adsabs/AstroCLIMB huggingface dataset:
Paper: Probing Cold-to-temperate Exoplanetary Atmospheres: The Role of Water Condensation on Surface Identification with JWST
Authors: Ziyu Huang, 子钰 黄, Xinting Yu, 馨婷 余, Shang-Min Tsai, Julianne I. Moses, Kazumasa Ohno, Joshua Krissansen-Totton, Xi Zhang, Jonathan J. Fortney
Figure caption: Simulated VMR profiles for the main chemical species for 1 bar and 1000 bar LHS 1140 b with A = 0.3 using KINETICS and VULCAN. Note that in the KINETICS runs, ﹩{{\rm{VMR}}}_{{{\rm{C}}}_{3}{{\rm{H}}}_{4}}﹩ is the sum of ﹩{{\rm{VMR}}}_{{{\rm{CH}}}_{3}{{\rm{C}}}_{2}{\rm{H}}}﹩ and ﹩{{\rm{VMR}}}_{{{\rm{CH}}}_{2}{{\rm{CCH}}}_{2}}﹩.
Paper: The BANANA Project. VII. High Eccentricity Predicts Spin–Orbit Misalignment in Binaries
Authors: Marcus L. Marcussen, Simon H. Albrecht, Joshua N. Winn, Yubo Su, Mia S. Lundkvist, Kevin C. Schlaufman
Figure caption: von Mises–Fisher distribution. Top: the VMF distribution is exemplified for four different concentrations, quantified by both the concentration κ and the mean of ψ, 〈ψ〉. The dashed lines represent the 〈ψ〉 values. Bottom: how κ and 〈ψ〉 relate to one another superimposed on the four values of 〈ψ〉 from the top panel.
Paper: Quasiperiodic γ-Ray Modulations in the Blazars PKS 2155-83 and PKS 2255-282
Authors: M. A. Hashad, Amr A. EL-Zant, Y. Abdou, H. M. Badran
Figure caption: PKS 2155-83 LCs in the energy range from 100 MeV to 500 GeV between 2008 August 4, and 2024 February 29. Showing (a) the 1 month binned LC, (b) the photon spectral index of (a), (c) 2 month binned LC, and (d) the photon spectral index of (c). In panels (a) and (c), filled black points denote significant detections, with TS > 4 for the 1 m binned LC and TS > 9 for the 2 m binned LC. Downward gray arrows denote 95% confidence level upper limits. The gray vertical columns approximately delineate periods of high states, inferred from the generalized Lomb–Scargle periodogram. The periodic signals’ uncertainty is indicated by the width of the gray columns. The photon index is plotted only for the detected bins. In all panels, vertical error bars are 1σ error.
Paper: Detection of QPO Soft Lag during the Outburst of Swift J1727.8-1613: Estimation of Intrinsic Parameters from Spectral Study
Authors: Dipak Debnath, Sujoy Kumar Nath, Debjit Chatterjee, Kaushik Chatterjee, Hsiang-Kuang Chang
Figure caption: Combined NICER (1–10 keV) plus NuSTAR (6–70 keV) spectrum fitted with tbabs(diskbb + thComp ∗ diskbb) is shown in the top panel (a) and in the bottom panel (b), combined spectrum is fitted with tbabs(diskbb + xillver + thComp ∗ diskbb). Model-fitted parameters are shown in Table 1. Black and red represent the NICER and NuSTAR/FPMA spectrum (or residuals), respectively. The blue dashed line indicates the diskbb model component. The thComp ∗ diskbb model component is shown by the yellow dashed line, while the magenta color indicates the xillver component in the bottom panel (b). The green dashed lines represent the total best-fit model.
Paper: The Impact of Mass-dependent Stochasticity at Cosmic Dawn
Authors: Viola Gelli, Charlotte Mason, Christopher C. Hayward
Figure caption: Top panel: Probability distribution of halo masses at given UV magnitude M UV, with corresponding scatter σ determined by the model in the bottom panel. The distributions are shown for three different redshifts, highlighting the broadening of the distributions toward earlier epochs. Bottom panel: Mass-dependent UV scatter σ UV(M  h ) as a function of the halo mass M  h . The black line shows the fiducial model used in this work, for all redshifts.
