adsabs/AstroCLIMB huggingface dataset:
Paper: A Machine Learning Framework to Predict Images of Edge-on Protoplanetary Disks
Authors: Zoie Telkamp, Jorge Martínez-Palomera, Gaspard Duchêne, Aishabibi Ashimbekova, Edward Wolfe, Isabel Angelo, Christophe Pinte
Figure caption: T-SNE projection color-coded by dust mass (left) and surface density exponent (right). The left panel provides an example of a parameter that is well correlated with the latent space, whereas the right panel is an example of a parameter with weak or no correlation with the latent space.
Paper: A Machine Learning Framework to Predict Images of Edge-on Protoplanetary Disks
Authors: Zoie Telkamp, Jorge Martínez-Palomera, Gaspard Duchêne, Aishabibi Ashimbekova, Edward Wolfe, Isabel Angelo, Christophe Pinte
Figure caption: Comparison of EOD images computed through the standard RT approach (top row) and through the end-to-end machine learning pipeline (second row from top). As in Figure 3, the bottom two rows show the difference between the two and a histogram of the residuals for all pixels with a brightness of at least 3% of the peak, in either the ML or RT image. Unlike the reconstructions shown in Figure 3, these images were generated directly from physical parameters.
Paper: A Machine Learning Framework to Predict Images of Edge-on Protoplanetary Disks
Authors: Zoie Telkamp, Jorge Martínez-Palomera, Gaspard Duchêne, Aishabibi Ashimbekova, Edward Wolfe, Isabel Angelo, Christophe Pinte
Figure caption: Comparison of predicted images from both machine learning models. The middle row represents the true images obtained from the RT model from random combinations of physical parameters. The second and fourth rows are the images recreated by the AE and the FM, respectively. The first and last rows show the residuals from the RT image (i.e., RT—ML, where ML is a model either FM or AE).
Paper: A Machine Learning Framework to Predict Images of Edge-on Protoplanetary Disks
Authors: Zoie Telkamp, Jorge Martínez-Palomera, Gaspard Duchêne, Aishabibi Ashimbekova, Edward Wolfe, Isabel Angelo, Christophe Pinte
Figure caption: Spearman pairwise correlation coefficients between latent and physical parameters (vertical and horizontal axes, respectively). Greater color saturation indicates a stronger connection between parameters.
Paper: A Machine Learning Framework to Predict Images of Edge-on Protoplanetary Disks
Authors: Zoie Telkamp, Jorge Martínez-Palomera, Gaspard Duchêne, Aishabibi Ashimbekova, Edward Wolfe, Isabel Angelo, Christophe Pinte
Figure caption: Training (blue) and test (orange) loss values over epoch number. The loss values decrease rapidly during the first few epochs of the training process before converging. The test losses are more erratic because of the much smaller number of models involved.
Paper: A Machine Learning Framework to Predict Images of Edge-on Protoplanetary Disks
Authors: Zoie Telkamp, Jorge Martínez-Palomera, Gaspard Duchêne, Aishabibi Ashimbekova, Edward Wolfe, Isabel Angelo, Christophe Pinte
Figure caption: Distribution of loss values for roughly 15,000 individual images computed with the FM and AE models (blue and orange histograms, respectively), indicating that the latter generally performs significantly better than the former.
Paper: A Machine Learning Framework to Predict Images of Edge-on Protoplanetary Disks
Authors: Zoie Telkamp, Jorge Martínez-Palomera, Gaspard Duchêne, Aishabibi Ashimbekova, Edward Wolfe, Isabel Angelo, Christophe Pinte
Figure caption: Schematic showing the image generation process from physical parameters, either through the radiative transfer code or through the machine learning pipeline.
