adityasasidhar/Wikipedia_Cleaned huggingface dataset:
Often, people find it easier to decrease the numbers that make up a set of data and work with a single number instead; many people think that the best number to choose is a number in the middle of the data (a "typical" value of the population). This number in the middle of the data is called its central tendency. There are three kinds of central tendencies that are often used: the mean (sometimes called the average), the median and the mode.
The formula for the commonly used mean (the so-called "arithmetic mean") is
The problem with the mean is that it is affected by very large or very small values. In statistics, these extreme values might be errors of measurement, but sometimes the population really does contain these values. If a set of data has one of these values, then the mean may not be similar to most or all of the original values. For example, if there are 10 people in a room who make $10 per day and 1 who makes $1,000,000 per day, then the mean of the data is $90,918 per day.
The average also does not work if a set of data includes multiple groups that are much different that each other. In a room of 10 people with five people who make $10 and five people who make $100 per day, the average of these data is $55 per day.
In both cases, the mean is not the amount any single person makes; this fact makes the mean not very useful for some purposes.
Other kinds of means exist, like the geometric mean; other means are useful for other purposes.
As another example, like the income example presented for the mean, consider a room with 10 people who have incomes of $10, $20, $20, $40, $50, $60, $90, $90, $100, and $1,000,000. Here, the median is $55, because $55 is the average of the two middle numbers, $50 and $60. If the extreme value of $1,000,000 is ignored, the mean is $53. In this case, the median is close to the value obtained when the extreme value is thrown out. The median solves the problem of extreme values as described in the first example in the definition of mean above.
However, the median still does not work as well for data made of multiple groups. In a room of 10 people with five people who make $10 and five people who make $100 per day, the median of these data is still $55 per day, which is still not similar to most of the people in the room.
The mode is the most frequent item of data. For example, if there are 10 people in a room with incomes of $10, $20, $20, $40, $50, $60, $90, $90, $90, $100, and $1,000,000, then the mode is $90, because $90 occurs three times and all other values occur fewer than three times.
Speed is a measure.
It is velocity but without the direction.
Speed is the distance an object moves in a given amount of time.
The distance is never negative.
If a train takes 1 hour to travel 100 kilometers, it has a speed of .
In fact this is the "average speed".
During this one hour, the train may become slower and faster, it may even drive backwards.
The average speed of an object in a certain time is the distance the object traveled divided by the time.
The instantaneous speed is the average speed when the time is very small, almost zero.
There are many units of measurement.
Since the 20th century following units were widely used by humans:
Different units are used for different applications.
People controlling planes and ships frequently use Knot (speed).
Sometimes a Mach number is used.
The smallest speed is .
The biggest speed is the speed of light.
You can write bigger speeds, but they are not possible in this universe.
A server log records what is happening on a server at any time. For example, an HTTP server runs a web site.
Typical server operating systems are Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. Unlike other computers, a server often has no monitor, keyboard, or mouse. When a server doesn't have to do very much, server software can run on a computer that is also doing other things.Initially, such servers were connected to clients known as terminals that did not do any actual computing. These terminals, referred to as "dumb terminals", existed simply to accept input via a keyboard or card reader and to return the results of any computations to a display screen or printer. The actual computing was done on the server. Servers also have a special ip number that other devices use to find the servers.
A web server is a type of server that is used to host websites. Examples of web server software include Apache or IIS. A web server can host one, or many, websites. The default port for a web server to listen to is port 80 (HTTP) or 443 (HTTPS).
A simile is a figure of speech that compares two different things, usually by using the words 'like' or 'as'. It is used to make a "direct and clear comparison between two things .Similes" may be confused with metaphors, which do the same kind of thing. Similes use comparisons, with the words 'like' or 'as'. Metaphors use indirect comparisons, without the words 'like' or 'as'.
In politics, a state is the government of a country which has control over a geographic area or territory. States have three main features:
There are different forms of government a state may have, for example a republic or a monarchy. Sometimes states form their own countries. In its origin the United States had different kinds of states, but they agreed to join together. Most states also have armed forces, civil service, law and police.
Government institutions in a country are commonly referred to as "the state".
The earliest states could not be just human settlements. They had to be more than tribes. An example is New Guinea, which has many small tribes, but no larger organisations. Amazonia in the 18th century was also like this, with many small tribes. They are not states. To be a state, tribes have to be bounded together, for example, by a monarch. They may also be bonded by their language, and by living in the same region.
An example of monarchy is early Egypt under the Pharaohs. Similar military-based states included the Babylonian Empire and the huge Roman Empire and early China.
Some early states were based on cities. Some Ancient Greek city-states had democracy in a limited form. Other states had inheritance of kingship or even challenges and fighting to decide leadership. Early city states had a feature that modern society cannot match. Every man got to see and know the leading citizens. "Man" because most city-states limited the vote to male heads of families. One reason was that the adult men would do the fighting if the group were attacked.
