adityasasidhar/Wikipedia_Cleaned huggingface dataset:
November (Nov.) is the eleventh month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between October and December. It has 30 days. Its name is from the Latin word "novem", which means "nine". It was the ninth month of the year before January and February were added to the Roman Calendar.
A national anthem is a country's official national song that the people of a country use to remember and respect their country. By the 18th century most countries had a national anthem and new countries chose a national anthem when they became independent. Some monarchies have a royal anthem for their monarch.
In some cultures, a person has a one-part name, such as "Muhammad."
In Muslim and Arabic culture, a name can have one to six parts. Such as "Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh".
The whole island is owned by the Robinson family. They bought it from the Kingdom of Hawaii for $10,000. It was said that the buyer, Elizabeth Sinclair (later Sinclair-Robinson), liked the island better than other places such as Waikiki, Pearl Harbor, and the island of Lanai. There is a small US Navy base where a few Navy people work.
The island has fewer than a hundred permanent inhabitants. Almost all of them are native Hawaiians. They support themselves largely with small family farms. Many work for the ranch owned by the Robinsons. The native Hawaiians lead a rural, low-tech life. They speak the Hawaiian language and keep traditions alive. This is because Ms. Sinclair promised to help preserve Hawaiian culture and tradition when she bought the island. Niihau is the only one of the Hawaiian islands where the Hawaiian language is the main language.
Fishing nets are one of the oldest ways of catching fish. They can be made with all kinds of fabric like nylon, cotton, grass, flax, and tree fibers. The oldest known fish nets dates back to 8500 BC in Finland. Native Americans made their nets on the Columbia River from grass, cedar, and spruce root fibers.
Some old words were given new meanings, such as mail (which now means email). This makes many metaphors on the Internet, such as boot (which otherwise mean a shoe) and link (which otherwise means a joint in a metal chain). Some existing acronyms, such as "AFK" (To mean "Away from keyboard") and "IRL" (To mean "In real life") were used on bulletin board systems before the internet became popular. These are now used on the internet, such as in chat rooms and on instant messenger software. And Lol (laugh out loud)
Nauru, ( ) is a island nation in the South Pacific. Its nearest neighbour is Kiribati, east. Nauru is the smallest island nation, covering just , the smallest republic, and the only republican state without a capital. With 10,670 residents, it is the third least-populated country after Vatican City and Tuvalu.
Nauru is a phosphate rock island, and its main export since 1907 has been phosphate. English and Nauruan are the official languages. The president is David Adeang.
Nauru is a oval-shaped island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, south of the equator. The island is surrounded by a coral reef, which can be seen during low tide. Because of this, a harbor can not be built. Canals let small boats get to the island. A an area of ground where plants can easily grow wide lies inland from the beach.
Coral cliffs surround Nauru's plateau (highland). The highest point, the Command Ridge, is above sea level. The only fertile areas are on the coastal belt, where coconut palms flourish. The land surrounding Buada Lagoon supports bananas, pineapples, vegetables, pandanus trees, and hardwoods such as the tomano tree.
Nauru was one of three great phosphate rock (bird droppings) islands in the Pacific Ocean (the others were Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati and Makatea in French Polynesia). The phosphate reserves on Nauru are now almost used up. Phosphate mining in the plateau has left a bare area of land of limestone peaks up to high. Mining has stripped and destroyed about 80 per cent of Nauru's land, and has affected the surrounding Exclusive Economic Zone. About 40 per cent of marine life has been killed by mud and phosphate drainage.
There are only about 60 native vascular plant species on the island. Coconut farming, mining, and introduced species have damaged the island's native vegetation. There are no native land mammals, but there are native insects, land crabs, and birds, including the Nauru Reed Warbler. The Polynesian rat, cats, dogs, pigs, and chickens have been introduced to Nauru from ships.
There are only a few fresh water sources on Nauru. Storage tanks collect rainwater, but the islanders usually have to rely on desalination plants at Nauru's Utilities Agency.
The island's biggest problems are climate change and rising sea levels. Nauru is the seventh most global warming threatened nation due to flooding. At least 80 per cent of the land of Nauru is well elevated, but this area will be uninhabitable until the phosphate mining improvement programme is started
The word noun comes from the Latin "nomen" meaning "name." Words like nouns were described in early days by the Sanskrit grammarian and ancient Greeks like Dionysios Thrax. Also in ancient Tamil like "Peyarchol"
Some common nouns (see below) can also be used as proper nouns. For example, someone might be named "Tiger Smith" -- even though he is not a tiger or a smith.
There are several nouns that have irregular plural forms. Plurals formed in this way are sometimes called mutated (or mutating) plurals.
