adsabs/AstroCLIMB huggingface dataset:
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Horizontal and vertical wind along the 2D simulation. Contours give the methane mixing ratio every 0.5 g kg−1. Averages over 1–3 am and 1–3 pm on the fourth day for simulations S-E and S-F are given. The dark blue line indicates the lake position.
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Horizontal (panels (a) and (b)) and vertical (panels (c) and (d)) wind along the 2D simulation S-B (cold subsurface). Contours give the methane mixing ratio every 0.5 g kg−1. Average over 1–3 am (panels (a) and (c)) and 1–3 pm (panels (b) and (d)) on the fourth tsol. The dark blue line indicates the lake position. Panels (e) and (f) show energy fluxes over land far from the lake for simulations S-A and S-B.
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Horizontal wind along the 2D simulation. Contours give the methane mixing ratio every 0.5 g kg−1. The averages over 1–3 am and 1–3 pm on the fourth day for simulations S-A, S-U, S-V, S-O, S-N, and S-P are given. The dark blue line indicates the lake position.
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Vertical wind along the 2D simulation. Contours give the methane mixing ratio every 0.5 g kg−1. The averages over 1–3 am and 1–3 pm on the fourth day for simulations S-A, S-U, S-V, S-O, S-N, and S-P are given. The dark blue line indicates the lake position.
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Output results from S-G (Tlake,ini = 93.47 K) and S-I (88 K). Panels (a) and (b) show the time evolution of energy fluxes at the shore (to compare to Figure 4(e)). Panels (c) and (d) show the time evolution of surface temperature (to compare to Figure 3(e)).
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Evolution with time of the Bowen ratio (sensible heat flux SH over latent heat flux LH) over the lake (panels (a) and (b)), and the energy fluxes (solar and IR radiative fluxes, sensible and latent heat fluxes, and soil conduction heat flux) at different places: at the center (panels (c) and (d)) and border (panels (e) and (f)) of the lake, on the shore (panels (g) and (h)), and far inland (panels (i) and (j)). Results obtained in the reference simulation with radiative transfer S-A (left column) are compared to results in the same conditions without radiative transfer S-A0 (right column). Simulations are started at midnight.
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Evolution with time at the surface of wind (panels (a) and (b)), air temperature (panels (c) and (d)), land/lake temperature (panels (e) and (f)), air-surface temperature difference over the land (panels (g) and (h)), and methane mixing ratio (panels (i) and (j)) at different locations, with d = 0 km representing the center of the lake and d = 160 km the land just beyond the lake. Results obtained in the reference simulation with radiative transfer S-A (left column) are compared to results in the same conditions without radiative transfer S-A0 (right column). Not all lines are shown in panels (a), (b), (g), and (h) for readability. Simulations are started at midnight.
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Evolution with time of the horizontal wind at 3 m (panels (a) and (b)) and 230 m (panels (c) and (d)) in altitude, the vertical wind at 200 m (panels (e) and (f)), the latent heat flux to the surface (panels (g) and (h)), and the sensible heat flux to the surface (panels (i) and (j)). Results obtained in the reference simulation with radiative transfer S-A (left column) are compared to results in the same conditions without radiative transfer S-A0 (right column). The dark blue line indicates the lake position. Simulations are started at midnight.
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Zoom on the right lake section and nearby land. Horizontal wind (panels (a) and (b), vertical wind (panels (c) and (d), and virtual potential temperature (panels (e) and (f)). In panels (a)–(d), contours give the methane mixing ratio every 0.5 g kg−1. In panels (e) and (f), contours give the virtual potential temperature every 0.05 K. The average over 1–3 am is shown in the left column, and that over 1–3 pm is shown in the right column, on the fourth day for simulation S-A. The dark blue line indicates the lake position.
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Horizontal and vertical wind along the 2D simulation. Contours give the methane mixing ratio every 0.5 g kg−1. Average over 1–3 am (for S-A0 and S-A) and 1–3 pm (for S-A) on the fourth Titan day of simulation. The dark blue line indicates the lake position.
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Methane mixing ratio profiles used in this work, compared to the Huygens/GCMS measurements (Niemann et al. 2010). Relative humidity (RH in the subpanel) indications are surface values.
