defined as the rest-frame absolute magnitude difference between g and r bands. The upper x-axis in the bottom right panel marks the age of the Universe corresponding to redshift, and the dashed gray line represents the increasing age of the Universe on the basis of the median MMG age at z = 2.27.
Paper: Evolution of the Physical Properties of the Most Massive Galaxies in Clusters and Their Protohalos
Authors: Qingyang Li, Xiaohu Yang, Antonios Katsianis, Paola Popesso, Ilaria Marini, Y. Sophia Dai, Chengze Liu, Yipeng Jing, Jia-Sheng Huang, Marcin Sawicki
Figure caption: Left: the halo mass evolution of the progenitors of reference clusters. Each blue line represents the evolution of individual reference clusters. The blue triangles show the median halo mass with shaded area indicating 1σ error. The magenta, red, and orange points show the median halo mass corresponding to the first, fourth, and eighth most massive halos within the redshift bin 0 < z < 0.4 in the same level of CHMF. The halo sample at each redshift was obtained from 200 subboxes carved out of the 1 h−1 Gpc cubic box of Jiutian simulation. The error bars indicate 1σ uncertainties. Right: the number of matched groups possessing the first MMG (solid black points) and the second MMG (hollow red points).
Paper: Evolution of the Physical Properties of the Most Massive Galaxies in Clusters and Their Protohalos
Authors: Qingyang Li, Xiaohu Yang, Antonios Katsianis, Paola Popesso, Ilaria Marini, Y. Sophia Dai, Chengze Liu, Yipeng Jing, Jia-Sheng Huang, Marcin Sawicki
Figure caption: One example of member galaxy distribution in the evolution sequence of clusters and protohalos from z = 3.78 to z = 0.35. This reference cluster (ID 7) at z = 0.35 has a halo mass of 1014.36 M⊙. The black arrows mark the evolution trend from high redshift to low redshift. The black cross is the luminosity-weighted group center defined by group finder. The gray and orange points show the member galaxies of groups and protohalos, with the point size proportional to stellar mass. The red and blue stars represent cluster MMGs and protohalo MMGs, respectively.
Paper: Evolution of the Physical Properties of the Most Massive Galaxies in Clusters and Their Protohalos
Authors: Qingyang Li, Xiaohu Yang, Antonios Katsianis, Paola Popesso, Ilaria Marini, Y. Sophia Dai, Chengze Liu, Yipeng Jing, Jia-Sheng Huang, Marcin Sawicki
Figure caption: The sky coverage of the selected galaxies in the COSMOS field. The galaxy number count in each pixel with an area of about 2.8 × 10−4 deg2 is coded with the color bar. The empty circles inside the coverage of the galaxies correspond to the masked areas.
Paper: Evolution of the Physical Properties of the Most Massive Galaxies in Clusters and Their Protohalos
Authors: Qingyang Li, Xiaohu Yang, Antonios Katsianis, Paola Popesso, Ilaria Marini, Y. Sophia Dai, Chengze Liu, Yipeng Jing, Jia-Sheng Huang, Marcin Sawicki
Figure caption: The number histogram of the selected galaxies as a function of photo-z. The galaxies at 4 < z < 5 marked by the shadow region are not used for MMG evolution analysis.
Paper: Evolution of the Physical Properties of the Most Massive Galaxies in Clusters and Their Protohalos
Authors: Qingyang Li, Xiaohu Yang, Antonios Katsianis, Paola Popesso, Ilaria Marini, Y. Sophia Dai, Chengze Liu, Yipeng Jing, Jia-Sheng Huang, Marcin Sawicki
Figure caption: The evolution of protohalo size for the eight referece clusters as a function of redshift. Each line represents the evolution of galaxies for a progenitor group, color coded by the halo mass of reference clusters. The points represent the redshift position of the matched progenitors of groups at different redshift bins.
Paper: Can Repeating and Nonrepeating Fast Radio Bursts Be Drawn from the Same Population?
