adsabs/AstroCLIMB huggingface dataset:
Paper: Predicting Asteroid Material Properties from a DART-like Kinetic Impact
Authors: Kathryn M. Kumamoto, J. Michael Owen, Megan Bruck Syal, Jason Pearl, Cody Raskin, Wendy K. Caldwell, Emma Rainey, Angela M. Stickle, R. Terik Daly, Olivier Barnouin
Figure caption: Fluid-like behavior in simulation 16.05. Asteroid material is colored according to its velocity in the Z-direction (with white material moving upward at or faster than 1 m s−1). Material with a density below 0.5 g cm−3 is shown in translucent black. One-quarter of the simulation visualization is clipped out to show the velocity fields interior to the asteroid.
Paper: Predicting Asteroid Material Properties from a DART-like Kinetic Impact
Authors: Kathryn M. Kumamoto, J. Michael Owen, Megan Bruck Syal, Jason Pearl, Cody Raskin, Wendy K. Caldwell, Emma Rainey, Angela M. Stickle, R. Terik Daly, Olivier Barnouin
Figure caption: Trends across all simulation results. This figure contains the same simulation results as Figure 2, but points are colored in red for Poisson’s ratios between 0 and 0.45 and black for lower or higher Poisson’s ratios. Stars indicate simulations with extrapolated values of ΔV in the success range.
Paper: Model of Double Asteroid Redirection Test Impact Ejecta Plume Observations
Authors: Andrew F. Cheng, S. D. Raducan, Eugene G. Fahnestock, Elisabetta Dotto, Vincenzo Della Corte, Angela M. Stickle
Figure caption: Ejecta plume extinction optical depths for SFA C7 and for sand C5 at time t = 198.8 s, after closest approach and looking back at Dimorphos. Plume is imaged above the limb of Dimorphos, at a 120° solar phase angle. The Dimorphos size is indicated by 160 m scale bars.
Paper: Model of Double Asteroid Redirection Test Impact Ejecta Plume Observations
Authors: Andrew F. Cheng, S. D. Raducan, Eugene G. Fahnestock, Elisabetta Dotto, Vincenzo Della Corte, Angela M. Stickle
Figure caption: Ejecta plume extinction optical depths at 150 and 164 s after DART impact, in target case sand C5. At t = 150 s, there is a pronounced asymmetry in ±b just before cone crossing. At t = 164 s after cone crossing, ejecta plume is viewed from outside. LEIA image resolution is indicated.
Paper: Model of Double Asteroid Redirection Test Impact Ejecta Plume Observations
Authors: Andrew F. Cheng, S. D. Raducan, Eugene G. Fahnestock, Elisabetta Dotto, Vincenzo Della Corte, Angela M. Stickle
Figure caption: Ejecta plume extinction optical depths at two times, 150 and 164 s after DART impact, for SFA C7. At t = 150 s, there is pronounced asymmetry in ±b just before cone crossing. At t = 164 s after cone crossing, ejecta plume is viewed from outside. LEIA image resolution is indicated.
Paper: Model of Double Asteroid Redirection Test Impact Ejecta Plume Observations
Authors: Andrew F. Cheng, S. D. Raducan, Eugene G. Fahnestock, Elisabetta Dotto, Vincenzo Della Corte, Angela M. Stickle
Figure caption: Ejecta plume extinction optical depths at two times, 80 and 135 s after DART impact, in target case SFA C7, showing clearing of plume opacity near the impact site vs. increases in the optical depth farther away in the plane of sky. Plume asymmetry is evident at the later time, 135 s. LEIA image resolution is indicated.
Paper: Model of Double Asteroid Redirection Test Impact Ejecta Plume Observations
Authors: Andrew F. Cheng, S. D. Raducan, Eugene G. Fahnestock, Elisabetta Dotto, Vincenzo Della Corte, Angela M. Stickle
Figure caption: Ejecta plume extinction optical depths at two times, 10 and 20 s after DART impact, in target case sand C5, showing increase in the optical depth over this time interval for all b distances plotted. LEIA image resolution at Dimorphos is indicated.
Paper: Model of Double Asteroid Redirection Test Impact Ejecta Plume Observations
Authors: Andrew F. Cheng, S. D. Raducan, Eugene G. Fahnestock, Elisabetta Dotto, Vincenzo Della Corte, Angela M. Stickle
Figure caption: Ejecta plume extinction optical depths at two times, 80 and 135 s after DART impact, in target case sand C5, showing continued increases in optical depth. LEIA image resolution at Dimorphos is indicated.
