adsabs/AstroCLIMB huggingface dataset:
Paper: New Roads to the Small-scale Universe: Measurements of the Clustering of Matter with the High-redshift UV Galaxy Luminosity Function
Authors: Nashwan Sabti, Julian B. Muñoz, Diego Blas
Figure caption: Measurements of the matter power spectrum (of DM and baryons only) linearly extrapolated to redshift z = 0. The two black data points are the results of this work and obtained with the UV LF data from Oesch et al. (2018) and Bouwens et al. (2021), where we imposed a prior from Planck 2018 CMB observations (TTTEEE+lowE+lensing) to constrain the small-k behavior. The colored data points represent measurements using Planck 2018 CMB (Aghanim et al. 2020), DES cosmic shear (Troxel et al. 2018), SDSS galaxy clustering (Reid et al. 2010), and SDSS Lyα (Abolfathi et al. 2018) data (see Chabanier et al. 2019 for more details). The black line is the prediction within ΛCDM using the best-fit values from Planck 2018 (Aghanim et al. 2020). All uncertainties in this figure are at 68% CL.
Paper: New Roads to the Small-scale Universe: Measurements of the Clustering of Matter with the High-redshift UV Galaxy Luminosity Function
Authors: Nashwan Sabti, Julian B. Muñoz, Diego Blas
Figure caption: Posteriors for the large-scale clustering amplitude σ 8 versus the matter density parameter Ωm. The inner (outer) contours represent the 68% (95%) confidence levels. Our result (in blue, where we used HST UV LF data (Oesch et al. 2018; Bouwens et al. 2021), Pantheon supernovae distance moduli determinations (Jones et al. 2018; Scolnic et al. 2018), and baryon density inferences from primordial-abundance measurements (Pisanti et al. 2021)) is shown along with the KV450+DES-Y1 cosmic shear analysis from Joudaki et al. (2020; green), the BOSS full-shape galaxy power spectra and BAO analysis from Philcox et al. (2020; red), and the Planck CMB analysis from Aghanim et al. (2020; yellow). Note that the supernova and primordial-abundance data used in our analysis here only constrain Ωm and ω b, respectively, and do not contain any information on σ 8. In all cases, the total sum of the neutrino masses is fixed to ∑m  ν  = 0.06 eV.
Paper: New Roads to the Small-scale Universe: Measurements of the Clustering of Matter with the High-redshift UV Galaxy Luminosity Function
Authors: Nashwan Sabti, Julian B. Muñoz, Diego Blas
Figure caption: Illustration of the redshift and wavenumber ranges probed by different types of observations. These include Milky Way (MW) satellites (Banik et al. 2021), cosmic shear (Abbott et al. 2022) and luminous red galaxy (LRG; Chabanier et al. 2019) surveys, CMB (Aghanim et al. 2020a) and CMB lensing (Abazajian et al. 2016) observations, the Lyα forest (Chabanier et al. 2019), and (future) 21 cm (Muñoz et al. 2020) data. The blue region corresponds to our UV LF studies and covers scales and times that are currently inaccessible with other probes. For reference, the right axis is a rough estimate of the corresponding halo masses at redshift z = 0, and the region above the black line indicates the nonlinear regime.
Paper: New Roads to the Small-scale Universe: Measurements of the Clustering of Matter with the High-redshift UV Galaxy Luminosity Function
Authors: Nashwan Sabti, Julian B. Muñoz, Diego Blas
Figure caption: Global fit of our fiducial model to the UV LF data from the HST (Oesch et al. 2018; Bouwens et al. 2021). The data points shown here are corrected for dust attenuation and the Alcock–Paczyński effect. For illustration purposes, the top axis shows the corresponding halo masses at redshift z = 6 within our best-fit model.
Paper: A Disk Instability Model for the Quasi-periodic Eruptions of GSN 069
Authors: Xin Pan, Shuang-Liang Li, Xinwu Cao, Giovanni Miniutti, Minfeng Gu
Figure caption: The 0.4–2 keV light curve, where the black line represents the light curve given by our model and the colored lines are the seven phase segments of eruption to fit the X-ray spectrum in Figure 4. The gray dots are the data observed by XMM-Newton Director Discretionary Time (DDT) performed on 2019 January 16/17.