Authors: Paz Beniamini, Pawan Kumar
Figure caption: Ratio of repeaters to nonrepeaters (blue) and of nonrepeaters to all sources (red) as a function of the PL index a, considering an observation strategy consistent with CHIME’s first catalog. We assume ﹩{{ \mathcal R }}_{{\rm{0}}}(\gt 1{0}^{26}\,{\mathrm{erg}\,\mathrm{Hz}}^{-1})=5\times 1{0}^{-6}{\,\rm{hr}\,}^{-1},\,{E}_{{\rm{c}}}=3\times 1{0}^{33}\,{\mathrm{erg}\,\mathrm{Hz}}^{-1},\,\mathrm{and}\,\gamma =1.7﹩ as inferred from observations. Shaded regions depict the inferred ranges of these properties from observations. Solid lines are the results of numerical integration (Equation (A2)). The model matches observations well within the shaded yellow range.
Paper: Can Repeating and Nonrepeating Fast Radio Bursts Be Drawn from the Same Population?
Authors: Paz Beniamini, Pawan Kumar
Figure caption: Distance (left), external DM (due to propagation in the intergalactic medium), and activity rate (right) distributions of repeaters and nonrepeaters. Results are shown for a = 1.1 and other parameters as in described in Appendix A and Figure A1. For DMext we use DMext = 855z pc cm−3, which is applicable for the z ≲ 3 population that dominates the CHIME-detected population.
Paper: Can Repeating and Nonrepeating Fast Radio Bursts Be Drawn from the Same Population?
Authors: Paz Beniamini, Pawan Kumar
Figure caption: Fraction of observable repeaters as a function of the limiting fluence (left) and as a function of the mean observation time per sky location (center) using a fluence threshold of 5 Jy ms (marked by an asterisk on the left panel). In both cases we adopt a = 1.1, consistent with observational constraints (see Figure 3). The repeater fraction is very weakly dependent on either T or Φ. The right panel shows how the repeater fraction changes with decl. assuming the distribution of exposure vs. decl. from the first CHIME catalog.
Paper: Synthetic Modeling of Polarized Dust Emission in Intermediate-mass Young Stellar Objects. II. Effects of Radiative Torque Disruption on Dust Grains in Protostellar Jets/Outflows
Authors: Nguyen Chau Giang, V. J. M. Le Gouellec, Thiem Hoang, A. J. Maury, P. Hennebelle
Figure caption: Variation of the grain angular velocity Ω(t) (black lines) and disruption threshold Ωdisr (color lines) as a function of grain sizes after different travel time T. The corresponding displacement D of dust grains after time T is noted in the legend. Upper row: results for grains inside the jet base (Figure 2(a)) and outflow base (Figure 2(b)). Middle row: results for grains starting at z = 300 au, moving at a few hundred kilometers per second inside the jet (Figure 2(c)) and a few tens of kilometers per second inside the outflow cavity (Figure 2(d)). Lower row: results for grains propagating inside the outflow cavity wall (Figure 2(e)) and infalling grains inside the inner envelope (Figure 2(f)). The grain trajectory is marked on the gas density distribution subplot placed at the center of each row. The black arrow indicates the grain moving direction for grains shown in the left panel, while the red one illustrates grains shown in the right panel. The length of each arrow represents the travel distance corresponding to the longest travel timescale considered in each panel. Dust grains will be destroyed by RATD when Ω(t) ≥ Ωdisr. The disruption happens strongest inside the jet/outflow base. Its efficiency decreases for grains with higher ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}﹩ and faster vgas. And VLGs with ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}\,\leqslant \,1{0}^{4}\,{\rm{erg}}\,{{\rm{cm}}}^{-3}﹩ can be destroyed by RATD inside the outflow cavity wall and inner envelope if protostars hold high Lcenter ∼ 100L⊙ for over >20 yr (Figures 2(e)–(f)).
