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Paper: The Extent, Nature, and Origin of K and Rb Depletions and Isotopic Fractionations in Earth, the Moon, and Other Planetary Bodies
Authors: Nicolas Dauphas, Nicole X. Nie, Marc Blanchard, Zhe J. Zhang, Hao Zeng, Justin Y. Hu, Merlin Meheut, Channon Visscher, Robin Canup, and Timo Hopp
Figure caption: Evaluation of the degree of K and Rb depletions in Vesta. The data points represent the compositions of eucrites (Kitts & Lodders 1998). The K/U and Rb/Ba ratios of Vesta are calculated (red squares) by interpolating the data to CI chondrite La/U and Th/Ba ratios. The K/Rb ratio calculated from those interpolations and assuming a CI U/Ba ratio is ∼6 times higher than CI but is consistent with the K/Rb ratio measured in HED meteorites (panel (c)).
Paper: The Extent, Nature, and Origin of K and Rb Depletions and Isotopic Fractionations in Earth, the Moon, and Other Planetary Bodies
Authors: Nicolas Dauphas, Nicole X. Nie, Marc Blanchard, Zhe J. Zhang, Hao Zeng, Justin Y. Hu, Merlin Meheut, Channon Visscher, Robin Canup, and Timo Hopp
Figure caption: Model structures of the minerals investigated. (a) Unit cell of K- and Rb-feldspars (K,Rb)AlSi3O8. Aluminum (here in pink) can occupy two tetrahedral sites out of eight (the remaining six are occupied by Si, here in blue). In microcline Al occupies positions #2–3. In orthoclase, Al may occupy #1–4 with 50% probability for each site. In sanidine, Al can occupy #1–8 with 25% probability for each site. K is in green, and O is in red. (b) Unit cell model Zn2SiO4 olivine structure (Zn is in gray, Si in blue, and O in red). (c) Supercell of model Mg2SiO4 (olivine “forsterite” structure, 2 × 1 × 2) with 1 Zn atom in M1 site (Zn in gray, Mg in orange, Si in blue, and O in red). The proportions of Zn and Mg in the supercell are 1/32 and 31/32. (d) Same as panel (c), but with Zn in the M2 rather than M1 site. It is estimated that at 300, 1000, and 2000 K, ∼90%, ∼66%, and ∼58% of Zn is in M1, respectively (the rest is in M2; Umemoto et al. 2011). (e) Unit cells of Cu-feldspar (Cu,Na)AlSi3O8 (Cu in green, Na in yellow, Si and Al in dark and light blue, and O in red). Cu+ substitutes for Na+ and forms an O-Cu-O linear configuration. (f) Unit cell of Ga-feldspar Na(Ga,Al)Si3O8, where Ga3+ substitutes for Al3+ (Ga in green, Na in yellow, Si and Al in dark and light blue, and O in red). (g) Unit cell of Sn-feldspar (Sn,Na)Al(Al,Si)3O8, where we modeled a coupled substitution of (Sn2+, Al3+) for (Na+, Si4+) (Sn in gray, Na in yellow, Si and Al in dark and light blue, and O in red).
Paper: The Extent, Nature, and Origin of K and Rb Depletions and Isotopic Fractionations in Earth, the Moon, and Other Planetary Bodies
Authors: Nicolas Dauphas, Nicole X. Nie, Marc Blanchard, Zhe J. Zhang, Hao Zeng, Justin Y. Hu, Merlin Meheut, Channon Visscher, Robin Canup, and Timo Hopp
Figure caption: Main models of depletion of MVEs in the Moon. (a) Incomplete condensation model of Canup et al. (2015). In that model, a proto-Moon representing ∼40% of the final lunar mass is rapidly formed beyond the Roche limit. The remaining 60% is accreted over 100–1000 yr by viscous spreading of MVE-depleted material from inside the Roche limit. (b) Incomplete condensation synestia model of Lock et al. (2018). In this scenario the Moon is born in a synestia structure produced by a high-energy impact. MVE depletion is due to incomplete condensation in the synestia envelope. (c) MRI-driven vapor drainage model of Charnoz & Michaut (2015) and Nie & Dauphas (2019). In this model, MRI in the protolunar disk (also see Carballido et al. 2016; Gammie et al. 2016; Mullen & Gammie 2020) drives a large fraction of the MVE-rich vapor layer to flow inward to be accreted by Earth. MVEs lost onto Earth are constantly replenished by evaporation from the liquid layer. (d) Tidally driven hydrodynamic escape of MVEs from the LMO (Sossi et al. 2019; Charnoz et al. 2021). Escape of MVEs from the LMO is a two-step process involving evaporation from silicate melt, followed by hydrodynamic escape to space facilitated by tidal pull from Earth. In their simplest forms, A and B are partial condensation models, while C and D are fractional evaporation models.
