adsabs/AstroCLIMB huggingface dataset:
Paper: Double Trouble: Two Transits of the Super-Earth GJ 1132 b Observed with JWST NIRSpec G395H
Authors: E. M. May, Ryan J. MacDonald, Katherine A. Bennett, Sarah E. Moran, Hannah R. Wakeford, Sarah Peacock, Jacob Lustig-Yaeger, Alicia N. Highland, Kevin B. Stevenson, David K. Sing, L. C. Mayorga, Natasha E. Batalha, James Kirk, Mercedes López-Morales, Jeff A. Valenti, Munazza K. Alam, Lili Alderson, Guangwei Fu, Junellie Gonzalez-Quiles, Joshua D. Lothringer, Zafar Rustamkulov, Kristin S. Sotzen
Figure caption: Atmospheric and starspot retrieval results for GJ 1132 b. Top panels: comparison between the retrieved transmission spectra for the Eureka! reduction of Visit 1 (left) and Visit 2 (right) adopting two distinct retrieval models: (i) a planetary atmosphere with no unocculted starspots (green contours) and (ii) no atmosphere with unocculted starspots (orange contours). The median retrieved spectrum (solid lines) and 1σ and 2σ model confidence intervals (dark and light contours) for each scenario are overlaid. Labels indicate the locations of H2O, CH4, and N2O absorption bands. Middle panels: posterior histograms for the atmosphere scenario, highlighting the volume mixing ratios of the three molecules tentatively inferred from Visit 1: H2O, CH4, and N2O. Bottom panels: posterior histograms for the unocculted starspot scenario, defined by the spot coverage fraction, spot temperature, and the background stellar photosphere temperature. Visit 1 requires either a water-rich atmosphere with trace CH4 (and possibly N2O) or unocculted starspots, but the scenarios cannot be differentiated without observations short-ward of 3 μm. Visit 2 is, however, consistent with no atmosphere and no unocculted starspots.
Paper: SN 2023emq: A Flash-ionized Ibn Supernova with Possible C III Emission
Authors: M. Pursiainen, G. Leloudas, S. Schulze, P. Charalampopoulos, C. R. Angus, J. P. Anderson, F. Bauer, T.-W. Chen, L. Galbany, M. Gromadzki, C. P. Gutiérrez, C. Inserra, J. Lyman, T. E. Müller-Bravo, M. Nicholl, S. J. Smartt, L. Tartaglia, P. Wiseman, D. R. Young
Figure caption: Left: the classification spectrum of SN 2023emq with the possible line identifications. The feature at 4690 Å is dominated by He II λ4686 with faint blue excess possibly caused by either N III λ4640 or C III λ4650. At 5700 Å the emission could be either N II λ5680 or C III λ5696. The spectrum of SN 2015U from Figure 3 as well as early spectra of the Type Icn SN 2019hgp (Gal-Yam et al. 2022) and the flash-ionized Type Ibn SNe 2010al, 2019uo, and 2019wep (Pastorello et al. 2015a; Gangopadhyay et al. 2019, 2022) are shown for comparison. Emission is seen in all SNe around 4650 Å. At 5700 Å the emission feature is either faint (SN 2015U) or not clearly detected (SNe 2010al, 2019uo, 2019wep) in the Type Ibn SNe, but it is prominent in the Type Icn SN 2019hgp. Right: the only notable features in the X-Shooter NIR spectrum. He I λ10830 is clear, but the strong C I emission line λ10690 seen in Type Icn SN 2021csp (Fraser et al. 2021) is not present. He I λ20587 is also tentatively identified.
Paper: Double Trouble: Two Transits of the Super-Earth GJ 1132 b Observed with JWST NIRSpec G395H
Authors: E. M. May, Ryan J. MacDonald, Katherine A. Bennett, Sarah E. Moran, Hannah R. Wakeford, Sarah Peacock, Jacob Lustig-Yaeger, Alicia N. Highland, Kevin B. Stevenson, David K. Sing, L. C. Mayorga, Natasha E. Batalha, James Kirk, Mercedes López-Morales, Jeff A. Valenti, Munazza K. Alam, Lili Alderson, Guangwei Fu, Junellie Gonzalez-Quiles, Joshua D. Lothringer, Zafar Rustamkulov, Kristin S. Sotzen
Figure caption: Transmission spectra of GJ 1132 b from all three data reduction pipelines and both visits. Upper panel: the Eureka! (yellow), FIREFLy (pink), and ExoTiC-JEDI (blue) reductions are shown for both visits at R ∼ 100. Also shown are the differences between reductions (solid, dashed, and dotted gray lines) in units of σ, demonstrating the agreement between pipelines within a single visit. A ±1σ shaded region is overlaid. Bottom panel: the Eureka! reduction for both visits, with the NIRSpec detector gap denoted by the shaded gray region. The shaded yellow regions show two important wavelength ranges that differ the most between the visits (see Sections 4.1 and 4.4.1 for further discussion on these differences).
