adityasasidhar/Wikipedia_Cleaned huggingface dataset:
Although most fossils are formed from the hard parts of organisms, there are also "indirect" signs of prehistoric life. Examples such as a worm's trail or an animal's footprint are quite common. These are known as "trace fossils". Fossilized excrement, faeces or dung is known as a "coprolite". A chemical trace of prehistoric organisms is called a "chemofossil". Objects made by prehistoric people are called artifacts but these are not fossils.
Even when the remains of soft-bodied animals are gone, there may be impressions, molds or carbon traces which remain permanently. So, in special cases, we can see fossils of even small, soft invertebrate animals.
Sometimes a fossil is produced because of dryness (desiccation), freezing, or pine resin. Mummified animals, ice-covered wooly mammoths, and insect-filled amber are examples of such fossils.
Living fossils, however, are "not" fossils at all. Instead, they are modern-day organisms which look like their prehistoric ancestors of many millions of years ago. The ginkgo tree, the coelacanth and the horseshoe crab are good examples.
Nine Inch Nails (also known as NIN) is an industrial metal band. Trent Reznor writes all the band's music, and plays most of the music himself. He started the band in 1988 in Cleveland, Ohio, USA. Nine Inch Nails has been nominated for twelve Grammy Awards.
"Pretty Hate Machine" was Nine Inch Nails' first album. It came out in 1989. The songs "Down In It", "Head Like A Hole", and "Sin" became famous from the radio and MTV.
In 1992, Nine Inch Nails made an extended play (EP) called "Broken". It had eight songs. The song "Wish" won a Grammy Award. Another album, called "Fixed", has some of the same songs as "Broken", but other musicians have changed the music and added new sounds. It was going to be one album (with eleven tracks, the eight tracks on "Broken" as tracks 1-8 and tracks 4-6 on Fixed as tracks 9-11), making it the second studio album and "The" "Downward Spiral" the third studio album, but decided to split it in half due to personal reasons and it was not the second studio album.
Nine Inch Nails played the first Lollapalooza tour with Jane's Addiction and other bands.
A new album called "The Downward Spiral" came out in 1994. It is the most popular and famous Nine Inch Nails album. Music stores have sold more than 4 million copies of "The Downward Spiral" all together. The songs "Closer", "March Of The Pigs", and "Hurt" were very popular on MTV and radio stations. Trent Reznor asked many other musicians to make remixes of the songs. The remixes were released on a new album called "Further Down The Spiral".
In 1994, Nine Inch Nails played at the Woodstock '94 concert in New York. After that, they became one of the most famous bands in the world. For five years, there were no Nine Inch Nails albums or concerts. Many fans worried that the band they liked would stop making music forever.
Finally, a new album came out in 1999. It was called "The Fragile". It was the longest album Nine Inch Nails had ever made, and the music was very different from their other albums. It was going to release in late 1997 (and was also going to include "The Perfect Drug"), but got pushed back due to personal problems. "The Perfect Drug" was never put on the album. Many of the songs were only music with no words. Songs like that are called "instrumentals". Writers who write about music wrote good things about "The Fragile" in many magazines and newspapers. People knew the music of Nine Inch Nails had changed, but many people thought it was better than before.
Even though many people liked the album, it took Trent Reznor another five years to make another one. This was due to Reznor drinking and becoming addicted to other drugs. He is now healthy. Trent also argued with his manager John Malm over how much money he should make. The court agreed with Trent and John is no longer Trent's manager.
Year Zero came out on April 17, 2007. Before it came out, there was a game that people could play. You could find clues to discover more about the story. That kind of game is called an Alternate Reality Game. Only one single came out. That song is called "Survivalism".
On March 2, 2008, the albums "Ghosts I-IV" (1 to 4) came out. It was made of 4 small albums: "Ghosts 1", "2", "3" and "4". All the songs on these albums were instrumentals. The first album was free to download from the website, or available cheaply to download. This was new in the way that music is sold, because usually music is sold for lots of money, and the money is given to many people, most who did not make the music, but helped give money to the people who did, or sent the music to shops to be sold, or made adverts for it.
"Hesitation Marks" (2013) was nominated for Best Alternative Music Album at the 2014 Grammy Awards.
One of his most famous creations was Cthulhu, a giant and powerful alien being that some humans worship as a god. He also made up many other strange alien gods, like Yog-Sothoth, Nyarlathotep, and Azathoth. Together his works and ideas about these characters are called the Cthulhu Mythos.
Lovecraft's stories were inspiration for lots of other writers.The spirit of his works, presenting a world that does not care, is present in many works of fiction.
A patio is a paved area in a garden often used for barbecues or relaxing outside.
In May 2015, Mandriva went into administration.
In February 2004, MandrakeSoft lost a court case for infringement. It renamed its products. Starting from version 10.0, Mandrake Linux became known as "Mandrakelinux", and its logo changed accordingly. Similarly, MandrakeMove became Mandrakemove.