The words nature and natural are used for all the things that are normally not made by humans. The word comes from the Latin "natura" meaning "birth". Nature includes many things like weather, organisms, landforms, celestial bodies. Scientists study the way the parts of nature work. Things that have been made by people are said to be man-made or called artifacts.
From another point of view, humans and nature can be said to be in conflict. People always use natural resources. They cut down trees, mine ores, grow crops and manufacture things from natural material. Fires, cars, and factories make a lot of smoke and harm many places. People who like to leave nature unharmed and those who feel they need to use more of nature often fight about what they should do. In the modern world, with many more people and many big cities, these problems are becoming more serious.
A natural resource is what people can use from the natural environment. Examples of natural resources are air, water, wood, oil, wind energy, natural gas, iron, and coal.
The dividing line between natural resources and man-made resources is not clear-cut. Hydro-electric energy is not a natural resource because people use turbines and generators to convert the energy of moving water to electric current. Petroleum and ores are natural, but need work to make them into usable refined oil and metals. Atomic energy comes from metallic nuclear fuel, like fissionable uranium and plutonium, but rocks need technical work to make them into these nuclear fuels.
Most natural resources are limited. This means they will eventually run out. A perpetual resource has a never-ending supply. Some examples of effectively perpetual resources include solar energy, tidal energy, and wind energy. They are perpetual in effect, although absolutely they do have a limit. There may be a practical limit to how much can be taken in a given day or year, but that amount can be taken again next day or next year (though not for ever).
Non perpetual resources include fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, etc. They have a limit of usage, and are running out. Some of the things influencing the supply of resources include whether it is able to be recycled, and whether there are suitable substitutes for the material. Non-renewable resources cannot be recycled. For example, fossil fuels cannot be recycled.
When people do not have some resources, their quality of life can get lower. So, people protect resources. When they can not get clean water, people may become ill; if there is not enough wood, trees will be cut and the forest will disappear over time (deforestation); if there are not enough fish in a sea, people can die of starvation. Renewable resources include crops, wind, hydroelectric power, fish, and sunlight Many people carefully save their natural resources so that others can use them in future.
Life is considered to be negentropic because it converts things which have some order, such as food, into things with more order, such as cells in the body, tissues, and organs. In doing so, it gives off heat. Another example of negentropic things are societies, or social systems, because they take disorderly things such as communications, and make them more orderly and useful.
North America is a large continent in the Northern and Western Hemispheres of Earth. It is to the east of the Pacific Ocean, the west of the Atlantic Ocean, the south of the Arctic Ocean, and it is the northern part of the Americas. The southernmost part is Central America. It is the third largest continent in the world after Asia and Africa. North America has a population of around 371 million and is the 4th most populous continent in the world.
North America has three subregions which are the Caribbean, Central America, and North America. Depending on how it is used, "North America" can be used to mean as the continent as a whole to include all 23 countries or as a subregion to mean Canada, Mexico, and the United States only.
Hundreds of millions of years ago, North America was part of a larger ancient supercontinent named Laurasia. A few million years ago, a new land bridge arose and connected North America to South America. Beringia connected North America to Siberia a few times during ice ages in the past 20,000 years. North America has many warm tropical islands such as the Bahamas. North America is currently north of South America.
Neptune is the eighth and farthest planet from the Sun in the Solar System. It is an ice giant. It is the fourth-largest planet in the system.
Neptune's mass is 17 times Earth's mass and a little bit more than Uranus' mass. Neptune is denser and smaller than Uranus. Because of its greater mass, Neptune's gravity makes its atmosphere smaller and denser.
Neptune's atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium. It also contains small amounts of methane which makes the planet appear blue. Neptune's blue color is similar, but slightly darker, than the color of Uranus. Neptune also has the strongest winds of any planet in the Solar System, as high as 2,100 km/h or 1,300 mph.
Urbain Le Verrier and John Couch Adams were the astronomers who discovered Neptune. Neptune was not discovered using a telescope. It was the first planet to be discovered using mathematics. In 1821, astronomers saw that Uranus' orbit was different from what they expected. Another nearby planet's mass was changing Uranus' orbit. They found Neptune was the cause.
"Voyager 2" visited Neptune on 25 August 1989. It was the only spacecraft to visit the planet. Neptune used to have a huge storm known as the "Great Dark Spot". Voyager 2 discovered the spot in 1989. The dark spot was not seen in 1994, but new spots were found since then. It is not known why the dark spot disappeared. Visits by other space probes have been planned.
Neptune has five rings surrounding it. However, that is hard to see from Earth.
Galileo Galilei was the first person who saw Neptune. He saw it on 28 December 1612 and 27 January 1613. His drawings showed points near Jupiter where Neptune is placed. But Galileo was not credited for the discovery. He thought Neptune was a "fixed star" instead of a planet. Because Neptune slowly moved across the sky, Galileo's small telescope was not strong enough to see that Neptune was a planet.
