adsabs/AstroCLIMB huggingface dataset:
Paper: Evidence That the Occurrence Rate of Hot Jupiters around Sun-like Stars Decreases with Stellar Age
Authors: Shota Miyazaki, Kento Masuda
Figure caption: Corner plots for the posterior samples of the parameters of nine HJ hosts in the Sun-like sample. The inferred age, mass, and metallicity are highly correlated. This is also the case for the other stars in the Sun-like sample. This figure was created using corner.py (Foreman-Mackey 2016).
Paper: Evidence That the Occurrence Rate of Hot Jupiters around Sun-like Stars Decreases with Stellar Age
Authors: Shota Miyazaki, Kento Masuda
Figure caption: The result of the isochrone fitting for the 382 stars in the Sun-like sample. Left panel: medians of the posterior distributions in the plane of metallicity [Fe/H] and age. The red stars and cyan circles represent hosts of hot Jupiters (HJs) and cold Jupiters (CJs), respectively. The typical 68% credible interval in each posterior distribution is shown at the bottom left. Right panel: same as the left panel, but for the stellar mass and age.
Paper: Reading Between the Lines: Investigating the Ability of JWST to Identify Discerning Features in exoEarth and exoVenus Transmission Spectra
Authors: Colby Ostberg, Stephen R. Kane, Andrew P. Lincowski, Paul A. Dalba
Figure caption: A comparison of three TRAPPIST-1 spectra in the UV. The black line is the average of three spectra simulated by Peacock et al. (2019), and is the spectrum used in the VPL Climate simulations. Both the blue and green lines are spectra from Wilson et al. (2021), and were produced using observational data and a semiempirical model, respectively.
Paper: Reading Between the Lines: Investigating the Ability of JWST to Identify Discerning Features in exoEarth and exoVenus Transmission Spectra
Authors: Colby Ostberg, Stephen R. Kane, Andrew P. Lincowski, Paul A. Dalba
Figure caption: The transmission spectra of the six clear-sky TRAPPIST-1 exoEarths from the VPL Climate simulations (upper panel), and transmission spectra with and without clouds for the 0.4 and 40 k ppm CO2 exoEarths. Absorption features are labeled with the molecules which contribute the most absorption. Features labeled with multiple molecules consist of more than one primary absorber.
Paper: Reading Between the Lines: Investigating the Ability of JWST to Identify Discerning Features in exoEarth and exoVenus Transmission Spectra
Authors: Colby Ostberg, Stephen R. Kane, Andrew P. Lincowski, Paul A. Dalba
Figure caption: The transmission spectra of the six clear-sky TRAPPIST-1 exoVenuses from the VPL Climate simulations (upper panel), and transmission spectra with and without haze for the and 0.1% and 96% CO2 exoVenuses (lower panel). Absorption features are labeled with the molecules which contribute the most absorption. Features labeled with multiple molecules consist of more than one primary absorber.
Paper: Reading Between the Lines: Investigating the Ability of JWST to Identify Discerning Features in exoEarth and exoVenus Transmission Spectra
Authors: Colby Ostberg, Stephen R. Kane, Andrew P. Lincowski, Paul A. Dalba
Figure caption: The transmission spectra of the 400 ppm CO2 exoEarth and 96% CO2 exoVenus. There are an abundance of absorption features which are unique to the exoEarth spectrum and could be used to differentiate it from an exoVenus. The exoVenus spectrum yields large CO2 features at 1.7 and 2.0 μm; however, they may be difficult to resolve from adjacent H2O absorption.
Paper: Reading Between the Lines: Investigating the Ability of JWST to Identify Discerning Features in exoEarth and exoVenus Transmission Spectra
Authors: Colby Ostberg, Stephen R. Kane, Andrew P. Lincowski, Paul A. Dalba
Figure caption: Simulated JWST NIRSpec PRISM spectroscopy data from 15 transit observations of the 400 ppm CO2 exoEarth (top) and 96% CO2 exoVenus (bottom), both without clouds or hazes. The JWST data was binned down to a resolving power of R = 12 for easier visibility.