Paper: The Extent, Nature, and Origin of K and Rb Depletions and Isotopic Fractionations in Earth, the Moon, and Other Planetary Bodies
Authors: Nicolas Dauphas, Nicole X. Nie, Marc Blanchard, Zhe J. Zhang, Hao Zeng, Justin Y. Hu, Merlin Meheut, Channon Visscher, Robin Canup, and Timo Hopp
Figure caption: Comparison between measured Moon–Earth isotopic differences (y-axis) and predicted fractionations in the residual liquid for fractional equilibrium evaporation (Table 2 and Equation (23) and (35)). The temperature of 1000 K was considered by Sossi et al. (2019), but this is below the basalt solidus. The temperatures of 1250 and 1550 K are the approximate low-pressure basalt solidus (incipient melting) and liquidus (complete melting). The liquidus temperature could be more relevant to hydrodynamic escape from the LMO (Tang & Young 2020). The temperature of 2500 K was proposed by Wang et al. (2019) to explain the light Sn isotopic composition of the Moon by equilibrium evaporative loss from the protolunar disk. Metal in the LMO could have segregated into a core, so we only plot the results for isotopic fractionation between vapor and silicate at 1000, 1250, and 1550 K. In the disk at 2500 K, metal could have been present, so we show the predictions for both metal (blue filled circles) and silicate (red filled circles).
Paper: The Extent, Nature, and Origin of K and Rb Depletions and Isotopic Fractionations in Earth, the Moon, and Other Planetary Bodies
Authors: Nicolas Dauphas, Nicole X. Nie, Marc Blanchard, Zhe J. Zhang, Hao Zeng, Justin Y. Hu, Merlin Meheut, Channon Visscher, Robin Canup, and Timo Hopp
Figure caption: Comparison between measured Moon–Earth isotopic differences (y-axis) and predicted fractionations in the residual liquid for fractional evaporation in different undersaturation levels and temperatures of 3500 K (panels (a)–(c)) and 1600 K (panels (d)–(f)) (Table 2 and Equation (23)). The isotopic composition of the Moon for K can only be reproduced by evaporation with S ≃ 0.99 at 3500 K and S ≃ 0.995 at 1600 K (see text and Nie & Dauphas 2019 for details). The δ-notations refer to 41K/39K, 87Rb/85Rb, 65Cu/63Cu, 66Zn/64Zn, 71Ga/69Ga, and 124Sn/16Sn ratios. The 3500 K calculation would be relevant to the protolunar disk, when metal and silicate could have coexisted, so we show the predicted isotopic fractionations for the two liquids (metal: blue filled circles; silicate: red filled circles).
Paper: The Extent, Nature, and Origin of K and Rb Depletions and Isotopic Fractionations in Earth, the Moon, and Other Planetary Bodies
Authors: Nicolas Dauphas, Nicole X. Nie, Marc Blanchard, Zhe J. Zhang, Hao Zeng, Justin Y. Hu, Merlin Meheut, Channon Visscher, Robin Canup, and Timo Hopp
Figure caption: Evaporation timescales for reaching Moon-like depletions for Na and K in the protolunar disk (panel (a)) and the LMO (panel (b)) at 99% saturation (Equation (28); Figure 13). The lifetimes of the protolunar disk stage (∼100 yr; panel (a)) and exposed LMO (∼1000 yr until a plagioclase flotation crust forms; panel (b)) are indicated as dashed gray lines. For the protolunar disk, we assume an oxygen fugacity buffered by BSE liquid (Equation (30); Visscher & Fegley 2013; Canup et al. 2015). For the LMO, we consider two oxygen fugacities: one at BSE (Equation (30)), and the other at IW-1.5. Loss of Na and K in the protolunar disk at ∼3500 K would take ∼1 yr, meaning that there would be ample time to reach the levels of depletions seen in the Moon. Loss of Na and K from the LMO at ∼1700 K would take 0.5–18 Myr depending on the oxygen fugacity, meaning that a flotation crust would have formed before Na and K had a chance to escape the Moon. The two reasons for the difference in timescales between the two settings are (i) the lower equilibrium vapor pressures and escape flux in the LMO (1700 K) compared to the protolunar disk (3500 K) and (ii) the higher surface-to-volume ratio of a thin disk compared to a sphere.
