adsabs/AstroCLIMB huggingface dataset:
Paper: Reflected-light Phase Curves with PICASO: A Kepler-7b Case Study
Authors: Colin D. Hamill, Alexandria V. Johnson, Natasha Batalha, Rowan Nag, Peter Gao, Danica Adams, Tiffany Kataria
Figure caption: Wavelength-independent column optical depths for Mg2SiO4, Al2O3, and TiO2, as a function of pressure, assuming geometric scatterers (see Equation (16) of A. S. Ackerman & M. S. Marley 2001). Blue corresponds to a western grid point centered at (1.°4N, −68.°9W), while red corresponds to an eastern grid point centered at (1.°4N, 26.°7W). The decreasing opacity of the plotted curves corresponds to increasing values of f sed (0.03, 0.1, 0.3, and 1.0).
Paper: The First Catalog of Candidate White Dwarf–Main-sequence Binaries in Open Star Clusters: A New Window into Common Envelope Evolution
Authors: Steffani M. Grondin, Maria R. Drout, Jason Nordhaus, Philip S. Muirhead, Joshua S. Speagle, 佳士 沈, Ryan Chornock
Figure caption: SEDs of the high-probability candidate WD+MS binaries in this catalog.
Paper: The First Catalog of Candidate White Dwarf–Main-sequence Binaries in Open Star Clusters: A New Window into Common Envelope Evolution
Authors: Steffani M. Grondin, Maria R. Drout, Jason Nordhaus, Philip S. Muirhead, Joshua S. Speagle, 佳士 沈, Ryan Chornock
Figure caption: Continuation of Figure 17.
Paper: Whole-disk Sampling of Molecular Clouds in M83
Authors: Akihiko Hirota, Jin Koda, Fumi Egusa, Tsuyoshi Sawada, Kazushi Sakamoto, Mark Heyer, Amanda M Lee, Fumiya Maeda, Samuel Boissier, Daniela Calzetti, Bruce G. Elmegreen, Nanase Harada, Luis C. Ho, Masato I. N. Kobayashi, Nario Kuno, Barry F. Madore, Sergio Martín, Jennifer Donovan Meyer, Kazuyuki Muraoka, Yoshimasa Watanabe
Figure caption: (a) Cloud’s residual velocity ﹩{v}_{\mathrm{res}}﹩ as a function of galactocentric radius R gal. The gray and cyan markers indicate the clouds for mass below and above 5 × 105 M ⊙. The black lines indicate the 16th, 50th, and 84th percentiles of ﹩{v}_{\mathrm{res}}﹩ derived within binned R gal of 24″ width, spaced by every 12″. (b) Estimated vertical velocity dispersion <v z> derived within the same binned R gal as (a). Black and cyan solid lines indicate <v z> for the clouds below and above 5 × 105 M ⊙. The dashed line indicates <v z > for the whole cloud masses. As ﹩{v}_{\mathrm{res}}﹩ is severely affected by noncircular motions in the inner disk fo M83, R gal < 100″ is shaded. (c) p-values derived for the binned R gal calculated with Levene’s test, which indicate the statistical significance of the difference of <v z> between clouds with mass below and above 5 × 105 M ⊙. The p-values below 3 × 10−3 are indicated as upper limits with the arrow markers. The dotted horizon line indicates the adopted threshold of 0.05. (d) Spatial distribution of ﹩{v}_{\mathrm{res}}﹩, compared with the regional mask. (e) Same as (b), but comparing the difference between center/bar/arm and interarm regions shown with black and orange lines. (f) Same as (c), but comparing the difference between center/bar/arm and interarm regions.
