adityasasidhar/Wikipedia_Cleaned huggingface dataset:
Psychology is the study of the mind. It studies thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in humans and animals. Psychology aims to explain how the mind works. It also looks at how our actions relate to how we think.
A lot of the research in psychology is done on humans. However, animals are also used in research. Examples of this are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Psychology is a vast subject area. It covers many topics. It is divided into branches. Psychology has a lot in common with other fields of research. Ideas in psychology overlap with ideas in the sciences of anatomy, biology, neuroscience and physiology.
A person who works in the field of psychology is called a psychologist. A psychologist tries to understand how the mind works so that they can help people and animals. They must go through higher education for many years in order to become a professional. These practitioners attempt to explain how the mind functions by itself (individual) and with others (social). They also see how the mind affects the body. They work with social, behavioral, and cognitive sciences.
Psychology has been split up into smaller parts called branches. These are subjects in psychology that try to answer a particular group of questions about how people think. The branches of psychology that are often studied are:
Psychology is a type of science, so research psychologists use many of the same types of methods that researchers from other natural and social sciences use.
Psychologists make theories to try to explain a behavior or pattern they see. Based on their theory, they make predictions. Then, they carry out experiments or collect data to see if their prediction is right or wrong.
Some types of experiments cannot be done on people because it would take too long, cost too much money, risk people's health, or be unethical. There are also other ways psychologists study the mind and behavior scientifically, and test their theories. Psychologists might wait for some events to happen on their own; they might look at patterns among existing groups of people in natural environments; or they might do experiments on animals (which can be simpler and more ethical to study).
Just like in other fields of science, a good psychological theory can be proven wrong as new information about a subject is learned. Just like in any natural science, psychologists can never be completely sure that their theory is correct. If a theory can be proved wrong, but experiments do not prove it wrong, it is more likely that the theory is accurate. This is called falsifiability.
Not all psychology is scientific psychology. Psychodynamic psychology and depth psychology try to interpret dreams to understand the unconscious mind. They are older approaches to psychology begun by Carl Jung. He was interested in finding methods to measure personality traits.
Humanistic psychology and existential psychology believe that it is more important to understand personal meaning than to find causes and effects of mental processes and behaviors.
Psychologists are people who work in the field of psychology. A psychologist may work in either basic research or applied research. Basic research is the study of people or animals to learn more about them. Applied research uses what is learned from basic research to solve real-world problems. A qualified clinical psychologist can become a therapist or counsellor.
To become a psychologist, a person must first get a basic degree at a university and go to graduate school. A Master's degree, either MSc (Master of Science) or MA (Master of Arts), allows for work such as a school psychologist. A doctorate degree takes a longer time to earn because it includes doing research and writing a detailed report. A doctoral graduate uses the initials PhD or DPhil (Doctor of Philosophy). Some clinical psychologists earn a Doctor of Psychology degree and use the initials PsyD after their name. The American Psychological Association say that people need a PhD (or PsyD) and a current state license in the U.S. to call themselves a psychologist.
The words "psychologist" and "psychiatrist" may be confused with each other. A "psychiatrist" has graduated from medical school and uses the initials MD or its equivalent (MB ChB in London University, for example). A psychiatrist or doctor may work with a psychologist by prescribing and checking the effects of medications.
Examples of proper nouns, such as names of these languages, having synonyms or near-synonyms include:
Chopsticks are sticks used in pairs as cutlery. Chopsticks are traditionally used for eating in many Asian countries. These include China, Japan, Korea, Malaysia and Vietnam, etc (In East Asia and Southeast Asia). Most chopsticks are made of wood, bamboo or plastic.
Today, chopsticks are mainly used in China and neighboring countries. Chopsticks are often used in restaurants outside of Asia when serving Asian foods.
The English word "chopstick" seems to come from Chinese Pidgin English. In this simplified language, "chop chop" meant quickly.
The sticks are held together in the same hand. Usually this is the right hand. At some formal occasions it may be considered rude to use chopsticks with the left hand.
For this reason, China has introduced a tax on chopsticks that are only used once. There are also moves to replace disposable chopsticks made of wood by plastic or metal ones.
In 2003, a study was done. It found that people who use chopsticks regularly have a slightly higher risk of getting arthritis in the hand. With this, cartilage gets worn off, which causes pain in the joints of the hand. This is more common in older people. The Hong Kong Department of Health did a study in 2006. It found that generally, people use chopsticks or other food utensils more often than in 2003 when eating with others. It also found that personal hygiene has improved.
A telephone, also known as a phone, is a communication tool. People use it to talk with people far away. Originally, it was an electric tool sending analogue speech through wires. Many telephones in the 21st century are electronic tools sending digital signals on wires or radio transmission. Using a telephone, two people who are in different places can talk to each other. Early telephones needed to be connected with wires which are called fixed or landline telephones. Modern mobile phones use radio waves.