Paper: The Extent, Nature, and Origin of K and Rb Depletions and Isotopic Fractionations in Earth, the Moon, and Other Planetary Bodies
Authors: Nicolas Dauphas, Nicole X. Nie, Marc Blanchard, Zhe J. Zhang, Hao Zeng, Justin Y. Hu, Merlin Meheut, Channon Visscher, Robin Canup, and Timo Hopp
Figure caption: Parameters influencing the kinetics of evaporation of Na and K in the protolunar disk and LMO. (a, b) Equilibrium vapor pressures of Na and K above a liquid of BSE composition as a function of temperature (see main text for “this study”; Visscher & Fegley 2013; Canup et al. 2015; Charnoz et al. 2021). Except otherwise noted (IW-1.5), all curves are given for an﹩{{\mathscr{f}}}_{{{\rm{O}}}_{2}}﹩ buffered by a liquid of BSE composition (Visscher & Fegley 2013). The lower Na and K equilibrium vapor pressures calculated here at BSE﹩{{\mathscr{f}}}_{{{\rm{O}}}_{2}}﹩ reflect the lower activity coefficients used (calculated from MELTS; Ghiorso et al. 2002). The higher equilibrium vapor pressures reported in Figure 14 of Charnoz et al. (2021) are inconsistent with the thermodynamic data that accompany that figure. (c, d) Activity coefficients Γ of NaO0.5 and KO0.5 in silicate liquid as a function of temperature (the results from MELTS are fitted as ΓNaO0.5 = e−19201/T+2.914, ΓKO0.5 = e−25614/T+3.7129; Ghiorso et al. 2002; Visscher & Fegley 2013; Canup et al. 2015; Charnoz et al. 2021) and comparison with existing experimental data in coal ash slags (Mueller et al. 2004). (e, f) Temperature dependence of the equilibrium constants of the reactions NaO0.5,l ↔ Nav + 0.25O2,v and KO0.5,l ↔ Kv + 0.25O2,v (calculated from Equations (33) and (34) using the relationship lnK = −ΔG/RT; Lamoreaux & Hildenbrand 1984; Visscher & Fegley 2013; Canup et al. 2015; Charnoz et al. 2021). Increases in activity coefficient (panels (c) and (d)) and equilibrium constant (panels (e) and (f)) with increasing temperature lead to higher equilibrium vapor pressures and faster vaporization.
Paper: The Mid-UV Spectrum of Irradiated NaCl at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: Michael E. Brown, William T.P. Denman, and Samantha K. Trumbo
Figure caption: The spectrum of NaCl irradiated at 80 and 120 K with 10 keV electrons. Spectra are shown relative to the spectrum of unirradiated NaCl, which is expected to be nearly spectrally flat through this region. The irradiation times are 15 minutes (black), 30 minutes (red), 1 hr (green), 2 hr (blue), 3 hr (turquoise), 4 hr (magenta), and 5 hr (orange). For the 80 K irradiation, dashed lines at 220 and 451 nm show the central wavelengths of the color centers, while at 120 K these shift to 453 and 215 nm.
Paper: The Mid-UV Spectrum of Irradiated NaCl at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: Michael E. Brown, William T.P. Denman, and Samantha K. Trumbo
Figure caption: NaCl irradiated at 80 K for 5 hr (black) compared to the same sample after termination of radiation, raising of the temperature to 120 K, and photobleaching at Europa-like fluxes for 2 hr. The F-center absorption decays and shifts redward with higher temperatures and photobleaching, the H-center absorption appears to dissipate entire, and the V3 absorption remains unchanged.