Paper: Whole-disk Sampling of Molecular Clouds in M83
Authors: Akihiko Hirota, Jin Koda, Fumi Egusa, Tsuyoshi Sawada, Kazushi Sakamoto, Mark Heyer, Amanda M Lee, Fumiya Maeda, Samuel Boissier, Daniela Calzetti, Bruce G. Elmegreen, Nanase Harada, Luis C. Ho, Masato I. N. Kobayashi, Nario Kuno, Barry F. Madore, Sergio Martín, Jennifer Donovan Meyer, Kazuyuki Muraoka, Yoshimasa Watanabe
Figure caption:  α vir–Σ relationship for the clouds in M83. The contour lines indicate the density distribution of the data points at the levels of 0.2, 0.4, and 0.8, respectively. As in Section 3.2, the clouds with T peak > 2 K and <2 K are indicated with orange and gray markers, respectively. The black horizontal dotted line indicates α vir of 1. The red dashed line indicates the case in which the clouds are affected by the beam dilution, and they uniformly have the intrinsic α vir,0 of 1 and Σ0 of 160 M ⊙ pc−2, and the two red dotted–dashed lines indicate the same but for a factor of 4 variations around it.
Paper: Whole-disk Sampling of Molecular Clouds in M83
Authors: Akihiko Hirota, Jin Koda, Fumi Egusa, Tsuyoshi Sawada, Kazushi Sakamoto, Mark Heyer, Amanda M Lee, Fumiya Maeda, Samuel Boissier, Daniela Calzetti, Bruce G. Elmegreen, Nanase Harada, Luis C. Ho, Masato I. N. Kobayashi, Nario Kuno, Barry F. Madore, Sergio Martín, Jennifer Donovan Meyer, Kazuyuki Muraoka, Yoshimasa Watanabe
Figure caption: (a) Number distribution of the estimated area-filling factor f for the clouds in M83. The black and green lines show the distribution of f by assuming α vir,0 of 1 and 2 for clouds that provide “valid” estimates, i.e., the clouds that satisfy the T eq > 0.5 K condition. The dashed gray and light green lines are the same as the black and green lines but for all the cloud samples. For each category shown here, the 16th-to-84th percentile range and 50th percentile are indicated with the horizontal line and the filled-circle marker, respectively. (b) Cumulative number distribution of the estimated f for the clouds. The colors and styles of the lines are the same as in (a). The dotted horizontal lines indicate the fraction number of clouds with “valid” estimates of f; about 12% (23%) of the clouds have f = 1 for the case of α vir,0 of 1 (2), and about 56% of the clouds have “valid” estimate of f. (c) Same as (b), but showing as a cumulative fractional mass distribution.
Paper: Whole-disk Sampling of Molecular Clouds in M83
Authors: Akihiko Hirota, Jin Koda, Fumi Egusa, Tsuyoshi Sawada, Kazushi Sakamoto, Mark Heyer, Amanda M Lee, Fumiya Maeda, Samuel Boissier, Daniela Calzetti, Bruce G. Elmegreen, Nanase Harada, Luis C. Ho, Masato I. N. Kobayashi, Nario Kuno, Barry F. Madore, Sergio Martín, Jennifer Donovan Meyer, Kazuyuki Muraoka, Yoshimasa Watanabe
Figure caption: (a) Mass distribution for the molecular clouds in M83 displayed in the differential. The mass bins are configured with a width of 0.15 dex. The blue dashed line is the fit with a conventional form (Equation (14)), and the purple solid line indicates the fit with a Schechter-like form (Equation (15)). The vertical dashed–dotted line indicates the lower-mass limit used for fitting the data (2 × 105 M ⊙). The blue and purple dotted lines indicate the upper cutoff masses, M u,PL and ﹩{M}_{{\rm{u}},\exp }﹩, respectively, determined by fitting the data. (b)–(f) Same as (a), but for the radial range of R gal = 0″–25″, 25″–100″, 100″–140″, 140″–210″, and 210″–280″, respectively.