There are many different types of telephones. A telephone that can be carried around is called a mobile phone or cell phone. These became popular in the 1980s. It has become common for people to carry mobile phones and in many places it is unusual to not have one. The majority are smartphones, which can be used as computers. Some mobile phones can make telephone calls using communications satellites instead of masts on the ground, which means people can make calls from anywhere in the world.
In most countries there were public payphones. To use one, people paid with coins, a credit card or a prepaid card.
By the end of 2009, there were nearly 6 billion mobile and fixed-line telephone subscribers worldwide. This included 1.26 billion fixed-line subscribers and 4.6 billion mobile subscribers.
Kobe is an important port city in the Kansai district of Western Japan. It is near the cities of Osaka and Kyoto. Its population is around 1.53 million people as of 2008.
Henry Ford was born on July 30, 1863, in Greenfield Township, Michigan. In his early life, he showed an interest in mechanics and engineering. Ford's career began at Edison Illuminating Company, where he worked as an engineer.
Ford was also known for his political views. He had been against World War I because he thought that it was a waste of time. He also believed that Jewish people were causing problems in the world. This belief is called antisemitism. In 1919, he took over a newspaper called the "Dearborn Independent". He began publishing articles that blamed Jews for problems in the world. Later, he would blame Jewish bankers for starting World War II. In his book Mein Kampf, German dictator Adolf Hitler admired Henry Ford for his anti-Semitic writings and the industrial efficiency of Ford's factories. Ford's views influenced Hitler, but it's essential to note that their relationship was more ideological than personal.
In his later years, Henry Ford faced challenges and controversies, including his resistance to change and outdated business practices. His anti-Semitic views also drew criticism. Ford faced health issues later in life, including a series of strokes. He passed away on April 7, 1947, at the age of 83, due to a cerebral hemorrhage. Despite this, he left a lasting impact on the automotive industry and modern manufacturing.
Henry Ford's legacy is monumental; he revolutionized the automotive industry by introducing assembly line production, making cars more affordable for the masses. His innovations not only shaped the way we manufacture products but also had a profound impact on modern transportation and industrial practices. However, there is debate among historians about Henry Ford's legacy. While he is often credited with revolutionizing the automobile industry and pioneering assembly line production, some critics argue that his management practices were controversial, including his stance on labor unions and allegations of anti-Semitism.
He was born in India during the British Empire's rule of India. He is best known for two novels that he wrote in the late 1940s, "Animal Farm" and "Nineteen Eighty-Four". In those works, he said that totalitarianism, especially Stalinism, was very bad. Orwell was pro-life. He was majorly an anti-communist and right-leaning democratic socialist.
Eric grew up with his mother and sisters. Except for a short visit, he did not see his father again until 1912. The family moved to Shiplake before World War I. There, Eric became friends with the Buddicom family, especially Gertrude Butticom. They read poetry and hoped to become famous writers. At this time, he also liked fishing and watching birds with Jacintha's brother and sister.
Stalin invaded Poland on 18 September 1939. In the subsequent World War II, Stalin stayed neutral but signed a peace deal with Germany's leader Adolf Hitler. He then led a bloody war after Germany invaded the Soviet Union known as Operation Barbarossa, and after the end of the war Stalin gained control of all Eastern Europe including part of Germany. There, a series of loyal Marxist-Leninist single-party states were set up, extending his power and making the Soviet Union a superpower.
Stalin was born as Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili or Iosif Dzhugashvili. He began calling himself "Stalin" in 1912.
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was born in a small one room house in Gori, Georgia, on 18 December 1878. His father made and repaired shoes. His father was often drunk and used to hit his wife and his son. This resulted in Joseph getting struck by a sports carriage in January 1890, resulting in his left arm becoming shorter. Joseph had smallpox when he was young. This left his face scarred. Later, photographs were often changed to hide the scars. He was educated at the Gori church school. Joseph studied to be a priest at a seminary (school for priests) in Tbilisi. He was an active student reading many books, especially books that were not allowed by the seminary. This included books by Karl Marx. He joined a Marxist group in 1898, the Mesame Dasi, or Group Three.
Stalin left school in 1899 and got a job at the Tbilisi Physical Institute. He joined groups that were trying to start a revolution to remove the Tsar. They wanted a different type of government. The police raided his house in 1901 while hunting for people who opposed the government. Stalin escaped but went into hiding so the police could not find him. He organized anti-government activities such as May Day marches and protests. He became a Bolshevik. He supported a violent revolution, and did not support the Mensheviks. The secret police caught him in April 1902 and exiled him without trial to Siberia. He lived in the village of Novaya Uda.