Paper: Far-ultraviolet Flares on Accreting Protostars: Weak and Classical T Tauri Stellar Pair Analysis
Authors: P. C. Hinton, Kevin France, Maria Gracia Batista, Javier Serna, Jesús Hernández, Hans Moritz Günther, Adam F. Kowalski, P. Christian Schneider
Figure caption: Simulated S IV light curve of TW Hya (Δt = 20 s, 18.6 hr total). ﹩{F}_{\mathrm{WTTS},{M}^{* }}﹩ is AD Leo’s light curve shown in Figure 1 scaled to TWA-7, and ﹩{F}_{q,\mathrm{WTTS},{M}^{* }}﹩ is the quiescent flux. F  q,CTTS is the quiescent flux of TW Hya. The y-axis is TWA-7's hypothetical flare signal (﹩{F}_{\mathrm{WTTS},{M}^{* }}-{F}_{q,\mathrm{WTTS},{M}^{* }}﹩) added to TW Hya’s quiescent flux. The uncertainties in the template fluxes are added in quadrature with the rms of the CTTS quiescent flux—the latter heavily dominates. As a result, the shaded green region effectively represents the 1σ level on the CTTS quiescent flux. The underlying gray line represents the CTTS quiescent flux. The 3σ and 5σ levels are overplotted in orange and red. The result demonstrates how the flare signals, demarcated by red crosses, would penetrate above the CTTS rms noise. This figure indicates that we expect to detect roughly one 5σ and one 3σ flare on TW Hya in 67 ks of observing time.
Paper: Far-ultraviolet Flares on Accreting Protostars: Weak and Classical T Tauri Stellar Pair Analysis
Authors: P. C. Hinton, Kevin France, Maria Gracia Batista, Javier Serna, Jesús Hernández, Hans Moritz Günther, Adam F. Kowalski, P. Christian Schneider
Figure caption: S IV light curve of all STIS E140M observations of AD Leo (Δt = 20 s, 18.6 hr total). The y-axis is flux, and the x-axis is time. While time is shown as continuous, each vertical green line represents a gap in time—sometimes years in length. The vertical green text displays the HST ID and the start Modified Julian Date (MJD) of each observation. Overlaid pink numbers are approximate flux-to-quiescence ratios for the peaks of the larger flare events. This figure visually demonstrates the frequency of FUV flares on active M dwarfs and is one of the templates used for hypothetical WTTS flare stars in this study.
Paper: Far-ultraviolet Flares on Accreting Protostars: Weak and Classical T Tauri Stellar Pair Analysis
Authors: P. C. Hinton, Kevin France, Maria Gracia Batista, Javier Serna, Jesús Hernández, Hans Moritz Günther, Adam F. Kowalski, P. Christian Schneider
Figure caption: The first FUV flare observed on a WTTS (RECX-1). The gray shaded region is the manually identified flare (Δt = 20 s). There is a temporal gap between observations from 700 to 840 s. There is a weak response in the continuum and no detectable response in Fe XXI, which suggests that there is not an associated strong X-ray flare. Five bandpasses are used to compute the continuum light curve. They are 1146.8–1149.8 Å, 1156.2–1171.4 Å, 1181–1188.4 Å, 1248.3–1258.5 Å, and 1339–1351 Å.
Paper: Far-ultraviolet Flares on Accreting Protostars: Weak and Classical T Tauri Stellar Pair Analysis
Authors: P. C. Hinton, Kevin France, Maria Gracia Batista, Javier Serna, Jesús Hernández, Hans Moritz Günther, Adam F. Kowalski, P. Christian Schneider
Figure caption: COS G160M light curves of TW Hya for all three ion species (Δt = 20 s, 15.75 hr total). Vertical black lines signify the beginning of a new observation and a gap in real observation time—sometimes equal to many years. The HST tag and start MJD of each observation are written in black at the bottom of each observation.
Paper: Far-ultraviolet Flares on Accreting Protostars: Weak and Classical T Tauri Stellar Pair Analysis
Authors: P. C. Hinton, Kevin France, Maria Gracia Batista, Javier Serna, Jesús Hernández, Hans Moritz Günther, Adam F. Kowalski, P. Christian Schneider
Figure caption: The first FUV flare on a CTTS (TW Hya, Δt = 20 s). The gray shaded region is the manually identified temporal extent of the flare. A nondetection in accretion-associated continuum and in H2 lines suggests a likely stellar origin. Both S IV and C IV show statistically significant flares at the 5σ level.
Paper: Far-ultraviolet Flares on Accreting Protostars: Weak and Classical T Tauri Stellar Pair Analysis
Authors: P. C. Hinton, Kevin France, Maria Gracia Batista, Javier Serna, Jesús Hernández, Hans Moritz Günther, Adam F. Kowalski, P. Christian Schneider
Figure caption: The number of 5σ S IV flares per 67 ks and the simplified relative detectability for each CTTS as a function of accretion rate. The green (left) y-axis shows the number of 5σ S IV flares, and the red y-axis (right) shows the simplified relative detectability, which is just the inverse CTTS flux rms.