Paper: Air–Sea Interactions on Titan: Effect of Radiative Transfer on the Lake Evaporation and Atmospheric Circulation
Authors: Audrey Chatain, Scot C. R. Rafkin, Alejandro Soto, Ricardo Hueso, Aymeric Spiga
Figure caption: Daily average of the solar (panels (a) and (c)) and thermal (panel (b)) net fluxes, and the average heating/cooling rates (panel (d)) at the Huygens landing site. Fluxes in mtWRF (in a simulation in Huygens landing conditions, without lakes) are compared to fluxes retrieved from Huygens/DISR data by Tomasko et al. (2008a, T08).
Paper: The Horizontal Wavelength Spectrum of Gravity Wave Activity in Mars’s Lower Atmosphere: The Perspective from MGS–TES Nadir Observations
Authors: Nicholas G. Heavens, Alexey Pankine, J. Michael Battalio, Corwin Wright
Figure caption: Comparison of ﹩\hat{{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{\mathrm{GW}}}﹩ (K2 K−2, log10 scale) at the 21 km baseline in MGS–TES measurements with ﹩\hat{{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{\mathrm{GW}}}﹩ in MRO–MCS equivalent baselines for the labeled channels and time of day. Averaging period is L  s  = 120°–150° in MY 24 for MGS–TES and the same period in MY 28 for MRO–MCS.
Paper: The Horizontal Wavelength Spectrum of Gravity Wave Activity in Mars’s Lower Atmosphere: The Perspective from MGS–TES Nadir Observations
Authors: Nicholas G. Heavens, Alexey Pankine, J. Michael Battalio, Corwin Wright
Figure caption:                          ﹩\hat{{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{\mathrm{GW}}}﹩ (K2 K−2, log10 scale) at the labeled baseline in MGS–TES measurements for the A1 channel for the labeled Mars Year and time of day during L  s  = 120°–150°.
Paper: The Horizontal Wavelength Spectrum of Gravity Wave Activity in Mars’s Lower Atmosphere: The Perspective from MGS–TES Nadir Observations
Authors: Nicholas G. Heavens, Alexey Pankine, J. Michael Battalio, Corwin Wright
Figure caption: Example showing how solutions obtained through Tikhonov regularization can be selected. (a) Example normalized variance spectrum as a function of baseline ( S  Λ), A3 channel, Mars Year 24, L  s  = 120°–150°, dayside, 5° × 5° averaging. (b) L-curve for Tikhonov regularization solutions using the square of the singular values of the visibility matrix as the regularization parameter. The numbers label the filtered rank of the solution. (c) Negative cost function versus the filtered rank of the visibility matrix corresponding to the solution. The rank of the preferred solution is indicated with an orange horizontal line.
Paper: The Horizontal Wavelength Spectrum of Gravity Wave Activity in Mars’s Lower Atmosphere: The Perspective from MGS–TES Nadir Observations
Authors: Nicholas G. Heavens, Alexey Pankine, J. Michael Battalio, Corwin Wright
Figure caption: Estimated visibility (%) for a gravity wave with a given horizontal and vertical wavelength for observations by MGS–TES, averaged to the A3 channels of MRO–MCS, and for the labeled baseline and spectral scanning mode of MGS–TES.
Paper: The Horizontal Wavelength Spectrum of Gravity Wave Activity in Mars’s Lower Atmosphere: The Perspective from MGS–TES Nadir Observations
Authors: Nicholas G. Heavens, Alexey Pankine, J. Michael Battalio, Corwin Wright
Figure caption: (a)–(c) Vertical weighting functions for nadir observations by MRO–MCS in the labeled channels. Surface contribution is indicated with a cross; (d)–(f): Estimated visibility (%) for a gravity wave with a given horizontal and vertical wavelength for single-scan observations by MGS–TES averaged to the A1–A3 channels of MRO–MCS, as labeled.
Paper: The Horizontal Wavelength Spectrum of Gravity Wave Activity in Mars’s Lower Atmosphere: The Perspective from MGS–TES Nadir Observations
Authors: Nicholas G. Heavens, Alexey Pankine, J. Michael Battalio, Corwin Wright
Figure caption:                          ﹩\hat{{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{\mathrm{GW}}}﹩ (K2 K−2, log10 scale) at the labeled baseline in MGS–TES measurements for the A1 channel, with the detiding filter applied, for the labeled Mars Year and time of day during L  s  = 120°–150°.
Paper: The Horizontal Wavelength Spectrum of Gravity Wave Activity in Mars’s Lower Atmosphere: The Perspective from MGS–TES Nadir Observations
Authors: Nicholas G. Heavens, Alexey Pankine, J. Michael Battalio, Corwin Wright
Figure caption: Example solutions for the horizontal wavelength spectrum of normalized variance ( S   λ ) derived from the baseline spectrum in Figure 5(a). Each panel is titled with the filtered rank of the solution. The preferred solution is plotted in orange.