There was a second great famine in the Soviet Union in 19461947. The conditions were caused by drought, made worse by the devastation caused by World War II. The grain harvest in 1946 totalled 39.6 million tons - barely 40% of the yield in 1940.
Stalin cooperated with Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler. They signed a mutual non-aggression pact. However, Hitler hated communism. After invading and neutralising France, Germany attacked the Soviet Union. After the Operation Barbarossa invasion, the USSR began working with the Western Allies to defeat Germany. In the end, Germany lost, but the USSR had more casualties than any other country during the war.
When World War II was over, the Soviet army occupied many countries in Europe, such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and parts of Germany. They imposed Marxism-Leninism on these countries. This was done against the wishes, and over the protests, of the American and British governments.
In his later years, Stalin faced various health issues, including cardiovascular problems, high blood pressure, and a series of strokes. His health deteriorated, leading to his death on March 5, 1953, officially attributed to a stroke.
Led by Lavrentiy Beria, the leading group in the Kremlin were Vyacheslav Molotov and Georgy Malenkov and Nikita Krushchev. Much later, Krushchev began a process of "De-Stalinization", which meant taking apart much of the political system that Stalin made. Stalin was denounced as a tyrant. After outsmarting and defeating his rivals, Krushchev established a personal control over the government comparable to Stalin's own. Krushchev is himself a fascinating figure in Soviet history. His attempts to expand Soviet influence ended with the Cuban missile crisis.
In 2003 a group of Russian and American historians claimed that Stalin had been poisoned with powerful rat poison warfarin, possibly by the men who took over the government after Stalin died. Bear in mind, however, that Stalin was in his mid-seventies when he died, and modern pharmacology was in the future (statins etc.). Those facts make it likely that his death was natural.
Stalin is a controversial figure in history. Many historians see him as a ruthless dictator, though some praise him as the Father of the Soviet State. Stalin has been criticized for his role in the Holodomor. A recent poll in Russia (2008) listed him as the third most popular person in Russian history. In 2006, a poll stated that almost half the adults in Russia thought Joseph Stalin was a good person. At over 29 years, he was Russia's longest serving Ruler throughout the 20th Century and his record remains unbroken till date.
The original inhabitants of Antigua and Barbuda were indigenous the Taino and the Kalinago.
San Marino (officially called the Most Serene Republic of San Marino) is a country in Europe. It is one of the smallest countries in the world. It is found in Southern Europe and is fully surrounded by Italy (this is called an "enclave", and only the Vatican City, Lesotho and San Marino are like this). Fewer than 30,000 people live there. Its total area is 61 km. Its capital is the City of San Marino.
Saint Marinus left the island of Rab (today Croatia) with his lifelong friend Leo, and went to the city of Rimini to work as a stonemason. After the Persecution of Diocletianus following his Christian sermons, he escaped to the nearby Monte Titano. There he built a small church and founded what is now the city and state of San Marino.
The official founding date is 3 September 301 AD. In 1320 the community of Chiesanuova chose to join the country. In 1463 San Marino extended with the communities of Faetano, Fiorentino, Montegiardino, and Serravalle. Since then there have been no changes in the country's borders.
In 1503, Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI occupied the Republic for six months. It remained like that until Pope Julius II intervened and restored the country's independence.
San Marino is covered by the Apennine mountain range, and it has a rugged terrain with no natural level ground. The highest point in the country is Monte Titano. There are no bodies of water of any significant size. It is between the Italian regions of Emilia-Romagna and Marche.
The cuisine of San Marino is very similar to Italian, especially the cuisine of the Emilia-Romagna and Marche regions. It has a lots of its own unique foods. It's best known food is the "Torta Tre Monti" ("Cake of the Three Mountains" or "Cake of the Three Towers"), a wafer cake covered in chocolate. The country also has a small wine industry.
Philippe's is a sit-down restaurant in downtown Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.. It is at 1001 North Alameda Street, near Olvera Street. Phillippe's is famous for inventing the French dip sandwich (though another restaurant called "Cole's" claims to have invented it, too). It has been in business since 1908, and is the oldest operating restaurant in Los Angeles. The traditional meal served at Phillippe's is a French dip sandwich, a bag of potato chips, a soft-drink (preferably root beer or cola), and a tapioca pudding cup for dessert.
Many years ago, people thought that the Sun orbits in a circle around the Earth. Every morning the Sun came up in the East and went down in the West. It just seemed to make sense that it was going around the Earth. But now, thanks to people like Copernicus and Galileo Galilei, we know that the Sun is the center of the Solar System, and the Earth orbits around it. Isaac Newton discovered that gravity controls the orbit of the planets and moons. Since a satellite is an object in space that revolves around another object, the Earth is a satellite of the Sun, just like the moon is a satellite of the Earth. The Sun has lots of satellites orbiting around it, like the planets, and asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. The Earth just has one natural satellite (the Moon), but there are many artificial satellites orbiting the earth.