Paper: Reading Between the Lines: Investigating the Ability of JWST to Identify Discerning Features in exoEarth and exoVenus Transmission Spectra
Authors: Colby Ostberg, Stephen R. Kane, Andrew P. Lincowski, Paul A. Dalba
Figure caption: The transmittance of each molecular species in the 40 k ppm (upper panel) and 0.4 ppm (lower panel) CO2 exoEarth atmospheres. Absorption by CO2 is much stronger in the 40k ppm exoEarth, but all other molecular absorption remains constant in both cases.
Paper: Reading Between the Lines: Investigating the Ability of JWST to Identify Discerning Features in exoEarth and exoVenus Transmission Spectra
Authors: Colby Ostberg, Stephen R. Kane, Andrew P. Lincowski, Paul A. Dalba
Figure caption: The transmittance of each molecular species in the 96% (upper panel) and 0.1% (lower panel) CO2 exoVenus atmospheres. The decreased CO2 absorption in the 0.1% CO2 case allows for more absorption by the SO2 feature at 4.0 μm.
Paper: Reading Between the Lines: Investigating the Ability of JWST to Identify Discerning Features in exoEarth and exoVenus Transmission Spectra
Authors: Colby Ostberg, Stephen R. Kane, Andrew P. Lincowski, Paul A. Dalba
Figure caption: The TP profiles for the six exoVenus atmospheres (left panel) and the chemical abundance profiles for the 96% CO2 exoVenus (right panel).
Paper: Reading Between the Lines: Investigating the Ability of JWST to Identify Discerning Features in exoEarth and exoVenus Transmission Spectra
Authors: Colby Ostberg, Stephen R. Kane, Andrew P. Lincowski, Paul A. Dalba
Figure caption: The TP profiles for the six exoEarth atmospheres (left panel) and the chemical abundance profiles for the 400 ppm exoEarth (right panel).
Paper: Stability and Detectability of Exomoons Orbiting HIP 41378 f, a Temperate Jovian Planet with an Anomalously Low Apparent Density
Authors: Caleb K. Harada, Courtney D. Dressing, Munazza K. Alam, James Kirk, Mercedes López-Morales, Kazumasa Ohno, Babatunde Akinsanmi, Susana C. C. Barros, Lars A. Buchhave, A. Collier Cameron, Ian J. M. Crossfield, Fei Dai, Peter Gao, Steven Giacalone, Salomé Grouffal, Jorge Lillo-Box, Andrew W. Mayo, Annelies Mortier, Alexandre Santerne, Nuno C. Santos, Sérgio G. Sousa, Emma V. Turtelboom, Andrew Vanderburg, Peter J. Wheatley
Figure caption: Equilibrium tide evolution models for a 0.15 M ⊕(0.53 R ⊕) satellite orbiting HIP 41378 f computed with the CTL mode in EqTide (Barnes 2017) for different planet obliquities. Top row: Moon semimajor axis as a function of time over the lifetime of the system, starting from an initial orbital separation of 4R  p . Bottom row: Final vs. initial moon semimajor axis after a timescale of 3.1 Gyr, the current estimated age of the system (Santerne et al. 2019). The columns from left to right show the results for different assumed planet obliquities (moon inclinations): ψ p = 0° (aligned prograde orbit), ψ p = 90° (polar orbit), and ψ p = 180° (aligned retrograde orbit). Each model assumes a different constant time lag τ for the planet, indicated by color (where τ J = 0.00766 s is roughly Jupiter’s value). The fiducial planet rotation period is assumed to be 10 hr (solid lines), but we also consider a slow rotation case (P rot = 24 hr; dashed lines) and a fast rotation case (P rot = 3 hr; dotted–dashed lines). The gray hatched regions highlight regions where the moon tends to become dynamically unstable, a s ≳ 0.41 R H (see Figure 1). Note that the ratio of the final-to-initial moon semimajor axis approaches unity as the starting semimajor axis increases in each obliquity case we considered. This is consistent with the very strong dependence of τ mig on the semimajor axis in Equation (9) for the zero-obliquity case (i.e., τ mig ∝ a 8). Note also that for the retrograde (ψ p = 180°) case, moons with initial orbits close to the planet tend to migrate inward and ultimately collide with the planet, depending on the assumed planetary rotation and tidal lag constant.