Paper: A Disk Instability Model for the Quasi-periodic Eruptions of GSN 069
Authors: Xin Pan, Shuang-Liang Li, Xinwu Cao, Giovanni Miniutti, Minfeng Gu
Figure caption: The 0.4–2 keV light curves and phase-resolved spectral analysis under different parameter groups. Panels (a)–(c), (d)–(f), and (g)–(i) correspond to M = 4 × 105 M ⊙, f = 1 (zero-torque condition), and a * = 0.9, respectively. The best-fitting parameters of panels (a)–(c), (d)–(f), and (g)–(i) correspond to Group 2, Group 3, and Group 4 in Table 1, respectively.
Paper: A Disk Instability Model for the Quasi-periodic Eruptions of GSN 069
Authors: Xin Pan, Shuang-Liang Li, Xinwu Cao, Giovanni Miniutti, Minfeng Gu
Figure caption: The 0.4–2 keV light curve, where L const is the luminosity of outer constant disk and the value of μ in the top, middle, and bottom panels are 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4, respectively. Other parameters adopted in this figure are f = 0.9, ﹩\dot{m}=0.1{\dot{M}}_{\mathrm{Edd}}﹩, α = 0.15, β 1 = 50, and ΔR = 0.1R s.
Paper: A Disk Instability Model for the Quasi-periodic Eruptions of GSN 069
Authors: Xin Pan, Shuang-Liang Li, Xinwu Cao, Giovanni Miniutti, Minfeng Gu
Figure caption: Phase-resolved Spectral analysis of GSN 069. The colored points with various shapes are the observational data after doing corrections of instrumental effective area and absorption.
Paper: A Disk Instability Model for the Quasi-periodic Eruptions of GSN 069
Authors: Xin Pan, Shuang-Liang Li, Xinwu Cao, Giovanni Miniutti, Minfeng Gu
Figure caption: The light curves normalized by the peak flux in three different energy bands. The red, green, and blue lines correspond to the 0.2–0.3 keV, 0.4–0.5 keV, and 0.8–1 keV light curves, respectively.
Paper: A Disk Instability Model for the Quasi-periodic Eruptions of GSN 069
Authors: Xin Pan, Shuang-Liang Li, Xinwu Cao, Giovanni Miniutti, Minfeng Gu
Figure caption: The schematic picture of our model. The outer blue region represents a stable thin disk dominated by gas pressure and the inner orange region is the unstable zone dominated by radiation pressure.
Paper: Markovian Features of the Solar Wind at Subproton Scales
Authors: Simone Benella, Mirko Stumpo, Giuseppe Consolini, Tommaso Alberti, Vincenzo Carbone, Monica Laurenza
Figure caption: Comparison between observed (red curves) and reconstructed (blue curves) conditional probabilities at different timescales for minimum (upper panels), intermediate (middle panels), and maximum (lower panels) variance directions. The timescale differences 2 Δτ = τ 3 − τ 1 for the CK test are 0.0068 s (panels a, d, and g), 0.02 s (panels b, e, and h), and 1.0 s (panels c, f, and i).
Paper: Markovian Features of the Solar Wind at Subproton Scales
Authors: Simone Benella, Mirko Stumpo, Giuseppe Consolini, Tommaso Alberti, Vincenzo Carbone, Monica Laurenza
Figure caption: Left panel: the time series of the minimum (B 1), intermediate (B 2), and maximum (B 3) variance components of the magnetic field. Right panel: the corresponding PSDs. Dashed lines refer to power-law trends characterized by spectral slopes −3/2 at low frequencies and −8/3 at high frequencies, respectively.
Paper: Schwarzschild and Ledoux are Equivalent on Evolutionary Timescales
Authors: Evan H. Anders, Adam S. Jermyn, Daniel Lecoanet, Adrian E. Fraser, Imogen G. Cresswell, Meridith Joyce, J. R. Fuentes
Figure caption: Horizontally averaged profiles of the composition (top), the discriminants ﹩{{ \mathcal Y }}_{{\rm{S}}}﹩ and ﹩{{ \mathcal Y }}_{{\rm{L}}}﹩ (middle, Equations (1) and (2)), and important frequencies (bottom, the Brunt–Väisälä  frequency ﹩{N}^{2}=-{{ \mathcal Y }}_{{\rm{L}}}﹩ and the square convective frequency ﹩{f}_{\mathrm{conv}}^{2}﹩; see Equation (3)). Positive and negative values are respectively shown by the solid and dashed lines. We show the initial (left) and evolved (right, time-averaged over 100 convective overturn times) states. There are no motions in the initial state, so ﹩{f}_{\mathrm{conv}}^{2}=0﹩ and does not appear. The background color is orange in the CZ, green in the SZ, and purple in the RZ. The lightly hashed background region in the evolved RZ is the mechanical overshoot zone.