When people first began to think about orbits, they thought that all orbits had to be perfect circles, and they thought that the circle was a "perfect" shape. Copernicus and Galileo, for example, thought so. But when people began to study the motions of planets carefully, they saw that the planets were not moving in perfect circles.
In a planetary system, planets, dwarf planets, asteroids and other minor planets, comets, and space debris orbit the system's barycenter in elliptical orbits.
The Moon takes 27 days (29.53 days as seen from Earth) to go around the Earth and also to rotate around its own axis. This is why only one side always faces the Earth and the "dark side of the Moon" faces away (it is called dark because we cannot see it, though all sides of the moon get light). One lunar year and one lunar day take the same amount of time.
Johannes Kepler (lived 15711630) wrote mathematical "laws of planetary motion", which gave a good idea of the movements of the planets because he found that the orbits of the planets in our Solar System are not really circles, but are really ellipses (a shape like a "flattened circle"). That is why orbits are described as elliptical.
As fewer people in some countries are religious ideas about funerals have changed. Traditional funerals are expensive. Some people may just have a direct cremation with no ceremony. They might organise a party separately.
Georgian uprising on Texel
Most neutrinos passing through the planet Earth come from the Sun. About 65 billion () solar neutrinos per second pass through every square centimeter of area, including our own bodies.
Seasons begin and end on different dates in different countries. In the United States, people say the seasons begin at the solstices and equinoxes. The summer solstice is the longest day of the year, and the winter solstice is the shortest. The equinox is the time when the day and the night are the same number of hours, assuming the sun were a point of light at its center. Since civil dawn occurs when the edge of the sun first appears over the horizon and civil dusk occurs when the edge drops over the horizon, the civil length of day is 12 hours long several days prior to the equinoxes. In the US, summer begins at summer solstice, winter at winter solstice, spring at the spring ("vernal") equinox and autumn at the autumnal equinox.
Atlantis is a name for a fictional large island or small continent that was in the Atlantic Ocean many years before it sank into the depth of the sea.
Many scholars think that Plato could mean a real place when he was writing about Atlantis. For example, there was a Minoan kingdom on the island of Santorini. The Minoan kingdom was very powerful thousands of years before Plato, and their society was damaged when a volcano erupted on their island. According to Plato, Atlantis was very large, as big as North Africa, so it should not have been hard to find.
Many companies that use or used to use asbestos have been sued by current or former employees who got sick with mesothelioma or asbestosis. Many lawyers specialize in asbestos-related lawsuits.
Usenet () is a type of discussion system on computers. It was created from the Unix-to-Unix Copy (UUCP) dial-up network architecture. Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis began the idea in 1979. The system was created in 1980. People read and post messages (called "articles", "posts"or "news") to one or more categories. These categories are called newsgroups. Usenet is similar to a bulletin board system (BBS) in many ways. It is the precursor to Internet forums. Discussions are threaded but posts are stored in order of when they were posted.
A main difference between a BBS and Usenet is that usenet has no administrator. Also, the network used to share the messages is not constant. Usenet is spread over a large, constantly changing group of news servers. The servers store and forward messages to one another. Each user reads messages from and posts messages to a local server. The local server can be operated by anyone.
Usenet is important in the networked world. Many well known ideas and terms were either created on usenet or made popular there. These include "FAQ", "flame", sockpuppet, and "spam". In the early 1990s, Usenet connections via Fidonet's dial-up BBS networks made it more common for people to discus things worldwide. They did not need a server, just (local) telephone service.
Kwashiorkor - The New Oxford Dictionary of English, OUP 1998
On average, the North Sea has a depth of only 94 meters. About 80 million people live near the North Sea, at most 150 km away from the coast. Together with the English Channel in the south, the southern North Sea is the busiest body of water in the world.
About 200 km east of the Scottish city of Dundee there are more trenches, known collectively as the "Devil's hole". Generally, the water is about 90 meters deep there. The trenches very often are only a few kilometers in length. In these trenches, the depth increases to up to 230 meters.
In the 1960s, geologists found large areas of oil and natural gas under the North Sea. Most of the oil fields are owned by the United Kingdom and Norway but some belong to Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany. Drilling began in the 1960s and led to a famous argument between the UK Government and Scottish Nationalists how the revenue (money) from the oil should be spent.
Annelies or Anneliese Marie Frank also known as Anne Frank (12 June 1929 February or March 1945) was a German-born Dutch Jewish girl who kept a diary in which she documented her life in hiding from the Nazis during World War II. Her diary is seen as a classic in war literature and history, and is one of the most widely read books today. Several plays and movies have been made on it.