Paper: Detection of QPO Soft Lag during the Outburst of Swift J1727.8-1613: Estimation of Intrinsic Parameters from Spectral Study
Authors: Dipak Debnath, Sujoy Kumar Nath, Debjit Chatterjee, Kaushik Chatterjee, Hsiang-Kuang Chang
Figure caption: (a) The upper panel shows fast Fourier-transformed PDS in four different energy bands (0.5–1, 1–3, and 3–10 keV) of NICER. (b) The lower panel shows the 3–10 keV PDS fitted with multiple Lorentzian models. A prominent type C QPO of 0.89 Hz and its harmonics are clearly detected.
Paper: The Impact of Mass-dependent Stochasticity at Cosmic Dawn
Authors: Viola Gelli, Charlotte Mason, Christopher C. Hayward
Figure caption: Luminosity density ρ UV and cosmic star formation rate density SFRD as a function of redshift, derived integrating the UV LFs down to ﹩{M}_{\mathrm{lim}}=-17﹩. The solid and dashed curves show the mass-dependent UV-scatter and no-scatter models respectively. Also shown are observations from R. J. Bouwens et al. (2022a), P. G. Pérez-González et al. (2023), S. L. Finkelstein et al. (2024), C. T. Donnan et al. (2024), and D. J. McLeod et al. (2024). We note that the apparent match to the observations at z ∼ 14 is due to the steep faint-end slope of our LFs relative to that assumed by C. T. Donnan et al. (2024; see Section 3.2).
Paper: The Impact of Mass-dependent Stochasticity at Cosmic Dawn
Authors: Viola Gelli, Charlotte Mason, Christopher C. Hayward
Figure caption: UV LF for the mass-dependent UV-scatter model (solid lines) and the no-scatter model (dashed lines) at redshifts from z = 5 to 14. Also shown are observations by R. J. Bouwens et al. (2022a), P. G. Pérez-González et al. (2023), S. L. Finkelstein et al. (2024), C. T. Donnan et al. (2024), and D. J. McLeod et al. (2024).
Paper: Detection of QPO Soft Lag during the Outburst of Swift J1727.8-1613: Estimation of Intrinsic Parameters from Spectral Study
Authors: Dipak Debnath, Sujoy Kumar Nath, Debjit Chatterjee, Kaushik Chatterjee, Hsiang-Kuang Chang
Figure caption: Combined NICER (1–10 keV) plus NuSTAR (6–70 keV) spectrum fitted with (a) tbabs(reflect ∗ TCAF), (b) tbabs(diskbb + relxill). In Table 1, model-fitted parameters are shown. The black and red represent the NICER and NuSTAR/FPMA spectrum (or residuals), respectively. In panel (b), the blue dashed line indicates the diskbb model component. The relxill model component is shown by the yellow dashed line. The green dashed lines represent the total best-fit model.
Paper: Detection of QPO Soft Lag during the Outburst of Swift J1727.8-1613: Estimation of Intrinsic Parameters from Spectral Study
Authors: Dipak Debnath, Sujoy Kumar Nath, Debjit Chatterjee, Kaushik Chatterjee, Hsiang-Kuang Chang
Figure caption: (a) Time-lag and (b) phase-lag plots of Swift J1727.8-1613 taken on 2023 August 29, using NICER light curves of soft (0.5–3 keV) and hard (3–10 keV) band photons. A soft time lag of 0.014 ± 0.001 s at the QPO frequency is found.
Paper: The Impact of Mass-dependent Stochasticity at Cosmic Dawn
Authors: Viola Gelli, Charlotte Mason, Christopher C. Hayward
Figure caption: Redshift evolution of the predicted galaxy bias for the mass-dependent UV-scatter model (solid lines) and the no-scatter model (dashed lines). Observations by Y. Qiu et al. (2018) and N. Dalmasso et al. (2024a) are shown.
Paper: Convective Magnetic Flux Emergence Simulations from the Deep Solar Interior to the Photosphere: Comprehensive Study of Flux Tube Twist
Authors: Shin Toriumi, Hideyuki Hotta, Kanya Kusano
Figure caption: (Top panel) Vertical profiles along the z-axis of the initial background gas pressure p (thin solid), density ρ (dashed), and temperature T (dashed–dotted), normalized by their photospheric values. Overplotted by the thick solid line is the magnetic pressure, p mag = B 2/(8π), along the vertical axis crossing the flux tube center for the case of q/q cr = 0. The typical values in the photospheric level are p ph = 6.6 × 104 dyn cm−2, ρ ph = 1.8 × 10−7 g cm−3, T ph = 5500 K. (Bottom panel) 3D volume rendering of the total magnetic field strength, ﹩| {\boldsymbol{B}}| ={\left({B}_{x}^{2}+{B}_{y}^{2}+{B}_{z}^{2}\right)}^{1/2}﹩, for the q/q cr = 0 case at t = 0 hr. The 2D slice near the top presents the emergent intensity.