Paper: Synthetic Modeling of Polarized Dust Emission in Intermediate-mass Young Stellar Objects. II. Effects of Radiative Torque Disruption on Dust Grains in Protostellar Jets/Outflows
Authors: Nguyen Chau Giang, V. J. M. Le Gouellec, Thiem Hoang, A. J. Maury, P. Hennebelle
Figure caption: Upper row: spatial distribution of the gas volume density ﹩{n}_{{{\rm{H}}}_{2}}﹩ and gas velocity vgas on the slice containing the sink particle. The black contour with denotation 0.00 indicates the boundary between outflowing and infalling gas, while the black contour with denotion 30.00 indicates the region where gas transports outward with vgas > 30 km s−1. The object is seen with edge-on direction. The protostellar core shows the symmetric structure around the vertical z-direction. The jet propagation shapes the outflow cavity, forming the high-velocity domain with the opening angle of 12∘ where gas flows outward at vgas > 30 km s−1, and the surrounding low-velocity domain where vgas ∼ 3–30 km s−1. Lower row: distribution of the radiation field strength urad/uISRF and dust temperature Td obtained after postprocessing the MHD simulation with POLARIS. The net radiation field energy density urad is calculated by integrating over the electromagnetic spectrum from ﹩{\lambda }_{{\min }}=0.1\,\mu {\rm{m}}﹩ to ﹩{\lambda }_{{\rm{\max }}}=2﹩ mm, of which most energy comes from thermal dust emission at infrared wavelengths. The radiation field strength decreases outward due to dust reddening effect. Grains can be heated to Td ∼ 60 K inside the outflow cavity, and lower Td ∼ 20 K inside the envelope and the equatorial midplane. The high dust temperature Td ∼ 200 K along the jet lobe edge is caused by the gas heating by ion-neutral gas drifting obtained from the MHD simulation.
Paper: Synthetic Modeling of Polarized Dust Emission in Intermediate-mass Young Stellar Objects. II. Effects of Radiative Torque Disruption on Dust Grains in Protostellar Jets/Outflows
Authors: Nguyen Chau Giang, V. J. M. Le Gouellec, Thiem Hoang, A. J. Maury, P. Hennebelle
Figure caption: Spatial distribution of the minimum disruption size adisr,dynamic on scales of 600 × 800 au below the protostar after 1 yr (first column), 5 yr (second column), 20 yr (third column), and 100 yr (fourth column). The upper, middle, and lower rows show results for grains with ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}=1{0}^{3},1{0}^{5},1{0}^{7}\,{\rm{erg}}\,{{\rm{cm}}}^{-3}﹩. Blue contours indicate the gas velocity distribution with vgas = 5, 50, 250 km s−1. The color bar ranges from 0.5 to 20 μm. Regions where grains are infalling toward the center, and regions without RATD are masked out. Small grains below adisr,dynamic < 1 μm can become the major dust population inside ∼800 au of the jet and outflow after >20 yr if grains have ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}=1{0}^{3}\,{\rm{erg}}\,{{\rm{cm}}}^{-3}﹩ (Figures 3(c) and (d)). The minimum disruption size is higher for grains propagating with vgas > 250 km s−1 and grains with higher ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}﹩.