Anne was born in the city Frankfurt am Main in the Free State of Prussia in Weimar Germany. She lived most of her life in or around Amsterdam, in the Netherlands. She was officially seen as a German until 1935. This was when she lost her nationality because of the anti-Semitic rules of Nazi Germany. She became famous around the world after her death when her diary was printed. In it she described her experiences hiding during the Nazi German occupation of the Netherlands in World War II. Frank family moved from Germany to Holland's capital, Amsterdam in 1933. This was the same year that the Nazis grew powerful in Germany. By the beginning of 1940, because of the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands, the Frank family was trapped in Amsterdam. Persecution of Jewish people increased in July 1942, and the family decided to hide. They hid in some secret rooms of her father Otto Frank's office building. After two years, they were betrayed and taken to concentration camps. Anne and her sister, Margot, were later taken to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. There, they both died from typhus in 1945.
Otto Frank was the only person in his family who survived. He went back to Amsterdam after the war and found that Anne's diary had been saved. He helped print a version of it in 1947. It was translated from Dutch and first printed in English in 1952 as "The Diary of a Young Girl". It has been translated into many languages. The diary had been given to Anne on her 13th birthday. In it she wrote of her life from 12 June 1942 until 1 August 1944.
While in hiding, she would often imagine herself gracefully gliding across the floors of the Secret Annex, finding solace and joy in the imaginary freedom of movement. Roller skating became a symbol of resilience and optimism in Anne's diary, reminding her of the simple pleasures of life outside the Annex. Otto Frank began working at the Opekta Works. Opteka was a company that sold pectin. Otto Frank found an apartment on the Merwedeplein (Merwede Square) in Amsterdam. By February 1934, Edith and the children had arrived in Amsterdam, and Anne and Margot began going to school. Margot went to public school and Anne went to a Montessori school. Margot enjoyed math, while Anne preferred reading and writing. Her friend Hanneli Goslar later remembered that from when she was young, Anne often wrote, though she tried to hide what she wrote and did not like talking about it. Margot and Anne had very different personalities. Margot was polite, quiet, and thoughtful, while Anne was brave, energetic, and friendly.
However, that was not to be. Anne's father, Otto Frank, lived through the war and came back to Amsterdam in June. Unfortunately, Otto Frank was the only person in the hiding place to survive.
Janny Brandes-Brilleslijper, a Holocaust survivor, testified that
around January or February 1945, while in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, she discovered Anne was walking emaciated and wrapped in a single blanket. When she asked her where her clothes were, Anne claimed she had thrown them away because lice were crawling all over them. Anne then told Janny to also organize something for her sister Margot because she was gravely ill. She promised Anne to organize some clothing for her and organize something for Margot, and gave Anne some morsels of bread, before she left.
Three days later, Janny learned that both Margot and Anne were dead. She then said that Margot fell out of her bed and died almost instantly from shock. One day later, Anne fell into a coma whilst asleep, and died shortly afterwards. Anne's cause of death was most likely typhus fever.
Janny and her sister Lientje were given Margot and Anne's bodies and buried them in a mass grave.
She also testified that shortly after Margot and Anne's deaths, Bergen-Belsen was liberated by British troops.
Bergen-Belsen was liberated by the British on April 15, 1945 (the same year Margot and Anne died).
Janny's sister, Lientje, also survived the Holocaust.
After World War II ended in Europe (because the Germans did not record Anne's date of death) Lientje was asked when Anne died. Lientje then said that she believed Anne died sometime around March 1945. So Dutch authorities believed that Anne likely died two weeks before the camp was liberated.
Later in 1954, the German Red Cross army declared that Margot and Anne died sometime between 1 March 1945 and 31 March 1945.
In 2015, the Anne Frank House researchers indicated that Anne died around February 1945. So the Anne Frank House researchers believed that Anne likely died two months before the camp was liberated.
Independence of these South American countries inspired the independence of Central America And Mexico in 1811
One of the angles of a right triangle is always equal to 90 degrees. This angle is the right angle. The two sides next to the right angle are called the legs and the other side is called the hypotenuse. The hypotenuse is the side opposite to the right angle, and it is always the longest side.
From the image, add equations (1) and (2):
And we get:
Temperature is how hot or cold something is. Our bodies can feel the difference between something which is hot and something which is cold. To measure temperature more accurately, a thermometer can be used. Thermometers use a temperature scale to record how hot or cold something is. The scale used in most of the world is in degrees Celsius, sometimes called "centigrade". In the USA and some other countries degrees Fahrenheit are more often used while scientists mostly use kelvins to measure temperature because it never goes below zero.