Paper: Stability and Detectability of Exomoons Orbiting HIP 41378 f, a Temperate Jovian Planet with an Anomalously Low Apparent Density
Authors: Caleb K. Harada, Courtney D. Dressing, Munazza K. Alam, James Kirk, Mercedes López-Morales, Kazumasa Ohno, Babatunde Akinsanmi, Susana C. C. Barros, Lars A. Buchhave, A. Collier Cameron, Ian J. M. Crossfield, Fei Dai, Peter Gao, Steven Giacalone, Salomé Grouffal, Jorge Lillo-Box, Andrew W. Mayo, Annelies Mortier, Alexandre Santerne, Nuno C. Santos, Sérgio G. Sousa, Emma V. Turtelboom, Andrew Vanderburg, Peter J. Wheatley
Figure caption: Four-body orbital stability map for a system including the star HIP 41378, planets e and f, and a satellite orbiting planet f, as a function of planet e’s initial orbital period (P e) and eccentricity (e e). As in Figure 1, the color of each grid cell shows the fraction of 25 simulations which are stable over 105 yr. Here, the dashed blue line shows P e,crit(e e), the theoretical upper limit on planet e’s eccentricity vs. period due to the orbit of planet d (see Equation (2))—the region to the right of this line is unstable by definition because planet e would cross the orbit of planet d. The measured period and eccentricity of planet e from Santerne et al. (2019) are shown by the green point with error bars representing 1σ uncertainties. For reference, the period of planet e corresponding to a 2:3 mean motion resonance (MMR) with planet f is shown by the horizontal dashed line.
Paper: Stability and Detectability of Exomoons Orbiting HIP 41378 f, a Temperate Jovian Planet with an Anomalously Low Apparent Density
Authors: Caleb K. Harada, Courtney D. Dressing, Munazza K. Alam, James Kirk, Mercedes López-Morales, Kazumasa Ohno, Babatunde Akinsanmi, Susana C. C. Barros, Lars A. Buchhave, A. Collier Cameron, Ian J. M. Crossfield, Fei Dai, Peter Gao, Steven Giacalone, Salomé Grouffal, Jorge Lillo-Box, Andrew W. Mayo, Annelies Mortier, Alexandre Santerne, Nuno C. Santos, Sérgio G. Sousa, Emma V. Turtelboom, Andrew Vanderburg, Peter J. Wheatley
Figure caption: Three-body orbital stability map for a system consisting of the star HIP 41378, planet f, and planet f’s hypothetical satellite, as a function of the satellite’s semimajor axis a s (expressed in terms of the Hill radius, R H) and the cosine of the satellite’s inclination ﹩\cos {i}_{{\rm{s}}}﹩ (with respect to the planet’s reference plane). The color of each grid cell corresponds to the fraction f stab of the 25 simulations contained inside the cell (shown as points) which survive for 105 yr. Absolutely unstable regions are represented by the lightest areas, while absolutely stable regions are shown by the darkest red regions. Note that moons with high orbital inclinations (﹩\cos {i}_{{\rm{s}}}\gtrsim 0.8﹩) tend to become unstable due to Kozai–Lidov oscillations, and there are no stable orbits for ﹩\cos {i}_{{\rm{s}}}\gtrsim 0.95﹩.
Paper: Stability and Detectability of Exomoons Orbiting HIP 41378 f, a Temperate Jovian Planet with an Anomalously Low Apparent Density
Authors: Caleb K. Harada, Courtney D. Dressing, Munazza K. Alam, James Kirk, Mercedes López-Morales, Kazumasa Ohno, Babatunde Akinsanmi, Susana C. C. Barros, Lars A. Buchhave, A. Collier Cameron, Ian J. M. Crossfield, Fei Dai, Peter Gao, Steven Giacalone, Salomé Grouffal, Jorge Lillo-Box, Andrew W. Mayo, Annelies Mortier, Alexandre Santerne, Nuno C. Santos, Sérgio G. Sousa, Emma V. Turtelboom, Andrew Vanderburg, Peter J. Wheatley
Figure caption: HST white light curve of HIP 41378 f from Alam et al. (2022; points with error bars) and best-fit planet-only Pandora model (red dashed line). The black lines show simulated light curves with satellites injected at arbitrary orbital phases for ease of comparison—the solid line shows the signal from a 0.53 R ⊕ moon, while the dashed–dotted line shows the signal from an Earth-size moon. Both simulated moons are assumed to have orbits aligned with the planet’s reference plane and an orbital period of 30 days. A zoomed-in view near the transit center is shown in the inset panel, demonstrating the small effect produced by the presence of exomoons—the maximal flux difference between the moon-free and 0.53 R ⊕ moon models (∼14 ppm; i.e., the transit depth of a 0.53 R ⊕ body transiting a 1.3 R ⊙ star) is highlighted in cyan. Posterior distributions for the planet-only model parameters are shown in Figure 8.