Paper: Double Trouble: Two Transits of the Super-Earth GJ 1132 b Observed with JWST NIRSpec G395H
Authors: E. M. May, Ryan J. MacDonald, Katherine A. Bennett, Sarah E. Moran, Hannah R. Wakeford, Sarah Peacock, Jacob Lustig-Yaeger, Alicia N. Highland, Kevin B. Stevenson, David K. Sing, L. C. Mayorga, Natasha E. Batalha, James Kirk, Mercedes López-Morales, Jeff A. Valenti, Munazza K. Alam, Lili Alderson, Guangwei Fu, Junellie Gonzalez-Quiles, Joshua D. Lothringer, Zafar Rustamkulov, Kristin S. Sotzen
Figure caption: Transmission spectra of GJ 1132 b compared to atmospheric forward models. The Eureka! reduction (black circles) is shown for both visits at an R ∼ 100, with Visit 1 on the left and Visit 2 on the right. Also shown are a series of end-member atmospheric forward models generated with PICASO to illustrate the goodness of fit (﹩{\chi }_{\nu }^{2}﹩) of various scenarios for each visit, shown after each model for Visit 1 and 2, respectively. Dashed lines show poorer overall fits including a 1000 × solar atmosphere (dashed purple), a pure 1 bar CH4 atmosphere (dashed navy), and a pure 1 bar CO2 atmosphere (dashed orange). Better fits include pure H2O atmospheres (blue) or water atmospheres with 10% N2O (yellow) or 10% CH4 (pink), or a flat line indicative of no atmosphere or a high-altitude opaque aerosol layer (gray dashed). In Visit 1, water-rich atmospheres with other species are preferred, but the features driving this fit disappear in Visit 2 so that an atmosphere-free model is the best fit.
Paper: SN 2023emq: A Flash-ionized Ibn Supernova with Possible C III Emission
Authors: M. Pursiainen, G. Leloudas, S. Schulze, P. Charalampopoulos, C. R. Angus, J. P. Anderson, F. Bauer, T.-W. Chen, L. Galbany, M. Gromadzki, C. P. Gutiérrez, C. Inserra, J. Lyman, T. E. Müller-Bravo, M. Nicholl, S. J. Smartt, L. Tartaglia, P. Wiseman, D. R. Young
Figure caption: Equivalent width (EW) of the emission at 5700 Å as function of rest-frame phase for SN 2023emq, Type Icn SNe 2019hgp and 2021csp, and flash-ionized Type Ibn SNe. For Type Ibn SNe, the emission feature is clearly seen in only SN 2015U (see Figure 4), and for the other Type Ibn spectra we show 3σ upper limits (open triangles) determined assuming a Gaussian profile with FWHM measured for SN 2023emq (∼3000 km s−1). SN 2023emq does not exhibit as prominent emission as seen in most Type Icn spectra, but the line is also far more significant than seen in most flash-ionized Type Ibn SNe, possibly implying a continuum of properties between the two classes. The EWs were estimated with Gaussian fits over a linear background. For Type Ibn SNe we used the spectra of SN 2010al, SN 2015U, SN 2019uo, and SN 2019wep that exhibited the strong blended emission at 4650 Å—indicative of the flash-ionized phase. For the Type Icn SN 2019hgp and SN 2021csp we used the spectra that showed C III λ5696 emission, excluding the lower-resolution LT/SPRAT spectra (for details see Gal-Yam et al. 2022; Perley et al. 2022).