Tux is a mascot of the Linux operating system; a cartoon penguin made by Larry Ewing in 1996. Wherever he is seen, it means such a system can work with Linux. He is also a character in some video games made for Linux, like "Super Tux".
The name "Tux" comes from James Hughes, who named the Linux mascot that as an shortened form of "Torvalds' UniX," as Linus Torvalds was the creator of the Linux kernel. Tux is also an abbreviation of tuxedo.
Mein Kampf () is a book written by Adolf Hitler and Rudolf Hess. Rudolf Hess helped Hitler write the book, but he is not mentioned as an author. The book consists of two parts. The first part was written by Hitler while he was in jail in Landsberg am Lech. He was put in jail after a failed "putsch", in 1923. He wrote the second part after his (early) release from jail. From 1926 to 1930, both volumes were sold separately, at the price of 12 Reichsmark each. In 1930, both volumes were published as one book.
The book has been called the "most evil book in history". Historians and journalists who have read it also say that it is a badly written book.
Computer graphics are visual representations of data, made with the help of computers. Computer graphics can be a series of images (video or animation) or a single image.
Bayern Munich has completed all available Trebles (seasonal treble, domestic treble and European treble).
At his farewell game, Oliver Kahn was declared honorary captain of Bayern Munich. The players below are part of the FC Bayern Munich Hall of Fame.
The first person from Europe to see it was the Portuguese man Bartolomeu Dias. He saw it in 1488 and named it the "Cape of Storms". His king renamed it.
His father James Roosevelt I and his mother Sara Delano were from rich old New York families that made money from slavery. The Roosevelts were originally Dutch, and the Delanos were originally French. Franklin was their only child. His father's grandmother, Mary Rebecca Aspinwall, was a first cousin of Elizabeth Monroe, wife of the fifth U.S. president, James Monroe.
In 1860, he came back to China and made a fortune in the notorious but highly profitable opium trade supplying opium-based medication to the U. S. War Department during the American Civil War. He is a 5th cousin and a nephew-in-law of another United States President Theodore Roosevelt. His 5th cousin, once removed was Eleanor Roosevelt, who was also his wife. Roosevelt once had an affair with his wife's secretary and later avoided seeing her to protect his political career.
Roosevelt won the election against the unpopular incumbent (president at the time), Herbert Hoover and became president in early 1933.
In 1939, Roosevelt became the first President of the United States to appear on television. Roosevelt was elected for a third term in 1940. He gave weapons and money to the Allies fighting in World War II as a part of the Lend-Lease program at this time, but the United States was still technically neutral in the war.
Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802 on June 25, 1941, prohibiting companies and unions from discriminating on the basis of race or ethnicity. Although patchily implemented and only a wartime measure, this legislation laid the groundwork for the federal government supporting Civil Rights for African Americans.
The military used a draft to get people to fight in the war, but many people in Puerto Rico, a colony of the United States, did not want to fight because they felt the U.S. was treating them badly by occupying the island. The U.S. forced them to fight and to help pay for war supplies anyway.
For overcoming the difficult challenges of a severe depression and another world war, historians consider him to be one of the three best U.S. presidents. Indeed, his presidency has been said to have redefined the role of the presidency, inspiring Truman's Fair Deal, Kennedy's New Frontier, and Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society.
Ancient Venezuelans came from the east, west, south, and north. Christopher Columbus was the first European to enter Venezuela, but there were already people living there for a long time. The Spaniards first conquered Venezuela. Slaves were brought from Africa.
Saudi Arabia, officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, is a country in West Asia including most of the Arabian Peninsula. The land area is approximately , so Saudi Arabia is geographically the 5th-largest state in Asia and 2nd-largest state in the Arab world after Algeria. Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast, and Yemen to the south. It is separated from Palestine and Egypt by The Red sea. It is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a The Arabian Gulf coast, and most of its land is dry and barren. Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Arabs and Islam and sometimes called "the Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam. Arabic is the exclusive official language in Saudi Arabia.
Sunni Islam is the state religion. The practice of non-Islamic religions is forbidden in public but not in private. The Hanbali school of faith has a big influence, and the ultra-conservative Wahhabism religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called "the predominant feature of Saudi culture".
The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of four distinct regions: Hejaz, Najd, and parts of Eastern Arabia (Al-Ahsa) and Southern Arabia ('Asir). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud. He united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. The country has since been an absolute monarchy, governed along Islamic lines.
More than 51 million people live in Colombia. It is the third most populated country in Latin America after Mexico and Brazil.
In 1819, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama declared independence from Spain, and formed a country called ""Gran Colombia"". Venezuela and Ecuador separated in 1830. Panama continued to be part of Colombia until 1903, at which point it proclaimed independence. The official language is Spanish, but there are many languages spoken by minorities that are official in local jurisdictions.