Since 2007, Mandriva was released on a 6-month fixed-release cycle, similar to Ubuntu and Fedora. However, while newer features are added during each release, the timing of the Spring release stays the same as the first release, so as to ensure stability each year.
A governor is a leader of some kind. In some countries which are federations, the governor is the leader of a state or a province.
For example, in the United States, all 50 states have a governor elected by its own people. While the President is the leader of everyone in the United States, Governors are the leaders of the people living in or visiting their state. The governor is the executive for the state's administrative processes.
In some other countries, a governor is the title of the viceroy. This is the case in Australia, Canada and other Commonwealth realms, where the governor represents the monarch in ceremonies. In many countries such as Pakistan a provincial governor is appointed by the central government acting as the ceremonial head of the provinces.
Territories still under British rule all have a governor who represents the monarch in that area.
The United States Republican Party, also known as the GOP (Grand Old Party) is one of the two biggest political parties in the United States. Since the mid-1850s, the party's main opponent has been the Democratic Party. Both political parties have controlled American politics ever since.
The symbol of the Republican party is the elephant. This symbol was first used in 1874 in a political cartoon by Thomas Nast.
The Republican National Committee, or the RNC, is the main organization for the Republican Party in all 50 states. The Republican Party is not the same political party as the Democratic-Republican Party. A state where most voters vote for Republican politicians is called a red state.
After World War I, the 1920s had three Republican presidents: Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover. It was called the Republican Decade for that reason. Harding and Coolidge made a plan for the economy which lowered taxes, made the government spend less money, and got rid of rules and laws that affected the economy.
Near the end of the 1920s, the stock market crashed and the Great Depression began. During the Great Depression, the Republican Party became less popular. No Republicans were president between 1933 and 1953, when Dwight Eisenhower began his first of two consecutive terms as president (he was re-elected in 1956). Richard Nixon lost the election in 1960, but was elected president on the Republican ticket in 1968 and again in 1972.
Bill Clinton (a Democrat) was elected president in 1992, and re-elected in 1996. However, a new Congress was elected in 1994, and Republicans gained control of both the House of Representatives and the Senate. They voted against many of Clinton's ideas and proposed ideas of their own such as a line item veto and a balanced budget amendment. In 2000, George W. Bush was elected president, defeating Al Gore in a very close election. Bush was re-elected in 2004.
After elections held in 2006, Republicans lost control of Congress. Democrat Barack Obama was elected in 2008 and re-elected in 2012. Republican John Boehner was elected the Speaker of the House of Representatives in 2010 and re-elected in 2012. In 2014, Republicans gained control of the Senate and the House. Boehner resigned in early October 2015 and was eventually succeeded by Paul Ryan of Wisconsin on October 29, 2015. On November 9, 2016, Donald Trump was elected president, defeating Democrat Hillary Clinton in the Electoral College. Trump was the first Republican to take office as president since January 20, 2001, when George W. Bush was inaugurated. The Republicans lost the House and won the Senate in 2018. Paul Ryan retired in 2019 and was succeeded by Nancy Pelosi, who is a member of the Democratic Party.
In 2020, the Republicans lost the presidency when Joe Biden defeated Donald Trump. In 2022, they were able to get control back of the House of Representatives, but not the Senate.
Not all Republicans believe in the same things, but generally, these are the things many Republicans support in all:
Most supporters for the Republican Party come from states in the Southern, Deep South, parts of the Midwest, and the rural Northeast areas of the US, as well as from Montana; though they come from all over the United States, including the northern portion of California.
The United States Democratic Party is one of the two biggest political parties in the United States. Since the mid-1850's, the party's main opponent has been the Republican Party. Both political parties have controlled American politics ever since.
Every four years the party holds a National Convention where they agree on their candidate for president. The Democratic National Committee coordinates most of the activities of the Democratic Party in all 50 United States. Since Andrew Jackson's inauguration in 1829, there have been 16 Democratic presidents (17 if including John Tyler, who, though originally elected to the vice presidency as a Whig, was expelled from his party shortly after taking office, became an independent, and allied with Democrats), the most recent and current is Joe Biden who took office as the 46th president of the United States in January 2021.
The symbol of the Democratic Party is the donkey. Since the election of 2000, the color blue has become a symbol for Democrats.
Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly giving the sensation of "hot". Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye (cornea) or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat or sometimes pain, when exposed to such chemicals.
Classical mechanics is not accurate when things are the size of atoms or smaller: for those things, we use quantum mechanics instead. Classical mechanics is also not accurate when things move close to the speed of light: for those things, we use special relativity instead.