Paper: Whole-disk Sampling of Molecular Clouds in M83
Authors: Akihiko Hirota, Jin Koda, Fumi Egusa, Tsuyoshi Sawada, Kazushi Sakamoto, Mark Heyer, Amanda M Lee, Fumiya Maeda, Samuel Boissier, Daniela Calzetti, Bruce G. Elmegreen, Nanase Harada, Luis C. Ho, Masato I. N. Kobayashi, Nario Kuno, Barry F. Madore, Sergio Martín, Jennifer Donovan Meyer, Kazuyuki Muraoka, Yoshimasa Watanabe
Figure caption: (a) Number distribution of cloud surface densities. The black and green lines indicate the estimated intrinsic Σ0 by assuming α vir,0 of 1 and 2 for clouds that provide “valid” estimates, i.e., the clouds that satisfy the T eq > 0.5 K condition. The dashed line indicates the observed (uncorrected) Σ for clouds that satisfy the condition of T eq > 0.5 K, and the dotted line is the same for all the clouds. (b) Same as (a), but for cloud radii, showing the intrinsic R 0 and the observed R eff. (c) Same as (a), but for cloud peak temperatures, showing the estimated intrinsic T 0 and the observed T peak.
Paper: Whole-disk Sampling of Molecular Clouds in M83
Authors: Akihiko Hirota, Jin Koda, Fumi Egusa, Tsuyoshi Sawada, Kazushi Sakamoto, Mark Heyer, Amanda M Lee, Fumiya Maeda, Samuel Boissier, Daniela Calzetti, Bruce G. Elmegreen, Nanase Harada, Luis C. Ho, Masato I. N. Kobayashi, Nario Kuno, Barry F. Madore, Sergio Martín, Jennifer Donovan Meyer, Kazuyuki Muraoka, Yoshimasa Watanabe
Figure caption: (a) Spatial distribution of the clouds on ﹩\mathrm{log}R﹩−ϕ plot. Blue and gray markers indicate the locations of the clouds with masses above and below 106 M ⊙. The thick lines indicate the logarithmic spiral fitting to the selected clouds. (b) CO map overlaid with the logarithmic spiral arms indicated in (a). Black markers indicate the clouds with masses above 106 M ⊙. (c) Same as (b), but overlaid with the regional mask created here. The arms, the bar, and the central regions are indicated with purple, red, and yellow lines, respectively.
Paper: Whole-disk Sampling of Molecular Clouds in M83
Authors: Akihiko Hirota, Jin Koda, Fumi Egusa, Tsuyoshi Sawada, Kazushi Sakamoto, Mark Heyer, Amanda M Lee, Fumiya Maeda, Samuel Boissier, Daniela Calzetti, Bruce G. Elmegreen, Nanase Harada, Luis C. Ho, Masato I. N. Kobayashi, Nario Kuno, Barry F. Madore, Sergio Martín, Jennifer Donovan Meyer, Kazuyuki Muraoka, Yoshimasa Watanabe
Figure caption: Cloud masses as a function of galactocentric radius, indicated with the gray dots. The green line indicates the median values at the radial bins with 12″ averaging widths. The blue line is the luminosity-weighted mean of the cloud masses calculated at the same bins. Black lines indicate the 16th and 84th percentile values at the same bins. Purple circle and red square markers indicate the estimated upper limits on cloud mass from the fittings of mass distributions, i.e., ﹩{2}^{1/\left({\gamma }_{\mathrm{PL}}+1\right)}﹩                      ﹩{M}_{\mathrm{lim}}﹩ and ﹩{M}_{{\rm{u}},\exp }﹩, respectively, determined for five radial ranges listed in Table 4.
Paper: Whole-disk Sampling of Molecular Clouds in M83
Authors: Akihiko Hirota, Jin Koda, Fumi Egusa, Tsuyoshi Sawada, Kazushi Sakamoto, Mark Heyer, Amanda M Lee, Fumiya Maeda, Samuel Boissier, Daniela Calzetti, Bruce G. Elmegreen, Nanase Harada, Luis C. Ho, Masato I. N. Kobayashi, Nario Kuno, Barry F. Madore, Sergio Martín, Jennifer Donovan Meyer, Kazuyuki Muraoka, Yoshimasa Watanabe
Figure caption: Equivalent peak temperature T eq, derived with Equation (22) as a function of peak temperature T peak for the M83 clouds. Marker colors are coded to represent R eff. The dashed line indicates T eq = T peak, and the dashed–dotted lines indicate a factor of 3 variations. The vertical dotted line indicates T peak = 0.5 K, roughly the detection threshold of the clouds. The horizontal dotted line indicates the T eq threshold of 0.5 K, adopted for selecting clouds for f estimation.