Paper: Far-ultraviolet Flares on Accreting Protostars: Weak and Classical T Tauri Stellar Pair Analysis
Authors: P. C. Hinton, Kevin France, Maria Gracia Batista, Javier Serna, Jesús Hernández, Hans Moritz Günther, Adam F. Kowalski, P. Christian Schneider
Figure caption: Contributions to the total FUV energy budget from accretion, the underlying WTTS, and flares are shown for each of the three CTTS targets. Percentages are calculated from Monte Carlo–generated normal distributions.
Paper: Sun-as-a-star Analyses of Various Solar Active Events Using Hα Spectral Images Taken by SMART/SDDI
Authors: Takato Otsu, Ayumi Asai, Kiyoshi Ichimoto, Takako T. Ishii, Kosuke Namekata
Figure caption: Overview of event (9), which occurred on 2021 May 5. (a) A-full-disk solar image at the Hα-center wavelength observed by SMART/SDDI. Celestial north is up, and west is to the right. The orange dashed−dotted region corresponds to the images in Figure 18(b). The direction of the solar north is shown by the white arrow labeled SN. (b) The time evolution of the filament eruption on 2021 May 5. The field of view in each panel corresponds to the orange dashed−dotted region in Figure 18(a). In each row, images at the times t = 10, 26, and 45 minutes measured from 22:25 UT on 2021 May 5 are shown from top to bottom. In each column, the images of Hα − 1.0 Å, Hα center, and Hα + 1.0 Å are shown from left to right. The red dashed region in the Hα center image at t = 10 minutes is a TR, and the blue solid region is a QR.
Paper: Sun-as-a-star Analyses of Various Solar Active Events Using Hα Spectral Images Taken by SMART/SDDI
Authors: Takato Otsu, Ayumi Asai, Kiyoshi Ichimoto, Takako T. Ishii, Kosuke Namekata
Figure caption: The same as Figure 2, but for event (9), the prominence eruption on 2021 May 5. In order to cover the fast component of the first eruption, we extended the range of the blue wing to −9.0 Å in panel (a). The black arrow in panel (a) indicates a fast component of this eruption.
Paper: Bayesian Accretion Modeling: Axisymmetric Equatorial Emission in the Kerr Spacetime
Authors: Daniel C. M. Palumbo, Zachary Gelles, Paul Tiede, Dominic O. Chang, Dominic W. Pesce, Andrew Chael, Michael D. Johnson
Figure caption: Summary of model fits to synthetic data from time-averaged MAD GRMHD simulations of the M 87* accretion flow with 1σ error bars. True values are shown with dashed lines, while color indicates spin. Small horizontal offsets near a single R high are for visual clarity. Vertical ranges correspond precisely to prior ranges. With the exception of prograde high-spin models, most inferred masses and viewing inclinations are lower than the true value. Notably, non-spinning models rarely show a strong posterior preference for low spins, though spin is almost always unconstrained.
Paper: Bayesian Accretion Modeling: Axisymmetric Equatorial Emission in the Kerr Spacetime
Authors: Daniel C. M. Palumbo, Zachary Gelles, Paul Tiede, Dominic O. Chang, Dominic W. Pesce, Andrew Chael, Michael D. Johnson
Figure caption: Posterior mean images of the toy model fit to itself with a matched and mismatched number of fitted sub-images annotated with the the log posterior evidence ﹩\mathrm{log}Z﹩ estimated by dynesty, along with its estimated error. The underlying model and data are the same as in Figure 5. Lower ﹩\mathrm{log}Z﹩ suggests a relatively disfavored model, though in the case of the fit to the ﹩{n}_{\max }=1﹩ model, the incorrect specification is not favored statistically significantly.
Paper: Bayesian Accretion Modeling: Axisymmetric Equatorial Emission in the Kerr Spacetime
Authors: Daniel C. M. Palumbo, Zachary Gelles, Paul Tiede, Dominic O. Chang, Dominic W. Pesce, Andrew Chael, Michael D. Johnson
Figure caption: Same as Figure 8 but for time-averaged SANE GRMHD simulations. Due to the worse model misspecification for SANEs, many fits show inaccurate yet certain measurements of model parameters. The tendency for results to worsen with increasing R high indicates that the cause is emission moving off of the equatorial plane at higher R high, violating the main model assumption of equatorial emission.