In 1821, Alexis Bouvard published the astronomical tables of the orbit of Uranus. Later observations showed that Uranus was moving in an irregular way in its orbit. Some astronomers thought this was caused by another large body. In 1843, John Couch Adams calculated the orbit of an eighth planet that could possibly affect the orbit of Uranus. He sent his calculations to Sir George Airy, the Astronomer Royal. George Airy asked Adams for an explanation. In 1846, Urbain Le Verrier made his own calculations but also failed to get much attention from French astronomers. Airy saw his calculations and encouraged James Challis to search for the planet. Challis began his search in July 1846. Meanwhile, Le Verrier had convinced Johann Gottfried Galle to search for the planet.
When Neptune was discovered, the French and the British could not agree on who would get credit for the discovery. Later, an international agreement decided that both Le Verrier and Adams deserved credit. However, historians reviewed the topic after the rediscovery in 1998 of the "Neptune papers" (historical documents from the Royal Greenwich Observatory). It had seemingly been stolen by astronomer Olin Eggen for nearly three decades. It was only found again (in his ownership) shortly after his death. After looking at the documents, some historians now think that Adams does not deserve equal credit with Le Verrier.
Shortly after its discovery, Neptune was temporarily called "the planet exterior to Uranus" or "Le Verrier's planet". The first suggestion for a name came from Galle. He proposed the name "Janus". In England, Challis suggested the name "Oceanus". In France, Arago suggested that the new planet be called "Leverrier", but a lot of people outside France disagreed with this. French almanacs quickly reintroduced the name "Herschel" for "Uranus" and "Leverrier" for the new planet.
Neptune's mass is between that of the Earth and the largest gas giants.
Neptune is the fourth largest planet in the Solar System and the third most massive. Neptune is 17 times the mass of Earth, but just the mass of Jupiter. Neptune is a little bit more massive than Uranus, though Neptune is denser and physically smaller than Uranus. Neptune and Uranus are often considered to be part of a sub-class of a gas giant known as ""ice giants"". They are smaller in size than Jupiter and Saturn, and have differences from them in composition. In the search for extrasolar planets, Neptune has been used as a reference to compare the size and structure of the discovered planet. Some discovered planets that have similar masses like Neptune are often called "Neptunes".
The atmosphere of Neptune is made up mostly of hydrogen, with a smaller amount of helium. A tiny amount of methane was also detected in the atmosphere. The methane gives Neptune its blue color. The color of Neptune is similar, but slightly darker, than the color of Uranus.
But in the depths of the planet, the temperature rises. The source of this heating is unclear. Neptune is the farthest planet from the Sun, yet its internal energy is strong enough to create the fastest winds seen in the Solar System, at . Several possible explanations have been suggested. Firstly, radiogenic heating from the planet's core. Among the explanations is the continued radiation into space of leftover heat made by infalling matter during the planet's birth. Another explanation is gravity waves breaking above the tropopause. It has also been suggested that the friction and ram pressure of the diamond hail heats up the planet.
The structure inside Neptune is thought to be similar to the structure inside Uranus. There is likely to be a core, thought to be about 1.5 Earth masses. It is made up of molten rock and metal surrounded by rock, water, ammonia, and methane. This mixture is referred to as icy. It is called a water-ammonia ocean. More mixtures of methane, ammonia, and water are found in the lower areas of the atmosphere.
At a depth of 7,000 km of Neptune, the conditions may be such that methane decomposes into diamond crystals. These diamond crystals look like hailstones.
One difference between Neptune and Uranus is the level of its meteorological activity. When the Voyager spacecraft flew by Uranus in 1986, the winds on that planet were observed not so strong as on Neptune. When Voyager flew by Neptune in 1989, powerful weather events were observed. The weather of Neptune has very active storms. Its atmosphere has the highest wind speeds in the Solar System. It may be powered by internal heat flow. Regular winds in the equatorial region have speeds of around 1,200 km/h (750 mph). Winds in storm systems can reach up to 2,100 km/h, near-supersonic speeds.
In 1989, the Great Dark Spot, an anticyclonic storm system, was discovered by NASA's "Voyager 2" spacecraft. On 2 November 1994, the Hubble Space Telescope did not see the Great Dark Spot on the planet. Instead, a new storm similar to the Great Dark Spot was found in the planet's northern hemisphere. The reason why the Great Dark Spot has disappeared is unknown. The Scooter is another storm, a white cloud group farther south than the Great Dark Spot. Its nickname was given when first noticed in the months leading up to the "Voyager" encounter in 1989. It moved faster than the Great Dark Spot. Later images showed clouds that moved even faster than Scooter. The Wizard's Eye/"Dark Spot 2" is another southern cyclonic storm, the second strongest storm seen during the 1989 encounter. It originally was completely dark, but as "Voyager" came closer to the planet, a bright core developed.