Paper: Stability and Detectability of Exomoons Orbiting HIP 41378 f, a Temperate Jovian Planet with an Anomalously Low Apparent Density
Authors: Caleb K. Harada, Courtney D. Dressing, Munazza K. Alam, James Kirk, Mercedes López-Morales, Kazumasa Ohno, Babatunde Akinsanmi, Susana C. C. Barros, Lars A. Buchhave, A. Collier Cameron, Ian J. M. Crossfield, Fei Dai, Peter Gao, Steven Giacalone, Salomé Grouffal, Jorge Lillo-Box, Andrew W. Mayo, Annelies Mortier, Alexandre Santerne, Nuno C. Santos, Sérgio G. Sousa, Emma V. Turtelboom, Andrew Vanderburg, Peter J. Wheatley
Figure caption: Top: Transmission spectrum of HIP 41378 f (points with error bars; Alam et al. 2022), compared to 1D forward models and a flat line. For the planet-only model (black line), we assume a cloud-free 300×  solar metallicity atmosphere and an isothermal (T = 294 K) temperature profile; the combined planet and moon model (blue line) is described in the main text. The fainter lines show the computed unbinned (R ∼ 1000) PLATON spectra, while the colored points show each model binned to the same resolution as the WFC3 observations. Middle: HIP 41378 f spectrum and models shown in the full PLATON wavelength range, including wavelengths that are accessible with JWST. The darker bold lines are binned by a factor of 30 to facilitate easier comparison. Bottom: Residual signal between the observed spectrum and the planet-only spectrum model, and between the planet-only spectrum model and the planet-moon model, over the same wavelength range.
Paper: Stability and Detectability of Exomoons Orbiting HIP 41378 f, a Temperate Jovian Planet with an Anomalously Low Apparent Density
Authors: Caleb K. Harada, Courtney D. Dressing, Munazza K. Alam, James Kirk, Mercedes López-Morales, Kazumasa Ohno, Babatunde Akinsanmi, Susana C. C. Barros, Lars A. Buchhave, A. Collier Cameron, Ian J. M. Crossfield, Fei Dai, Peter Gao, Steven Giacalone, Salomé Grouffal, Jorge Lillo-Box, Andrew W. Mayo, Annelies Mortier, Alexandre Santerne, Nuno C. Santos, Sérgio G. Sousa, Emma V. Turtelboom, Andrew Vanderburg, Peter J. Wheatley
Figure caption: Three-body orbital stability map for a system consisting of HIP 41378, planet f, and planet f’s satellite, as a function of planetary eccentricity, e f, and satellite semimajor, axis a s (expressed in terms of the Hill radius, R H). The color of each grid cell corresponds to the fraction f stab of 25 simulations within each cell (indicated by the black points) that survive over 105 yr. The stability limit determined by Rosario-Franco et al. (2020), shown as the dashed line, indicated good agreement with our simulations at low eccentricities.
Paper: Stability and Detectability of Exomoons Orbiting HIP 41378 f, a Temperate Jovian Planet with an Anomalously Low Apparent Density
Authors: Caleb K. Harada, Courtney D. Dressing, Munazza K. Alam, James Kirk, Mercedes López-Morales, Kazumasa Ohno, Babatunde Akinsanmi, Susana C. C. Barros, Lars A. Buchhave, A. Collier Cameron, Ian J. M. Crossfield, Fei Dai, Peter Gao, Steven Giacalone, Salomé Grouffal, Jorge Lillo-Box, Andrew W. Mayo, Annelies Mortier, Alexandre Santerne, Nuno C. Santos, Sérgio G. Sousa, Emma V. Turtelboom, Andrew Vanderburg, Peter J. Wheatley
Figure caption: Example two-dimensional projections of the initial positions and orbits of each object in our four-body simulations, including planet e. Panel (a) shows the top-down and edge-on projections of 20 random realizations of the system, with the initial orbits (lines) and positions (points) of planet e shown in orange, and the initial orbits and positions of planet f shown in blue. The black “⋆” symbol shows the position of the host star, and the dashed black line shows the (assumed) fixed orbital semimajor axis for planet d. The small red boxes indicate the limits of the area plotted in panel (b), which shows a zoomed-in version of the system highlighting the initial position and orbit of the satellite, marked “s” (red), orbiting planet f.