Paper: Convective Magnetic Flux Emergence Simulations from the Deep Solar Interior to the Photosphere: Comprehensive Study of Flux Tube Twist
Authors: Shin Toriumi, Hideyuki Hotta, Kanya Kusano
Figure caption: Temporal evolutions of the twist parameters, ﹩{\alpha }_{\mathrm{av}}^{(0)}﹩, ﹩{\alpha }_{\mathrm{av}}^{(1)}﹩, and ﹩{\alpha }_{\mathrm{av}}^{(2)}﹩, and their peak values measured between t = 10 and 110 hr as a function of the initial flux tube twist, q/q cr. For the negative twist cases (q/q cr < 0), the peak values indicate the greatest negative values in the curves. The straight lines show the theoretical relation for the uniformly twisted flux tubes, α = 2q (D. W. Longcope & I. Klapper 1997).
Paper: Convective Magnetic Flux Emergence Simulations from the Deep Solar Interior to the Photosphere: Comprehensive Study of Flux Tube Twist
Authors: Shin Toriumi, Hideyuki Hotta, Kanya Kusano
Figure caption: (Top panels) Temporal evolutions of the total magnetic flux, Φ, and the flux growth rate, dΦ/dt, in the photosphere. (Bottom panels) Their peak values as a function of the initial flux tube twist, q/q cr.
Paper: Convective Magnetic Flux Emergence Simulations from the Deep Solar Interior to the Photosphere: Comprehensive Study of Flux Tube Twist
Authors: Shin Toriumi, Hideyuki Hotta, Kanya Kusano
Figure caption: (Top panels) Temporal evolutions of the helicity flux rate, F  z , and the total injected magnetic helicity, ΔH R. The helicity ΔH R for the cases q/q cr = [1/4, 0, −1/4, −1/2] are also shown in the inset. (Bottom panels) Their peak values as a function of the initial flux tube twist, q/q cr. For the negative twist cases (q/q cr < 0), the peak values indicate the greatest negative values in the curves.
Paper: Convective Magnetic Flux Emergence Simulations from the Deep Solar Interior to the Photosphere: Comprehensive Study of Flux Tube Twist
Authors: Shin Toriumi, Hideyuki Hotta, Kanya Kusano
Figure caption: Peak magnetic flux normalized by the square of the maximum magnetic flux, ﹩\max {({\rm{\Delta }}{H}_{{\rm{R}}})/\max ({\rm{\Phi }})}^{2}﹩, as a function of the initial flux tube twist, q/q cr. The shaded area indicates the area where −0.1 < ΔH R/Φ2 < 0.1, which corresponds to the observational results.
Paper: Convective Magnetic Flux Emergence Simulations from the Deep Solar Interior to the Photosphere: Comprehensive Study of Flux Tube Twist
Authors: Shin Toriumi, Hideyuki Hotta, Kanya Kusano
Figure caption: Flux growth rate, dΦ/dt, vs. total magnetic flux, Φ, for various observations and the present nine simulation cases. The observed values are adopted from K. Otsuji et al. (2011), S. Toriumi et al. (2014a), A. A. Norton et al. (2017), and V. I. Abramenko et al. (2017). The straight lines are the power-law fits to the observations: dΦ/dt ∝ Φ0.57 (K. Otsuji et al. 2011), dΦ/dt ∝ Φ0.36 (A. A. Norton et al. 2017), and dΦ/dt ∝ Φ0.48 (A. S. Kutsenko et al. 2019).
Paper: Convective Magnetic Flux Emergence Simulations from the Deep Solar Interior to the Photosphere: Comprehensive Study of Flux Tube Twist
Authors: Shin Toriumi, Hideyuki Hotta, Kanya Kusano
Figure caption: Maximum photospheric magnetic flux, ﹩\max ({\rm{\Phi }})﹩, and the corresponding sunspot area, A spot, for the nine cases. The straight line is the linear fit to the eight data points except for the untwisted flux tube, q/q cr = 0, which is located much below the linear proportionality line.