The position of an object tells you where it is. For example, if you live in New York City and your friend lives in Seattle, your friend has a position of 3,876 kilometers (2,408 miles) west from you. But your friend would say that "you" have a position of 3,876 kilometers (2,408 miles) "east" from them instead. This is because position depends on where "position zero" or the "origin" is. For you, the origin is in New York City, but for your friend, the origin is in Seattle. So we make sure to always say where the origin is when we talk about position.
We talk about position using vectors: we first say a distance (such as 3,000 km) and then the direction (such as "east", "left", or "38 degrees south"). If there is no direction, position is simply "distance". Position can sometimes be negative: for example, New York City is 3,876 kilometers (2,408 miles) east of Seattle and Seattle is "negative" 3,876 kilometers (2,408 miles) east of New York City. However, it is easier to say "west" instead of "negative east".
When something moves, its position changes. You may pull a book closer to you, and the book has a new position. Or, you may walk away from your house and you have a new position. The velocity of an object tells you how fast the object changes position, and where it is moving. Velocity is a vector just like position: a car can move "160 kilometers per hour "west"" (100 miles per hour west) or "31 miles per hour "south"" (50 kilometers per hour south). Since position can be negative, velocity can be negative too.
When something speeds up or slows down, its velocity changes. The acceleration of an object tells you how fast the object speeds up or slows down. Acceleration is a vector, too, and we can use "negative" acceleration when we want to say that an object slows down: for example, if you drive your car south and slow down, your acceleration is positive going north but negative going south.
Newton's laws of motion are important to classical mechanics. Isaac Newton discovered them. They tell us how forces change how things move, but they do not say what causes the forces.
Newton's first law of motion says that objects do not change how they move unless something pushes or pulls them. Things that push or pull objects are called forces.
Before Isaac Newton, people thought that things do not move forever: they will always stop even if nothing touches them. On Earth, this seems correct: if you roll a ball on the grass, the ball will stop; if you push a book across a table, the book stops moving. But this does not happen everywhere. In outer space, rockets and planets move and they do not slow down or stop. So something on Earth makes objects stop moving, and this is a force called friction. Every object that touches another object feels friction. Even when you throw something like a baseball, the baseball feels friction because of the air. This is called drag or "air resistance". In outer space, there is no friction because outer space is a vacuum: there are no objects there, including no air.Gravity is another force that changes how objects move on Earth, but in outer space gravity is very small unless you are close to a planet or a star.
Newton's first law of motion also tells us that an object that is not moving will stay still unless something pushes or pulls it. This makes sense because a book on your bookshelf does not suddenly fly away.
Newton's second law of motion says that bigger objects need a bigger force to change how they move, and smaller objects need a smaller force to change how they move. For example, it is easy to push a marble across the floor but it is really hard to push a car across the road. This is because the car is very heavy and the marble is not.
We sometimes write Newton's second law of motion as an equation: formula_1. formula_2 is the amount of force you need, formula_3 is the mass of the object you want to move, and formula_4 is the amount of acceleration (change of velocity) that the object gets when you try to move it. We can also write the equation as formula_5, where formula_6 is momentum and formula_7 is the way we write "change in momentum over time" using calculus. Momentum is the mass of an object times how fast it is moving (its speed): formula_8, where formula_9 is the speed. A bumblebee has a small mass, but it moves very fast so it has lots of momentum. The Earth moves very slow, but it has a large mass so it also has lots of momentum.
Newton's third law of motion says that forces always come in pairs. When you push a book, the book also pushes you, but it does not push you very far because you have a much larger mass. However, if you and your friend go ice skating and you push your friend, you and your friend both move back.
Consider a book lying on a table. The weight of book is acting on the table in the downward direction. This is action. The reaction of table act on the book in upward direction.
A rocket works because of Newton's third law of motion: the bottom of the rocket makes very hot gas and the gas pushes the colder air. Then the rocket goes up because the colder air also pushes the bottom of the rocket. The force that makes a rocket go up is called thrust. Birds and airplanes fly because of Newton's third law of motion: this is because both birds and airplanes push air down when they move, and the air pushes them up. This force is called lift. Without lift, birds and airplanes fall on the ground.
Diogenes helped Antisthenes create cynicism, a philosophy that focuses on living a simple life without the need for money, fame, power, or possessions. He also made a notion of "cosmopolitan" on world citizenship first time in history.
The World Health Organisation estimates that vaccines save 4-5 million lives per year.
So vaccination and immunization have meanings that are a little different. But when people say these words, they usually mean the same thing.
In England the School Age Immunisation Services deliver vaccinations in schools every Autumn for Human Papilloma Virus, Diphtheria, Tetanus and Polio, Meningococcal ACWY , Measles, Mumps and Rubella and Flu.
The first vaccination ever was for smallpox. The earliest hints of the practice of inoculation for smallpox in China come during the 10th century.