Paper: The Mid-UV Spectrum of Irradiated NaCl at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: Michael E. Brown, William T.P. Denman, and Samantha K. Trumbo
Figure caption: The sodium chloride sample after pressing into indium foil and pouring off nonattached grains. The surface area of the sample predominantly shows sodium chloride grains, though in the specular image on the right reflection can be seen from some small regions of bare indium.
Paper: The Mid-UV Spectrum of Irradiated NaCl at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: Michael E. Brown, William T.P. Denman, and Samantha K. Trumbo
Figure caption: A spectrum of pure indium foil irradiated for 3 hours at identical conditions to the NaCl experiments divided by the spectrum of unirradiated indium (equivalent to the turquoise-colored curves in Figure 1). Irradiation of indium causes no features larger than ±1.5% to appear in the reflectance spectrum.
Paper: The Influence of Temperature and Photobleaching on Irradiated Sodium Chloride at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: William T.P. Denman, Samantha K. Trumbo, and Michael E. Brown
Figure caption: Spectra of irradiated sodium chloride at 120 K with our high irradiation dosage and no photobleaching. M-center growth is observed after F-center saturation.
Paper: The Influence of Temperature and Photobleaching on Irradiated Sodium Chloride at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: William T.P. Denman, Samantha K. Trumbo, and Michael E. Brown
Figure caption: Irradiation at 120 K with systematic warming of the sample. This shows the redward shift of the F-center with temperature. The central wavelengths from 120 to 280 K are 451.2, 453.1, 454.1, 456.1, 457.6, 459.0, 460.5, 461.9, and 463.4 nm. The minimum values were found by doing a parabolic fit to the F-center range (400–500 nm) and then finding the wavelength minimum of the parabola.
Paper: The Influence of Temperature and Photobleaching on Irradiated Sodium Chloride at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: William T.P. Denman, Samantha K. Trumbo, and Michael E. Brown
Figure caption: Spectra of NaCl irradiated at medium irradiation for 15 minutes. Significant differences are seen in samples with indium foil at 120, and 200 K, and without indium foil. F-center growth is significantly faster for the 200 K and no indium foil samples, while the F-center wavelength is also shifted redward. For the no indium foil sample, M-center growth can already be seen. We conclude that the sample sitting on a 120 K cold finger but without indium foil to thermally couple it is even warmer than 200 K.
Paper: The Influence of Temperature and Photobleaching on Irradiated Sodium Chloride at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: William T.P. Denman, Samantha K. Trumbo, and Michael E. Brown
Figure caption: Spectrum of NaCl irradiated at low irradiation for 40 minutes with and without photobleaching. The central wavelength is the same for both spectra.
Paper: The Influence of Temperature and Photobleaching on Irradiated Sodium Chloride at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: William T.P. Denman, Samantha K. Trumbo, and Michael E. Brown
Figure caption: The average fractional absorption depth of the F-center from 425–475 nm vs. time of irradiation for our three irradiation levels, with and without photobleaching. In all cases, photobleaching slowed the growth of the F-centers, though the lamp is too weak to completely balance even the lowest electron irradiation level.
Paper: The Influence of Temperature and Photobleaching on Irradiated Sodium Chloride at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: William T.P. Denman, Samantha K. Trumbo, and Michael E. Brown
Figure caption: The average fractional absorption depth of the F-center from 425 to 475 nm with photobleaching postirradiation.
Paper: The Influence of Temperature and Photobleaching on Irradiated Sodium Chloride at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: William T.P. Denman, Samantha K. Trumbo, and Michael E. Brown
Figure caption: A simple numerical model showing the F-center fractional absorption as a function of Europa’s 85 hr rotation period, including the effects of continuous irradiation on Europa with solar flux dependent photobleaching during the daytime. The F-center grows over the course of the night and begins decaying soon after sunrise before recovering after sunset. The data points show the absorption depths of two HST measurements of identical regions within Tara Regio taken at different local times. The horizontal error bars show the geographic extent of the observed region. The F-center decay predicted by the model is observed on Europa.