These states all tried to improve their politics and economy. They became more and more like the states today. They formed proper boundaries for their lands and worked with the powers in the state, such as the Church and the nobility. They made armies, tax systems and embassies to make them more powerful and stable.
Pluralism has been very popular in the United States. It shows the state as a neutral place for settling arguments between other states. Pluralism allows each group of people to tell the state what to do. This type of state is called a polyarchy.
The main job of a Marxist state is to protect the labour and financial situation of the working classes. With such reforms, a Marxist state focuses on collectivising resources and creating a planned economy to ensure the well-being of the workers.
Anarchism is when a group of people have complete freedom and do not believe in having a state at all. Anarchists are a lot like Marxists, but they believe (opposite to Marxists) that a country can work without without a state forcing people to do anything. Law and order are not necessary.
A stream is a natural flow of water moving across land between banks. It is smaller than a river.
In the United States, an intermittent stream that only flows for part of the year is marked on topographic maps with a line of blue dashes and dots. In desert areas of the American Southwest, this also includes washes, which only flow after thunderstorms or other significant rains. A blue-line stream is one which flows for most or all of the year and is marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line. In Australia, an intermittent stream is usually called a creek, and marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line.
Streams that form only during and immediately after precipitation are called ephemeral streams.
The gradient of a stream is a critical factor in determining its character, and is entirely determined by its base level of erosion. The base level of erosion is the point at which the stream either enters the ocean, a lake or pond, or enters a stretch in which it has a much lower gradient. It may be applied to any particular stretch of a stream. In geologic terms, the stream will erode down through its bed to achieve the base level of erosion throughout its course. If this base level is low, then the stream will rapidly cut through underlying strata and have a steep gradient, and if the base level is relatively high, then the stream will form a flood plain and meanders.
When a stream flows over an especially resistant stratum and forms a waterfall or cascade, or for some reason the base level of erosion suddenly drops, perhaps as a result of a fault, the resulting sudden change in stream elevation is called a nickpoint. The stream, of course, expends kinetic energy in "trying" to eliminate the nickpoint.
Meanders are looping changes of direction of a stream. These may be like sine-waves. Typically, over time, the meanders don't disappear but gradually migrate downstream. However, if some resistant material slows or stops the downstream movement of a meander, a stream may erode through the neck between two legs of a meander to become temporarily straighter, leaving behind an arc-shaped body of water termed an oxbow lake or bayou. A flood may also result in a meander being cut through in this way.
The point of origin of a stream is called the headwaters or source. The entire basin drained by the stream is termed the watershed. Every watershed is made up of smaller watersheds, while most watersheds are parts of larger watersheds. For instance, the Continental Divide in North America divides the Atlantic Ocean watershed from the Pacific Ocean watershed, but the Atlantic Ocean watershed may be first divided into the Atlantic Ocean drainage and the Gulf of Mexico drainage. This is termed the Eastern Divide. The Gulf of Mexico watershed may be divided into Mississippi River basin and a number of smaller watersheds, such as the Tombigbee River watershed. The Mississippi River watershed includes the Ohio River watershed, which in turn includes the Kentucky River watershed, and so forth.
The point at which a stream empties into an ocean or other large body of relatively level water is termed the mouth. There may be an estuary or delta at the mouth.
Some streams flow underground through unconsolidated sediments or through caves. Especially with caves, a stream may flow above ground for part of its course, and underground for part of its course. When a stream emerges from an underground course, it is termed a spring.
The Solar System is the Sun and all the objects that travel around it. The Sun is orbited by planets, asteroids, comets and other things.
The Solar System is about 4.568 billion years old. The Sun formed by gravity in a large molecular cloud. It is mainly hydrogen, which it converts into helium through nuclear fusion. The planets are in a flattened orbiting disk. This disk was partly left over from the cloud that formed the Sun, plus other material as the Sun moved through space. Eventually, the gas and dust of the disk came together into planets. It is thought that almost all stars and their planets form this way.
The Sun is a star. It makes up 99.9% of the Solar System's mass. This means that it has strong gravity. The other objects are pulled into orbit around the Sun. The Sun is mostly made out of hydrogen, and some helium and higher elements. All heavier elements, called "metals" in astronomy, account for less than 2% of the Sun's mass. Oxygen is about 1% of the Sun's mass. Iron (0.2%) is the most plentiful of the other elements.
In Ancient Greece, Aristarchus of Samos proposed the heliocentric model of the Solar System, where the Sun, is at the center of the known universe. He is sometimes known as the "Greek Copernicus".
The Solar System has evolved considerably since its initial formation. Some moons have formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets, while other moons are believed to have formed and were later captured by their planets. Others, such as the Earth's Moon, may be the result of giant collisions.