Paper: A Merger-driven Scenario for Clumpy Galaxy Formation in the Epoch of Reionization: Physical Properties of Clumps in the FirstLight Simulation
Authors: Yurina Nakazato, Daniel Ceverino, Naoki Yoshida
Figure caption: The number density of clumpy galaxies as a function of redshift. The gray and purple circles represent single systems and clumpy systems, respectively. The error bars are calculated from Poisson errors, ﹩\sqrt{N}/{V}_{\mathrm{box}}﹩, where N is the number of clumpy galaxies and V box is the comoving volume of the simulation box.
Paper: A Merger-driven Scenario for Clumpy Galaxy Formation in the Epoch of Reionization: Physical Properties of Clumps in the FirstLight Simulation
Authors: Yurina Nakazato, Daniel Ceverino, Naoki Yoshida
Figure caption: The probability distribution of the gas fraction, baryon-to-dark matter mass ratio, and sSFR for our clump samples. The histograms with black solid lines are for single systems, and we color the histograms for clumps depending on their age. The distributions are normalized to the total number of clumps in each of the colored types.
Paper: A Merger-driven Scenario for Clumpy Galaxy Formation in the Epoch of Reionization: Physical Properties of Clumps in the FirstLight Simulation
Authors: Yurina Nakazato, Daniel Ceverino, Naoki Yoshida
Figure caption: The fraction of each clump number at z ∼ 9 (purple), z ∼ 8 (blue), z ∼ 7 (green), and z ∼ 6 (yellow). The clump number N clump is referred to as the number of clumps in the galaxy system within a 10 kpc × 10 kpc region.
Paper: A Merger-driven Scenario for Clumpy Galaxy Formation in the Epoch of Reionization: Physical Properties of Clumps in the FirstLight Simulation
Authors: Yurina Nakazato, Daniel Ceverino, Naoki Yoshida
Figure caption: Temperature−density phase diagram for a clumpy system FL958 at z = 7.2. The color bar shows the gas mass within each bin ﹩({\rm{\Delta }}{\mathrm{log}}_{10}{n}_{\mathrm{gas}},{\rm{\Delta }}{\mathrm{log}}_{10}{T}_{\mathrm{gas}})=(0.08,0.06)﹩. Gray dashed lines show the temperature threshold (horizontal) and density threshold (vertical) for star formation. The black dotted line shows the threshold of Equation (B2). We plot all of the gas cells inside a cube with a side length of 10 kpc.
Paper: A Merger-driven Scenario for Clumpy Galaxy Formation in the Epoch of Reionization: Physical Properties of Clumps in the FirstLight Simulation
Authors: Yurina Nakazato, Daniel Ceverino, Naoki Yoshida
Figure caption: Time evolution of clump number as a function of redshift for the three galaxies shown in Figure 2. The inverted triangles represent the redshifts in Figure 2. N clump = 0 represents that clumps are too faint to be identified by the clump finder.
Paper: A Merger-driven Scenario for Clumpy Galaxy Formation in the Epoch of Reionization: Physical Properties of Clumps in the FirstLight Simulation
Authors: Yurina Nakazato, Daniel Ceverino, Naoki Yoshida
Figure caption: The distribution of mass-weighted clump ages. Solid black and dashed purple histograms represent single systems (detected one central clump, i.e., protobulge) and clumpy systems, respectively. The histograms are normalized by the total number of clumps for each system. We divide the clumpy system into clumps younger than 50 Myr (blue) and those older than 50 Myr (red).
Paper: A Merger-driven Scenario for Clumpy Galaxy Formation in the Epoch of Reionization: Physical Properties of Clumps in the FirstLight Simulation
Authors: Yurina Nakazato, Daniel Ceverino, Naoki Yoshida
Figure caption: Velocity function of halos at z = 9 (purple), 8 (blue), 7 (green), and 6 (yellow). Solid lines are obtained from FirstLight 62 samples, and dashed lines are from the Bolshoi simulation using the same cosmological parameter (A. A. Klypin et al. 2011).
Paper: The COS CGM Compendium. V. The Dichotomy of O VI Associated with Low- and High-metallicity Cool Gas at z < 1
Authors: Sameer, Nicolas Lehner, J. Christopher Howk, Andrew J. Fox, John M. O'Meara, Benjamin D. Oppenheimer
Figure caption: Normalized PDFs of O VI column density for the (a) LM subsample and the HM subsample; (b) for the SLFSs and pLLSs subsamples; (c) for the LM SLFSs and LM pLLSs subsamples; (d) for the HM SLFSs and HM pLLSs subsamples; and (e) for absorbers within ≲ R vir (103 absorbers) and absorbers beyond > R vir (146 absorbers) taken from T22. The contribution from the lower limits is shown with hatchings.