Paper: Double Trouble: Two Transits of the Super-Earth GJ 1132 b Observed with JWST NIRSpec G395H
Authors: E. M. May, Ryan J. MacDonald, Katherine A. Bennett, Sarah E. Moran, Hannah R. Wakeford, Sarah Peacock, Jacob Lustig-Yaeger, Alicia N. Highland, Kevin B. Stevenson, David K. Sing, L. C. Mayorga, Natasha E. Batalha, James Kirk, Mercedes López-Morales, Jeff A. Valenti, Munazza K. Alam, Lili Alderson, Guangwei Fu, Junellie Gonzalez-Quiles, Joshua D. Lothringer, Zafar Rustamkulov, Kristin S. Sotzen
Figure caption: Out-of-transit stellar spectra of GJ 1132 compared to heterogeneous stellar models. Top panel: the extracted GJ 1132 spectra from Visit 1 (blue errors) and Visit 2 (black errors) are compared to the best-fitting multicomponent PHOENIX models (yellow for Visit 1; pink for Visit 2). The best-fitting Visit 1 model has 40% spot coverage and 27% faculae coverage, compared to 39% spot coverage and 26% faculae coverage for Visit 2. Middle panels: zoom-in views of the gray highlighted regions in the top panel. Bottom panel: deviations between visits for the models (yellow) and observations (black). The largest deviations for both models and observations occur near 3 μm and long-ward of 4.3 μm.
Paper: SN 2023emq: A Flash-ionized Ibn Supernova with Possible C III Emission
Authors: M. Pursiainen, G. Leloudas, S. Schulze, P. Charalampopoulos, C. R. Angus, J. P. Anderson, F. Bauer, T.-W. Chen, L. Galbany, M. Gromadzki, C. P. Gutiérrez, C. Inserra, J. Lyman, T. E. Müller-Bravo, M. Nicholl, S. J. Smartt, L. Tartaglia, P. Wiseman, D. R. Young
Figure caption: The NOT V-band polarimetry of SN 2023emq taken at +8.7 days postpeak. Left: the field of view of the observation. In the polarimetric mode, the extraordinary (e) and ordinary (o) beams are overlaid 15″ apart. The SN and the two bright stars are marked. Other sources in the image were either too faint or too close to the edge for reliable estimation of the Stokes parameters. Right: the Stokes Q–U plane. Both the SN and the two stars found in the image are shown. The SN is clearly offset from the stars. After correcting for the Galactic ISP and polarization bias, we find intrinsic polarization of P = 0.55% ± 0.30%. The dashed lines mark the location of Q = 0% and P = 1%.
Paper: SN 2023emq: A Flash-ionized Ibn Supernova with Possible C III Emission
Authors: M. Pursiainen, G. Leloudas, S. Schulze, P. Charalampopoulos, C. R. Angus, J. P. Anderson, F. Bauer, T.-W. Chen, L. Galbany, M. Gromadzki, C. P. Gutiérrez, C. Inserra, J. Lyman, T. E. Müller-Bravo, M. Nicholl, S. J. Smartt, L. Tartaglia, P. Wiseman, D. R. Young
Figure caption: The blackbody modeling of SN 2023emq. Left: the blackbody fits to the six multiband epochs. Note the break on the y-axis. Right: the temperature and radius evolution of SN 2023emq derived from blackbody fits hexagons. The temperature is linearly declining, and the slope was used to determine the temperature at the time of o-band data points on the rise (diamonds).
Paper: The Large Magellanic Cloud’s ∼30 kpc Bow Shock and Its Impact on the Circumgalactic Medium
Authors: David J. Setton, Gurtina Besla, Ekta Patel, Cameron Hummels, Yong Zheng, Evan Schneider, Munier Salem
Figure caption: The orbital path of the LMC (gas: gray; stars: yellow) and its evolving bow shock over the last 500 Myr in the YZ Galactocentric plane. Because the wind density and speed evolve in the simulation to mimic the LMC's orbit, we can utilize our shock-finding algorithm to identify the location of the shock along the past orbit of the LMC. The extended shock (green points) has carved out a significant volume of the CGM in the southern sky over this period of time; we estimate that as much as ∼8% of the gas in the southern hemisphere may have interacted with the boundary of the shock during this time period. Additionally, we show the location of the SMC at each time step (orange stars) and the position of Ret2 at present (blue diamond).