Paper: Model of Double Asteroid Redirection Test Impact Ejecta Plume Observations
Authors: Andrew F. Cheng, S. D. Raducan, Eugene G. Fahnestock, Elisabetta Dotto, Vincenzo Della Corte, Angela M. Stickle
Figure caption: Ejecta plume extinction optical depths at two times, 10 and 20 s after DART impact, in target case SFA C7, showing an increase in the optical depth over this time interval at b distances plotted. LEIA image resolution is indicated.
Paper: Science Drivers for the Future Exploration of Ceres: From Solar System Evolution to Ocean World Science
Authors: Julie Castillo-Rogez, Marc Neveu, Vassilissa Vinogradoff, Kelly E. Miller, Michael M. Sori, Federico Tosi, Britney Schmidt, Jennifer E. C. Scully, Mohit Melwani Daswani, Kynan Hughson, Harry McSween, Cristina De Sanctis, Lynnae Quick, Anton Ermakov, Guneshwar Thangjam, Katharina Otto, Katrin Krohn, Paul Schenk, Andreas Nathues, Carol Raymond
Figure caption: The basic physical properties for ice-rich bodies (and rocky satellites) highlight the similarities between Ceres and mid-sized icy moons (figure based on Hussmann et al. 2006). Hence, knowledge gained at Ceres can inform the physical evolution of mid-sized icy moons, and vice versa.
Paper: Arecibo S-band Radar Characterization of Local-scale Heterogeneities within Mercury’s North Polar Deposits
Authors: Edgard G. Rivera-Valentín, Heather M. Meyer, Patrick A. Taylor, Erwan Mazarico, Sriram S. Bhiravarasu, Anne K. Virkki, Michael C. Nolan, Nancy L. Chabot, Jon D. Giorgini
Figure caption: Calculated reduced χ 2 (i.e., χ 2 per degree of freedom) over the free parameters for the fits to (a) Equation (7) for the background terrain and Equation (10) for the radar-bright features with (b) μ  c  > 1 (b) and (c) μ  c  < 1. The color map is clipped to show the reduced χ 2 from zero to ten. The black ellipse is a contour of χ 2 = 1, which is where the combination of best-fit parameters likely lie.
Paper: Arecibo S-band Radar Characterization of Local-scale Heterogeneities within Mercury’s North Polar Deposits
Authors: Edgard G. Rivera-Valentín, Heather M. Meyer, Patrick A. Taylor, Erwan Mazarico, Sriram S. Bhiravarasu, Anne K. Virkki, Michael C. Nolan, Nancy L. Chabot, Jon D. Giorgini
Figure caption: Measured radar scattering of the background terrain (black) and radar-bright features (blue) as a function of incidence angle. In (a) and (b), we plot the radar backscatter coefficients in SC and OC, and in (c) the circular polarization ratio. In (d), we show the relationship between the SC and OC radar backscatter coefficients of the northern polar terrain (﹩{\sigma }_{\mathrm{SC}}^{0}﹩ and ﹩{\sigma }_{\mathrm{OC}}^{0}﹩).
Paper: Science Drivers for the Future Exploration of Ceres: From Solar System Evolution to Ocean World Science
Authors: Julie Castillo-Rogez, Marc Neveu, Vassilissa Vinogradoff, Kelly E. Miller, Michael M. Sori, Federico Tosi, Britney Schmidt, Jennifer E. C. Scully, Mohit Melwani Daswani, Kynan Hughson, Harry McSween, Cristina De Sanctis, Lynnae Quick, Anton Ermakov, Guneshwar Thangjam, Katharina Otto, Katrin Krohn, Paul Schenk, Andreas Nathues, Carol Raymond
Figure caption: Left: current understanding of the global interior structure for Ceres after Ermakov et al. (2017) and Fu et al. (2017); a strong crust overlays a low-density rocky mantle. Evidence for recently exposed salts at Occator crater and Ahuna Mons suggests the presence of deep brines at the interface between the crust and mantle, at least locally, which are the likely remnants of a thicker subsurface ocean present in Ceres’ early history. Right: possible structure of the crust and upper mantle inferred below the 90 km diameter Occator Crater (∼50 km thick crust; Ermakov et al. 2017). The impact crater created a transient melt chamber and also introduced or reactivated fractures allowing for the long-term upwelling of deep brines (Raymond et al. 2020). Left panel: reprinted from Castillo-Rogez et al. (2020). Right panel: credit: J. T. Keane.