The geography of Colombia has six main natural regions, Each has its own unique characteristics. The Andes mountain region shares borders with Ecuador and Venezuela. The Pacific Coast region shares borders with Panama and Ecuador. The Caribbean coastal region shares borders with Venezuela and Panama. The "Llanos" (plains) shares a border with Venezuela. The Amazon Rainforest region shares a border with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador. The insular region includes all the islands of the country.
Colombia has 1,900 species of bird, more than any other country. There are about 2,000 species of marine fish. It is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish. As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 species. Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles. There are about 2,900 species of mollusk.
The actual president is Gustavo Petro, former senator and guerrilla in M-19 who won with 11 million votes and the second place was Rodolfo Hernandez, a polemic former mayor and entrepreneur.
He was born in Lutjegast, Netherlands. He went to Batavia (now called Jakarta) to work for the VOC in 1633. He went back to Holland in 1636. He went back to Batavia with his wife, Jannetie Tjaerss, two years later. He went north to Japan in 1640. In 1642 Tasman went south to Palembang.
Tasman set Governor General of the Dutch East Indies. This man sailed around to the east coast of Van Diemen's Land and claimed the land for the Dutch on December 3, 1642. The ships then sailed west and found New Zealand. His ships were attacked by Maori in large war canoes (boats) and four sailors died. Tasman then sailed north-east to Tonga and Fiji. He then sailed north west to New Guinea and got back to Batavia in June 1643.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of a computer program or a machine to think and learn. It is a field of study which tries to make computers "smart". John McCarthy came up with the name, "Artificial Intelligence" in 1955. Intelligence allows an organism to act in a meaningful way in its environment. It includes the ability to get sensory inputs, and to react to these. Artificial intelligence is also about processing information and about storing knowledge. One of the goals of "artificial intelligence" is to make a machine that behaves in a similar way.
The term "intelligence" is misleading, here. Alan Turing wrote in 1950 "I propose to consider the question 'can machines think'?" He proposed the question should be changed, from whether a machine "thinks", to "whether or not it is possible for machinery to show intelligent behaviour". Alain Turing also created the Turing test. This is a very general test. If a human cannot tell if at the other end of the line, there is a machine or a human answering questions, the machine is intelligent.
The authors of agree with Turing that AI must be defined in terms of "acting" and not "thinking". However, they are critical that the test compares machines to "people". "Aeronautical engineering texts," they wrote, "do not define the goal of their field as making 'machines that fly so exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons. AI founder John McCarthy agreed, writing that "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence".
An ideal (perfect) intelligent machine is a flexible agent which perceives its environment and takes actions to maximize its chance of success at some goal or objective. As machines become increasingly capable, mental faculties once thought to require intelligence are removed from the definition. For example, optical character recognition is no longer regarded as an example of "artificial intelligence": it is just a routine technology.
At present we use the term AI for successfully decoding human speech, competing at a high level in strategic game systems (such as chess and Go), self-driving cars, and interpreting complex data. Some people also consider AI a danger to humanity if it continues to progress at its current pace.
An extreme goal of AI research is to create computer programs that can learn, solve problems, and think logically. In practice, however, most applications have picked on problems which computers can do well. Searching databases and doing calculations are things computers do better than people. On the other hand, "perceiving its environment" in any real sense is way beyond present-day computing.
Unfortunately, researchers seriously undervalued how challenging several issues were. They still couldn't offer computers things like emotions or common sense using the techniques they had employed. In a paper on AI, mathematician James Lighthill stated that "no aspect of the discipline has so far seen discoveries generated the huge influence that was previously anticipated." The governments of the US and UK desired to support more profitable initiatives. An "AI winter" in which little research was conducted was brought on by cuts.
AI revived again in the 90s and early 2000s with its use in data mining and medical diagnosis. This was possible because of faster computers and focusing on solving more specific problems. In 1997, the chess computer Deep Blue became the first computer program to beat chess world champion Garry Kasparov. Faster computers, advances in deep learning, and access to more data have made AI popular throughout the world. In 2011 IBM Watson beat the top two Jeopardy! players Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, and in 2016 Google's AlphaGo beat top Go player Lee Sedol 4 out of 5 times.
The idea is perhaps much older. Julien Offray de La Mettrie (1709-1751) was a materialist thinker of the Enlightenment. In his work of 1748, L'Homme Machine, he had the idea that both matter and life organized themselves. He is seen as one of the precursors of Darwin's theory of evolution. Today, one field of artificial intelligence, called 'strong artificial intelligence' wants to build a machine that mimics human thought. In contrast to this, weak artificial intelligence is about building a system that can support a human when taking certain decisions. One of the key problems is to make systems that can model uncertainity; most of the time, this is done with probabiliity theory and statistics.