In 1796 an English doctor, Edward Jenner, noticed something. He saw that people who got cowpox did not get sick from smallpox. He gave a young boy the cowpox virus to protect him from smallpox. This was done by scratching liquid from cowpox sores into the boy's skin. This same method using the liquid from sores was also used to give people smallpox. People did this so they might get smallpox on "one place" on their bodies. Then they could "pick" which body part got scars from smallpox. But sometimes people who did this got very sick from smallpox. Some even died. This was a dangerous thing to do. But people did it because it was less dangerous than getting smallpox.
It was not until almost 100 years after the smallpox vaccination that the next vaccine for cholera was found in 1879. After that, vaccines for many types of infectious diseases became available.
The vice president of the United States (VP or VPOTUS) is the second highest executive officer of the U.S. federal government after the president of the United States. The vice president ranks first in the presidential line of succession and is also the officer of the legislative branch, president of the Senate and the presiding officer of the Senate.
Kamala Harris is the 49th and current vice president of the United States, in office since January 2021.
, gives the vice president the title President of the Senate, authorizing the vice president to preside over the Senate. The vice president is responsible for maintaining order, allowing members to speak, and explain the Senate's rules and practices. This position also has the authority to cast a tie-breaking vote.
As the president of the Senate, the vice president may preside over impeachment trials, although the Constitution does not specifically require it. When the president is on trial, the constitution requires that the chief justice of the United States must preside. No vice president has ever been impeached.
The Twelfth Amendment allows the vice president, as the president of the Senate, receive the Electoral College votes and opens the sealed votes. The votes are counted during a joint session of Congress every four years on January the 6th.
In recent years, vice presidents have been viewed as important presidential advisors. Al Gore was an important adviser to President Bill Clinton on issues of foreign policy and the environment.
The vice president is seen an important liaison between the presidential administration and Congress.
For example, Dick Cheney held weekly meetings in the Vice President's Room at the United States Capitol, Joe Biden played a key role in bipartisan budget negotiations, and Mike Pence often met with House and Senate Republicans. Kamala Harris, played a key role in passing legislation during the 117th congress.
Since 1949, the vice president has legally been a member of the National Security Council. Modern vice presidents have also been apart of the president's daily intelligence briefings and participate in meetings in the Situation Room with the president.
of the constitution states for a person to serve as vice president must:
The vice president is elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term, along with the presidential candidate or the incumbent president as their running mate. The presidential candidate or incumbent president must have at least 270 electoral college votes in order to win the election.
The vice president-elect of the United States is the candidate who has won the United States presidential election along with the presidential candidate and is awaiting inauguration to become the vice president.
The president elect, vice president-elect, or incumbent president and vice president immediately began their four-year team on inauguration day every four years on January 20. The original inauguration date was held on March 4, but was later changed in 1933.
The vice president ranks first in the presidential line of succession, if the president dies, resigns, or is impeached. Only eight vice presidents have succeeded the president in resignation or death such as John Tyler, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, Chester A. Arthur, Theodore Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson and Gerald Ford.
The speaker of the House ranks second in the presidential line of succession if the vice president dies, resigns or is impeached from office.
John C. Calhoun and Spiro Agnew are the only U.S. vice presidents to have resigned from office.
The Office of the Vice President includes personnel staff who directly support or advise the vice president of the United States. It is primarily office is in the Eisenhower Executive Office Building with offices for the vice president also in the West Wing of the White House, the United States Capitol, and in the vice president's official residence.
Although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the vice president is aboard is referred to as Air Force Two during the flight. In-country trips are typically handled with just one of the two planes, while overseas trips are handled with both.
Number One Observatory Circle is the official residence of the vice president and the second family of the United States. It has been the official residence of every U.S. vice president since Nelson Rockefeller in 1974.
The United States Secret Service is in charge of protecting the vice president and the second family at all times. As part of their protection, the vice president, second spouse and immediate family members are given Secret Service codenames. The use of codenames are used due to security and safety reasons.
As of 2024, there are five living former vice presidents.
Richard Bruce "Dick" Cheney (born January 30, 1941) is an American politician and businessman. He was the 46th vice president of the United States from 2001 to 2009. As a Republican, he ran in the 2000 United States presidential election with George W. Bush, and successfully won re-election in the 2004 United States presidential election. Before he became vice president, he was the Secretary of Defense from 1989 to 1993, during George H. W. Bush's presidency. He was also a member of the House of Representatives from 1979 to 1989, and was White House chief of staff from 1975 to 1977.
Dick Cheney was the former representative for Wyoming's At-large congressional district. He served in the George H. W. Bush administration from 1989 to 1993 as a cabinet member. He was a Congressman, and White House Chief of Staff.
As Vice President, Cheney was the head of the Senate and cast six tie-breaking votes and he was replaced by Joe Biden as vice president on January 20, 2009.