Astronomers now think that the order of the planets was not always as it is today. Knowing what we know today, we can see the Solar System is strange. Most other planetary system we are able to study have their largest planet closer to their star. In the Solar System it is not. Also we have noticed other oddities in the Solar System. Mars is smaller than it ought to be, and the asteroid belt has been disturbed.
So, astronomers have put forward the grand tack hypothesis. In it Jupiter was earlier closer to the Sun, and (for some unknown reason) moved out to its present position.
The Earth's orbit around the Sun is nearly a perfect circle, but in a very slightly oval shaped orbit, an elliptical orbit. The other planets in the Solar System also orbit the Sun in slightly elliptical orbits. Mercury has a more elliptical orbit than the others, and there is obviously some explanation for this. Some of the smaller objects orbit the Sun in very eccentric orbits. The planets all orbit the Sun in the same direction.
A full account of the planetary motion needs an account of the "n"-body problem, which is not treated on this wiki. A page can be found on En wiki.
For thousands of years, people had no need for a name for the "Solar System". They thought the Earth stayed still at the center of everything (geocentrism). The Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos suggested that there was a special order in the sky. Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematical system that described what we now call the "Solar System". This was called a "new system of the world". In the 17th century, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton began to understand physics more clearly. People began to accept the idea that the Earth is a planet that moves around the Sun, and that the planets are worlds, and that all worlds are governed by the same same physical laws. More recently, telescopes and space probes sometimes let us see details directly. All inner planets have surface features. The gas giants (as the name suggests) have surfaces whose make-up is gradually being discovered.
The planets are the biggest objects that go around the Sun. It took people many years of using telescopes to find the objects that were farthest away. New planets might still be found, and more small objects are found every year. Most of the planets have moons that orbit around them just as the planets orbit the Sun. There are at least 200 of these moons in the Solar System.
Pluto was discovered by American astronomer Clyde Tombaugh and was declared the 9th planet of the Solar System in 1930.
This all changed on August 24, 2006, when the International Astronomical Union (IAU) decided on the correct definition for the word "planet" for the first time. By this definition, Pluto was not a planet anymore due to its irregular orbit and size. It became a "dwarf planet" along with Eris and many others.
Eris was 27% more massive than Pluto. After this, Pluto was put on the list of minor planets and was downgraded in 2006. Instead they defined a new category of dwarf planet, into which Pluto did fit, along with some others. These small planets are sometimes called plutinos.
There are a few main parts of the Solar System. Here they are in order from the Sun, with the planets numbered, and the dwarf planets marked with the letters a to e.
The first four planets closest to the Sun are called the inner planets. They are small and dense terrestrial planets, with solid surfaces. They are made up of mostly rock and metal with a distinct internal structure and a similar size. Three also have an atmosphere. The study of the four planets gives information about geology outside the Earth.
The "plane of the ecliptic" is defined by the Earth's orbit around the Sun. All of the planets orbit the Sun roughly around this same orbital plane. The farther away from this plane a planet orbits, the more "inclined" is its orbit to the ecliptic. If you could look at the Solar System "edge on" then all the planets would be orbiting more or less in the plane of the ecliptic.
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun in the Solar System.
Saturn is one of the four gas giant planets in the Solar System, with Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune. It is the second largest planet in the Solar System (Jupiter is the largest).
Saturn has 146 known moons orbiting the planet. The largest moon is Titan. Titan is larger in volume than the planet Mercury. It is the second-largest moon in the Solar System. The largest moon is a moon of Jupiter, Ganymede. There are also many rings around Saturn. These rings are made of ice with some rocks and dust. Some people think that that the rings were made by a moon impact or other event. Saturn is about 1,433,000,000 km (870,000,000 mi) on average from the Sun. Saturn takes 29.4 Earth years in order to complete a revolution around the Sun.
Saturn is a squished sphere. This means that it is flattened at the poles and wider around the equator. The planet's equatorial diameter is . Its polar diameter (the distance from the north pole to the south pole through the centre) is . This is a 9% difference. Saturn has a flattened shape because of its very fast rotation. It rotates once every 10.8 Earth hours.
Saturn is the only planet in the Solar System that is less dense than water. Even though the planet's core is very dense, it has a gaseous atmosphere. This makes its average density is 0.69 g/cm. This means if Saturn could be placed in a large pool of water, it would float.
The outer part of Saturn's atmosphere is made up of about 96% hydrogen, 3% helium, 0.4% methane and 0.01% ammonia. There are also some acetylene, ethane and phosphine.