Paper: The Large Magellanic Cloud’s ∼30 kpc Bow Shock and Its Impact on the Circumgalactic Medium
Authors: David J. Setton, Gurtina Besla, Ekta Patel, Cameron Hummels, Yong Zheng, Evan Schneider, Munier Salem
Figure caption: The density (left) and temperature (right) in a slice through a single-resolution element of the simulation volume (∼0.5 kpc), which is oriented parallel to the velocity vector along the x-axis. The color scale is chosen such that the density and temperature are saturated for the LMC disk to highlight the shock structure. The grid of vectors indicates the velocity of the CGM relative to the LMC. As expected, the magnitude of the velocity at the shock drops near the boundary, indicating that the shock is traveling with the LMC (see also Figure 2). The purple points show the shock locations found in the simulation by our shock-finding algorithm. The white line shows the expected shape for a bow shock around a spherically symmetric object (e.g., a star; see Mac Low et al. 1991; Cox et al. 2012) with the same standoff radius as the LMC (R so = 6.7 kpc). The shapes are similar, but the orientation of the LMC disk relative to its velocity vector results in an asymmetric shock.
Paper: The Large Magellanic Cloud’s ∼30 kpc Bow Shock and Its Impact on the Circumgalactic Medium
Authors: David J. Setton, Gurtina Besla, Ekta Patel, Cameron Hummels, Yong Zheng, Evan Schneider, Munier Salem
Figure caption: Number density of all gas (CGM and LMC disk gas; left) and only hot CGM gas (T > 106 K; right) projected along our line of sight toward the LMC, shown on log and linear scales, respectively, to highlight the dynamic range of density. The cold gas of the disk dominates the total density. In the hot gas, a bow shock induced by the galaxy’s supersonic motion accounts for most of the differences in density. This shock subtends tens of kiloparsecs in the simulation, and the column density is about twice as large in the shocked CGM as it is in the unshocked regions. In both panels, the observed extent of the LMC stellar disk (r ∼ 18 kpc; see Mackey et al. 2018) is shown as a dashed white line, illustrating that both the gas disk and the shock front are located at significantly smaller radii than the stellar disk. The standoff radius for the shock is R so = 6.7 kpc, while the gas disk is truncated at ∼6.2 kpc (Salem et al. 2015).
Paper: The Large Magellanic Cloud’s ∼30 kpc Bow Shock and Its Impact on the Circumgalactic Medium
Authors: David J. Setton, Gurtina Besla, Ekta Patel, Cameron Hummels, Yong Zheng, Evan Schneider, Munier Salem
Figure caption: Radial profiles (blue) for the density (left), temperature (middle), and velocity (right) along a vector that points from the LMC disk center in the direction of the LMC’s velocity vector. The red line shows the expected jump values for the LMC’s density and temperature, assuming a CGM temperature of 1.19 × 106 K and a velocity of 350 km s−1 as in the simulation. We additionally show the standoff radius, R SO, as calculated by the algorithm outlined in Section 4.2. The theoretical predictions match the simulated shock conditions well in density and temperature. Additionally, there is a clear discontinuity in the velocity structure of the gas in the shocked region, where the shocked gas is moving at ∼100 km s−1 relative to the LMC, significantly slower than the ambient CGM. The gray shaded region shows the extent of the LMC gas disk.
Paper: Separated Twins or Just Siblings? A Multiplanet System around an M Dwarf Including a Cool Sub-Neptune
Authors: Mallory Harris, Diana Dragomir, Ismael Mireles, Karen A. Collins, Solène Ulmer-Moll, Steve B. Howell, Keivan G. Stassun, George Zhou, Carl Ziegler, François Bouchy, César Briceño, David Charbonneau, Kevin I. Collins, Gábor Fűűrész, Natalia M. Guerrero, Jon M. Jenkins, Eric L. N. Jensen, Martti H. K. Kristiansen, Nicholas Law, Monika Lendl, Andrew W. Mann, Hugh P. Osborn, Samuel N. Quinn, George R. Ricker, Richard P. Schwarz, Sara Seager, Eric B. Ting, Roland Vanderspek, David Watanabe, Joshua N. Winn
Figure caption: Follow-up observations of the planetary system around TOI-904. Left: CORALIE observations phase-folded on the periods of both TOI-904 b (panel (a), dark blue) and TOI-904 c (panel (b), gold). The best-fit radial velocity trends for both phase-folded data sets are shown in light blue. Neither figure shows evidence of a stellar or brown dwarf mass companion. Panel (c): high-resolution imaging taken at 562 and 832 nm (blue and gold, respectively). There is no clear flux from another object between 0.″1 and 1.″2 down to 4 and 8 mag differences, respectively, and thus no evidence of a blending or binary star. Panel (d): ground-based photometric observations of TOI-904 b taken with the LCOGT Siding Spring Observatory (panel (d), left) and the South Africa Astronomical Observatory (panel (d), right). Observations were taken in 36 s intervals (light blue) and binned to 5 minutes (dark blue). The best-fit transit model is overlaid in black, showing that both observations recover full transits of the planet at a comparable depth to the TESS observations.