Paper: Synthetic Modeling of Polarized Dust Emission in Intermediate-mass Young Stellar Objects. II. Effects of Radiative Torque Disruption on Dust Grains in Protostellar Jets/Outflows
Authors: Nguyen Chau Giang, V. J. M. Le Gouellec, Thiem Hoang, A. J. Maury, P. Hennebelle
Figure caption: Upper row: comparison of the minimum disruption size distribution obtained from the dynamic approach after 100 yr adisr,dynamic (Figure 6(a)), and from the POLARIS approach adisr,POLARIS (Figure 6(b)) for aggregate-type grains with ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}=1{0}^{5}\,{\rm{erg}}\,{{\rm{cm}}}^{-3}﹩. Middle and lower rows: variation of adisr,dynamic (dashed lines) and adisr,POLARIS (solid lines) along the horizontal-cuts indicated in the subpanel displaying the 2D slice of gas volume density ﹩{n}_{{{\rm{H}}}_{2}}﹩. The solid and dashed lines are color-coded based on the gas velocity distribution placed on the right side of the figure, while the color bar of the density distribution is placed on the top. We choose different cuts at z = 50, 100, 250, 500 au, and show results following the clockwise direction. The POLARIS approach induces the similar disruption size map for aggregate-type grains as found after 100 yr in the dynamic approach due to the low grain disruption threshold. However, since POLARIS cannot account for the transport of small grains surviving RATD and the escape of fast-moving grains, it may predict incorrect disruption sizes inside the jet where vgas > 60 km s−1.
Paper: Synthetic Modeling of Polarized Dust Emission in Intermediate-mass Young Stellar Objects. II. Effects of Radiative Torque Disruption on Dust Grains in Protostellar Jets/Outflows
Authors: Nguyen Chau Giang, V. J. M. Le Gouellec, Thiem Hoang, A. J. Maury, P. Hennebelle
Figure caption: Comparison of the synthetic polarization degree map obtained at 1.3 mm after filtering with CASA between model RATA (Figure 9(a)) and model RATA−RATD of SPM grains with Ncl = 103, assuming ﹩{S}_{\max }=1{0}^{3}-1{0}^{7}\,\mathrm{erg}\,{\mathrm{cm}}^{-3}﹩ (Figures 9(b)–(f)). We show the polarization degree for which I ≥ 3σI and Ipol ≥ 5σP. Without RATD (Figure 9(a)), one expects to see the excess in the polarization degree along the outflow cavity wall owing to the efficient magnetic alignment of micron-sized grains and VLGs (N. C. Giang et al. 2025), combined with the interferometric filtering, and image recovery methods (V. J. M. Le Gouellec et al. 2020; V. J. M. Le Gouellec et al. 2023c; N. C. Giang et al. 2025). When RATD happens, the polarization degree distribution along the cavity wall and inner envelope unchanged if grains have composite structure with ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}\,\geqslant \,1{0}^{5}\,{\rm{erg}}\,{{\rm{cm}}}^{-3}﹩ (Figures 9(b)–(d)), but it reduces ∼ 2 times if grains with ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}\,\leqslant \,1{0}^{4}\,{\rm{erg}}\,{{\rm{cm}}}^{-3}﹩ are removed from these regions by RATD (Figures 9(e)–(f)).
Paper: Synthetic Modeling of Polarized Dust Emission in Intermediate-mass Young Stellar Objects. II. Effects of Radiative Torque Disruption on Dust Grains in Protostellar Jets/Outflows
Authors: Nguyen Chau Giang, V. J. M. Le Gouellec, Thiem Hoang, A. J. Maury, P. Hennebelle
Figure caption: Similar to Figure 3 but for the maximum disruption size ﹩{a}_{{\rm{disr}},{\rm{\max }},{\rm{dynamic}}}﹩. The color bar spans from 20 to 500 μm. Similar to the evolution of adisr,dynamic with time, more VLGs and submillimeter grains will disappear from the jet and outflow cavity due to the grain disruption happening inside the jet/outflow base. The removal of large grains happens stronger, i.e., larger adisr,max,dynamic, with decreasing Smax.