Cheney lives in Wyoming. He is an active hunter. In 2006, he shot a friend by mistake while hunting. He did not run for president in 2008. He has criticized President Barack Obama. His wife Lynne Cheney is a distant cousin of President Barack Obama and he is an 8th cousin of President Barack Obama. He is a 9th cousin, once removed of George W. Bush. Cheney is distantly related to Harry S. Truman and Robert Duvall by the Duvall family. He is distantly related to American Express founder Benjamin Pierce Cheney.
Dick and Lynne Cheney have 2 daughters, Elizabeth and Mary. Mary is openly lesbian and Dick supports same sex marriage along with Mary. Liz is the former Congresswoman at-large from Wyoming in the United States House of Representatives.
Toad the Wet Sprocket is an American alternative rock band from California. They formed in 1986, while they were in high school. Their name comes from a monologue (one person doing all the talking) performed by Eric Idle, called "Rock Notes" on the 1980 album, "Monty Python's Contractual Obligation Album".
Linda Ronstadt (born July 15, 1946) is an American singer. She was born in Tucson, Arizona. She has won ten Grammy Awards and many other awards.
Ronstadt has never been married. She has an adopted daughter and adopted son. She has been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. Her autobiography was published in 2013.
Systole (when the heart squeezes) happens because the muscle cells of the heart gets smaller in size. When they get smaller we also say they "contract". Electricity going through the heart makes the cells contract. The electricity starts in the "sino-atrial node" (acronym SA Node) The SA Node is a group of cells called pacemaker cells in the right atria. These cells start an "electrical impulse". This electrical impulse sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract. This motion is called 'atrial systole'. Once electrical impulse goes through the "atrio-ventricular node" (AV Node). The AV Node makes the impulse slow down. Slowing down makes the electrical impulses get to the ventricles later. That is what makes the ventricular systole occur "after" atrial systole, and lets all the blood leave the atria before ventricle contracts ("meaning squeeze").
Congenital heart disease refers to a form of heart problem that starts before birth (congenital). Congenital heart disease includes a large number of conditions. The formation of the heart before birth is very complex and is sometimes abnormal. For example, if a part of the main artery that comes from the heart is narrowed, that is called coarctation of the aorta. There may be holes inside the heart which keep the blood from flowing normally inside the heart. Other congenital heart problems are caused by abnormal heart valves. In some cases, congenital heart problems are discovered at birth. Other times the problems may not be detected until the person is older.
North Dakota is a state in the United States. About 780,000 people lived in North Dakota in the year 2020. The capital and seat of government is Bismarck and the largest city is Fargo.
North Dakota was one of the last US states to be "settled" by people of European ancestry. (To have people go there to make homes and live.) On November 2, 1889, North Dakota (and South Dakota) became part of the United States.
LGBT is an initialism that means lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. It refers to the community of people who are not heterosexual, which means to be attracted to the other gender, or cisgender, which means to identify as the gender you were born as. It has been taken up by many sexuality and gender identity-related community centers.
As lesbians became more public about their sexuality in the 1970s, the group of words "gay and lesbian" was often used, and a phase of lesbian feminism started. This meant that certain lesbian feminist groups separated because did not have knowledge of if they should put feminism or LGBT rights first.
It has also been the symbol of the LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender) community since its creation in 1978. It is also called the 'Pride Flag.' The flag was created by Gilbert Baker of San Francisco, California in 1978.
In theology, dualism may also refer to "duotheism", "bitheism" or "ditheism". This the doctrine or belief that there are two independent divine beings or eternal principles, one good and the other evil. Examples of ditheism include Zoroastrianism, Wicca and Marcionism. Although the Bible mentions Satan, this is not ditheism as he is not equal to God, but merely an angel. (See Epistle of Jude, verse 6). Ditheism is not the same as dualism, but they are similar. Ditheism implies (at least) two gods, while moral dualism does not imply any "-theism" (belief in a god) whatsoever. The Old Dualist-Religion of the Roma people called Romanipen is a simple belive in "Devla-God and Beng-Satan".
Vomiting, also called puking or emesis, is emptying the contents of stomach through mouth. It can be either food or liquid in the stomach. It can be from infection, contaminated food or drink (food poisoning), foul smells or foul-tasting food, the brain being injured, a block in the small intestines so food and liquid cannot go through, too much alcohol or other drugs. Also, people can make themselves vomit (self-induced) which is called purging. Usually, people who have eaten or drunk poison are made to vomit any residual (leftover) poison. Excessive vomiting may lead to dehydration, which can be dangerous, if not fatal as it will shut down a person's organs and twist the intestines.
Ancient Greek civilization, also commonly called Ancient Greece, was a large area, mostly along the northeast shore of the Mediterranean Sea, where people spoke the Greek language. The area was much larger than today's country of Greece. The Greek civilization thrived from the archaic period of the 8th to the 6th centuries BC to 146 BC. The period ended with the Roman conquest of Greece at the Battle of Corinth.