Paper: Arecibo S-band Radar Characterization of Local-scale Heterogeneities within Mercury’s North Polar Deposits
Authors: Edgard G. Rivera-Valentín, Heather M. Meyer, Patrick A. Taylor, Erwan Mazarico, Sriram S. Bhiravarasu, Anne K. Virkki, Michael C. Nolan, Nancy L. Chabot, Jon D. Giorgini
Figure caption: Scattering properties of the radar-bright features associated with the big five craters, Prokofiev, Kandinsky, Tolkien, Tryggvadóttir, and Chesterton, which may have surficial ice deposits, compared to all other radar-bright features, which likely represent ice deposits buried underneath a thin mantling. In (a), we show the SC and OC radar backscatter coefficient for the big five craters (cyan) and all other radar-bright features (blue). In (b), we show a box plot of the SC radar backscatter coefficient of the big five craters and all other radar-bright features. The red line denotes the median of the data set, the blue box encapsulates the interquartile range, the whiskers are the black dashed lines and represent a distance of 1.5 times above/below the interquartile range, and the blue crosses denote outlying data.
Paper: Arecibo S-band Radar Characterization of Local-scale Heterogeneities within Mercury’s North Polar Deposits
Authors: Edgard G. Rivera-Valentín, Heather M. Meyer, Patrick A. Taylor, Erwan Mazarico, Sriram S. Bhiravarasu, Anne K. Virkki, Michael C. Nolan, Nancy L. Chabot, Jon D. Giorgini
Figure caption: Overlay of the k-means classes of SC radar backscatter onto a MESSENGER MDIS image of the northern polar terrain. The classes are in color from blue (class 1) to yellow (class 6) as low to high SC radar backscatter. In Table 2, we show the class mapping to the mean and standard deviation of the SC radar backscatter coefficients within each class. The map is limited to latitudes >80°N.
Paper: Arecibo S-band Radar Characterization of Local-scale Heterogeneities within Mercury’s North Polar Deposits
Authors: Edgard G. Rivera-Valentín, Heather M. Meyer, Patrick A. Taylor, Erwan Mazarico, Sriram S. Bhiravarasu, Anne K. Virkki, Michael C. Nolan, Nancy L. Chabot, Jon D. Giorgini
Figure caption: Overlay of the DBSCAN-identified radar-bright features (yellow) onto a MESSENGER MDIS map of the northern polar terrain. In cyan, we show the MESSENGER-constrained locations of areas within craters that are in permanent shadow. Areas where radar-bright features coincide with a PSR appear in brick orange. The Sapkota and Burke craters are labeled in green. The map is limited to latitudes >75°N. Over the six-day observing run, the radar beam is on average illuminating the area from the direction of 321°W.
Paper: Arecibo S-band Radar Characterization of Local-scale Heterogeneities within Mercury’s North Polar Deposits
Authors: Edgard G. Rivera-Valentín, Heather M. Meyer, Patrick A. Taylor, Erwan Mazarico, Sriram S. Bhiravarasu, Anne K. Virkki, Michael C. Nolan, Nancy L. Chabot, Jon D. Giorgini
Figure caption: Simulated campaign average incidence angle map for our radar observations. In color, the incidence angle increases from 40° to 85° with a stretched color map so as to improve visualization of the incidence angle gradient across the scene. Areas that were never sampled by radar during our observing campaign or were at incidence angles >85° appear in white. The map is limited to latitudes >75°N.
Paper: Predicting Asteroid Material Properties from a DART-like Kinetic Impact
Authors: Kathryn M. Kumamoto, J. Michael Owen, Megan Bruck Syal, Jason Pearl, Cody Raskin, Wendy K. Caldwell, Emma Rainey, Angela M. Stickle, R. Terik Daly, Olivier Barnouin
Figure caption: Results of all simulations. Final ΔV and β are extrapolated to t = ∞ . Simulations with Y s0 > 10 MPa and G s0 > 10 GPa are colored in red and are more consistent with strong, intact rock. Simulations with Y s0 < 10 MPa and G s0 < 10 GPa are colored in blue and are more consistent with weak, fractured rock or sediment. Simulations in open gray circles have either a large Y s0 and a low G s0, or a low Y s0 and a large G s0. Simulations with final ΔV values in the target range are denoted with stars. Simulations with ﹩{P}_{{\rm{d}},\min }=0﹩ are plotted at 10−7 MPa.