Paper: Markovian Features of the Solar Wind at Subproton Scales
Authors: Simone Benella, Mirko Stumpo, Giuseppe Consolini, Tommaso Alberti, Vincenzo Carbone, Monica Laurenza
Figure caption: Comparison of the empirical PDFs p(b  i,τ ) obtained from the PSP data at different scales (colored lines) with the numerical solutions (dashed lines), panels (a), (b), and (c). All the curves are shifted in the vertical direction for clarity of presentation and correspond to the following timescales, from top to bottom: 0.051, 0.044, 0.031, 0.017, and 0.0068 s. Panels (d), (e), and (f) show the data collapsing of empirical PDFs, circles, along with the best fit of the stationary solution (18), solid lines.
Paper: Schwarzschild and Ledoux are Equivalent on Evolutionary Timescales
Authors: Evan H. Anders, Adam S. Jermyn, Daniel Lecoanet, Adrian E. Fraser, Imogen G. Cresswell, Meridith Joyce, J. R. Fuentes
Figure caption: A Kippenhahn-like diagram of the simulation evolution. The y-axis is the simulation height, and the x-axis is the simulation time. The orange line denotes the Ledoux convective boundary (﹩{{ \mathcal Y }}_{{\rm{L}}}=0﹩); the CZ is below this and is colored orange. The purple line denotes the Schwarzschild convective boundary (﹩{{ \mathcal Y }}_{{\rm{S}}}=0﹩); the RZ is above this and is colored purple. The SZ between these boundaries is colored green. The black line denotes the top of the overshoot zone, which is hashed. The simulation has an “entrainment phase”, in which the CZ expands, and a pure “overshoot phase,” in which the convective boundary remains stationary.
Paper: Markovian Features of the Solar Wind at Subproton Scales
Authors: Simone Benella, Mirko Stumpo, Giuseppe Consolini, Tommaso Alberti, Vincenzo Carbone, Monica Laurenza
Figure caption: First, second, and fourth-order finite-size KM coefficients for b 1,τ  (left), b 2,τ  (center), and b 3,τ  (right) at scale τ = 0.01 s. Solid lines represent the ﹩{D}_{{\tau }_{s}}^{\left(1,2\right)}({b}_{i,\tau })﹩ best fit and ﹩{D}_{{\tau }_{s}}^{\left(4\right)}({b}_{i,\tau })=0﹩.
Paper: The Local Group Mass in the Light of Gaia
Authors: David Benisty, Eugene Vasiliev, N. Wyn Evans, Anne-Christine Davis, Odelia V. Hartl, Louis E. Strigari
Figure caption: The separation of the LG as t → 0 (the Big Bang) for different masses with different tangential velocities: ﹩{v}_{\tan }=17\,\mathrm{km}\,{{\rm{s}}}^{-1}﹩ (orange; van der Marel et al. 2012), ﹩{v}_{\tan }=57\,\mathrm{km}\,{{\rm{s}}}^{-1}﹩ (green; van der Marel et al. 2019), and ﹩{v}_{\tan }=82.5\,\mathrm{km}\,{{\rm{s}}}^{-1}﹩ (red; Salomon et al. 2021). The minimum separation gives the mass of the LG implied by the TA.