Paper: Detecting Lipids on Planetary Surfaces with Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Nikita J. Boeren, Salome Gruchola, Coenraad P. de Koning, Peter Keresztes Schmidt, Kristina A. Kipfer, Niels F. W. Ligterink, Marek Tulej, Peter Wurz, Andreas Riedo
Figure caption: Zoom-in of the mass spectrum of phylloquinone shown in Figure 3 of the comparison between a platinum-coated (pointing upward) and a stainless steel (pointing downward) sample substrate. Measurements were performed with a 3 μJ laser pulse energy.
Paper: Detecting Lipids on Planetary Surfaces with Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Nikita J. Boeren, Salome Gruchola, Coenraad P. de Koning, Peter Keresztes Schmidt, Kristina A. Kipfer, Niels F. W. Ligterink, Marek Tulej, Peter Wurz, Andreas Riedo
Figure caption: Mass spectrum of a blank measurement on the platinum-coated silicon substrate. A pulse energy of 3 μJ was applied.
Paper: Detecting Lipids on Planetary Surfaces with Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Nikita J. Boeren, Salome Gruchola, Coenraad P. de Koning, Peter Keresztes Schmidt, Kristina A. Kipfer, Niels F. W. Ligterink, Marek Tulej, Peter Wurz, Andreas Riedo
Figure caption: Zoom-in of the mass spectrum of α-tocopherol shown in Figure 3 of the comparison between a platinum-coated (pointing upward) and a stainless steel (pointing downward) sample substrate. Measurements were performed with a 3 μJ laser pulse energy.
Paper: Detecting Lipids on Planetary Surfaces with Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Nikita J. Boeren, Salome Gruchola, Coenraad P. de Koning, Peter Keresztes Schmidt, Kristina A. Kipfer, Niels F. W. Ligterink, Marek Tulej, Peter Wurz, Andreas Riedo
Figure caption: Mass spectrum of a blank measurement on the stainless steel sample substrate. A pulse energy of 3 μJ was applied.
Paper: Detecting Lipids on Planetary Surfaces with Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Nikita J. Boeren, Salome Gruchola, Coenraad P. de Koning, Peter Keresztes Schmidt, Kristina A. Kipfer, Niels F. W. Ligterink, Marek Tulej, Peter Wurz, Andreas Riedo
Figure caption: Chemical structure of phylloquinone with two proposed fragmentation sites indicated by the dashed lines. Numbers indicate the fragment size in Dalton (expressed as integers), with top numbers corresponding to the right side of the molecule and bottom numbers to the left side.
Paper: Detecting Lipids on Planetary Surfaces with Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Nikita J. Boeren, Salome Gruchola, Coenraad P. de Koning, Peter Keresztes Schmidt, Kristina A. Kipfer, Niels F. W. Ligterink, Marek Tulej, Peter Wurz, Andreas Riedo
Figure caption: Zoom-in of the mass spectrum of 17α-ethynylestradiol shown in Figure 3 of the comparison between a platinum-coated (pointing upward) and a stainless steel (pointing downward) sample substrate. Measurements were performed with a 3 μJ laser pulse energy.
Paper: Detecting Lipids on Planetary Surfaces with Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Nikita J. Boeren, Salome Gruchola, Coenraad P. de Koning, Peter Keresztes Schmidt, Kristina A. Kipfer, Niels F. W. Ligterink, Marek Tulej, Peter Wurz, Andreas Riedo
Figure caption: Zoom-in of the mass spectrum of cholecalciferol shown in Figure 3 of the comparison between a platinum-coated (pointing upward) and a stainless steel (pointing downward) sample substrate. Measurements were performed with a 3 μJ laser pulse energy.
Paper: 3 μm Spectroscopic Survey of Near-Earth Asteroids
Authors: L. E. McGraw, J. P. Emery, C. A. Thomas, A. R. Rivkin, N. R. Wigton, M. McAdam
Figure caption: Examples of band shape types seen in this survey. Black curves represent model band shape types. (a) Band Shape Type 1; (433) Eros as observed on 2019 January 4, binned by a factor of 3. (b) Band Shape Type 2; (214088) 2004 JN13 as observed on 2014 November 30, binned by a factor of 5. (c) Band Shape Type 3; (1036) Ganymed as observed on 2011 October 19, binned by a factor of 3. (d) Band Shape Type 4; 2014 JO25 as observed on 2017 April 22, binned by a factor of 3.