Paper: Whole-disk Sampling of Molecular Clouds in M83
Authors: Akihiko Hirota, Jin Koda, Fumi Egusa, Tsuyoshi Sawada, Kazushi Sakamoto, Mark Heyer, Amanda M Lee, Fumiya Maeda, Samuel Boissier, Daniela Calzetti, Bruce G. Elmegreen, Nanase Harada, Luis C. Ho, Masato I. N. Kobayashi, Nario Kuno, Barry F. Madore, Sergio Martín, Jennifer Donovan Meyer, Kazuyuki Muraoka, Yoshimasa Watanabe
Figure caption: (a)–(d) Same as Figure 14(a), but showing for the central region, bar, arms, and interarm regions, respectively. The regional mask shown in Figure 7(c) is used for the classification.
Paper: Spectropolarimetric Inversion in Four Dimensions with Deep Learning (SPIn4D). I. Overview, Magnetohydrodynamic Modeling, and Stokes Profile Synthesis
Authors: Kai E. Yang, 凯 杨, Lucas A. Tarr, Matthias Rempel, S. Curt Dodds, Sarah A. Jaeggli, Peter Sadowski, Thomas A. Schad, Ian Cunnyngham, Jiayi Liu, 嘉奕 刘, Yannik Glaser, Xudong Sun, 旭东 孙
Figure caption: (a)–(d) The response function of Stokes I to the magnetic induction for the four lines used in our study. (e) Temperature distribution on a vertical slice at the middle of the computational domain, y = 12.28 Mm, from Case 1 at t = 5.43 hr. The three white dashed lines indicate the contours of the logarithm optical depth, ﹩{\mathrm{log}}_{10}\tau ﹩, with the values of 0, −2, and −4. The two blue dashed lines indicate the subdomain we extracted for the training data set.
Paper: Spectropolarimetric Inversion in Four Dimensions with Deep Learning (SPIn4D). I. Overview, Magnetohydrodynamic Modeling, and Stokes Profile Synthesis
Authors: Kai E. Yang, 凯 杨, Lucas A. Tarr, Matthias Rempel, S. Curt Dodds, Sarah A. Jaeggli, Peter Sadowski, Thomas A. Schad, Ian Cunnyngham, Jiayi Liu, 嘉奕 刘, Yannik Glaser, Xudong Sun, 旭东 孙
Figure caption: Schematic representation of the SPIn4D model workflow. The core of the model is the DL neural network, highlighted in blue in the middle of the diagram. The network training step is outlined by the broken green line and uses data derived from the MURaM simulations, both the MHD variables themselves and the Stokes profiles (I, Q, U, V) synthesized from the MHD data cubes (green lines). Once trained on the simulated data, observed Stokes data can be input into the network (red arrow) to produce the most likely 3D MHD state as output (labeled ”Predicted MHD Variables”). The network may be trained to receive single-time input Stokes data to produce a reduced dimensional output MHD state ( B , v  z , P, T) or to receive multitime input Stokes data to produce a full-dimensional MHD output, including additional derived outputs, such as vector velocities, Poynting flux, and so on. The network may also be trained to produce the derived outputs directly.
Paper: Spectropolarimetric Inversion in Four Dimensions with Deep Learning (SPIn4D). I. Overview, Magnetohydrodynamic Modeling, and Stokes Profile Synthesis
Authors: Kai E. Yang, 凯 杨, Lucas A. Tarr, Matthias Rempel, S. Curt Dodds, Sarah A. Jaeggli, Peter Sadowski, Thomas A. Schad, Ian Cunnyngham, Jiayi Liu, 嘉奕 刘, Yannik Glaser, Xudong Sun, 旭东 孙
Figure caption: The time-series histogram of the density, ρ, and LOS magnetic field, B  Z , on two surfaces, ﹩{\mathrm{log}}_{10}\tau =-1﹩ and −2, calculated for Case 5. The vertical dashed lines indicate the time of 2 hr, after which the simulation has essentially steady-state dynamics.