In August 2023, the clouds vanished. The possible reason is solar flare. 30 years of Neptune' weather observations by Hubble Space Telescope showed that cloud activity is related to solar cycles.
Neptune has a similar axial tilt to Earth, so it will have seasons. Seasons last about 40 years.
Arcs are a puzzle. The laws of motion predict that arcs spread out into one ring in a very short time. But the arcs in Neptune's rings did not. A moon's gravity may have created the arcs. Galatea is a moon just inside the Adams ring.
Neptune has 16 known moons. As Neptune was the Roman god of the sea, the planet's moons were named after lesser sea gods or goddesses.
Neptune's second known moon (by order of discovery), the odd moon Nereid, has one of the most unusual orbits of any satellite in the Solar System. Nereid is so far from Neptune that it requires 360 Earth days to make one orbit. It causes the largest elliptical orbit and the largest deviation from a circular path.
Some of these moons have been speculated to have been possible Kupier Belt objects, which in turn became a part of Neptune's Orbit.
From July to September 1989, "Voyager 2" discovered six new moons of Neptune. Of these, Proteus is the second most massive Neptunian moon. It has only one quarter of 1% of the mass of Triton. Neptune's closest four moons, Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, and Galatea, orbit close enough to be inside Neptune's rings. The next farthest out, Larissa was discovered in 1981 when it had covered up light from a star. The moon was credited for causing Neptune's ring arcs when "Voyager 2" observed Neptune in 1989. Five new unusual moons discovered between 2002 and 2003 were announced in 2004. The latest moon, Hippocamp, was discovered from examining Hubble Telescope images on 16 July 2013.
Neptune can not be seen by just looking at the sky with the naked eye. To see it, a telescope or binoculars is needed. This is because Neptune has a normal brightness between magnitudes +7.7 and +8.0. It can be out-shined by Jupiter's Galilean moons, the dwarf planet Ceres, and the asteroids 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, 7 Iris, 3 Juno and 6 Hebe. A telescope or strong binoculars show Neptune as a small blue dot that looks similar to Uranus. The blue color comes from the methane in its atmosphere. Its small size in the night sky has made it difficult to study visually. Most telescopic data was quite limited until the arrival of the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics.
The average distance between Neptune and the Sun is about 4.5 billion km. Therefore, Neptune completes its orbit once every 164 years. On 12 July 2011, Neptune completed its first orbit since its discovery in 1846.
Currently, only one spacecraft has visited Neptune. NASA's "Voyager 2" probe made a quick flyby of the planet with its closest encounter on 25 August 1989.
One of "Voyager 2"'s important discoveries was its very close fly-by of Triton, where it took pictures of several parts of the moon. The probe also discovered the Great Dark Spot. However, it had now disappeared after the Hubble Space Telescope took pictures of Neptune in 1994. Originally thought to be a large cloud or cyclonic storm system. It was later guessed to be a hole in the visible cloud deck.
New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States. It is at the southern end of the U.S. state of New York. Over 8 million people currently live in the city, and over 22 million people live in the bigger New York metropolitan area. It is the financial capital of the U.S. because it is home to the nation's stock market, Wall Street, and the One World Trade Center.
Many districts and landmarks in New York City are well known, including three of the world's ten most visited tourist places in 2013. A record 62.8 million tourists came to New York City in 2017. Times Square is the colorful area of the Broadway Theater District, one of the world's busiest pedestrian intersections, and a famous area for the world's entertainment industry. Many of the city's landmarks, skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattan's real estate market is one of the most expensive in the world. New York has more Greek people outside of Greece than anywhere in the world, with many Greektowns across the city. The New York City Subway is the biggest single-operator rapid transit system worldwide, with rail stations. The city has over 120 colleges and universities, including Columbia University, New York University, Rockefeller University, and the City University of New York system, which is the biggest urban public university system in the United States. The world's two largest stock exchanges, the New York Stock Exchange, located on Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, and NASDAQ, headquartered in Midtown Manhattan, are both in Manhattan.
The hallmark of New York city is its many skyscrapers, especially in Manhattan. In New York City there are about 5600 skyscrapers. 48 of them are over 200 metres tall, which is the highest number of skyscrapers in one area in the world.
New York City currently has over 8 million people. Over 20 million people live in the New York metropolitan area including the city. The majority of the people in New York City belong to ethnic groups that are minorities in the US. New York City has had large numbers of immigrants for centuries. In the early 19th Century, they came from Ireland and Germany. Later in the 19th century, they came from Italy, Russia and Eastern Europe. Today, many are from Puerto Rico, Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Colombia. Other ethnic groups living in New York City are Turks, Indians, Mexicans, Filipinos, Eastern Europeans, Jamaicans, Trinidadians, Caribbeans and Chinese. New York City has one of the largest Hispanic and Latino population in the United States.