Paper: 3 μm Spectroscopic Survey of Near-Earth Asteroids
Authors: L. E. McGraw, J. P. Emery, C. A. Thomas, A. R. Rivkin, N. R. Wigton, M. McAdam
Figure caption: Diameter, spectral complex, orbital period, perihelion, and aphelion distributions of surveyed NEAs. Filled blue represents objects with 2.9 μm bands detected to 2σ, and hashed blue represents the objects with 1–2σ  detections. Filled gray represents the NEAs with no detections and upper limits = 5%, and hashed gray represents the objects with low-S/N spectra and no detection.
Paper: 3 μm Spectroscopic Survey of Near-Earth Asteroids
Authors: L. E. McGraw, J. P. Emery, C. A. Thomas, A. R. Rivkin, N. R. Wigton, M. McAdam
Figure caption: Gaffey et al. (1993) S-subtypes plot with ordinary chondrite lines from Dunn et al. (2010). Our objects with definite and possible bands are shown as colored symbols. Our high-S/N nondetections are shown as black asterisks. Note that both detections and nondetections occur throughout the ordinary chondrite region (SIV), but the basaltic achondrite (BA) region only contains nondetections.
Paper: 3 μm Spectroscopic Survey of Near-Earth Asteroids
Authors: L. E. McGraw, J. P. Emery, C. A. Thomas, A. R. Rivkin, N. R. Wigton, M. McAdam
Figure caption: Left: histogram of all higher-S/N NEAs binned by whether they enter the main belt. Right: histogram of higher-S/N S-complex NEAs. Filled blue represents objects with 2.9 μm bands detected to 2σ, and hashed blue represents the objects with 1–2σ  detections. Filled gray represents the NEAs with no detections and upper limits = 5%.
Paper: 3 μm Spectroscopic Survey of Near-Earth Asteroids
Authors: L. E. McGraw, J. P. Emery, C. A. Thomas, A. R. Rivkin, N. R. Wigton, M. McAdam
Figure caption: Only higher-S/N NEAs are included in the data points for NEAs with no band. Error bars are standard deviations of the objects of that type. Points with no error bars have only a single object of that type.
Paper: 3 μm Spectroscopic Survey of Near-Earth Asteroids
Authors: L. E. McGraw, J. P. Emery, C. A. Thomas, A. R. Rivkin, N. R. Wigton, M. McAdam
Figure caption: (a) (1036) Ganymed as observed on 2011 October 19. (b) (4) Vesta as observed on 2017 April 2. (c) (349) Dembowska as observed on 2019 May 10. All three asteroids have a similar band shape.(The data used to create this figure are available.)
Paper: 3 μm Spectroscopic Survey of Near-Earth Asteroids
Authors: L. E. McGraw, J. P. Emery, C. A. Thomas, A. R. Rivkin, N. R. Wigton, M. McAdam
Figure caption: (a) (357439) 2004 BL86 as observed on 2015 January 27 as an example of a high-S/N spectrum showing no detectable absorption feature. (b) (6063) Jason as observed on 2017 June 7 as an example of a low-S/N spectrum that cannot be used to detect a band with a depth of a few percent typical of OH/H2O.
Paper: 3 μm Spectroscopic Survey of Near-Earth Asteroids
Authors: L. E. McGraw, J. P. Emery, C. A. Thomas, A. R. Rivkin, N. R. Wigton, M. McAdam
Figure caption: Band depth plotted against effective diameter. Larger NEAs tend to have a 3 μm feature, though the trend is nonunique.
Paper: 3 μm Spectroscopic Survey of Near-Earth Asteroids
Authors: L. E. McGraw, J. P. Emery, C. A. Thomas, A. R. Rivkin, N. R. Wigton, M. McAdam
Figure caption: Histogram of S-complex spectral types observed in this study. Filled blue represents objects with 2.9 μm bands detected to 2σ, and hashed blue represents the objects with 1–2σ  detections. Filled gray represents the NEAs with no detections and upper limits = 5%, and hashed gray represents the objects with low-S/N spectra and no detection.
Paper: The Spatial Distribution and Temperature of Mercury's Potassium Exosphere
Authors: Patrick Lierle, Carl Schmidt, Jeffrey Baumgardner, Luke Moore, Tom Bida, Ryan Swindle
Figure caption: Continuum removal and fitting to estimate a line width temperature for the sodium doublet and potassium D1. The gray and red dashed lines indicate the central wavelength of the solar well and the expected wavelength of emission from Mercury, respectively.