Paper: The COS CGM Compendium. V. The Dichotomy of O VI Associated with Low- and High-metallicity Cool Gas at z < 1
Authors: Sameer, Nicolas Lehner, J. Christopher Howk, Andrew J. Fox, John M. O'Meara, Benjamin D. Oppenheimer
Figure caption: Apparent optical column density profiles for O VI, C II, C III, and H I, for two closely redshift-separated absorbers at z = 0.415649 (left) and 0.416042 (right) toward the quasar J100102.64+594414.2. These two absorbers are separated by ≈100 km s−1. The integrated velocity ranges are indicated by two vertical lines in each panel. O VI is detected only at z = 0.416042. In this case, these are HM absorbers with a similar metallicity within 1σ. The average uncertainty on the data is indicated to the right in each of the panels. Each plot includes an RF indicating whether the absorption system is part of the robust sample (RF = 1) or not (RF = 0). The profiles are binned by 3 pixels for display purposes.
Paper: Surface Flux Transport Modeling Using Physics-informed Neural Networks
Authors: Jithu J Athalathil, Bhargav Vaidya, Sayan Kundu, Vishal Upendran, Mark C. M. Cheung
Figure caption: Evolution of AR 7978: The top panels ((a), (b), (c)) display data from SOHO/MDI, the middle panels ((d), (e), (f)) demonstrate the evolution of the BMR using the PINN method, and the bottom panels ((g), (h), (i)) showcase solutions obtained through the RK-IMEX method. The columns (left to right) illustrate the magnetic field for three different time stamps: 1996 August 30, September 26, and October 23, respectively. Panels (d) and (g) show the BMR used as the initial condition for both (PINNs and RK-IMEX) methods. To visually assess the alignment between PINNs and observed BMR regions, the BMR region from PINNs is outlined as a contour over the data in the first row. The percentage error in the total unsigned flux compared to the data is mentioned in the top right of the respective panels.
Paper: The COS CGM Compendium. V. The Dichotomy of O VI Associated with Low- and High-metallicity Cool Gas at z < 1
Authors: Sameer, Nicolas Lehner, J. Christopher Howk, Andrew J. Fox, John M. O'Meara, Benjamin D. Oppenheimer
Figure caption: Comparison of (left) velocity centroid offset and (right) absolute velocity centroid offset, with metallicity for C II, C III, and O VI. The vertical line marks the separation between LM and HM absorbers. The horizontal line marks the mean of the sample. SLFSs are colored in orange, while pLLSs are colored in green. The stacked histograms to the right are presented to highlight the dispersion in the velocity centroid offsets.
Paper: The COS CGM Compendium. V. The Dichotomy of O VI Associated with Low- and High-metallicity Cool Gas at z < 1
Authors: Sameer, Nicolas Lehner, J. Christopher Howk, Andrew J. Fox, John M. O'Meara, Benjamin D. Oppenheimer
Figure caption: O VI column density as a function of the H I column density. The vertical line divides the sample into SLFSs and pLLSs. The horizontal line separates the sample based on log N(O VI) = 14. The data points are color coded by the metallicity of lower-ionization gas. The HM sample is shown in red, and the LM sample is shown in blue. Upper limits on O VI column density measurements are shown as gray downward-pointing arrows. The light-shaded region highlights the sensitivity limit of our survey of log N(O VI) ≥ 13.6.
Paper: The COS CGM Compendium. V. The Dichotomy of O VI Associated with Low- and High-metallicity Cool Gas at z < 1
Authors: Sameer, Nicolas Lehner, J. Christopher Howk, Andrew J. Fox, John M. O'Meara, Benjamin D. Oppenheimer
Figure caption: Comparison of velocity width, Δv 90, with metallicity for H I, C II, C III, and O VI. The vertical line marks the separation between LM and HM absorbers. The horizontal line marks the mean value of velocity width. SLFSs are colored in orange, while pLLSs are colored in green. Saturated absorption is seen mainly in C III and is presented as upper limits.