Saturn's atmosphere can make oval shaped clouds. They are like the clearer spots seen on Jupiter. These oval spots are cyclonic storms, similar to cyclones seen on Earth. In 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope found a very large white cloud near Saturn's equator. Storms like this one in 1990 were known as Great White Spots. These unique storms only exist for a short time and only occur in about every 30 Earth years, in summer solstices in the Northern Hemisphere. Great White Spots were also found in 1876, 1903, 1933, and 1960.
Saturn's inside is similar to Jupiter's inside. It has a small rocky core about the size of the Earth at its center. It is very hot. Its temperature reaches 15,000 K (). Saturn is so hot that it gives out more heat energy into space than it gets from the Sun. Above it is a thicker layer of metallic hydrogen, about deep. Above that layer is a region of liquid hydrogen and helium. The core is heavy, with about 9 to 22 times more mass than the Earth's core.
Saturn has a natural magnetic field that is weaker than Jupiter's. Like the Earth's, Saturn's field is a magnetic dipole (it has a North and a South). Saturn's field is unique in that it is perfectly symmetrical, unlike any other known planet. This means the field is exactly in line with the planet's axis. Saturn generates radio waves, but they are too weak to be detected from Earth. The moon Titan orbits in the outer part of Saturn's magnetic field and gives out plasma to the field from the ionised particles in Titan's atmosphere.
Saturn's average distance from the Sun is over 1,400,000,000 km (886,000,000 mi). This is about nine times the distance from the Earth to the Sun. It takes 10,756 days, or about 29.4 years, for Saturn to orbit around the Sun. This is known as Saturn's "orbital period".
Voyager 1 measured Saturn's rotation as being 10 hours, 14 minutes at the equator, 10 hours, 40 minutes closer to the poles, and 10 hours, 39 minutes, 24 seconds for the planet's inside. This is known as its "rotational period".
Saturn is best known for its planetary rings which are easy to see with a telescope. There are seven named rings: A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. They were named in the order they were found, which is different to their order from the planet. From the planet the rings are ordered: D, C, B, A, F, G and E.
Some scientists think that the rings are material left after a moon broke apart. A new idea says that it was a very large moon, most of which crashed into the planet. This left a large amount of ice to form the rings and some of the moons. This includes Enceladus, which is thought to be made of ice.
The rings were first found by Galileo Galilei in 1610, using his telescope. They did not look like rings to Galileo. He called them "handles". He thought that Saturn was three different planets that were right next to each other. In 1612, when the rings were facing edge on with the Earth, the rings disappeared, then reappeared again in 1613, further confusing Galileo. In 1655, Christiaan Huygens was the first person to say that Saturn was surrounded by rings. Using a much more powerful telescope than Galilei's, he said that Saturn "is surrounded by a thin, flat, ring, nowhere touching...". In 1675, Giovanni Domenico Cassini found that the planet's rings were in fact made of smaller rings with gaps. The largest ring gap was later named the Cassini Division. In 1859, James Clerk Maxwell showed that the rings cannot be solid, but are made of small particles, each orbiting Saturn on their own. Otherwise, it would become unstable or break apart. James Keeler studied the rings using a spectroscope in 1895 which proved Maxwell's theory.
The rings range from to above the planet's equator. While the equatorial circumference of Saturn is 378,675 km (235,298 miles). As proved by Maxwell, even though the rings appear to be solid and unbroken when viewed from above, the rings are made of small particles of rock and ice. They are only about thick; made of silica rock, iron oxide and ice particles. The smallest particles are only specks of dust while the largest are the size of a house. The C and D rings also seem to have a "wave" in them, like waves in water. These large waves are high, but only moving slowly at about each day. Some scientists believe that the wave is caused by Saturn's moons. Another idea is the waves were made by a comet hitting Saturn in 1983 or 1984.
Recent data from the Cassini spacecraft has shown that the rings have their own atmosphere, free from the planet's atmosphere. The rings' atmosphere is made of oxygen gas, and it is produced when the Sun's ultraviolet light breaks up the water ice in the rings. Chemical reactions also occur between the ultraviolet light and the water molecules, creating hydrogen gas. The oxygen and hydrogen atmospheres around the rings are very widely spaced. As well as oxygen and hydrogen gas, the rings have a thin atmosphere made of hydroxide (a combination of oxygen and hydrogen called an anion), which was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope.
The Voyager space probe discovered features shaped like rays, called spokes. These were also seen later by the Hubble telescope. The Cassini probe photographed the spokes in 2005. They appear dark when lit by sunlight, and appear light against the unlit side of the planet. At first it was thought the spokes were made of microscopic dust particles, but new evidence shows that they are made of ice.
They rotate at the same rate as the planet's magnetosphere, therefore, it is believed that they have a connection with electromagnetism. However, what causes the spokes to form is still unknown. They appear to be seasonal, disappearing during solstice and appearing again during equinox.