Paper: Predicting Asteroid Material Properties from a DART-like Kinetic Impact
Authors: Kathryn M. Kumamoto, J. Michael Owen, Megan Bruck Syal, Jason Pearl, Cody Raskin, Wendy K. Caldwell, Emma Rainey, Angela M. Stickle, R. Terik Daly, Olivier Barnouin
Figure caption: Example visualizations of the Spheral simulations. One quadrant is clipped out of the simulation to show the interior structure of the asteroid. (a) The setup for our simulations. The asteroid body is in gray, and the impactor is in red. (b) Same as in (a) but zoomed in on the impactor. (c) The results from simulation 11.09. The asteroid is colored by plastic strain, and low-density ejecta is translucent gray. This simulation had a relatively strong and porous asteroid body. (d) The results from simulation 22.05. Colors are the same as in (c). This simulation had a relatively weak asteroid body with low porosity.
Paper: Spacecraft Geometry Effects on Kinetic Impactor Missions
Authors: J. Michael Owen, Mallory E. DeCoster, Dawn M. Graninger, Sabina D. Raducan
Figure caption: Same as Figure 13 for the Spheral models of the weak material limit at ﹩t=0.5\,\sec ﹩ after impact. Note that these slices are on the same scale as those in Figure 13 (30 m across each slice box, with the color bar spanning ρ ∈ [1.75, 2] g/cm−3), demonstrating how much wider the craters are in this material strength regime. Note also that the compressed and fractured material is largely excavated as well, compared with the strong limit.
Paper: Spacecraft Geometry Effects on Kinetic Impactor Missions
Authors: J. Michael Owen, Mallory E. DeCoster, Dawn M. Graninger, Sabina D. Raducan
Figure caption:  y–z slice through the mass density for the Spheral models of the strong Dimorphos case at t = 0.05 s after impact, showing the crater profile in this plane. The visualized box is 30 m across the horizontal in these images, and all share the same color bar shown in the upper right (DART 90°) panel, spanning ρ ∈ [1.75, 2] g/cm−3. The inset length-scale bar on the upper right is 15 m. The lower-density fractured material extending into the body of the asteroid below the crater is evident in these images.
Paper: Spacecraft Geometry Effects on Kinetic Impactor Missions
Authors: J. Michael Owen, Mallory E. DeCoster, Dawn M. Graninger, Sabina D. Raducan
Figure caption: Mass density slices through the CTH craters in the strong Dimorphos models. All frames are at t = 0.03 s after impact, except the DART 0° panel, which is shown at ﹩t=0.019\,\sec ﹩. Each panel is 12 m across, so these are zoomed-in relative the Spheral results in Figures 13 and 14. Note that the blue region in these figures is vacuum.
Paper: Spacecraft Geometry Effects on Kinetic Impactor Missions
Authors: J. Michael Owen, Mallory E. DeCoster, Dawn M. Graninger, Sabina D. Raducan
Figure caption: Crater width versus depth for the strong (bottom) and weak (top) Dimorphos material models. The error bars on the width axis (for the Spheral result—the other codes run in 2D r − z geometry do not have this information) show the spread of the minimum and maximum semimajor axes of the ellipse representing the intersection of the hyperboloid and the original Dimorphos surface. Note that the range varies between panels in the weak material results, in order to zoom in on the points in each case.
Paper: Spacecraft Geometry Effects on Kinetic Impactor Missions
Authors: J. Michael Owen, Mallory E. DeCoster, Dawn M. Graninger, Sabina D. Raducan
Figure caption: Transient crater profiles from the iSALE-2D simulations of the strong Dimorphos scenarios. All frames are at t = 0.05 s after impact.
Paper: The Lunar Geophysical Network Landing Sites Science Rationale
Authors: Heidi Fuqua Haviland, Renee C. Weber, Clive R. Neal, Philippe Lognonné, Raphaël F. Garcia, Nicholas Schmerr, Seiichi Nagihara, Robert Grimm, Douglas G. Currie, Simone Dell'Agnello, Thomas R. Watters, Mark P. Panning, Catherine L. Johnson, Ryuhei Yamada, Martin Knapmeyer, Lillian R. Ostrach, Taichi Kawamura, Noah Petro, Paul M. Bremner
Figure caption: A map of rock abundance or concentration estimates derived from observations of the diurnal temperature swings by the LRO-diviner instrument (Bandfield et al. 2011). For each pixel, the fraction of the rock-covered area is given (0–0.1 color bar). Yellow lines are −3 km elevation contours that roughly define the extent of mare basalt fill within Crisium. The red circles indicate the two candidate areas for further consideration for landing site selection. The white triangle indicates the landing sites of Luna 23 and 24. Map data from Lunar QuickMap, available at https://bit.ly/32KYV5O.