Paper: Multicolor Photometry of Tiny Near-Earth Asteroid 2015 RN35 across a Wide Range of Phase Angles: Possible Mission-accessible A-type Asteroid
Authors: Jin Beniyama, Ryou Ohsawa, Chrysa Avdellidou, Shigeyuki Sako, Satoshi Takita, Masateru Ishiguro, Tomohiko Sekiguchi, Fumihiko Usui, Shinichi W. Kinoshita, Kianhong Lee, Asami Takumi, Marin Ferrais, Emmanuël Jehin
Figure caption: Phase-angle dependence of magnitude and colors of 2015 RN35. (a) Mean reduced g-, r-, i-, z-, and V-band magnitudes (Seimei) are presented as circles, triangles, squares, diamonds, and hexagons, respectively. Mean reduced r-band magnitudes (TRAPPIST-South) are presented as diamonds. Bars indicate the 1σ uncertainties. The medians (50th percentile) of fitting model curves with the H–G 1–G 2 model are presented as solid lines. Uncertainty envelopes representing the 95% highest density interval values are shown by dashed lines. (b) Weighted mean g − r, r − i, and r − z colors and their errors on each day are presented as circles, triangles, and squares, respectively. Bars indicate the 1σ uncertainties. Global weighted mean colors and their standard errors are indicated by dashed lines and shaded areas, respectively, although they are small and hard to see due to scale effects.
Paper: Multicolor Photometry of Tiny Near-Earth Asteroid 2015 RN35 across a Wide Range of Phase Angles: Possible Mission-accessible A-type Asteroid
Authors: Jin Beniyama, Ryou Ohsawa, Chrysa Avdellidou, Shigeyuki Sako, Satoshi Takita, Masateru Ishiguro, Tomohiko Sekiguchi, Fumihiko Usui, Shinichi W. Kinoshita, Kianhong Lee, Asami Takumi, Marin Ferrais, Emmanuël Jehin
Figure caption:  G 1 and G 2 of 2015 RN35 in the V band (star). Bars indicate the 1σ uncertainties. G 1 and G 2 of the A-type asteroid (246) Asporina are shown by the hexagon (Martikainen et al. 2021). Typical G 1 and G 2 values of A-, E-, S-, C-, and D-types are shown by diamonds, squares, circles, triangles, and inverted triangles, respectively. Markers are enclosed by solid lines (Shevchenko et al. 2016), dashed lines (cyan band; Mahlke et al. 2021), and dotted lines (orange band; Mahlke et al. 2021). The isochrone for G 1 + G 2 = 1 is plotted as the dashed line for convenience.
Paper: Multicolor Photometry of Tiny Near-Earth Asteroid 2015 RN35 across a Wide Range of Phase Angles: Possible Mission-accessible A-type Asteroid
Authors: Jin Beniyama, Ryou Ohsawa, Chrysa Avdellidou, Shigeyuki Sako, Satoshi Takita, Masateru Ishiguro, Tomohiko Sekiguchi, Fumihiko Usui, Shinichi W. Kinoshita, Kianhong Lee, Asami Takumi, Marin Ferrais, Emmanuël Jehin
Figure caption: Reflectance spectrum of 2015 RN35 (circles). Vertical bars indicate the 1σ uncertainties. Horizontal bars indicate the filter bandwidths. Template spectra of A-type (dashed line), S-type (dotted line), Z-type (dotted–dashed line), and D-type (double dotted–dashed line)  are shown (Mahlke et al. 2022). Shaded areas indicate the standard deviations of the template spectra. Visible spectra of the A-type asteroid (246) Asporina (thick solid line) and the Z-type asteroid (269) Justitia (thin solid line) are shown. The reflectance spectra are normalized at 0.481 μm.