Saturn has a total of 146 moons; 53 are named moons, and another 29 are still being studied. Many of the moons are very small: 33 are less than in diameter and 13 moons are less than . Seven moons are large enough to be a near perfect sphere caused by their own gravity. These moons are Titan, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione, Tethys, Enceladus and Mimas. Titan is the largest moon, larger than the planet Mercury, and it is the only moon in the Solar System to have a thick, dense atmosphere. Hyperion and Phoebe are the next largest moons, larger than in diameter.
Saturn was first explored by the Pioneer 11 spacecraft in September 1979. It flew as close as above the planet's cloud tops. It took photographs of the planet and a few of its moons, but were low in resolution. It discovered a new, thin ring called the F ring. It also discovered that the dark ring gaps appear bright when viewed towards the Sun, which shows the gaps are not empty. The spacecraft measured the temperature of the moon Titan.
In November 1980, Voyager 1 visited Saturn and took higher resolution photographs of the planet, rings, and moons. These photos showed some of the surface features of the moons. Voyager 1 went close to Titan and gained much information about its atmosphere. In August 1981, Voyager 2 continued to study the planet. Photos taken by the space probe showed that changes were happening to the rings and atmosphere. The Voyager spacecraft discovered a number of moons orbiting close to Saturn's rings, as well as discovering new ring gaps.
Slavery is when a person is treated as the property of another person. This person is usually called a slave and the owner is called a slavemaster. It often means that slaves are forced to work, or else they will be punished by the law (if slavery is legal in that place) or by their master.
There is evidence that even before there was writing, there was slavery. There have been different types of slavery, and they have been in almost all cultures and continents. Some societies had laws about slavery, or had an economy that was built on it. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had many slaves.
During the 20th century, almost all countries made laws forbidding slavery. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights says that slavery is wrong. Slavery is now banned by international law. Nevertheless, there are still different forms of slavery in some countries. The Islamic Republic of Mauritania was the last country in the world to officially ban slavery. In 2007, "under international pressure", its government passed a law allowing slaveholders to be prosecuted.
However, in 2019, approximately 40 million people, were still enslaved throughout the world despite slavery being illegal. About 26% of these were children. In the modern world, more than half of the people who are slaves provide forced labour, usually in the factories and sweatshops of the private sector of a country's economy.
In industrialised countries, human trafficking is a modern form of the slave trade. In non-industrialised countries, enslavement by debt bondage is a common form of enslaving a person. Modern forms of slavery include captive domestic servants, people in forced marriages, and child soldiers.
The English word "slave" comes from the medieval word for the Slavic peoples of Central Europe and Eastern Europe, because these were the last ethnic group to be captured and enslaved in Central Europe. According to Adam Smith and Auguste Comte, a slave was mainly defined as a captive or prisoner of war. Slave-holders used to buy slaves at slave auctions. In many cases, slaves were not allowed rights.
Slavery has existed for a long time. Early hunter-gatherers had no use for slaves. They did everything for themselves. Having another pair of hands to help them meant another mouth to feed. Slavery or owning another person made no sense to these people. Once men gathered in cities and towns and there was more than enough food, having a cheap supply of labor made sense.
This is when the earliest forms of slavery appeared. Slavery can be traced back to the earliest records, such as the "Code of Hammurabi" (c. 1760 BC). This refers to it as an established institution.
In the Ancient Near East, captives got by warfare often became slaves. This was seen by the laws in the Bible book of Deuteronomy as a legal form of slavery. But the Israelites were not allowed to enslave other Israelites. The Deuteronomic Code calls for the death penalty for the crime of kidnapping Israelites to enslave them.
In Ancient Egypt, slaves were mainly prisoners of war. Other ways people could become slaves was by inheriting the status from their parents who were slaves. Someone could become a slave if he could not pay his debts. People also sold themselves into slavery because they were poor peasants and needed food and shelter. The lives of slaves were normally better than that of peasants. Young slaves could not be put to hard work, and had to be brought up by the mistress of the household. Not all slaves went to houses. Some sold themselves to temples, or were assigned to temples by the king.
Slaves were important in society and the economy of ancient Rome. They did simple manual labor and domestic services, but also could have complex jobs and professions. Teachers, accountants, and physicians were often slaves. Greek slaves were often well educated. Most slaves, such as those who were made slaves as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills. Their living conditions were very bad, and they did not live for very long.
Slaves were considered property under Roman law and were not legally people. Unlike Roman citizens, they could suffer corporal punishment, sexual exploitation (sex workers were often slaves), torture, and summary execution. A slave's testimony could not be accepted in a court of law unless the slave was tortured. This was because they thought that slaves would be too loyal to their masters to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced. Over time, however, slaves gained some legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. Attitudes changed in part because of the influence among the educated elite of the Stoics, whose egalitarian views of humanity extended to slaves, and also because of slave rebellions. Better treatment meant fewer rebellions.