Paper: The COS CGM Compendium. V. The Dichotomy of O VI Associated with Low- and High-metallicity Cool Gas at z < 1
Authors: Sameer, Nicolas Lehner, J. Christopher Howk, Andrew J. Fox, John M. O'Meara, Benjamin D. Oppenheimer
Figure caption: The O VI column density as a function of metallicity for our sample. O VI detections are shown as dark-filled circles, and the nondetections (upper limits) are shown as filled circles with attached downward-pointing arrows and shaded in a lighter tone. The vertical line divides the sample into LM and HM subsamples. The horizontal line at ﹩\mathrm{log}N﹩(O VI) =14 divides the sample based on the O VI absorption strength. The data points are color coded to differentiate SLFSs (orange) and pLLSs (green).
Paper: The COS CGM Compendium. V. The Dichotomy of O VI Associated with Low- and High-metallicity Cool Gas at z < 1
Authors: Sameer, Nicolas Lehner, J. Christopher Howk, Andrew J. Fox, John M. O'Meara, Benjamin D. Oppenheimer
Figure caption: The metallicity of the cool gas as a function of H I column density for our sample. The data points are colored by their ﹩\mathrm{log}N﹩(O VI). The horizontal line divides the sample into low-metal and high-metal subsamples. The vertical line divides the sample into SLFSs and pLLSs. About 80% of the absorbers with ﹩\mathrm{log}N﹩(O VI) < 13.6 have no O VI detection.
Paper: A Potential Dynamical Origin of the Galactic Disk Warp: The Gaia–Sausage–Enceladus Major Merger
Authors: Mingji Deng, Cuihua Du, Yanbin Yang, Jiwei Liao, Dashuang Ye
Figure caption: Top panel: the evolution of warp precession as measured with young stars within the radial range of R = 11 ∼ 13 kpc and R = 13 ∼ 15 kpc from 3 Gyr to 9.05 Gyr. Middle panel: the transparent band shows the distribution trend of the young stars’ velocity in the Z-direction vs. azimuth within the region of R = 11 ∼ 13 kpc (left) and R = 13 ∼ 15 kpc (right); the purple line is the mean velocity, and the pink line indicates the fitting precession with kinematic warp model. Bottom panel: the vertical velocity differences of stars on both sides of ϕ  w  vs. azimuth angle separation from ϕ  w . The azimuth angles are binned at 10°, and each radial annulus is plotted with different colors.
Paper: Discovering Subsolar Metallicity Brown Dwarf Candidates in the Small Magellanic Cloud
Authors: Peter Zeidler, Elena Sabbi, Antonella Nota, Elena Manjavacas, Olivia C. Jones, Camilla Pacifici
Figure caption: The F115W−F335M vs. F115W (top), F150W−F335M vs. F150W (bottom left), and F277W−F356W vs. F277W (bottom right) CMDs. The inlay on top shows the main features of the CMDs: MS, PMS, red clump (RC), MS turn-on (MS TOn), and SMC turnoff (SMC TO). The red arrow indicates the reddening vector for A V = 0.25 mag, while the orange arrow indicates an assumed A V = 1.0 mag. Gray points correspond to all point sources of our catalog. In red we show PMS stars, in green cYSO, and the yellow diamonds represent our discovered cBD population. On the left side of each plot, we show the mean photometric errors in bins of 1 mag and the spectral types for MS stars. The ZAMS is represented as a black line, and we show the 1, 2, and 3 Myr isochrones in red, blue, and yellow, respectively, using the MESA isochrones and stellar tracks for an LMC metallicity with a low-mass limit of 0.1 M ⊙. The purple track represents the 4.2 Gyr SMC field population. The dashed lines show BD isochrones: BT-Settl (green), ATMO2020 (orange), and BHAC15 (cyan). On the right we show the stellar (red numbers) and BD masses (yellow numbers) corresponding to the 2 Myr isochrones.
Paper: A Potential Dynamical Origin of the Galactic Disk Warp: The Gaia–Sausage–Enceladus Major Merger
Authors: Mingji Deng, Cuihua Du, Yanbin Yang, Jiwei Liao, Dashuang Ye
Figure caption: Evolution of stellar/gas disk warp amplitude as measured at R = 16 kpc, from 3 Gyr to 9.05 Gyr (as the merger occurred within the first 3 Gyr), and the stellar disk amplitude is also fitting with stars younger than 1 Gyr. Both disks exhibit similar evolution. Notably, since the disk had not fully shaped before 3.25 Gyr, there are two approximate amplitude peak values observed around 4.3 Gyr and 6.4 Gyr.