Paper: Spitzer Dayside Emission of WASP-34b
Authors: Ryan C. Challener, Joseph Harrington, Patricio E. Cubillos, Jasmina Blecic, Barry Smalley
Figure caption: Individually fit BLISS light curves of WASP-34. The 3.6 μm observation has been vertically offset for visual clarity. Note that we clipped out frames 49,000–52,000 owing to erratic sky levels and frames 53,740–53,790 owing to a reaction wheel spike. Left: normalized raw photometry with best-fit models overplotted. Middle: normalized binned photometry and binned best-fit models. Right: normalized binned photometry and best-fit models with systematics divided out to highlight the eclipses.
Paper: Spitzer Dayside Emission of WASP-34b
Authors: Ryan C. Challener, Joseph Harrington, Patricio E. Cubillos, Jasmina Blecic, Barry Smalley
Figure caption: Individually fit PLD light curves of WASP-34. The 3.6 μm observation has been vertically offset for visual clarity. Note that we clipped out frames 49,000–52,000 owing to erratic sky levels and frames 53,740–53,790 owing to a reaction wheel spike. Left: normalized raw photometry with best-fit models overplotted. Middle: normalized binned photometry and binned best-fit models. Right: normalized binned photometry and best-fit models with systematics divided out to highlight the eclipses.
Paper: The Spatial Distribution and Temperature of Mercury's Potassium Exosphere
Authors: Patrick Lierle, Carl Schmidt, Jeffrey Baumgardner, Luke Moore, Tom Bida, Ryan Swindle
Figure caption: Full-disk Na/K column density ratio generated by binning same-day RIPS sodium measurements to match the spatial dimensions of the potassium results from 2018 December 12.
Paper: The Spatial Distribution and Temperature of Mercury's Potassium Exosphere
Authors: Patrick Lierle, Carl Schmidt, Jeffrey Baumgardner, Luke Moore, Tom Bida, Ryan Swindle
Figure caption: The Na/K ratio map corresponding to RIPS sodium and potassium brightness measurements from 2018 December 13.
Paper: The Spatial Distribution and Temperature of Mercury's Potassium Exosphere
Authors: Patrick Lierle, Carl Schmidt, Jeffrey Baumgardner, Luke Moore, Tom Bida, Ryan Swindle
Figure caption: Potassium brightness in the five slit positions covered by RIPS during its 100–200 s integrations on 2018 December 13. Pictured at right is an unconvolved photometric reflectance model of Mercury at the time and geometry of observation, which has been overlaid with surface topography. The orange contours are constructed from the photometric model after it has been convolved to match the mean atmospheric seeing.
Paper: The Spatial Distribution and Temperature of Mercury's Potassium Exosphere
Authors: Patrick Lierle, Carl Schmidt, Jeffrey Baumgardner, Luke Moore, Tom Bida, Ryan Swindle
Figure caption: Laboratory energy distributions of Na and K desorbed from an SiO2 surface (Yakshinskiy & Madey 2003). 1D Maxwell–Boltzmann distributions are overlaid at 1200 and 700 K. Neither species is discernibly Maxwellian, but Na exhibits a high-energy tail that is absent from the narrower, less thermal K.
Paper: The Spatial Distribution and Temperature of Mercury's Potassium Exosphere
Authors: Patrick Lierle, Carl Schmidt, Jeffrey Baumgardner, Luke Moore, Tom Bida, Ryan Swindle
Figure caption: The potassium D1 line, as compared with the instrumental line-spread function, a 700 K model characteristic of the surface temperature at the subsolar point, and an 1114 K model, the temperature of sodium D1.
Paper: Retention of Water in Terrestrial Magma Oceans and Carbon-rich Early Atmospheres
Authors: Dan J. Bower, Kaustubh Hakim, Paolo A. Sossi, Patrick Sanan
Figure caption: Atmospheric composition during magma ocean outgassing at ΔIW = 0.5. Columns from left to right show hydrogen (H) budgets of 1, 3, and 10 oceans, respectively. Rows from top to bottom show C/H by weight of 0, 0.1, 1, and 5. Magma ocean lifetime corresponds to the termination of the colored region (at ≈2% melt for fractional crystallization, between 104 and 107 yr). White dotted lines correspond to 30% melt, which indicates both the duration and atmospheric composition if instead the mantle underwent equilibrium crystallization. Initial partial pressures of volatile species (p init) are for a completely molten magma ocean and T surf =2700 K. Final partial pressures (p final) are for complete solidification and outgassing of all volatile species and T surf = 1400 K.