After the Roman Empire broke up, slavery gradually changed into serfdom. Which was similar to slavery but the worker received a set amount of wages and had certain civil rights and could leave the employment of the master.
Both non-Muslims and Muslims in Southeast Asia during the 18th century bought Japanese girls who came by sea. Japanese slave girls were still owned by India-based Portuguese (Lusitanian) families according to Francisco De Sousa, a Jesuit who wrote about that in 1698. This was long after the 1636 edict by Tokguawa Japan had expelled Portuguese people.
China imported Korean slaves and Indochinese slaves.
Japanese children in medieval Japan could be taken as slaves if debts were not repaid by their parents. Japanese parents sold their daughters to Portuguese in Kyushu. Japanese children and women from the Bungo domain were sold as slaves to Europeans in Higo after Bungo was attacked in 1586 by the Satsuma domain.
Many Europeans who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants. The change from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640. This is where an African, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery for attempting to run away. This case also marked the disparate treatment of Africans as held by the Virginia County Court, where two white runaways received far lesser sentences.
After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts. They kept their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the case Johnson v. Parker. The court ruled that John Casor, an indentured servant, be returned to Johnson who claimed that Casor belonged to him for his life. According to the 1860 U. S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8% of all US families, owned 3,950,528 slaves. One-third of Southern families owned slaves. Slavery in United States was legally abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865.
Millions of people are still slaves in some parts of the world, mostly in South Asia and Africa. It is less common in the developed world because of better law enforcement, but it still happens there as well. The ways in which it is done have changed. While people are still bought at sold, like beforehand, this is less common today. Today, people get trapped in slave-like conditions in other ways. Modern slavery is often linked with poverty. There are countries and areas, where people are poorly-educated, and where there is little or no rule of law. This can create a setting where slavery is seen as acceptable. It is commonly seen in impoverished countries, and those where there are vulnerable minorities. Tens of thousands of people work in slave-like conditions in industries such as mining, farming, and factories; they produce goods for consumption inside the country or export to more prosperous nations.
In the older form of slavery, slave-owners spent more on getting slaves. It was more difficult for them to be disposed of. The cost of keeping them healthy was considered a better investment than getting another slave to replace them. In modern slavery people are easier to get at a lower price so replacing them when exploiters run into problems becomes easier.
Today, slaves may work because of things like a high debt. Many victims are told that their families will be harmed if they report the slave owners. Many slaves are forced to be domestic servants. In some cases, their families sell their children because of poverty. Some slaves have been trafficked from one part of the world to another. These people are illegally in their host country, and therefore do not report the abuse. Forced prostitution is a type of slavery. Another form of slavery still happening today is forced child labor. Some children have to work in mines or in plantations, or they have to fight wars as child soldiers.
In the 2010s, ISIL (or Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant), were taking part in slave trade (of non-Muslim women), on the largest territory that they controlled.
Starting in the 18th century, there were ideas of stopping or banning slavery. Many of these were done in territories that were part of the British Empire, or in its sphere of influence. The movement of wanting to stop slavery is called abolitionism. People such as William Wilberforce, John Newton, and Olaudah Equiano were well-known in the movement. In 1833, the British Empire stopped slavery. In artile 118 of the Congress of Vienna, there's a statement that slavery is bad. Laws in britain stopped the atlantic slave trade. The American Civil War ended slavery in the United States in 1865. There was the Emancipation Proclamation. In 1865, when the North won, all slaves were made free. Still more countries abolished slavery afterwards. Pedro II of Brazil abolished it in 1888. Forced labor however continued, either against the law or by debt peonage or other methods which the laws of the various countries did not count as slavery. France abolished slavery in 1794 during the Revolution. In 1802, it was restored under Napoleon.
Many philosophies and religions say that a soul is a supernatural essence of a living human being that lives after death. It is usually said to be immortal. It cannot be discovered by science, because it cannot be tested in any controlled way. Many different opinions exist as to what happens to personal experience after death.
One distinction often made is between soul, which is distinct from other souls, and spirit, which may be combined with that of other beings. The idea of the Holy Spirit in Christianity, for example, is a universal and shared spirit many souls are part of, and which is expressed on Earth in that faith by "the Church" meaning "the body of Christ" meaning "all bodies that follow Jesus." This could be more inclusive than the is/has view of souls and bodies.
Soap is a chemical compound resulting from the reaction of an alkali (commonly sodium or potassium hydroxide) with a fatty acid. Soaps are the metallic salts of long chain fatty acids. When mixed with water during bathing, cleansing, or washing, they help people and clothes get clean by lowering the chance of dirt and oil to get to the skin or fabric. Soaps are made from animal fats or vegetable oils. There are two basic steps in making soap. They are called Saponification and Salting-out of soap. Some people like to make their own soap.