For most of the time, the Greeks did not have one government or ruler although they had a common language and culture. Greek is an Indo-European language.
There were many city-states, each with its own constitution. Athens, Sparta and Corinth were powerful city-states. Some had kings, and others, like Athens, had a form of democracy. As time went on, the most powerful city-states collected others into groups known as "leagues". That applied to many of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, most of which had close ties to one or to another of the three biggest cities.
In the middle of the period, Classical Greece flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Athenian leadership repelled the threat of Persian invasion during the Greco-Persian Wars. The Athenian Golden Age ended with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War in 345 BC.
In the last period, Greece was unified by the conquests of Alexander the Great. The city-states continued under the overall influence of Macedonia during the Hellenistic Period.
Greek culture had some influence on the Roman Empire, the main power of the Ancient World. That made classical Greece part of the foundation of Western civilization. Greek was also the language of the Byzantine Empire.
The history of Ancient Greece went through several stages:
The Greeks learned about the alphabet from another ancient people, the Phoenicians. They made some adjustments to it. In particular, the Greeks introduced regular letters for vowels, which were more important in their language. Their alphabet was, in turn, modified by the Etruscans and then the Romans, and much of the world now uses the Roman alphabet.
Ancient Greece had one language and culture but was not unified until 337 BC, when Macedonia defeated Athens and Thebes. That marked the end of the Classical period and the start of the Hellenistic period. Even then, the conquered cities were merely joined to Philip II of Macedon's Corinthian League, were not occupied and ruled themselves.
Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred more or less independent city states. That was different from other societies, which were either tribal or kingdoms that ruled over relatively large territories.
The geography of Greece, which is divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains and rivers, certainly contributed to the nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were "one people" since they had the same religion, same basic culture, and same language. However, each city-state, or polis, was independent; unification was something rarely discussed by the ancient Greeks. Even during the second Persian invasion of Greece, although a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, most "poleis" remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.
Later, during the Classical period, the leagues were fewer and larger, and dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes). Often cities would be forced to join under threat of war or as part of a peace treaty. After Philip II had conquered the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not try to annex the territory or unify it into a new province. However, he forced most of the cities to join his own Corinthian League.
Some city-states were democratic, some were aristocratic and some were monarchies. Some had many revolutions in which one kind of government replaced another. One famous Greek kingdom is Macedon, which became briefly the largest empire that the world had seen at the time by conquering the Persian Empire (including ancient Egypt) and reaching India. Other famous kingdoms are Epirus and Thessaly.
Monarchies in ancient Greece were not absolute because there was usually a council of older citizens (the Senate or, in Macedonia, the Congress) who gave advice to the King. These men were not elected or chosen in a lottery, unlike in the democratic city-states.
Citizens who could participate in government in ancient Greece were usually men who were free-born in that city. Women, slaves and (usually) residents who were born elsewhere did not have the right to vote. The details differed by city-state.
For example, in Athens, the residents of Athens were of three groups: citizens, metics (resident aliens) and slaves. Citizens were residents whose ancestors had been Athenians for three generations. Male citizens had the rights of free men and could be chosen to fulfill any official state position. "Of the estimated 150,000 residents of the city-state of Attica, only about one fifth held the privilege of citizenship". Women who were citizens in Athens could not participate in political offices, but in Sparta they could.
The number of Greeks grew, and soon, not enough food could be grown for all of the people. When that happened, a city-state would send people off to start a new one, known as a colony.
Because the terrain was rough, most travel was by sea. For that reason, many new cities were established along the coastline. First new cities were started in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and later along the Black Sea, in Cyprus, in southern Italy, in Sicily and around what is now Benghazi in Libya. They even started a city, Naucratis, on the river Nile, in Egypt. Today's Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul started as the Greek cities Syracusa, Neapolis, Massilia and Byzantium.
By the 6th century BC, some city-states became much more important than the others: Corinth, Thebes, Sparta and Athens.
The Spartans were very well-disciplined soldiers. They defeated the people who lived near them, who had to farm the land for the Spartans. These helots had to give the Spartans part of the food that they grew and so the Spartans did not have to work. Instead, they learned how to be better soldiers. There were not many Spartans, but there were many helots. Spartan military strength controlled the helots. The Spartans had two hereditary kings who led them in war. At home they were also ruled by a group of old men, called the "Gerousia" (Senate).
Athens became a democracy in 510 BC. The men came to a place in the centre of the city and decided what to do. It was the first place in the world in which the people decided what their country should do. They would talk and then vote on what to do at the "Boule" (Council). However, the women and the slaves did not vote. The slaves were owned by their masters and could be sold to someone else. The Athenian slaves were less free than the Spartan helots were. Every year, Athenian citizens elected eight "strategoi" (generals), who led them in war.