Paper: Separated Twins or Just Siblings? A Multiplanet System around an M Dwarf Including a Cool Sub-Neptune
Authors: Mallory Harris, Diana Dragomir, Ismael Mireles, Karen A. Collins, Solène Ulmer-Moll, Steve B. Howell, Keivan G. Stassun, George Zhou, Carl Ziegler, François Bouchy, César Briceño, David Charbonneau, Kevin I. Collins, Gábor Fűűrész, Natalia M. Guerrero, Jon M. Jenkins, Eric L. N. Jensen, Martti H. K. Kristiansen, Nicholas Law, Monika Lendl, Andrew W. Mann, Hugh P. Osborn, Samuel N. Quinn, George R. Ricker, Richard P. Schwarz, Sara Seager, Eric B. Ting, Roland Vanderspek, David Watanabe, Joshua N. Winn
Figure caption: TESS observations of TOI-904. Panel (a): raw observations of each TESS sector, with 2 minute data shown in light gray and 10 minute binned data shown in dark gray. We show the Tukey biweight trend calculated with the wotan (Hippke et al. 2019) library of the variability in dark blue. Each planet transit is denoted by an arrow at the bottom of the graph, with blue denoting transits of TOI-904 b and gold denoting transits of TOI-904 c. Panel (b): TESS data detrended by the same fit, with each transit highlighted in the same color as the arrows in the previous figure. Panel (c): phase-folded light curves of transits of TOI-904 b, with the transit fit including a shaded region denoting 1σ uncertainty. Panel (d): phase-folded light curves of TOI-904 c, with the transit fit including a shaded region denoting 1σ uncertainty.
Paper: Separated Twins or Just Siblings? A Multiplanet System around an M Dwarf Including a Cool Sub-Neptune
Authors: Mallory Harris, Diana Dragomir, Ismael Mireles, Karen A. Collins, Solène Ulmer-Moll, Steve B. Howell, Keivan G. Stassun, George Zhou, Carl Ziegler, François Bouchy, César Briceño, David Charbonneau, Kevin I. Collins, Gábor Fűűrész, Natalia M. Guerrero, Jon M. Jenkins, Eric L. N. Jensen, Martti H. K. Kristiansen, Nicholas Law, Monika Lendl, Andrew W. Mann, Hugh P. Osborn, Samuel N. Quinn, George R. Ricker, Richard P. Schwarz, Sara Seager, Eric B. Ting, Roland Vanderspek, David Watanabe, Joshua N. Winn
Figure caption: Created using dynamite (Dietrich & Apai 2020), the figure shows the relative likelihood of the most probable locations of unseen planets orbiting TOI-904 in log-period space. The yellow circles indicate the periods of the two known planets in the system, while the dark blue lines show the PDF calculated for this system, and the light blue histograms represent the stable Monte Carlo iterations sampled from the PDF. These scenarios were calculated using the dynamite Exoplanets Systems Simulator model (syssim; He et al. 2019). By incorporating the location of known planets and the stellar type, the dynamite software finds that additional nontransiting planets are most likely to have periods of 6.74, 18.5, 50.7, and 139.05 days.