Paper: Spectropolarimetric Inversion in Four Dimensions with Deep Learning (SPIn4D). I. Overview, Magnetohydrodynamic Modeling, and Stokes Profile Synthesis
Authors: Kai E. Yang, 凯 杨, Lucas A. Tarr, Matthias Rempel, S. Curt Dodds, Sarah A. Jaeggli, Peter Sadowski, Thomas A. Schad, Ian Cunnyngham, Jiayi Liu, 嘉奕 刘, Yannik Glaser, Xudong Sun, 旭东 孙
Figure caption: From top to bottom, representative simulation results for Cases 1–5 at simulation times 5.43 hr, 5.59 hr, 5.59 hr, 5.59 hr, and 5.58 hr, respectively. From left to right, the columns show continuum emission at 500 nm, LOS velocity (V  Z ), and LOS magnetic induction (B  Z ) at an extracted surface of ﹩{\mathrm{log}}_{10}\tau =0﹩, respectively.
Paper: Spectropolarimetric Inversion in Four Dimensions with Deep Learning (SPIn4D). I. Overview, Magnetohydrodynamic Modeling, and Stokes Profile Synthesis
Authors: Kai E. Yang, 凯 杨, Lucas A. Tarr, Matthias Rempel, S. Curt Dodds, Sarah A. Jaeggli, Peter Sadowski, Thomas A. Schad, Ian Cunnyngham, Jiayi Liu, 嘉奕 刘, Yannik Glaser, Xudong Sun, 旭东 孙
Figure caption: The SSIM of continuum images for different time lag, for all six cases. Each curve is offset vertically by 0.1 for clarity. The vertical dashed line marks our selected cadence of 12 minutes for producing forward-modeled spectral synthesis of independent observations.
Paper: Spectropolarimetric Inversion in Four Dimensions with Deep Learning (SPIn4D). I. Overview, Magnetohydrodynamic Modeling, and Stokes Profile Synthesis
Authors: Kai E. Yang, 凯 杨, Lucas A. Tarr, Matthias Rempel, S. Curt Dodds, Sarah A. Jaeggli, Peter Sadowski, Thomas A. Schad, Ian Cunnyngham, Jiayi Liu, 嘉奕 刘, Yannik Glaser, Xudong Sun, 旭东 孙
Figure caption: Similar to Figure 2, but for Case 6 at 5.44 hr. Panel (d) shows the additional vertical field added to each quadrant and outlines the mask function.
Paper: JWST Resolves Collision-induced Absorption Features in White Dwarfs
Authors: Simon Blouin, Mukremin Kilic, Loïc Albert, Bianca Azartash-Namin, Patrick Dufour
Figure caption: Rosseland mean optical depth at which τ  ν  = 2/3 as a function of wavelength (solid line, left axis) and temperature at that same depth (dashed line, right axis). Note how the strong CIA opacity implies that the infrared portion of the spectrum is formed much higher in the atmosphere than the photosphere.
Paper: JWST Resolves Collision-induced Absorption Features in White Dwarfs
Authors: Simon Blouin, Mukremin Kilic, Loïc Albert, Bianca Azartash-Namin, Patrick Dufour
Figure caption: The blue line marks the combinations of masses and effective temperatures that are compatible with the parallax and wavelength-integrated flux of LHS 1126. We have estimated the uncertainty to be comparable to the width of this line. The pure-helium solution of Figure 8 is indicated with a black circle. Gray symbols also report other solutions published in the literature (S. Blouin et al. 2019b; P. Bergeron et al. 2022; M. W. O’Brien et al. 2024) as well as our mixed hydrogen–helium solutions (which we rejected).