New York City is a global hub of business and commerce, as a center for banking and finance, retailing, world trade, transportation, tourism, real estate, new media, traditional media, advertising, legal services, accountancy, insurance, theater, fashion, and the arts in the United States. The Port of New York and New Jersey is also a big part of the economy. It received a record cargo volume in 2017, over 6.7 million TEUs. New York City's unemployment rate fell to its record low of 4.0% in September 2018.
Many Fortune 500 companies are headquartered in New York City, as are many multinational corporations. One out of ten private sector jobs in the city is with a foreign company. New York City has been ranked first among cities around the world in getting capital, business, and tourists. New York City's role as the top global center for the advertising industry can be seen with "Madison Avenue". The city's fashion industry has about 180,000 employees with $11 billion in annual wages.
Chocolate is New York City's biggest specialty-food export, with up to $234 million worth of exports each year. Entrepreneurs were creating a "Chocolate District" in Brooklyn , while Godiva, one of the world's biggest chocolatiers, continues to be headquartered in Manhattan.
New York City's biggest economic part is the U.S. financial industry, also known as "Wall Street". The city's securities industry, which has 163,400 jobs in August 2013, continues to be the biggest part of the city's financial sector and an important economic part. In 2012, Walls Street made 5.0% of the city's private sector jobs, 8.5% ($3.8 billion) of its tax revenue, and 22% of the city's total wages, including an average salary of $360,700.
Many of the world's biggest media conglomerates are also in the city. Manhattan had more than 500 million square feet (46.5 million m) of office space in 2018, making it the biggest office market in the United States. Midtown Manhattan, with 400 million square feet (37.2 million m) in 2018, is the biggest central business area in the world.
The New York City Public Schools system, managed by the , is the biggest public school system in the United States. It serves about 1.1 million students in more than 1,700 different primary and secondary schools.
The mayor of New York is Eric Adams, a Democrat. The city also has a City Council that makes some local laws. Most laws in New York City are set by the state government in Albany.
October begins on the same day of the week as January in common years, but does not begin on the same day of the week as any other month in leap years. October always ends on the same day of the week as February, and additionally, January in common years.
October begins on the same day of the week as January in common years, but no other month in leap years begins on the same day of the week as October. October ends on the same day of the week as January in common years and February every year, as each other's last days are 39 weeks (273 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively.
Of is a preposition used in the English language to show a possessive relationship. For example, the phrase "book of maps" means that the book has maps. The phrase "father of Mike" means the father belongs to Mike.
1 (One) is the first natural number, followed by two. The Roman numeral for "one" is I.
In mathematics, 1 is the multiplicative identity. It is sometimes called the "unity". It is also the only number for which these special facts are true:
In mathematics, 0.999... is a repeating decimal that is equal to 1. Many proofs have been made to show this is correct.
The number "one" is important for computer science, because the binary numeral system uses only 1s and 0s to represent numbers. In machine code and many programming languages, one means "true" (or "yes") and zero means "false" (or "no").
"O Canada" has been translated into many languages. Some of these languages are spoken by people living in Canada, but they trace their roots in other parts of the globe. These languages include Chinese, Japanese, German, Spanish, Italian, Punjabi, Russian, and Ukrainian. The song has also been translated into indigenous languages (languages spoken by First Nations), such as Inuktitut, Ojibwe, Cree, and Mi'kmaq.
Open content is content that is openly accessible, usable, editable, and distributable by anyone for any purpose, even commercially. Open content is licensed with an open license that authorizes use of the content as described above.
When someone creates something (like a picture or book), they can open it for the use of others. This means that other people are allowed to copy it and change it if they want. Something that is open content may be free of charge, but it does not have to be.
The Simple English Wikipedia is open content. So are other Wikipedias. If a person changes open content or makes new open content, everyone can give it to anyone else, or even sell it.
The rules that say how people can use, change and pass around open content are called a license. A license explains exactly what you are allowed to do with the content that falls under it. Licenses are often written in difficult language (legal jargon), but many licenses have summaries that are much easier to understand.
Other kinds of oil are made from crude oil ("petroleum"), which comes from under the ground. People use large oil wells to bring the oil up to the surface. The oil is sent in special ships called tankers or in pipelines to factories called refineries where it is distilled into LPG, gasoline ("petrol"), diesel fuel, and fuel oil. Plastics are among the petrochemicals made from crude oil or natural gas. Oils from crude oil are also used as fuels for engines or as lubricants to make the parts of machines work together without sticking or stopping.
Different kinds of oils are also used for many other things, for example, to make cosmetics, medicines, paints, and detergents, like washing up liquids. Soap(s) are similar to detergents, but they are generally made from animal fat(s) rather than oils.