Paper: Bayesian Accretion Modeling: Axisymmetric Equatorial Emission in the Kerr Spacetime
Authors: Daniel C. M. Palumbo, Zachary Gelles, Paul Tiede, Dominic O. Chang, Dominic W. Pesce, Andrew Chael, Michael D. Johnson
Figure caption: Bottom left: posteriors on all fit parameters for 2017 EHT coverage of a MAD with prograde a * = −0.5 and R high = 20. Red lines indicate true values for the extracted GRMHD simulation and ray-tracing parameters. Top right: time-averaged image of the GRMHD simulation and maximum likelihood sample from the posterior, shown with and without a 10 μas blur.
Paper: Bayesian Accretion Modeling: Axisymmetric Equatorial Emission in the Kerr Spacetime
Authors: Daniel C. M. Palumbo, Zachary Gelles, Paul Tiede, Dominic O. Chang, Dominic W. Pesce, Andrew Chael, Michael D. Johnson
Figure caption: Same as Figure 5 but with all fit parameters shown.
Paper: Exploring Stellar and Ionized Gas Noncircular Motions in Barred Galaxies with MUSE
Authors: Carlos López-Cobá, Sebastián F. Sánchez, Lihwai Lin, Joseph P. Anderson, Kai-Yang Lin, Irene Cruz-González, L. Galbany, Jorge K. Barrera-Ballesteros
Figure caption: Top figures: bisymmetric model applied to the stellar velocity field of ESO 476-16. From left to right: (i) stellar velocity map; (ii) 2D representation of the best-fit bisymmetric model; (iii) residual map defined as observed − model; (iv) radial variation in the tangential velocity (black), V 2,r  (red) and V 2,t  velocities as a function of the galactocentric distance. Bottom figures: harmonic decomposition for an m = 2 perturbation in the potential. From left to right: (ii) best 2D kinematic model; (iii) residual map; (iv) radial variation in the inclination corrected c 1, s 1, s 3, and c 3 harmonics; (v) s 1/c 1 vs. s  s /c 1 harmonic ratios. The continuous line in this panel represents a linear fit to the data points with slope (ds 3/ds 1) shown in the upper left corner. The shaded regions in panel (iv) represent the errors in the different velocities.
Paper: Exploring Stellar and Ionized Gas Noncircular Motions in Barred Galaxies with MUSE
Authors: Carlos López-Cobá, Sebastián F. Sánchez, Lihwai Lin, Joseph P. Anderson, Kai-Yang Lin, Irene Cruz-González, L. Galbany, Jorge K. Barrera-Ballesteros
Figure caption: Top row figures from left to right: stellar velocity map; best circular rotation model; residual map of the model. The black rectangle in the residual map shows the region with the largest residuals. Isovelocity contours spaced each 50 km s−1 are superimposed on the first two maps. Notice how the zero velocity line shows an “S”-shaped distortion. The bottom panels are the same as the top ones but this time for the Hα velocity map.
Paper: Exploring Stellar and Ionized Gas Noncircular Motions in Barred Galaxies with MUSE
Authors: Carlos López-Cobá, Sebastián F. Sánchez, Lihwai Lin, Joseph P. Anderson, Kai-Yang Lin, Irene Cruz-González, L. Galbany, Jorge K. Barrera-Ballesteros
Figure caption: Obtaining the best-fit parameters in XookSuut. Example adopting the bisymmetric model for the stellar velocity map of ESO 476-16. The mean values of the projection angles, kinematic center, systemic velocity, and bar position angle are shown at the top of each histogram.
Paper: Exploring Stellar and Ionized Gas Noncircular Motions in Barred Galaxies with MUSE
Authors: Carlos López-Cobá, Sebastián F. Sánchez, Lihwai Lin, Joseph P. Anderson, Kai-Yang Lin, Irene Cruz-González, L. Galbany, Jorge K. Barrera-Ballesteros
Figure caption: Stellar mass, bar length and global SFR vs. some descriptions of the noncircular motions. The top set of figures show the maximum value of the noncircular to circular motions ratio (Equation (9)). The middle and bottom figures show the maximum and average values of the amplitude of the noncircular motions (Equation (8)).