Paper: JWST Resolves Collision-induced Absorption Features in White Dwarfs
Authors: Simon Blouin, Mukremin Kilic, Loïc Albert, Bianca Azartash-Namin, Patrick Dufour
Figure caption: Left: Keck NIRES spectra of seven IR-faint white dwarfs. The spectra are normalized and vertically offset for clarity. Right: model spectra for white dwarfs with ﹩\mathrm{log}g=8﹩ and logH/He = −1.5 at various effective temperatures. Solid blue lines represent models using the M. Abel et al. (2012) H2–He CIA opacities, while dashed orange lines show models using the U. G. Jørgensen et al. (2000) opacities. Note the absence of a pronounced molecular hydrogen first overtone band near 1.2 μm in the observed spectra.
Paper: JWST Resolves Collision-induced Absorption Features in White Dwarfs
Authors: Simon Blouin, Mukremin Kilic, Loïc Albert, Bianca Azartash-Namin, Patrick Dufour
Figure caption: Main contributions to the total opacity at the photosphere (τ  R  = 2/3) of a typical IR-faint white dwarf. Note the small split in the 2.4 μm CIA band opacity. Consistent with our discussion in Section 5.1, this split is far too weak to significantly affect the emerging spectrum.
Paper: JWST Resolves Collision-induced Absorption Features in White Dwarfs
Authors: Simon Blouin, Mukremin Kilic, Loïc Albert, Bianca Azartash-Namin, Patrick Dufour
Figure caption: High-speed photometry of WD J1922+0233 obtained with the APO 3.5 m telescope. The top panel shows the light curve, and the bottom panel displays its Fourier transform plotted up to the Nyquist frequency. The dotted and dashed lines show the 3〈A〉 and 4〈A〉 levels (3.6 and 4.7 mma, respectively), where 〈A〉 is the average amplitude in the Fourier transform. There is no evidence of any significant photometric variability in the APO data for WD J1922+0233.
Paper: JWST Resolves Collision-induced Absorption Features in White Dwarfs
Authors: Simon Blouin, Mukremin Kilic, Loïc Albert, Bianca Azartash-Namin, Patrick Dufour
Figure caption: Top: JWST spectrum of WD J1922+0233 (gray) in the H2 fundamental band region, compared to a standard ultracool model (T eff = 3000 K, ﹩\mathrm{log}\,{\rm{H}}/\mathrm{He}=-1.5;﹩ blue solid line) and the same model with an ad hoc temperature inversion in the upper atmosphere (orange dashed line). All three spectra were normalized at 3.5 μm, and the JWST spectrum was vertically shifted for clarity. Bottom: temperature structures underlying the two model spectra shown in the top panel.
Paper: JWST Resolves Collision-induced Absorption Features in White Dwarfs
Authors: Simon Blouin, Mukremin Kilic, Loïc Albert, Bianca Azartash-Namin, Patrick Dufour
Figure caption: Model spectrum of an IR-faint white dwarf based on a thermodynamic structure found using the standard linearization technique to reach radiative equilibrium (solid line) and model spectrum for the same star but with an ad hoc 1000 K increase in the temperature profile above τ  R  = 10−3 (dashed line).
Paper: JWST Resolves Collision-induced Absorption Features in White Dwarfs
Authors: Simon Blouin, Mukremin Kilic, Loïc Albert, Bianca Azartash-Namin, Patrick Dufour
Figure caption: Thermal structures of IR-faint model atmospheres at 4500 K with and without metals. The addition of metals changes the opacity in a way that induces a temperature inversion in the upper atmosphere, while not affecting the photospheric conditions.
Paper: JWST Resolves Collision-induced Absorption Features in White Dwarfs
Authors: Simon Blouin, Mukremin Kilic, Loïc Albert, Bianca Azartash-Namin, Patrick Dufour
Figure caption: H2–He CIA spectrum at ρ = 0.24 g cm−3 according to S. Blouin et al. (2017). Note the split of the 2.4 μm band. This particular spectrum was obtained at T = 5000 K.