Paper: Separated Twins or Just Siblings? A Multiplanet System around an M Dwarf Including a Cool Sub-Neptune
Authors: Mallory Harris, Diana Dragomir, Ismael Mireles, Karen A. Collins, Solène Ulmer-Moll, Steve B. Howell, Keivan G. Stassun, George Zhou, Carl Ziegler, François Bouchy, César Briceño, David Charbonneau, Kevin I. Collins, Gábor Fűűrész, Natalia M. Guerrero, Jon M. Jenkins, Eric L. N. Jensen, Martti H. K. Kristiansen, Nicholas Law, Monika Lendl, Andrew W. Mann, Hugh P. Osborn, Samuel N. Quinn, George R. Ricker, Richard P. Schwarz, Sara Seager, Eric B. Ting, Roland Vanderspek, David Watanabe, Joshua N. Winn
Figure caption: Graphic depictions of the juliet fits of TOI-904 b created using the different pipelines’ data products. Top: data from each pipeline (lighter points, overlaid with darker points when binning was applied) with the joint and individual planet fits overplotted. Source of data products from left to right are the SPOC 2 minute, TESS-SPOC 30 minute, MIT Quicklook, and eleanor pipelines. Bottom left: comparison of each joint planet fit of TOI-904 b created from the different pipelines, with the SPOC 2 minute data in light blue, the 30 minute TESS-SPOC data in red, the QLP data in dark blue, and the eleanor data in yellow. Bottom right: same as bottom left panel but for the individual planet fits of TOI-904 b.
Paper: Separated Twins or Just Siblings? A Multiplanet System around an M Dwarf Including a Cool Sub-Neptune
Authors: Mallory Harris, Diana Dragomir, Ismael Mireles, Karen A. Collins, Solène Ulmer-Moll, Steve B. Howell, Keivan G. Stassun, George Zhou, Carl Ziegler, François Bouchy, César Briceño, David Charbonneau, Kevin I. Collins, Gábor Fűűrész, Natalia M. Guerrero, Jon M. Jenkins, Eric L. N. Jensen, Martti H. K. Kristiansen, Nicholas Law, Monika Lendl, Andrew W. Mann, Hugh P. Osborn, Samuel N. Quinn, George R. Ricker, Richard P. Schwarz, Sara Seager, Eric B. Ting, Roland Vanderspek, David Watanabe, Joshua N. Winn
Figure caption: Plots of all known transiting multiplanet systems (left) and cold planets (right; T eq < 300 K) around M dwarf stars. Each system is shown as a function of the system name (left y-axis), stellar mass (right y-axis), semimajor axis (x-axis) planet equilibrium temperature (color), and planet radius (point size). TOI-904 is shown at the bottom of each panel with a gold horizontal line.
Paper: Separated Twins or Just Siblings? A Multiplanet System around an M Dwarf Including a Cool Sub-Neptune
Authors: Mallory Harris, Diana Dragomir, Ismael Mireles, Karen A. Collins, Solène Ulmer-Moll, Steve B. Howell, Keivan G. Stassun, George Zhou, Carl Ziegler, François Bouchy, César Briceño, David Charbonneau, Kevin I. Collins, Gábor Fűűrész, Natalia M. Guerrero, Jon M. Jenkins, Eric L. N. Jensen, Martti H. K. Kristiansen, Nicholas Law, Monika Lendl, Andrew W. Mann, Hugh P. Osborn, Samuel N. Quinn, George R. Ricker, Richard P. Schwarz, Sara Seager, Eric B. Ting, Roland Vanderspek, David Watanabe, Joshua N. Winn
Figure caption: Same as Figure 5 but fitting for TOI-904 c.
Paper: Electron Injection via Modified Diffusive Shock Acceleration in High-Mach-number Collisionless Shocks
Authors: A. Grassi, H. G. Rinderknecht, G. F. Swadling, D. P. Higginson, H.-S. Park, A. Spitkovsky, F. Fiuza
Figure caption: Analysis of the tracked particles for t < t sel in the region ±103 c/ω  pe : (a) Average contribution to the energization of W  y  the work of the E  y  component of the electric field. The best fit (dashed line) confirms the linear dependence on the particle energy with dW  y /dt ∝ ε  α  with α = 1.2 ± 0.1. (b) Spatial diffusion coefficient D = 〈Δx 2〉/(2Δt). The dashed line corresponds to the best fit (D ∝ ε  β  with β = 0.85 ± 0.02) and the dotted line corresponds to the Bohm diffusion in the average B-field seen by the particles along their trajectories. They both show the same dependence in energy. (c) Averaged scattering time computed as the interval between two consecutive reflections in the particle trajectories time-averaged over the local gyroperiod. Value of half electron gyroperiod (black dotted line) and theoretical prediction (orange line) assuming Bohm diffusion Equation (5). (d) Averaged energy gain due to the work of the E  y  component of the electric field during the reflection events. The fit of Δε ∝ ε  δ  (dashed line) gives δ = 1.8 ± 0.2.