Paper: Exploring Stellar and Ionized Gas Noncircular Motions in Barred Galaxies with MUSE
Authors: Carlos López-Cobá, Sebastián F. Sánchez, Lihwai Lin, Joseph P. Anderson, Kai-Yang Lin, Irene Cruz-González, L. Galbany, Jorge K. Barrera-Ballesteros
Figure caption: Comparison between ionized gas and stellar bisymmetric models for IC 2160. The black, blue, and red curves represent the V  t , V 2,r , and V 2,t  components for the Hα (continuous line) and stellar (dashed line) velocity maps.
Paper: Exploring Stellar and Ionized Gas Noncircular Motions in Barred Galaxies with MUSE
Authors: Carlos López-Cobá, Sebastián F. Sánchez, Lihwai Lin, Joseph P. Anderson, Kai-Yang Lin, Irene Cruz-González, L. Galbany, Jorge K. Barrera-Ballesteros
Figure caption: Comparison between the sky-projected photometric (x-axis) and kinematic bar position angle for the stellar velocity maps (y-axis). The photometric position angles were shifted ±180° when required to match with the definition of the kinematic position angle. The continuous line represents the 1:1 relation. Each galaxy is marked with a different color. The error bars of the measurements are of the size of the points.
Paper: Exploring Stellar and Ionized Gas Noncircular Motions in Barred Galaxies with MUSE
Authors: Carlos López-Cobá, Sebastián F. Sánchez, Lihwai Lin, Joseph P. Anderson, Kai-Yang Lin, Irene Cruz-González, L. Galbany, Jorge K. Barrera-Ballesteros
Figure caption: Stellar mass vs. the deprojected bar semimajor axis for our sample. The overplotted discontinuous line shows the relation observed by Erwin (2019) with more than 1000 barred galaxies from the S4G survey (e.g., Díaz-García et al. 2016).
Paper: Star and Cluster Formation in the Sh2-112 Filamentary Cloud Complex
Authors: Alik Panja, Yan Sun, Wen Ping Chen, Soumen Mondal
Figure caption: Gaia DR2 color–magnitude diagram of the YSOs (Class I: squares; Class II: triangles; transition-disk: circles) in the subregions Clump A (red), S112 (green), Clump B (blue), and in rest of the region (gray). Overplotted as solid lines are the theoretical isochrones for ages of 0.1, 1.0, and 10 Myr along with the zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) taken from the PAdova and TRieste Stellar Evolution Code (Bressan et al. 2012). The evolutionary tracks for different masses (as dotted lines) are also shown. All the isochrones are adjusted for a cluster distance of 2.1 kpc (Blitz et al. 1982) and a universal reddening A  V  ∼ 2.78 mag (Section 3.1).
Paper: Star and Cluster Formation in the Sh2-112 Filamentary Cloud Complex
Authors: Alik Panja, Yan Sun, Wen Ping Chen, Soumen Mondal
Figure caption: Left: the 2MASS color–color diagram for the spectroscopically observed stars, each marked with a black filled circle, overlaid with the unreddened main-sequence (blue solid line) and giant loci (red solid line), both taken from Bessell & Brett (1988). A reddening vector drawn from the tip of the main sequence, i.e., from A0, is represented by the blue dashed line, along which the consecutive cross symbols indicate an increment of reddening of A  V  = 1 mag. Right: color composite image of S112 created with WISE W4 (22 μm in red), W3 (12 μm in green), and W1 (3.4 μm in blue) bands. Spectroscopically observed sources are marked (white circles) and labeled.
Paper: Star and Cluster Formation in the Sh2-112 Filamentary Cloud Complex
Authors: Alik Panja, Yan Sun, Wen Ping Chen, Soumen Mondal
Figure caption: Top: spatial distribution of the YSOs (Class I: red square; Class II: green triangle; transition disk: blue circle) overlaid on the Planck 353 GHz map. The stellar density peaks at three subregions (Clump A, S112, and Clump B) and coincides well with the high-intensity regions. The contour levels are at 0.028, 0.040, 0.052, and 0.064 Jy sr−1. Bottom: zoomed-in maps of the three subregions. The main ionizing source BD+45 3216 is represented by a white asterisk symbol.