Soap cleans very well in soft water. It is not toxic to water life. It can be broken down by bacteria. However, it is slightly soluble in water, so it is not often used in washing machines. It does not work well in hard water. It cannot be used in strongly acidic solutions. Mild hand soaps are only basic enough to remove unwanted skin oils. For other forms of oil, dishwashing soap is strong enough to remove almost all forms of oil without damaging petroleum products such as plastics. It does not damage skin either. Soap suds physically capture and lift germs (a virus, bacteria etc.) off of the surface of the skin and then water rinses them into the sink.
Ancient Gauls added salt to the soap solution to make the solid soap fall out.
A service is a job or work done for someone else. All the service trades form a service economy.
Good examples are:
An example is IBM, which made computers, now is mainly a consultancy for businesses which use computers. That has been so at least for the past 40 years.
The person or company which gives the service will get something in return for the service, obviously. Who gives the service usually gets money in return. Who gives the service may get goods in return. Who gives the service can get another service in return. This is a type of trade.
The word comes originally from the Greek "Theatron", meaning roughly, 'a place for viewing'. In American English, the word 'theater' can mean either a place where films are shown (this is also called a cinema) or a place where live stage plays are performed. In British English, 'theatre' means a place where live plays are performed. Some people, both English and American, use the spelling 'theatre' to mean a place where live plays are performed, and the spelling 'theater' to mean a cinema.
The ROC includes the main island of Taiwan plus nearby islands (Pescadores islands and parts of Fujian). Taiwan is located southeast of the Chinese mainland, south of Japan, and north of the Philippines. The capital is Taipei.
Most people living in Taiwan (called Taiwanese) are Han. Taiwan has three large Han groups. They speak different dialects (variations) of Chinese and their ancestors came from different places: the Southern Fujianese (from China's Fujian Province), the Hakka (from China), and Mainlanders (from Mainland China after 1948).
There are also Taiwanese Aborigines (native tribes) who lived in Taiwan before the Han came to live there.
There are two Chinese governments: The People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC). Today, in reality, the PRC government controls mainland China, and the ROC government governs Taiwan. The ROC government governed most of China mainland from 1911 to 1949, before losing control of China mainland to the PRC. The ROC constitution still claims ownership of all of China.
The People's Republic of China claims ownership of Taiwan, but it has never ruled over the island of Taiwan. The last time Taiwan and the mainland were united under one government was under the rule of the ROC.
In 1992, the ROC and PRC agreed to a consensus that there was only "one China" but that both sides could continue to disagree on what that meant.
In March 2004, China's government passed a law called the Anti-Secession Law. The law requires the Chinese military to invade Taiwan immediately if they declare independence. Tsai Ing-wen, the elected President of Taiwan, says Taiwan is already an independent country and does not need to declare independence.
President of communist China, President Xi Jinping, has vowed "reunification" with Taiwan by any means, including through military force. Joe Biden, President of The United States, has said that the US will defend Taiwan from Chinese attack. Australia has said they would join the US, and Japan has indicated they may as well.
Polls show a majority of people in Taiwan want to never be a part of the People's Republic of China. Some of these people believe in complete Taiwan independence and want to rename the ROC (Taiwan) to "Republic of Taiwan" so Taiwan can participate in international affairs. Most others want the "status quo", which means keeping everything the way it is now. A small minority wish to someday unite with the People's Republic of China; they want Chinese reunification.
The island of Taiwan is about 180 kilometers off the southeastern coast of China. It is across the Taiwan Strait. It has an area of .
Taiwan's highest point is Yu Shan (Jade Mountain). It is 3,952 meters high (12,966 ft). There are five other peaks over 3,500 meters.
West of Taiwan Island, there are three small groups of islands that also belong to ROC. They are:
Most Taiwanese people speak Standard Chinese known as Mandarin, and others speak local dialects such as Min Nan (Taiwanese) or Hakka. The Cantonese language, spoken in parts of southern China (for example, the province of Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macau), is not spoken in Taiwan. A small percentage of Aboriginal Taiwanese speak aboriginal languages, but the rest of the Chinese people have treated them badly, and many of these people, and their languages, struggle to survive. Some older Taiwanese people who went to school while the country was under Japanese rule can speak Japanese.
After the Nationalist government fled the Mainland in 1949, they brought Mandarin and promoted it in Taiwan. Then everyone in the ROC had to learn Mandarin. But, unlike the people in Mainland China, the Taiwanese never changed to simplified Chinese characters and so they have always used traditional Chinese characters. In the past, students were not allowed to speak their first language in school and were expected to speak only Mandarin. Taiwanese, Hakka, and native languages were considered bad until the early 1990s, when education in these languages began to be taught in some school systems. They were promoted, but by this time, many young people could speak only Mandarin.