There are different domains of artificial intelligence. Most of these are independent, and research in one domain rarely influences the other domains. Common domains are:
There is a domain of study called artificial life, which also influences artificial intelligence.
The two most widely used textbooks in 2023. (See the Open Syllabus).
A computer programmer is a person who makes computer programs using a programming language. Programmers are also called software developers or software engineers or often coders.
A programming language is a type of written language that tells computers what to do. Examples are: Python, Ruby, Java, JavaScript, C, C++, and C#. Programming languages are used to write computer programs and computer software. A programming language is like a set of commands that tell the computer how to do things.
Usually, the programming language uses real words for some of the commands (e.g. "if... then... else...", "and", "or"), so that the language is easier for a human to understand. Like any normal language, many programming languages use punctuation. To make a program, a programmer writes commands in their chosen programming language and saves the commands to a text file. This text file is called source code. Some programming languages, such as Python and JavaScript, can be read by the computer right away. If not, the source code has to be compiled, which means that the computer translates the source code into another language (such as assembly language or machine language) that a computer can read, but which is much harder for a person to read.
Computer programs must be written very carefully. If a programmer makes mistakes, then the program might then stop working, which is called "crashing". When a program has a problem because of how the code was written, this is called a "bug". A very small mistake can cause very serious bugs.
Stack-based languages look at some of the program's memory like a stack of cards. There are very few things that can be done with a stack. A data item can be put on the top of the stack. This operation is generally called "push". A data item can be removed from the top of the stack. This is called a "pop". You can look at the item at the top of the stack without removing it. This is called a "peek".
Flow-oriented programming sees programming as connecting different components. These components send messages back and forth. A single component can be part of different "programs", without the need to be changed internally.
This program asks the user his or her age and responds based on what the user typed. If the user typed something that is not a number, the program says so. If the user typed a number less than zero, the program says so. If the user says he or she is older than 100 years old, the program says "That's old!". If the user typed a correct age, the program says back to the user how old he or she is.
Booting is what happens when a computer starts. This happens when the power is turned on. It is called "reboot" if it happens at other times. When you boot a computer, your processor looks for instructions in system ROM (the BIOS) and executes them. They normally 'wake up' peripheral equipment and search for the boot device. The boot device either loads the operating system or gets it from somewere else.
Tea is a drink that is made from steeping the leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant. Tea can have other herbs, spices, or fruit flavors in it, like lemon. All teas are made from the Camellia sinensis plant.
Sometimes the word "tea" is used for other drinks that have been made by soaking fruit or herbs in hot water, like "rosehip tea" or "chamomile tea". These are called "herbal teas". After drinking water, tea is the most widely consumed drink in the world.
To make black tea, workers take the leaves and spread them out on shelves where they can dry. Next they are rolled and broken into pieces and put into a room where they absorb oxygen, or oxidize. Chemical reactions change the taste and style of the tea. Finally the leaves are dried with hot air until they turn brown or black. Most black tea comes from Sri Lanka, Indonesia and eastern Africa. When black tea leaves are brewed in boiling water, the tea made from them looks deep dark red, so another name used for black tea, especially in China, is red tea.
In the year 2000, the language could be spoken by 1,500 people. Interlingua speakers say that millions can understand it (read texts in it and listen to someone talk in it) without having to learn it first.
There are three other constructed languages in the world that have more than 1000 speakers, Esperanto, Ido, and Toki Pona. Esperanto and Ido were made before Interlingua. Toki Pona was made in 2001. Some people think Esperanto and Ido are easy to learn because they have no "exceptions" (words that break the rules) but other people think Interlingua is easier because the makers chose all the words to be easy to understand for people who know English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, or Italian, plus languages like Occitan and Romanian, languages that used to be Latin, the language used in Rome a long time ago.
At the beginning of the 20th century, several associations such as the International Research Council, the American Council on Education and the American Council of Learned Societies were investigating the problem of the international auxiliary language.
Alice Vanderbilt Morris and her husband, Dave Hennen Morris had become interested in linguistics and the international auxiliary language movement in the early 1920s. In 1924 they created the non-profit International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) in New York City. They wanted to give scientific support to the study of IALs. They asked for the help of linguists like Edward Sapir, William Edward Collinson, and Otto Jespersen.
In its early years, IALA was focused on finding other organizations around the world with similar goals; building a library of books about languages and interlinguistics; and comparing IALs such as Esperanto, Ido, Novial, and Interlingue. To achieve the last goal, it arranged conferences with people that supported those IALs. IALA gain the support of different linguists during these conferences and congresses. However, the beginning of World War II in 1939 meant the end of those meetings.
Although the IALA did not have the goal of creating its own language, after ten years of research, it concluded that none of the existing artificial languages was good enough. By 1937, the members had made the decision to create a new language.