In 499 BC, the Greek city-states in Anatolia rebelled because did not want Persia to rule them anymore. Athens sent 20 ships to fight the Persians on the sea. The Greeks in Anatolia were defeated. Persian King Darius I decided to punish Athens. He sent soldiers and ships to fight Athens.
Athens asked for help from Sparta, which was unable to because it then had a religious festival. Athens sent its own soldiers against the Persian soldiers and at the Battle of Marathon (490 BC) defeated the Persians. Help from Sparta then came.
At the Battle of Thermopylae, the Spartans were led by Leonidas and resisted the huge Persian army. After a couple of days, a traitor, Ephialtes, led the Persians around the pass behind the Greek army. Realising that defeat was inevitable, Leonidas released many of his men. Those who stayed knew that it would be a fight to the death. Leonides kept elite hoplites (foot soldiers) who had living sons at home. Some Thespians and Thebans who volunteered to stay.
On the third day, Leonidas led his 300 Spartan hoplites and their allies against Xerxes I and his mighty army. The Spartan-led forces fought the Persian force to their deaths to block the pass long enough to keep Xerxes and his army occupied while the rest of the Greek army escaped.
After Thermopylae, many Greeks wanted to go south to the Peloponnese. Because the Isthmus of Corinth, the way into the Peloponnese, is very narrow, many of them wanted to fight the Persians there.
Athens is north of Corinth and had a navy. The Athenian leader Themistocles wanted to fight the Persians by the island of Salamis. Xerxes decided to send his fleet against the Greek fleet before the Greek ships could go to the Peloponnese. The Greek fleet defeated the Persians at the Battle of Salamis. Xerxes then went home with many of his soldiers, but a Persian army stayed in Greece. It was defeated at the Battle of Platea in 479 BC.
After the Persians' defeat at Platea, the Spartans did very little. However, Persia was still dangerous. Athens asked the Greek city-states on the islands in the Aegean and in Anatolia to join it. They agreed because they were afraid of Persia and formed the Delian League and Athens was their leader. Many of the city-states of the Delian League had to pay Athens tribute money. Athens used it to build many ships and the Parthenon. During the Peloponnesian War, Sparta was still strong on land, but Athens was stronger on the sea. Several times, there was war between Athens and Sparta. Athens then decided to send many ships to Sicily to Syracuse. Sparta sent help to Syracuse, and Athens was defeated. None of the Athenian ships came back.
Sparta now wanted to build ships to fight Athens. It took a long time for Sparta to defeat Athens, but at the Battle of Aegospotami, the Spartans destroyed most of Athens's ships. The Athenians used advanced ships, called triremes, which had their combat systems and were propelled by oarsmen. On the front of the trireme was a large bronze battering ram. The oarsmen would row the trireme at an enemy boat and ram a hole into its hull. This was the most effective way for the trireme to destroy other boats. The hoplites on the trireme would board the enemy ship and capture it. However, the Athenian fleet of triremes was destroyed in a battle in 405 BC. Athens surrendered the following year and the war was over. Athens never recovered its previous domination.
Men, when they were not working, fighting or discussing politics, could at festive times go to watch dramas, comedies or tragedies. Ancient Greek theatre often involved politics and the gods of Greek mythology. Women were not allowed to perform in the theatre and so male actors played female roles.
Women did domestic work, such as spinning, weaving, cleaning and cooking. They were not involved in public life or politics. Those from rich families, however, had slaves to carry out domestic work for them.
The ecumene (US) or oecumene (UK) is an ancient Greek term for the known world. In antiquity, it was the parts of the world known to Greek geographers, which was basically the Mediterranean world. Europe, Asia and Africa (north of the Atlas mountains and Egypt). The Greeks were well aware of the Persian Empire, and Alexander the Great's army got as far as parts of what is now Pakistan.
Under the Roman Empire, the term came to mean civilisation itself, which was wider than the Greeks had supposed.
The famous Olympic Games were held at Olympia every four years. They were for men only, and women were not allowed to attend, even as spectators. The sports included running, javelin throwing, discus throwing and wrestling. The games were unusual because the athletes could come from any Greek city-state.
Another competition, the Heraean Games, was held for women and was also held at Olympus at a different time from the men's event.
The rules for girls in Sparta were different from other city-states. They were trained in the same events as boys because Spartans believed that strong women would produce strong babies, who would become future warriors. Their girl athletes were unmarried and competed while they were nude or wore short dresses. Boys were allowed to watch the athletes in the hope of creating marriages and offspring.
Later, during the classical period, girls could compete in the same festivals as males.
Malaria is an infectious disease caused by a parasite: it is spread by the bite of an infected mosquito. People catch malaria when the parasite enters the blood. The parasite causes a deadly infection which kills many people each year (from 75 million cases in 1950s to 0.1 million cases in 1960s). However, due to the development of insecticide resistance among mosquitoes and other factors, it staged a comeback in the mid-1970s (6.47 million cases in 1976), and continues to prevail in endemic/subendemic proportions, so that 80% Indian population lives in malaria risk areas.