Oil is also made for various purposes, including synthetic fuel and lubricant.
See Thomas Gold for the idea that oils come from space.
OK (okay) is a word in the English language. It is used to mean that something is good or correct. It is the opposite of the word bad.
You also find the phrase "Ola kala" in Greek, which means "All Correct".
For example, the phrases "Wise fool", "Warm freezer", "Legal murder", and "Anarcho-capitalism" all have two words. In each one, the one word looks like the opposite of the other word.
Oxymorons sometimes appear in jokes. Sometimes, the joke is just to say that a pair of words are an oxymoron. For example, a joke that says that "glutted peasant" is an oxymoron. This means that peasants are usually hungry, if the word 'peasant' is opposite to 'glutted'
An operating system (OS) is a kind of computer program that helps a computer to interact with other machines or with people. An OS is not actually one single program but a group of small programs, like file managers, device drivers, and kernels. An OS can be small (like Damn Small Linux), or large (like Microsoft Windows). Some are meant for everyday use, like in a personal computer or a smartphone. Others are very specialized - for example, an ATM uses a kind of operating system.
An operating system has many jobs. It makes sure that all the programs share access to the computer's processor, memory, screen, input devices, and other hardware. Today, most operating systems also include a visible interface so the user can easily interact with it. An OS is also responsible for sending data to other computers or devices on a network.
Some examples of commonly used operating systems are macOS, Linux, and Android.
One of the first computers was ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), built by the United States during World War II. Making ENIAC do useful work was difficult. To program ENIAC, scientists had to move switches and cables around on the side of the computer. While this was an operating system of a kind, it is not really like modern operating systems.
The first operating system that looked and felt like today's operating systems was UNIX, made in 1969 by Bell Labs. With UNIX, people could program computers by typing on a keyboard. Many of its features were taken from Multics, an older operating system made in 1964.
Operating systems come in many different types. An OS might fit one or several of the types listed below, and the difference between the types isn't always clear.
A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time. A multitasking operating system can run more than one program at the same time. To multi-task, the computer lets each program take a turn using the processor.
Single-user operating systems don't let people create their own "accounts" on the computer - there is only one user. A multi-user operating system lets multiple users interact with the system at the same time.
A distributed operating system takes a group of distinct computers, which might be all over the place, and makes them work together like one single computer.
Embedded operating systems are very small OSes used in embedded systems. They are designed to operate on small machines, like the electronic part of a microwave, and they only do a few particular things.
Philosophy is the study of the reasons for things. It also tries to understand how things should be. "" is the Ancient Greek word for the "love of wisdom". A person who works in the field of philosophy is called a philosopher. A philosopher is a kind of thinker and researcher. A "philosophy" can also mean a group of ideas or way of living suggested by philosophers. Philosophy is a way of thinking about the world, the universe, and society. In the past, natural sciences were a part of philosophy.
Questions related to philosophy are called philosophical questions. Most philosophical questions can never be answered with certainty. They focus on important topics, such as the meaning of life, death, and morality. An example of a philosophical question is this: "Is there any knowledge in the world which is so certain that no reasonable man could doubt it?". Other questions asked by philosophers are:
The word 'Philosophy' directly translates to 'love of wisdom'. It comes from the Greek word "'Philosophia'", with "'Philo'" meaning "'lover'" and "'Sophia"' meaning "'wisdom"'.
There are different types of philosophy from different times and places. Some philosophers came from Ancient Greece, such as Plato and Aristotle. Others came from Asia, such as Confucius, Buddha, Adi Shankara, and Laozi. Some philosophers were from the Middle Ages in Europe, such as William of Ockham or Saint Thomas Aquinas.
Philosophy seeks to understand truths about the world and how we view it. It tries to answer important questions by making conclusions based on observations of human nature and the real world.
Sometimes, philosophy tries to answer the same questions as religion and science. Philosophers give different answers to the same question. Many types of philosophy criticize or even attack the beliefs of religion.
In his work "Critique of Pure Reason", Immanuel Kant asks the following questions:
The answers to these questions give the different categories of philosophy.
Philosophy can be divided into different groups based on the types of questions asked. Below is a list of the questions split into groups. One possible list of answers to these questions can be called a 'philosophy'. There are many different philosophies, because all of these questions have different answers according to different people. Not all philosophies ask the same questions. These are the questions that are usually asked by philosophers from the Western world:
Other divisions include eschatology, teleology and theology. In past centuries, natural science were included in philosophy, and called "natural philosophy".
It is easy to argue that philosophy is a good thing because it helps people understand the world better. Philosophy helps people learn how to act and think. Philosophers believe that asking philosophical questions is useful because it helps people learn about themselves, the world, and others. It can be argued that "Is philosophy good or bad?" is a philosophical question itself.