Paper: Star and Cluster Formation in the Sh2-112 Filamentary Cloud Complex
Authors: Alik Panja, Yan Sun, Wen Ping Chen, Soumen Mondal
Figure caption: The AKARI 160 μm emission (false color), superimposed with the NVSS 1.4 GHz radio continuum (contours) for Clump A, S112, and Clump B. For Clump A, no 1.4 GHz emission is detected. The contour levels for S112 are at 0.003, 0.010, 0.020, and 0.040 Jy beam−1, whereas the contour levels for Clump B are at 0.003, 0.006, 0.012, and 0.020 Jy beam−1. The main illuminating source BD+45 3216 is indicated by a white asterisk symbol.
Paper: Star and Cluster Formation in the Sh2-112 Filamentary Cloud Complex
Authors: Alik Panja, Yan Sun, Wen Ping Chen, Soumen Mondal
Figure caption: The channel maps for 12CO (blue), 13CO (green), and C18O (red) with the velocity range depicted in each panel. Overplotted are the YSOs (Class I: squares; Class II: triangles; transition-disk objects: circles).
Paper: Star and Cluster Formation in the Sh2-112 Filamentary Cloud Complex
Authors: Alik Panja, Yan Sun, Wen Ping Chen, Soumen Mondal
Figure caption: Integrated intensity map (moment 0) over the velocity range [−33, 15] km s−1, created with a combination of 12CO (blue), 13CO (green), and C18O (red). Each of the three subregions is marked with a dashed rectangle. The principal ionizing star BD+45 3216, located within the S112 subregion, is indicated by an asterisk symbol.
Paper: Star and Cluster Formation in the Sh2-112 Filamentary Cloud Complex
Authors: Alik Panja, Yan Sun, Wen Ping Chen, Soumen Mondal
Figure caption: Longitude–velocity (ℓ − V) map of the entire field toward S112, integrated over the Galactic latitude range of b = [2.°8583, 3.°6917]. The blue, green, and red colors indicate 12CO, 13CO, and C18O emission, respectively. The four horizontal dashed lines denote V lsr = −33, −10, 6.5, and 15 km s−1.
Paper: Star and Cluster Formation in the Sh2-112 Filamentary Cloud Complex
Authors: Alik Panja, Yan Sun, Wen Ping Chen, Soumen Mondal
Figure caption: Velocity (moment 1) and velocity dispersion (moment 2) maps for 12CO in the velocity range [−10, 6.5] km s−1.
Paper: Star and Cluster Formation in the Sh2-112 Filamentary Cloud Complex
Authors: Alik Panja, Yan Sun, Wen Ping Chen, Soumen Mondal
Figure caption: Flux-calibrated normalized spectra of the stars toward S112. Prominent spectral lines are marked.
Paper: Far-ultraviolet Flares on Accreting Protostars: Weak and Classical T Tauri Stellar Pair Analysis
Authors: P. C. Hinton, Kevin France, Maria Gracia Batista, Javier Serna, Jesús Hernández, Hans Moritz Günther, Adam F. Kowalski, P. Christian Schneider
Figure caption: The full TW Hya light curve shown for the common STIS E140M and COS G160M bandpass (Δt = 20 s, 15.75 hr total). The error bars are plotted, but they are smaller than the width of the line. The flare shown in Figure 5 is encircled here in magenta. Note the fairly well behaved quiescence in this observation window, with the flare occurring in the middle of the observation. Four other possible flares are shown encircled in red, and rapid rise and decay activity is encircled in green. These red and green circled observations are too noisy to establish a quiescent level with confidence, but they contain noteworthy activity.
Paper: Far-ultraviolet Flares on Accreting Protostars: Weak and Classical T Tauri Stellar Pair Analysis
Authors: P. C. Hinton, Kevin France, Maria Gracia Batista, Javier Serna, Jesús Hernández, Hans Moritz Günther, Adam F. Kowalski, P. Christian Schneider
Figure caption: Two example TESS flares are shown: one from TW Hya (top) and one from RECX-11 (bottom). The flare IDs (1-1 and 2-1, respectively) can be compared with the corresponding rows in Appendix B for quantified flare parameters. For both energetic flares, the σ marker lines and the error bars are small compared with the flare’s profile. This is especially the case for the REX-11 flare. Both flares follow the standard profile of fast rise and exponential decay.