Malaria is produced by 4 species of the protozoal parasite Plasmodium, is endemic in many tropical countries. It is one of the most common health problems. As per latest WHO estimates (2011)* between 149 and 274 (median 216) million clinical cases and ~ 0.655 million deaths occur globally due to malaria each year, 90% of which are in Africa. This amounts to one malaria death every minute. In India, the National Malaria Eradication Programme (NMEP), started in 1958, achieved near complete disappearance of the disease in 1960s (from 75 million cases in 1950s to 0.1 million cases in 1960s).
Even people who are treated with medicines at home should stay with the doctor for 8 hours. This is to make sure they do not get sicker.It also makes sure they can take the medicines by mouth. Malaria does not start to become a life-threatening disease until it has been a couple of weeks after the bite without being treated.
In the twentieth century between 2% and 5% of all deaths were from malaria. Malaria was the largest hazard encountered by U.S. troops in the South Pacific during World War II, where about 500,000 men were infected. Sixty thousand American soldiers died of malaria during the North African and South Pacific campaigns.
The circulatory system (also called the cardiovascular system) is the body system that moves blood around the body. It consists of the heart and blood vessels. The blood carries various materials that the body needs, and takes away waste and harmful substances.
Chat rooms are normally used as tools to talk with people that are far away, but many people still use them to talk to people who live near them, because it's very convenient. The first chat system was used by the U.S. government in 1971.
Alan Wake is a video game made by Remedy Entertainment. It is a "thriller" game and was voted best game of E3 in 2005. It was released on Xbox 360 in May 2010 and Microsoft Windows on February 16, 2012.
Curtis James Jackson III (born July 6, 1975) known by his professional name 50 Cent is an American rapper, actor, and businessman.
He was born in the South Jamaica neighborhood of the borough of Queens, New York City on July 6, 1975. Growing up, he never knew his father and his mother were murdered when he was just 8 years old. He grew up in a neighborhood called STP. He learned how to play basketball and football. In 2000, he got shot nine times by an attacker. Before becoming a rapper he was a drug dealer. His stage name is a tribute to New York City criminal Kelvin Martin (also known as 50 Cent).
50 Cent first appeared on Onyx's 1998 single "React". In 1999, he recorded the single "How to Rob" for the soundtrack of "In Too Deep". "Power of the Dollar" was supposed to be 50 Cent's first album which included "How to Rob". He became successful in rap music in 2002. He was helped by his fellow gang boss Rijaan D. M. (the same person who helped him release track "Wanksta"). Since then, he has sold millions of records. His first album, "Get Rich or Die Tryin'" broke music records and went multi-platinum. It was number one right away on the "Billboard" 200. It sold 872,000 copies in the first four days. 50 and the album both won an American Music Award. He won the first Sound of... award by the BBC for new artists. He also won the BET Award for Best New Artist.
In the summer of 2005, 50 Cent had a fight (or ""beef"") with The Game, a rapper in his G-Unit group. After this, The Game left G-Unit, and made some diss songs about 50 Cent. 50 Cent answered with songs like "Mr. Potato Head" and "300 shots" featuring G-Unit. 50 Cent was also the first to sign onto a joint effort between Eminem's Shady Records and Dr. Dre's Aftermath Entertainment. 50 Cent also mentions Rijaan D.M. in many of his tracks e.g. "Candy Shop", 'Down On Me FT Jeremih' etc. As a teen. 50 Cent's role model was Tupac Shakur so, from the start his ambition was to be a gangster rapper. 50 Cent rapped on Michael Jackson's 2010 single "Monster" from Jackson's album "Michael".
Talking is communication using language and speech. See also chat and vocal chords. Talking is used to express feelings, emotions and thoughts.
Subjects are the parts into which learning can be divided. At school, each lesson usually covers one subject only. Some of the most common subjects at school are Language arts, history, mathematics, physical education and science.
Learning English is what people do when they want to use the English language. In language learning, we often talk about language skills and language systems. Language skills include: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Language systems include vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and discourse.
English taught in community settings, for adult immigrants to English-speaking countries, is often referred to as ESOL (English for speakers of other languages).
The internet boom has created lot of avenues for learning. People can get lot of ideas on how to improve English communication skills using search engines like Google, Yahoo, etc. Especially during the lockdown due to COVID-19, online classes and courses became a main source of learning. The BBC World Service has a free website for people who are learning English as a second or foreign language called BBC Learning English.
Major tests of English language proficiency include TOEFL, IELTS, TOEIC, Pearson English Test, Cambridge Assessment English, and the Duolingo English Test.
Bioinformatics or computational biology is the study of large amounts of biological information or genome. It focuses on molecules like DNA. It is done often with the help of computers.