However, some people think philosophy is harmful because it encourages free-thinking and questions the beliefs that others hold. Some philosophies also clash with religion, and oppose religious beliefs. For example, philosophies such as some existentialist views say that there is no meaning to life or human existence, except the meaning that we make up or invent. Most religions disagree with this belief.
Many major sciences, including physics, biology, psychology, and chemistry, were once considered a part of philosophy. As facts about nature became more understood, these subjects separated into their own fields. In modern times, subjects such as consciousness, decision theory, and applied ethics have found independence from philosophy. It can be argued that philosophy helped promote the development of these sciences, and that it has historically been an important field of study.
Philosophers ask questions about ideas, and tries to find answers to those questions. A philosopher also analyzes concepts, arguments, and problems in philosophy.
Some are academics that work for universities or colleges. These philosophers may write books and articles about philosophy and teach classes about the subject to university or college students.
Some are also monks, artists, or scientists. They also think about philosophical ideas and questions.
Philosophers use logic to solve problems and answer questions. Logical consistency is a cornerstone of any acceptable theory. Philosophers who disagree with a theory will often try to find a logical contradiction in a theory. If they find a contradiction, this gives them a reason to reject that theory. If they do not find an inconsistency, the philosopher might show that the theory leads to a conclusion which is either unacceptable or ridiculous. This second approach is called reductio ad absurdum.
Physics is very important in engineering and developing new technologies, such as aviation, electronics and weapons. One reason for starting the mathematical field of calculus was to help develop mechanics, a branch of physics.
Islamic scholars continued to study Aristotelian physics during the Islamic Golden Age. One main contribution was to observational astronomy. Some, like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna, worked on optics and vision. In "The Book of Optics", Ibn al-Haytham rejected previous Greek ideas concerning vision and proposed a new theory. He studied how light enters the eye, and developed the camera obscura. European scientists later built eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, and cameras from this book.
Politics is about making agreements between people so that they can live together in groups such as tribes, cities, or countries. In large groups, such as countries, some people may spend a lot of their time making such agreements. These people are called politicians. Politicians, and sometimes other people, may get together to form a government. The study of politics in universities is called political science, public affairs, government, political studies, or public administration.
In everyday life, the term "politics" refers to the way that countries are governed, and to the ways that governments make rules and laws to manage the human society properly. Politics can also be seen in other groups, such as in companies, clubs, schools, and churches.
One of the ways the government leads the group is by making laws and rules which tell everybody what they can and can not do. The government makes these laws so that society will be safe and well-ordered. The law that says "you must not drive a car when you have been drinking alcohol" stops people from drunk driving, which could kill people. The law that says "you must wear a helmet on a motorcycle" makes sure that people protect themselves when riding their motorcycles.
In 1651, Thomas Hobbes wrote "Leviathan", a book about politics. Hobbes wrote that people living in groups often give up some of their rights in exchange for some protections from a government. This is the basis of the social contract theory.
Profanity, also known as swearing, are words which are considered to be effrontery, not nice, inappropriate, low-class or offensive. The adjective is "profane". Profanities can also be called curse ("cuss") words, swear words, dirty words, bad words, foul language, strong language, obscenity, obscene language, or expletives. It can be called swearing, although this also has a normal meaning of making a "solemn promise". A profanity usually refers to social customs, sex, or bodily functions. These are things that people feel very strongly about. In some languages, such as French, there is more profanity about religion than most other topics. This is the original meaning, from a Latin word meaning "before the temple".
Prick ( in the United States)
Twat (Pussy in the United States)
people use swear words as jokes though not everyone likes this.
The People's Republic of China (PRC) () is a one-party state in East Asia governed by the Communist Party of China (CPC). It was founded on 1 October 1949. It currently has more than 1.4 billion people (as of 2017). It covers an area of 9.6 million square kilometers.
In the SARs, the central government is responsible for defense and foreign affairs but not daily operations for 50 years. PRC claims Taiwan as one of its many provinces. However, PRC does not have control of Taiwan. It has an entirely different political system and is officially known as the Republic of China.
China is a one-party state wherein the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (CPC) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the paramount leader. The current General Secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012 and was re-elected on 25 October 2017.
The President is the titular head of state, elected by the National People's Congress. The current president is Xi Jinping, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's Paramount leader. The Premier is the head of government, heading the State Council alongside with four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The current premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the CPC, China's "de facto" top decision-making body.
There are 56 recognized ethnic minority groups in China. Han_Chinese is the largest ethnic group in China. Mandarin Chinese is the main spoken language.