Paper: The Local Group Mass in the Light of Gaia
Authors: David Benisty, Eugene Vasiliev, N. Wyn Evans, Anne-Christine Davis, Odelia V. Hartl, Louis E. Strigari
Figure caption: Posterior distribution of values of M31's radial and tangential velocity for two sets of Monte Carlo samples generated from the same PM measurements by Salomon et al. (2021): using the prior on the magnitude of v tan from van der Marel & Guhathakurta (2008) results in lower values (short dashes) while using the raw PM measurements without any reweighting produces higher values (long dashes). In both cases, the radial velocity is ≃−114 ± 1 km s−1. After compensating for the LMC perturbation as described in Section 3.3, we find that v tan is increased by 25–30 km s−1, and v rad is shifted to −75 ± 15 km s−1. This distribution is shown by the short– and long–dotted–dashed contours and shaded in green. These distributions are compared to the radial and tangential velocities of galaxy pairs selected from the IllustrisTNG cosmological simulation, in which the mass correction factor is computed as the ratio of the actual combined mass of both galaxies to the mass obtained from TA, as described in Hartl & Strigari (2022, in preparation) and Section 3.4. Points in the left panel are colored according to the correction factor, while the right panel shows the histogram of correction factors in the sample of galaxy pairs.
Paper: The Local Group Mass in the Light of Gaia
Authors: David Benisty, Eugene Vasiliev, N. Wyn Evans, Anne-Christine Davis, Odelia V. Hartl, Louis E. Strigari
Figure caption: The posterior distribution of the tangential velocity and the inferred LG mass. The left panel shows the distribution of M31's tangential velocities in two cases: “low” (short dashes) uses the prior from van der Marel & Guhathakurta (2008), “high” (long dashes) uses just raw proper motion measurements from Salomon et al. (2021) without any further reweighting. In both cases, we also show the velocity that would be measured in the absence of the LMC, as explained in Section 3.3 (short– and long–dotted–dashed respectively). The right panel shows the distribution of LG masses for the high-v tan case only (the results for the low v tan case are very similar) in four possible combinations: pure TA (dashed red), compensating for the LMC perturbation (dotted–dashed green), multiplying the inferred mass by a cosmic bias correction factor A sampled from the distribution obtained by Hartl & Strigari (2022, in preparation) as explained in Section 3.4 (dotted purple), and including both corrections (solid blue). The center panel shows the 1σ and 2σ contours of the two-dimensional posterior distribution of both quantities for three of these cases (omitting TA+CB for clarity), using the same colors and line styles as in the right panel.
Paper: The Local Group Mass in the Light of Gaia
Authors: David Benisty, Eugene Vasiliev, N. Wyn Evans, Anne-Christine Davis, Odelia V. Hartl, Louis E. Strigari
Figure caption: Comparison of recent estimates of the LG mass, shown as best fit and 68% confidence intervals. The red vertical band shows the range ﹩{3.7}_{-0.5}^{+0.5}\times {10}^{12}{M}_{\odot }﹩ computed using the recent estimates of the mass of the Milky Way and M31 with the claimed observational errors. (Here, VT = virial theorem, TA = timing argument, CB = cosmic bias. A number of authors used LG analogues extracted from cosmological simulations but differed in the use of interpolating methods, namely NN = neural networks, Li = likelihood, DE = likelihood-free density estimation.)
Paper: Temporal Scattering, Depolarization, and Persistent Radio Emission from Magnetized Inhomogeneous Environments near Repeating Fast Radio Burst Sources
Authors: Yuan-Pei Yang, Wenbin Lu, Yi Feng, Bing Zhang, Di Li
Figure caption: Schematic configuration of an FRB propagating in a magnetized inhomogeneous plasma screen. The yellow regions correspond to clumps with a diffractive length scale l diff. The top left corner shows the polarization directions of electromagnetic waves from each clump, when the visible part of the plasma screen faces the observer.
Paper: Hot Circumsingle Disks Drive Binary Black Hole Mergers in Active Galactic Nucleus Disks
Authors: Ya-Ping Li, Adam M. Dempsey, Hui Li, Shengtai Li, Jiaru Li
Figure caption: Upper panel: scatter plot of ﹩{\dot{a}}_{\mathrm{bin}}/{a}_{\mathrm{bin}}﹩ for different T 0 and γ CSD. Symbols with plus (⊕) and minus (⊖) signs correspond to expanding and contracting BBHs. The gray line is the boundary between expansion and contraction, where ﹩{T}_{{\rm{c}}}=2.4\exp ({\gamma }_{\mathrm{CSD}})﹩. The narrow green shaded region indicates the parameter space covered by isolated binary simulations (γ CSD = 1), for which all models show that the BBHs are expanding (Tang et al. 2017; Moody et al. 2019; Muñoz et al. 2019, 2020; Duffell et al. 2020; Heath & Nixon 2020; Tiede et al. 2020; Dittmann & Ryan 2021; D’Orazio & Duffell 2021; Zrake et al. 2021). Lower left panel: ﹩{\dot{a}}_{\mathrm{bin}}/{a}_{\mathrm{bin}}﹩ as a function of T 0 for different γ CSD. The ﹩{\dot{a}}_{\mathrm{bin}}/{a}_{\mathrm{bin}}﹩ of the control run with T 0 = 0 is shown as the black solid line. Lower right panel: the radial temperature profile around the CSD for all models. The blue dashed (red solid) lines correspond to expanding (contracting) BBHs. The vertical dotted line shows the size of CSD (δ r ≈ 0.4a bin), and the horizontal dotted line illustrates the boundary between a “hot” and “cold” CSD where ﹩T(0.4{a}_{\mathrm{bin}})/{H}_{0}^{2}{{\rm{\Omega }}}_{0}^{2}\approx 3.3﹩.