Paper: The Lunar Geophysical Network Landing Sites Science Rationale
Authors: Heidi Fuqua Haviland, Renee C. Weber, Clive R. Neal, Philippe Lognonné, Raphaël F. Garcia, Nicholas Schmerr, Seiichi Nagihara, Robert Grimm, Douglas G. Currie, Simone Dell'Agnello, Thomas R. Watters, Mark P. Panning, Catherine L. Johnson, Ryuhei Yamada, Martin Knapmeyer, Lillian R. Ostrach, Taichi Kawamura, Noah Petro, Paul M. Bremner
Figure caption: Near- and farside maps of surface thorium concentration (ppm) obtained by the Kaguya mission (https://darts.isas.jaxa.jp/planet/pdap/selene/index.html.en). The red squares indicate the proposed landing sites for the LGN mission. The landing sites for the Apollo, Luna, and Chang’e missions are also shown by circles and squares. The white dashed line is the 3.5 ppm contour and roughly delineates the geographic extent of the PKT. The black dashed line is the 1 ppm contour, which can be used as the minimum geographic extent of the area where heat flow may be affected by Th-rich ejecta from the Imbrium basin-forming impact. The heat flow values at the A15 and 17 sites are also shown.
Paper: The Lunar Geophysical Network Landing Sites Science Rationale
Authors: Heidi Fuqua Haviland, Renee C. Weber, Clive R. Neal, Philippe Lognonné, Raphaël F. Garcia, Nicholas Schmerr, Seiichi Nagihara, Robert Grimm, Douglas G. Currie, Simone Dell'Agnello, Thomas R. Watters, Mark P. Panning, Catherine L. Johnson, Ryuhei Yamada, Martin Knapmeyer, Lillian R. Ostrach, Taichi Kawamura, Noah Petro, Paul M. Bremner
Figure caption: Contours (1 nT intervals) of magnetic anomaly intensity obtained at 30 km altitude by the Kaguya spacecraft (http://darts.isas.jaxa.jp/planet/pdap/selene/index.html.en), drawn over the LRO-WAC mosaic of Mare Crisium. The red circles indicate the two candidate areas for further consideration for landing site selection. The white triangle indicates the landing sites of Luna 23 and 24. See text for description of surface fields.
Paper: The Lunar Geophysical Network Landing Sites Science Rationale
Authors: Heidi Fuqua Haviland, Renee C. Weber, Clive R. Neal, Philippe Lognonné, Raphaël F. Garcia, Nicholas Schmerr, Seiichi Nagihara, Robert Grimm, Douglas G. Currie, Simone Dell'Agnello, Thomas R. Watters, Mark P. Panning, Catherine L. Johnson, Ryuhei Yamada, Martin Knapmeyer, Lillian R. Ostrach, Taichi Kawamura, Noah Petro, Paul M. Bremner
Figure caption: CPR image for the P-band radar returns obtained at the Arecibo Observatory (https://pds-geosciences.wustl.edu/missions/lunar_radar/index.htm). Yellow lines are −3 km elevation contours that roughly define the basin rims of Crisium. The white arrows point to the dark halos around craters Peirce and Picard. The red circles indicate the two candidate areas for further consideration for landing site selection. The white triangle indicates the landing sites of Luna 23 and 24.
Paper: The Lunar Geophysical Network Landing Sites Science Rationale
Authors: Heidi Fuqua Haviland, Renee C. Weber, Clive R. Neal, Philippe Lognonné, Raphaël F. Garcia, Nicholas Schmerr, Seiichi Nagihara, Robert Grimm, Douglas G. Currie, Simone Dell'Agnello, Thomas R. Watters, Mark P. Panning, Catherine L. Johnson, Ryuhei Yamada, Martin Knapmeyer, Lillian R. Ostrach, Taichi Kawamura, Noah Petro, Paul M. Bremner
Figure caption: Contours (10 km intervals) of crustal thickness estimated from the GRAIL data (Wieczorek et al. 2013) drawn over a mosaic of images obtained by the LRO Wide Angle Camera (WAC) of Mare Crisium. The red circles indicate the two candidate areas for further consideration for landing site selection. The white triangle indicates the landing sites of Luna 23 and 24. The two spacecraft landed within 2–3 km of each other (Lawrence 2013). Only Luna 24 was able to return samples to Earth.