Paper: The Influence of Temperature and Photobleaching on Irradiated Sodium Chloride at Europa-like Conditions
Authors: William T.P. Denman, Samantha K. Trumbo, and Michael E. Brown
Figure caption: HST observations of overlapping regions of Tara Regio in the morning and in the afternoon. Dashed lines are second-order polynomial continuum fits, which facilitate band-strength comparison. The continuum-removed absorption bands are shown below. The observed decay in the F-center absorption is consistent with the photobleaching decay predicted here.
Paper: Vortices and Dust Devils as Observed by the Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer Instruments on Board the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover
Authors: Brian Jackson
Figure caption: (a) The pressure time series for sol 82, as blue dots. The vertical orange lines highlight the detected vortex signals. (b) The time series after application of the mean boxcar filter. Apparent by eye, the scatter σΔP in the time series increases around mid-day. (c) Convolution of the matched filter with the time series in (b). (d) A model fit (solid orange line) to the deepest vortex discovered on sol 82. Uncertainties are shown but are barely larger than the point diameters.
Paper: Vortices and Dust Devils as Observed by the Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer Instruments on Board the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover
Authors: Brian Jackson
Figure caption: (a) RDS time series collected during the vortex encounter on sol 82 at t0 = 12:04 LTST. Each combination of line color and styles reflects a specific sensor as indicated in the legend. The filled gray band shows the FWHM (Γ) for the vortex encounter. (b) The same as in (a), except for an encounter on sol 30 at t0 = 18:18 LTST, showing no statistically significant excursion.
Paper: Vortices and Dust Devils as Observed by the Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer Instruments on Board the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover
Authors: Brian Jackson
Figure caption: (a) The best-fit ΔP0 and Γ values (blue dots) with error bars. (b) Cumulative histogram of Γ values, along with the median value (﹩{{\rm{\Gamma }}}_{\mathrm{obs}}=\left(20\pm 2\right)\,{\rm{s}}﹩) shown by the dashed, orange line. (c) Cumulative histogram of ΔP0 values, along with the median value (﹩{\rm{\Delta }}{P}_{\mathrm{obs}}=\left(0.49\pm 0.02\right)\,\mathrm{Pa}﹩) shown by the dashed, orange line. The dashed green line shows a power-law fit to the histogram for ΔP0 > 0.5 Pa with ﹩N\propto {\rm{\Delta }}{P}_{0}^{-1.99\pm 0.02}﹩, while the dashed–dotted black line shows a fit for P0 > 1.5 Pa with ﹩N\propto {\rm{\Delta }}{P}_{0}^{-2.47\pm 0.12}﹩.
Paper: Vortices and Dust Devils as Observed by the Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer Instruments on Board the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover
Authors: Brian Jackson
Figure caption: Results from an injection-recovery calculation using data from the sol with the largest scatter in ΔP (0.08 Pa), sol 82. The dashed black line shows the detection threshold, which corresponds to ΔP0 = 0.6 Pa. All but the very shortest or longest duration vortices with ΔP0 above that threshold are consistently recovered.
Paper: Vortices and Dust Devils as Observed by the Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer Instruments on Board the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover
Authors: Brian Jackson
Figure caption: (Top) When pressure data were collected during each sol. The orange dots also show when vortex signals were detected. (Bottom) The blue bars show the number of vortex encounters during each sol, while the orange bars show the number of encounters in each sol divided by the total number of hours during which the pressure sensor collected data (i.e., the corresponding number from the top panel). The dashed orange lines show sols when pressure data were available but were flawed or inadequate and so excluded for our analysis. The gray dashed–dotted lines show sols when data were unavailable. (For the sols near 40 with no bars, we found no encounters, probably because no data were collected near mid-day on those sols.) Solid black lines indicate Ls-values.
Paper: Vortices and Dust Devils as Observed by the Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer Instruments on Board the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover
Authors: Brian Jackson
Figure caption: The blue bars show the total number of vortex encounters that took place during that hour over the whole 89 sol data set, while the orange bars show that number divided by the total number of hours during that period each sol observed throughout the 89 sol data set.
Paper: Vortices and Dust Devils as Observed by the Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer Instruments on Board the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover
Authors: Brian Jackson
Figure caption: (a) RDS excursions vs. the observed ΔP0 value for the vortex encounters. (b) RDS excursions vs. the time of sol for the encounter. Error bars for all estimated variables are shown but are smaller than the plot symbol in most cases.