Paper: Electron Acceleration at Quasi-parallel Nonrelativistic Shocks: A 1D Kinetic Survey
Authors: Siddhartha Gupta, Damiano Caprioli, Anatoly Spitkovsky
Figure caption: Snapshot of different profiles at ﹩t=275\,{\omega }_{\mathrm{ci}}^{-1}﹩ obtained from our benchmark simulation (v pt/c = 0.1, ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{A}}}=20﹩, and ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{s}}}=40﹩, the run ﹩{ \mathcal B }1﹩ in Table 1). Panel (a) displays the spatial distribution of the proton number density (normalized to the far-upstream density n 0), panel (b) x-component of the plasma velocity (left axis) and shock inclination (right axis). Panels (c1) and (c2) show the x–∣p∣ phase-space distribution of protons and electrons, respectively. Panels (d1) and (d2) represent the spectra of the three regions marked in panels (c1) and (c2), using the same color scheme for the lines. The dotted vertical lines in panel (d1) mark the momentum identified as the boundary between thermal and NT distributions. Panel (e) shows the different pressure components (thermal, NT, and magnetic field) normalized to the initial thermal pressure of protons (P th0,i).
Paper: Electron Acceleration at Quasi-parallel Nonrelativistic Shocks: A 1D Kinetic Survey
Authors: Siddhartha Gupta, Damiano Caprioli, Anatoly Spitkovsky
Figure caption: Time-averaged (between ﹩100\mbox{--}150\,{\omega }_{\mathrm{ci}}^{-1}﹩) ﹩{B}_{\perp }=\sqrt{{B}_{y}^{2}+{B}_{z}^{2}}﹩ and ﹩{\theta }_{\mathrm{Bn}}={\cos }^{-1}({B}_{x}/| {\boldsymbol{B}}| )﹩ for different shock parameters. The left and right axes represent 〈B ⊥〉t and 〈θ Bn〉t, respectively. The horizontal axis in all panels is normalized to ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{A}}}{d}_{{\rm{i}}}﹩. The dashed horizontal line(s) in each panel shows the ﹩{\theta }_{* }={\cos }^{-1}({v}_{\mathrm{sh}}/c)﹩ above which the shock becomes superluminal. Panels (a)–(f) represent different runs where ﹩{v}_{\mathrm{pt}}/c=0.1,{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{A}}}=20,{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{s}}}=40,﹩ and m R = 100, unless otherwise mentioned.
Paper: Electron Acceleration at Quasi-parallel Nonrelativistic Shocks: A 1D Kinetic Survey
Authors: Siddhartha Gupta, Damiano Caprioli, Anatoly Spitkovsky
Figure caption: Time evolution of downstream spectra for simulations with different mass ratios, m R. For panels (a1)–(a4): ﹩{v}_{\mathrm{pt}}/c=0.1,{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{A}}}={{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{s}}}/2=20﹩ (﹩{ \mathcal B }1﹩ series in Table 1), for panels (b1)–(b2): ﹩{v}_{\mathrm{pt}}/c=0.1,{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{A}}}={{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{s}}}/8=5﹩ (﹩{ \mathcal B }2﹩ series in Table 1). As m R increases, the peak of the electron thermal distribution moves to smaller momenta, as expected (Section 3.4).
Paper: Electron Acceleration at Quasi-parallel Nonrelativistic Shocks: A 1D Kinetic Survey
Authors: Siddhartha Gupta, Damiano Caprioli, Anatoly Spitkovsky
Figure caption: Downstream spectra for different ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{A}}}﹩ while keeping ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{s}}}=40﹩ fixed (left panels), a fixed ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{A}}}=20﹩ for different ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{s}}}﹩ (middle panels), and different ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{A}}}={{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{s}}}/2﹩ but a fixed β = 1 (right panels). For all panels, v pt = 0.1c and m R = 100. Left panels: electron NT tail differs remarkably for different ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{A}}}﹩. In addition to the run with ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{A}}}=5﹩ (panel (a1)), the spectra are evolving to higher energies (i.e., momentum p ≳ m i v pt). Middle panels: the normalization of NT tail is sensitive to ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{s}}}﹩. Right panels: evolution is similar to panels (a2) and (a3), though at a slower rate compared to the same ﹩{{ \mathcal M }}_{{\rm{A}}}﹩ runs.