Paper: The Lunar Geophysical Network Landing Sites Science Rationale
Authors: Heidi Fuqua Haviland, Renee C. Weber, Clive R. Neal, Philippe Lognonné, Raphaël F. Garcia, Nicholas Schmerr, Seiichi Nagihara, Robert Grimm, Douglas G. Currie, Simone Dell'Agnello, Thomas R. Watters, Mark P. Panning, Catherine L. Johnson, Ryuhei Yamada, Martin Knapmeyer, Lillian R. Ostrach, Taichi Kawamura, Noah Petro, Paul M. Bremner
Figure caption: Near- and farside maps based on the crustal thickness estimates (km) obtained by the GRAIL mission (Wieczorek et al. 2013). The red squares indicate the proposed landing sites for the LGN mission. The landing sites for the Apollo, Luna, and Chang’e missions are also shown by circles and squares. The white dashed line is the 3.5 ppm contour and roughly delineates the geographic extent of the PKT.
Paper: The Lunar Geophysical Network Landing Sites Science Rationale
Authors: Heidi Fuqua Haviland, Renee C. Weber, Clive R. Neal, Philippe Lognonné, Raphaël F. Garcia, Nicholas Schmerr, Seiichi Nagihara, Robert Grimm, Douglas G. Currie, Simone Dell'Agnello, Thomas R. Watters, Mark P. Panning, Catherine L. Johnson, Ryuhei Yamada, Martin Knapmeyer, Lillian R. Ostrach, Taichi Kawamura, Noah Petro, Paul M. Bremner
Figure caption: The areas of slope less than 4° are shown in green over the LRO-WAC mosaic, derived from the SLDEM (Barker et al. 2016) with 60 m spatial resolution. The white arrows point to some of the wrinkle ridges. The red circles indicate the two candidate areas for further consideration for landing site selection. The white triangle indicates the landing sites of Luna 23 and 24.
Paper: The Lunar Geophysical Network Landing Sites Science Rationale
Authors: Heidi Fuqua Haviland, Renee C. Weber, Clive R. Neal, Philippe Lognonné, Raphaël F. Garcia, Nicholas Schmerr, Seiichi Nagihara, Robert Grimm, Douglas G. Currie, Simone Dell'Agnello, Thomas R. Watters, Mark P. Panning, Catherine L. Johnson, Ryuhei Yamada, Martin Knapmeyer, Lillian R. Ostrach, Taichi Kawamura, Noah Petro, Paul M. Bremner
Figure caption: A scatter plot comparing the surface thorium concentration (ppm) and crust thickness of the A15 and 17 sites and the proposed landing sites for the LGN mission.
Paper: Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART): Structural and Dynamic Interactions between Asteroidal Elements of Binary Asteroid (65803) Didymos
Authors: Masatoshi Hirabayashi, Fabio Ferrari, Martin Jutzi, Ryota Nakano, Sabina D. Raducan, Paul Sánchez, Stefania Soldini, Yun Zhang, Olivier S. Barnouin, Derek C. Richardson, Patrick Michel, Elisabetta Dotto, Alessandro Rossi, Andrew R. Rivkin
Figure caption:  GRAINS simulations showing Didymos’s reshaping modes as a function of the bulk density, ρ  B , and the volumetric ratio, ψ  c . The mass ejection ratio, M  e , is the ratio of the ejected mass to the total mass. The particle diameter is on the order of ∼10 m. For each panel, the upper figure is the external view, while the lower figure illustrates the inner structure with a dark region identifying the inner stronger core surrounded by a transparent layer of fragmented material. (a) ψ  c  = 50% and ρ  B  = 2170 kg m−3, leading to M  e  = 3.6%. (b) ψ  c  = 25% and ρ  B  = 2170 kg m−3, leading to M  e  = 0.04%. (c) ψ  c  = 10% and ρ  B  = 2520 kg m−3, leading to M  e  = 1.2%. (d) ψ  c  = 10% and ρ  B  = 2520 kg m−3, leading to M  e  = 18%. The difference between panels (c) and (d) is that while panel (c) considers a uniform density distribution, panel (d) describes a case with a core density of 4236 kg m−3 and an underdense surface density of 502 kg m−3.