Paper: A Cross-laboratory Comparison Study of Titan Haze Analogs: Surface Energy
Authors: Jialin Li, Xinting Yu, Ella Sciamma-O'Brien, Chao He, Joshua A. Sebree, Farid Salama, Sarah M. Hörst, and Xi Zhang
Figure caption: Schematic of the three experimental setups used to produce tholins in this study: (a) the PAC facility at UNI, (b) the PHAZER facility at JHU, and (c) the COSmIC facility at NASA ARC.
Paper: A Cross-laboratory Comparison Study of Titan Haze Analogs: Surface Energy
Authors: Jialin Li, Xinting Yu, Ella Sciamma-O'Brien, Chao He, Joshua A. Sebree, Farid Salama, Sarah M. Hörst, and Xi Zhang
Figure caption: (a) Osilla’s polynomial fit for acquiring the contact angle formed between water and the ARC-Plasma-Ar-1 tholin sample. The left and right contact angles are both above 10°. Note that the average values of the left and right contact angles are used in the surface energy calculations. (b) Osilla’s circle fit for the contact angle formed between water and the JHU-Plasma tholin sample with contact angle below 10°.
Paper: A Cross-laboratory Comparison Study of Titan Haze Analogs: Surface Energy
Authors: Jialin Li, Xinting Yu, Ella Sciamma-O'Brien, Chao He, Joshua A. Sebree, Farid Salama, Sarah M. Hörst, and Xi Zhang
Figure caption: Contact angle variation with time for all tholin samples after the immediate formation of a sessile drop on the surfaces of the tholin samples for one selected water droplet (left) and one selected diiodomethane droplet (right) per sample. We fit the contact angle variation with time data with a combination of exponential and linear fits for water. The fitting functions along with their corresponding R2 values are shown for each tholin sample. Exponential fittings are only performed for samples with a dissolution-driven decay (JHU-Plasma, ARC-Plasma-N2-1, and ARC-Plasma-N2-2). ARC-Plasma-N2-1 and ARC-Plasma-N2-2 stand for ARC-Plasma-N2:CH4 (95:5) and ARC-Plasma-N2:CH4:C2H2 (94.5:5:0.5), respectively; ARC-Plasma-Ar-1 and ARC-Plasma-Ar-2 stand for ARC-Plasma-Ar:CH4 (95:5) and ARC-Plasma-Ar:CH4:C2H2 (94.9:5:0.1), respectively.
Paper: A Cross-laboratory Comparison Study of Titan Haze Analogs: Surface Energy
Authors: Jialin Li, Xinting Yu, Ella Sciamma-O'Brien, Chao He, Joshua A. Sebree, Farid Salama, Sarah M. Hörst, and Xi Zhang
Figure caption: Surface energy components of the seven tholin samples, along with their associated 1σ standard deviations, calculated using the OWRK method. Left: calculated dispersive components (﹩{\gamma }_{{sv}}^{d}﹩) (in yellow). Right: calculated polar components (﹩{\gamma }_{{sv}}^{p}﹩) (in orange). The four samples produced in the N2:CH4 (95:5) mixture more representative of Titan’s atmospheric composition are highlighted in the red boxes.
Paper: A Cross-laboratory Comparison Study of Titan Haze Analogs: Surface Energy
Authors: Jialin Li, Xinting Yu, Ella Sciamma-O'Brien, Chao He, Joshua A. Sebree, Farid Salama, Sarah M. Hörst, and Xi Zhang
Figure caption: Contact angle variation over 300 s for the JHU-Plasma sample with diiodomethane as the test liquid, along with a linear fit for the decay and the R2 value of the fit.
Paper: Gravity Investigation of Saturn’s Inner System with the Innovative Skimmer Concept
Authors: Marzia Parisi, Mar Vaquero, Matthew M. Hedman, and Matthew S. Tiscareno
Figure caption: Sketch of Saturn’s D, C, B, A, and F rings, as seen from the planet’s north pole. These regions extend from about 1.1 to 2.3 Saturn’s radii. While most of the ring mass is concentrated in the A, B, and C regions, the F ring hosts a population of small moons.