A political party is similar to a faction, and can be the same thing. In some systems, members of one party in the legislature are all expected to vote the same way. The laws written by the party or faction with the majority of votes become adopted by the country, so this means whatever party is elected to over half the seats, gets to run the government. The next largest party is often called the "opposition". Sometimes when there are more than two parties with seats, no one party has over half of the seats. Then two or more parties might join to form what is called a "coalition".
A pet is a domesticated animal that lives with people, but is not forced to work and is not eaten, in most instances. In most cases, a pet is kept to entertain people or for companionship. Some pets such as dogs and cats are placed in an animal shelter if there is no one willing to take care of them. If no one adopts it or the pet is too old/sick, the pet may be euthanized or in some cases even abandoned.
Rodents are very popular pets. The most common are guinea pigs, hamsters (especially Syrian and dwarf hamsters), mice and rats. Rabbits are also very popular pets.
Bloomberg Intelligence estimated that the pet care market across the world was worth $320 billion in 2024 and growing rapidly.
Platonic realism is the theory of reality developed by Plato, and explained in his . Platonic realism states that the visible world of particular things is a shifting exhibition, like shadows cast on a wall by the activities of their corresponding universal Ideas or Forms. Whereas the visible world of particulars is unreal, the Forms occupy the unobservable yet true reality and are real.
In his "Metaphysics", Aristotle, a student of Plato, explained that Socrates and his own student Plato held it significant that the world is in flux, much as Heraclitus had commented, "You cannot step into the same river twice", a theme of the , a group of pre-socratic philosophers.
Some mathematicians and physicists are Platonists, for instance and Roger Penrose. Yet today's Platonists usually view entities within the visible world as real, and simply regard universal abstractions like numbers, sets, propositions, and geometry as corresponding to real and timeless entities that also exist, though "pure" Platonists regard only the Forms or their realm as real.
By way of string theory and the , some physicists conjecture that Plato's allegory of the cave approximates the natural world's structure. Tegmark, who regards only the mathematical structure of the universe as real, has been called a "radical" Platonist.
Willard Van Orman Quine did a classification of paradoxes. He found three different types:
A paradox can also arise in ethics. Assuming power over others may sometimes be required to protect them while diminishing their right to autonomy. This is an ethical dilemma but "not" a logical paradox.
A potato has a lot of starch and other carbohydrates. Potato usually has a light-brown or yellowish skin and is white or yellow inside. If the potato gets light on it, the tuber turns green and will be poisonous.
The potato came from the high and cool areas of the Andes mountains. It was grown as a food crop thousands of years ago. When Spanish conquistadores came to South America in the 1500s, they took potatoes back to Europe.
It took nearly 200 years for the potato to become a widely grown crop. In the 1780s the farmers in Ireland began growing potatoes because they grew well in the poor soils. They also have most of the vitamins that people need to live. When a potato plague destroyed the crop in 1845, the Irish Potato Famine killed many people.
The potato plant is now grown in many parts of the world. Captain William Bligh planted potatoes on Bruny Island, Tasmania in 1792. In Australia they are now the largest vegetable crop.
Plants are one of six big groups (kingdoms) of living things. They are autotrophic eukaryotes, which means they have complex cells, and make their own food. Usually, they cannot move (not counting growth).
Plants include familiar types such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 391,000 extant (living) species of plants. Fungi and non-green algae are not classified as plants.
A plant needs sunlight, carbon dioxide, minerals from the soil and water to make food by photosynthesis. A green substance in plants called chlorophyll traps the energy from the Sun needed to make food. Chlorophyll is mostly found in leaves, inside plastids, which are inside the leaf cells. The leaf can be thought of as a food factory. Leaves of plants vary in shape and size, but they are always the plant organ best suited to capture solar energy. Once the food is made in the leaf, it is transported to the other parts of the plant such as stems and roots.
How pollen moves from one flower to another flower is called pollination. This transfer can happen in different ways. Insects such as bees are attracted to bright, scented flowers. When bees go into the flower to gather nectar, the spiky pollen sticks to their back legs. The sticky stigma on another flower catches the pollen when the bee lands or flies nearby it.
A probability experiment is a situation where chance affects the result of an experiment. If the experiment can only have two outcomes, it is named Bernoulli trial. A coin flip is a probability experiment because chance affects whether a coin will land heads or tails when it is flipped.
Proteins are long-chain molecules built from small units known as amino acids. They are joined with peptide bonds.
They are biochemical compounds.They have one or more polypeptides folded into a round or fibrous shape.
Proteins are formed by a process called "protein synthesis". The cell reads the genetic information of the DNA and translates it into a protein. In eukaryotes, this process begins in the cell nucleus and ends in the ribosome. In prokaryotes all of it is done in the cytoplasm.
Proteins have different functions depending on their shape and sequence. They can be found in meat or muscle. They are used for growth and repair, as well as for strengthening the bones. They help to make tissue and cells. They are in animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, and in the human body.