Paper: Multicolor Photometry of Tiny Near-Earth Asteroid 2015 RN35 across a Wide Range of Phase Angles: Possible Mission-accessible A-type Asteroid
Authors: Jin Beniyama, Ryou Ohsawa, Chrysa Avdellidou, Shigeyuki Sako, Satoshi Takita, Masateru Ishiguro, Tomohiko Sekiguchi, Fumihiko Usui, Shinichi W. Kinoshita, Kianhong Lee, Asami Takumi, Marin Ferrais, Emmanuël Jehin
Figure caption: Phased lightcurves of 2015 RN35 with two-dimensional Fourier series. All lightcurves in reduced r magnitude are folded with P 1 of 1149.7 s and P 2 of 896.01 s. Phase zero is set to JD 2459932.5. Bars indicate the 1σ uncertainties. Model curves fitted to lightcurves are shown by dashed lines.
Paper: Multicolor Photometry of Tiny Near-Earth Asteroid 2015 RN35 across a Wide Range of Phase Angles: Possible Mission-accessible A-type Asteroid
Authors: Jin Beniyama, Ryou Ohsawa, Chrysa Avdellidou, Shigeyuki Sako, Satoshi Takita, Masateru Ishiguro, Tomohiko Sekiguchi, Fumihiko Usui, Shinichi W. Kinoshita, Kianhong Lee, Asami Takumi, Marin Ferrais, Emmanuël Jehin
Figure caption: Time-series colors of 2015 RN35. The g − r, r − i, and i − z colors are shown by circles, triangles, and squares, respectively. Binning of 60 s is performed for all colors. Bars indicate the 1σ uncertainties. The weighted mean and its error are indicated by dashed lines and shaded areas, respectively.
Paper: Kepler Bonus: Light Curves of Kepler Background Sources
Authors: Jorge Martínez-Palomera, Christina Hedges, Jessie Dotson
Figure caption: Top: comparison of confirmed exoplanets transit depth measured from Kepler PDCSAP light curves (x-axis) as delivered on the NASA Exoplanet Archive and the ratio (y-axis) of the transit depth measured in our PSF light curves and the PDCSAP light curves, from quarter 5 only. The right panel shows the distribution of ratios, which is centered near 1 with a median value of 1.003 and slightly skewed (5.05) to values above 1, that is, slightly larger transit depths are recovered by our PSF light curves, which is to be expected if some targets are contaminated. Bottom: the density distribution shows the ratio in logarithm space of the CDPP values computed from the PSF and PDCSAP light curves. The red vertical line marks the ratio value 1 where both light curves have the same CDPPs. Negative values mean the PSF light curve has less noise, while positive values mean higher CDPP values than PDCSAP light curves. The distribution is offset toward negative values, indicating PSF light curves are less noisy.
Paper: Kepler Bonus: Light Curves of Kepler Background Sources
Authors: Jorge Martínez-Palomera, Christina Hedges, Jessie Dotson
Figure caption: CMD diagrams of the KBonus catalog presented in this work. Only Kepler targets are in the top left panel, new background sources are in the top right panel, and the combination of both data sets is in the bottom left panel. These three panels are 2D histograms with a 10 count threshold and scatter data points elsewhere. The fraction of new sources over Kepler targets in the CMD is shown in the bottom right panel. The discrete colors map regions where the background sources are less than 10% or more than 10%, 50%, 100%, 200%, and 1000% when compared with the number of Kepler targets. Only sources with Gaia parallaxes >0.001 mas and valid blue passband (BP) and red passband (RP) magnitudes are displayed. Notable regions in the CMD are the red clump, the binary sequence, and the main sequence, where the addition of new sources is substantial. This is a result of an unbiased selection of sources in the KBonus catalog.
Paper: Kepler Bonus: Light Curves of Kepler Background Sources
Authors: Jorge Martínez-Palomera, Christina Hedges, Jessie Dotson
Figure caption: Planet radius as a function of the orbital period for the sample of confirmed exoplanets shown in Figure 12. The red squares correspond to the planet radii reported in the NASA Exoplanet Archive. The black points are the planet radii scaled by the ratio between the measured radius from the PSF and PDCSAP light curves. The right panel shows the planet size density distributions in the same color scheme. A small change in the planet size distribution around R  P  ∼ 2 for periods longer than 20 days appears to tighten up the distribution. The significance of this effect needs to be tested with a complete exoplanet analysis, which is outside the scope of this work. The figure is intentionally limited to R  P  < 10 in order to see the most populated region of the parameter space.