Paper: Hot Circumsingle Disks Drive Binary Black Hole Mergers in Active Galactic Nucleus Disks
Authors: Ya-Ping Li, Adam M. Dempsey, Hui Li, Shengtai Li, Jiaru Li
Figure caption: Azimuthally and time-averaged gravitational torques exerted on the binary component, which are calculated by centering on each BH for three simulations with γ CSD = 1 and T 0 = 0, 10, and 20. The upper panels display the torque density, t ex, while the lower panels show the cumulative torque ﹩{T}_{g}={\int }_{0}^{\delta r}{t}_{\mathrm{ex}}(r){dr}﹩. Red and green lines correspond to the torques on each individual BH, while the black lines are their sum and correspond to the total torque on the BBH. The vertical dashed lines mark the three torquing regions discussed in the text. Gas outside of δ r ∼ 3 a bin provides little to no torque on the BBH. Thus, the sign of T g at that location determines whether the BBH contracts (T g < 0) or expands (T g > 0).
Paper: Hot Circumsingle Disks Drive Binary Black Hole Mergers in Active Galactic Nucleus Disks
Authors: Ya-Ping Li, Adam M. Dempsey, Hui Li, Shengtai Li, Jiaru Li
Figure caption: Binary semimajor axis evolution rate for four models with T 0 = 0 (black lines), T 0 = 10 (blue lines), T 0 = 20 (red lines), and T 0 = 20 with a smaller softening of 0.075a bin (magenta dashed lines). All of the models with T 0 > 0 adopt γ CSD = 1.0. The time is measured in units of the BBH orbital period. The upper panel shows the ﹩{\dot{a}}_{\mathrm{bin}}/{a}_{\mathrm{bin}}﹩ without time-averaging, and the lower panel is time-averaged over about two binary orbits. All simulations converge in approximately ∼4000 BBH orbits.
Paper: Hot Circumsingle Disks Drive Binary Black Hole Mergers in Active Galactic Nucleus Disks
Authors: Ya-Ping Li, Adam M. Dempsey, Hui Li, Shengtai Li, Jiaru Li
Figure caption: Stacked gas surface density (first column) and specific gravitational torque density dT g,1/dA on one component of the binary (second and third columns) for the simulations shown in Figure 2. The coordinate system (x, y) is the frame corotating with BH 2. The summation of dT g,1/dA (second column) over the symmetric center gives the symmetric component of the torque density (see Equation (9); third column). The fourth column shows the cumulative radial torques for four different regions shown in the third column. Cold CSDs have stronger positive torques that can overcome the negative torques from the cavity and outer spiral arms.
Paper: Hot Circumsingle Disks Drive Binary Black Hole Mergers in Active Galactic Nucleus Disks
Authors: Ya-Ping Li, Adam M. Dempsey, Hui Li, Shengtai Li, Jiaru Li
Figure caption: Azimuthally and time-averaged accretion rates across the CBD for model T 0 = 10 (blue line) and T 0 = 20 (red line) at the end of our simulations. Both are with γ CSD = 1.0. The accretion rates are calculated in the frame comoving with the center of mass of the BBH (not relative to each BBH component as defined previously.) A nearly constant zero rate far from the BBH suggests a steady state for the nonaccreting BBH.