Paper: Synthetic Modeling of Polarized Dust Emission in Intermediate-mass Young Stellar Objects. II. Effects of Radiative Torque Disruption on Dust Grains in Protostellar Jets/Outflows
Authors: Nguyen Chau Giang, V. J. M. Le Gouellec, Thiem Hoang, A. J. Maury, P. Hennebelle
Figure caption: Variation of the ratio adisr,POLARIS/adisr,dynamic as the function of gas density ﹩{n}_{{{\rm{H}}}_{2}}﹩ and gas velocity vgas for grains having ﹩{S}_{\max }=1{0}^{3}-1{0}^{7}\,\mathrm{erg}\,{\mathrm{cm}}^{-3}﹩. The POLARIS approach can reproduce well the minimum disruption size found from the dynamic approach for grains with ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}\,\leqslant \,1{0}^{5}\,{\rm{erg}}\,{{\rm{cm}}}^{-3}﹩ propagating at vgas < 60 km s−1 (Figures 8(a)–(c)). But it underestimates RATD efficiency when above grains transport at vgas > 60 km s−1 (Figure 6). In contrast, POLARIS nearly overestimates the disruption of composite grains with ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}\,\geqslant \,1{0}^{6}\,{\rm{erg}}\,{{\rm{cm}}}^{-3}﹩ by a factor of 2 because they cannot account for the suppression of RATD caused by the fast-moving of grains with high disruption threshold (Figures 8(d)–(e)).
Paper: Synthetic Modeling of Polarized Dust Emission in Intermediate-mass Young Stellar Objects. II. Effects of Radiative Torque Disruption on Dust Grains in Protostellar Jets/Outflows
Authors: Nguyen Chau Giang, V. J. M. Le Gouellec, Thiem Hoang, A. J. Maury, P. Hennebelle
Figure caption: Variation of the minimum disruption size adisr,dynamic (upper row) and maximum disruption size ﹩{a}_{{\rm{disr}},{\rm{\max }},{\rm{dynamic}}}﹩ (lower row) within 600 × 800 au inside the outflow after 100 yr as a function of gas volume density ﹩{n}_{{{\rm{H}}}_{2}}﹩ and gas velocity vgas. Colored points represent the lower and upper thresholds of the disruption size range, while gray squares illustrate regions unaffected by RATD. We show results for grains with ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}=1{0}^{3},1{0}^{5},1{0}^{7}\,{\rm{erg}}\,{{\rm{cm}}}^{-3}﹩ from left to right, respectively. The strongest disruption activities happens inside the outflow cavity where ﹩{n}_{{{\rm{H}}}_{2}}\sim 1{0}^{5}-1{0}^{7}\,{\mathrm{cm}}^{-3}﹩, vgas ∼ 3–30 km s−1, and inside the low-velocity jet where vgas ∼ 30–200 km s−1. The disruption size range decreases toward the high-velocity jet where vgas > 200 km s−1 and to the outflow cavity wall where ﹩{n}_{{{\rm{H}}}_{2}}\,\geqslant \,1{0}^{7}\,{{\rm{cm}}}^{-3}﹩, vgas ∼ 1–3 km s−1. More large grains will be removed from the jet and outflow with decreasing ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}﹩.
Paper: Synthetic Modeling of Polarized Dust Emission in Intermediate-mass Young Stellar Objects. II. Effects of Radiative Torque Disruption on Dust Grains in Protostellar Jets/Outflows
Authors: Nguyen Chau Giang, V. J. M. Le Gouellec, Thiem Hoang, A. J. Maury, P. Hennebelle
Figure caption: Similar results as Figure 6 but for composite grains with ﹩{S}_{{\rm{\max }}}=1{0}^{7}\,{\rm{erg}}\,{{\rm{cm}}}^{-3}﹩. In contrast to aggregate-type grains, the high disruption threshold of composite grains makes the POLARIS approach overestimate the realistic RATD efficiency on composite grains, i.e., adisr,POLARIS < adisr,dynamic. In POLARIS, we get adisr,POLARIS ∼ 4 μm inside the outflow cavity and low-velocity jet, and higher adisr,POLARIS ∼ 20 μm in the high-velocity jet region. In the dynamic approach, only dust grains within the inner ∼200–300 au of the outflow cavity where vgas < 250 km s−1 are destroyed by RATD.