Currently, nearly one third of Taiwanese report knowing some amount of English. Full English fluency is not common, however. The government plans to expand English education and make it an official language by 2030.
A trademark (or trade mark) is a way for a business to help people identify the products that the business makes from the products made by another business. A trademark can be a name, word, phrase, symbol, logo, design, or picture. It can only be used on things made by the business that owns the trademark.
Trademarks for bakers were first included in a law in the 13th century in England. France expanded trademark laws in the late 19th century and other countries followed.
The Ten Commandments are a set of rules or laws. The Bible says that God gave them to the people of Israel. The commandments exist in different versions. One version can be found in the Book of Exodus of the Bible. Another version can be found in the Book of Deuteronomy. In the Book of Exodus, the mountain where they were given is called Mount Sinai, the Book of Deuteronomy talks about Mount Horeb (the same Mount Horeb where God called Moses from the burning bush, Exodus 3:1-3). Both are probably names for the same mountain. The laws were written on stone tablets. These laws are important for Judaism and Christianity. Countries which follow those religions often have some of the commandments as part of their Civil laws.
Sometimes these rules are also called Decalogue (from Greek, can be translated as "ten statements"). The name decalogue first occurs in the Septuagint. The Israelites received the commandments after they had left Egypt during the reign of Pharaoh Thutmose III. There are different texts talking about the commandments. Most of them are in the Bible: The Book of Exodus, Chapter 20 and the book of Deuteronomy, Chapter 5. The Qu'ran mentions the tablets but does not list exactly the same commandments. For instance Quran 17:23-39 began with worshipping God alone and honouring your parents.
The Exodus version (from the English Standard Version of the Bible
The Ten Commandments in Deuteronomy Chapter 5: verses 1-22 New King James Version
These commandments are translated from ancient Hebrew to Basic English, so the exact words chosen may not mean to us exactly what they meant to the Hebrews. There are different interpretations of these commandments:
Another belief is that the original text translates to "Do not carry the Name of the LORD in vain." This means to not do evil in the Name of God.
There are also some Christians who believe the Sabbath is still Friday sundown to Saturday sundown, but that you don't need to be religious about it. They find no evidence that the Commandment changed and they still view it as a day of rest from labor. They agree with Jesus's teaching that it's lawful to do good on the Sabbath (Matthew 12:12) and that the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath (Mark 2:7). They believe the use of Acts 20:7 is a misinterpretation, as the Sabbath isn't about fellowship. In Acts 2 it discusses how the Christians gathered in their homes, streets, and the temple every day for the breaking of bread, which would make the Sabbath every day if the Sabbath was about gathering.
The "Ten Commandments" usually means the list mentioned in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5. Another set of commandments is given in Exodus 34. A story starts in Exodus 31:18. There the stones with the commandments written on them are created. Exodus 32:19 tells how the stones are broken. The commandments in Exodus 34 are sometimes called "Ritual Decalogue". That is because the are about religious rituals and not moral commands.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and some others believed that the book of Exodus is a combination of several different texts. These people thought that the commandments in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 show a later set of Ten Commandments. They say that the ten ritual commandments in Exodus 34 were the original Ten Commandments. The say that the moral ones came later.
The commandments have influenced Jewish ethics and law and, through Judaism and Christianity, Western ethics and law since the Roman Empire. Historically monuments containing the Commandments have been placed outside courts of law. In the early 21st century some have been challenged or removed as a violation of freedom of religion.
Christians disagree somewhat as to the purpose of the commandments. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus states that He came to "fulfill" the Law rather than destroy it. He reinforces the commands about murder and adultery. He also says that the righteousness of His followers must be higher than that of the "scribes and pharisees". They were very strict in observing the Ten Commandments.
Saint Paul, in his letter to the Roman Christians, says the purpose of the Law is to show us how sinful we are. It acts as a "schoolmaster" to bring us to Christ for salvation. The leaders of the Reformation said that this means that keeping the Ten Commandments could not make us holy in God's eyes. Only faith in Jesus could do that. However, after finding salvation through faith, most of the reformers said we should obey the law. Some extreme reformers said we could break them since only our faith mattered, not our actions. This teaching is called "Antinomianism" (against the law).
Some modern Christians say that today our only law is the law of love. Others say that the "moral" law of the Old Testament still applies to Christians today. They say that all of the Ten Commandments are repeated somewhere in the New Testament books.
There are two famous movies called "The Ten Commandments". They both were directed by Cecil B. DeMille. The first was a silent movie in 1923, and the second was made in 1956. The 1956 movie starred Charlton Heston as Moses, and was the biggest money making movie of that year.
In the anime series Seven Deadly Sins, a Japanese manga and anime by mangaka Nakaba Suzuki, there is a group of characters called the Ten Commandments. These individuals all possess a title and supernatural ability named after each commandment.