Paper: Eclipse Timing the Milky Way’s Gravitational Potential
Authors: Sukanya Chakrabarti, Daniel J. Stevens, Jason Wright, Roman R. Rafikov, Philip Chang, Thomas Beatty, Daniel Huber
Figure caption: (Top) The shift in the eclipse midpoint time Δt  c,i  (where i refers to each individual physical acceleration mechanism) over a time baseline of a decade due to individual acceleration mechanisms, assuming low eccentricity (e = 0.01). Here, the shift in the midpoint time due to tidal decay is an upper limit, as we have assumed that the stars are not synchronized. Assuming that the stars are synchronized, this suggests that the effective parameter space for nearly circular EBs corresponds to P  b  > 15 days, where other dynamical mechanisms lead to a Δt  c,i  that is smaller than that produced by the Galactic potential. (Middle) The contributions to Δt c,i for the EBs analyzed by Windemuth et al. (2019). Assuming that the stars are tidally synchronized, there are 230 EBs for which the Galactic signal can be extracted (i.e., for a set, Δt  c,quad tidal< 0.1 s; other contaminants to the Galactic signal are subdominant). (Bottom) Histogram showing the contribution to Δt  c  from a realization of a synthetic population including stars that trace the Galactic signal (blue) and circumbinary planets (red). The level of overlap is minimal, and we can expect that circumbinary planets are not a significant contaminant to the Galactic signal.
Paper: Analysis of a JWST NIRSpec Lab Time Series: Characterizing Systematics, Recovering Exoplanet Transit Spectroscopy, and Constraining a Noise Floor
Authors: Zafar Rustamkulov, David K. Sing, Rongrong Liu, Ashley Wang
Figure caption: Overview of the NIRSpec PRISM CV3 time-series observation. (a) The mean-normalized white light curve with and without 1/f correction. (b) The x and y shifts of the PSF relative to the middle integration. The gray region shows the 1σ rms jitter requirement of JWST over 104 s. (c) The raw relative spectrophotometry after shift stabilization, 1/f noise subtraction, and extraction. Note the strong light-source flickers and trends. (d) Same as (c), but after a common-mode correction that mostly removes the systematics imparted by the unstable light source.
Paper: Eclipse Timing the Milky Way’s Gravitational Potential
Authors: Sukanya Chakrabarti, Daniel J. Stevens, Jason Wright, Roman R. Rafikov, Philip Chang, Thomas Beatty, Daniel Huber
Figure caption: Galactocentric R and z coordinates for the EBs from Windemuth et al. (2019) that have Δt  c,quad tidal < 0.1 s and an additional (70) sources from the Kepler Villanova catalog that have low eccentricities (e ∼ 0.01) with timing precision better than 1 s (for reference, the Sun is at R = 8.1 kpc, z = 0.05 pc). The color bar denotes their estimated HST mideclipse timing errors σ  tc , with bluer colors denoting better precision and redder colors denoting worse precision. We expect HST to measure the mideclipse times to subsecond precision for many of these sources. A precision of ∼0.1 s allows us to measure the Galactic acceleration at ∼kiloparsec distances on a per-star basis, while lower precisions will still allow for statistical measurement.
Paper: Analysis of a JWST NIRSpec Lab Time Series: Characterizing Systematics, Recovering Exoplanet Transit Spectroscopy, and Constraining a Noise Floor
Authors: Zafar Rustamkulov, David K. Sing, Rongrong Liu, Ashley Wang
Figure caption: Overview of the lamp spectrum. Top: a single 0.45 s integration of the lamp spectrum summed along the cross-dispersion axis. Prominent frost absorption features in NIRSpec’s optical path sculpt the spectrum’s shape. Bottom: a single log-stretched raw NIRSpec PRISM frame. The aspect ratio of the detector is vertically exaggerated by a factor of ∼2 for clarity.
Paper: Analysis of a JWST NIRSpec Lab Time Series: Characterizing Systematics, Recovering Exoplanet Transit Spectroscopy, and Constraining a Noise Floor
Authors: Zafar Rustamkulov, David K. Sing, Rongrong Liu, Ashley Wang
Figure caption: (a) The injected transit light-curve photometry of GJ 436 b in the relatively systematics-free 3.77–4.17 μm channel (tomato points) and the best-fitting joint model (gray line). (b) Residual scatter as a function of bin size for the 3.77–4.17 μm channel (black points) with the best-fitting noise components (solid lines) and the photon shot noise limit (dashed line).