adityasasidhar/Wikipedia_Cleaned huggingface dataset:
After the Rigveda, society became more agricultural. People became divided into four classes depending on the type of the work. Brahmins were priests and teachers. Kshatriyas were the warriors. Vaishyas did agriculture, trading and commerce. The shudras were the general working class. It is not true that the Vaishyas and Shudras were always looked down upon, and treated badly by Brahmins and Kshatriyas, though it was true for the later part of the Vedic age. But it was untrue for the earlier part. This type of social division is called the Varna system in Hinduism.
During the period of the Later Vedic civilization, there were many Aryan clans and tribes. Some of them combined and became bigger like the kingdom of the Kurus.
The names "India" and "Hind" came from the Greeks and Persians. It means land of the river Indus in both languages.
The Magadha formed one of the sixteen kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges. Its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Odisha. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It was also mentioned in the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The state of Magadha, possibly a tribal kingdom, is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier than 600 BC. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated from Magadha. These empires saw advances in ancient India's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy. This was an Indian "Golden Age."
The Satavahanas came to power from around 230 BC. They are also called Andhras. For about 450 years, Satavahanas kings ruled most parts of the southern and central India.
For about 350 years, from the years 35-405, Saka kings ruled the western and central parts of India. These areas are in today's states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh. There were 27 independent rulers, collectively known as the Kshatrapas.
Indo-Scythians came to India from Siberia passing through Bactria, Sogdiana, Kashmir and Arachosia. Their coming to India continued from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century BC. They defeated the Indo-Greek rulers of India, and ruled India from Gandhara to Mathura.
The Gupta dynasty reigned from around 320 to 550 AD. The Gupta Empire covered most of North-central India, and what is now western India and Bangladesh. Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Hindu beliefs. The time of the Gupta Empire is seen as a Golden Age of India. Historians place the Gupta dynasty alongside the Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty and Roman Empire as a model of a classical civilization.
By the first half of the fifth century, a group of people known as Huns had settled in Afghanistan. They became powerful. They made Bamiyan their capital city. They started attacking northwestern parts of India. Skandagupta, an emperor of the Gupta dynasty fought back and kept them away for some years. At last the Huns won and could enter most parts of northern India. With this the Gupta dynasty came to an end. Most of north India became badly affected by this invasion. However, Huns could not go up to the Deccan Plateau and the southern parts of India. These parts remained peaceful. No one knows definitely about the fate of Huns after the end of the sixth century. Some historians believe that they mixed up fully with the Indian people of that time.
In the history of India the Middle kingdoms of India cover a period beginning from around the 6th-7th century. In South India, Chola kings ruled Tamil Nadu, and Chera kings ruled Kerala. They also had trading relationships with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. In north India, Rajputs ruled in many kingdoms. Some of those kingdoms continued for hundreds of years.
After the collapse of the Gupta Empire, it was Harsha of Kanauj (a place now in Uttar Pradesh) who united the northern parts of India in one kingdom. After his death several dynasties tried to control north India and ruled from 7th century till the 9th century as described below. Some of these dynasties were the Pratiharas of Malwa and later Kannauj; the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.
The Pratihara kings ruled kingdoms in Rajasthan and some other parts of northern India from the 6th century to the 11th century. The Palas ruled the eastern part of India. They ruled over areas which are now parts of the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, west Bengal, and Bangladesh. The Palas ruled from 8th century to the 12th century. In the southern parts of India, Rashtrakutas of Malakheda (Karnataka) ruled the Deccan during the 8th-10th centuries after the end of Chalukya rule. All these three dynasties tried to control the entire north India. During this time lasting for three to four hundred years, the Chola kings were growing in power and influence.
In the 6th century several Rajput kingdoms came into being in Rajasthan. Many other Rajput kings ruled in different parts of north India. Some of these kingdoms survived for hundreds of years.
In 1336, two brothers named Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara Empire in an area which is now in Karnataka. The most famous king of this empire was Krishnadevaraya. In 1565, rulers of this empire were defeated in a battle. But, the empire continued for about the next hundred years.
Guru Nanak founded Sikhism and his followers were called Sikhs. The power of Sikhs increased in the northwestern part of India. The Sikhs became rulers of large part of the northwestern India. This is called the Sikh Kingdom or Empire. Ranjit Singh was the most famous ruler of the Sikh Empire. He expanded the borders of the Sikh Empire and at the time of his death, it covered areas of Punjab, and present day Kashmir and parts of Pakistan. The Sikhs and forces of the British Raj fought many wars. While Maharaja Ranjit Singh was alive, Britishers were not able to cross the Sutlej river. After his death, they took over the entire Punjab after battles with disorganised Sikh troops.
For a short period, Ahmed Shah Durrani the founder of Afghanistan ruled some parts of northwestern India. Historians have named his rule the Durrani Empire. In 1748, he crossed the Indus River and attacked Lahore, now a part of Pakistan. He also attacked many parts of Punjab. Then, he attacked Delhi. At that time, Delhi was the capital of the Mughal Empire. He took many valuable things from India. This included the Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan and the famous diamond named Kohinoor.
Starting in the 1600s the British East India Company began a very profitable trading empire in India, centered in Bengal. In the mid-1700s Robert Clive (1725-1774) led the company to an expanded influence in India with victories over the French, the Bengalis, and the Mughals. With a victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 Clive became the first British Governor of Bengal.
In the hundred years after the battle, the East India Company conquered the entire subcontinent of India. They did this by trade, political intrigue, and direct military action. The British were very efficient administrators of their domains. But in 1857 the Indian Mutiny almost destroyed the company's rule of India. Afterward the British government took control away from the company. In 1858, India became a part of the British Empire and Queen Victoria became the empress of India.
For the next 100 years the British ruled most of India and Burma as an informal empire. It was divided into eight provinces each with a governor. These provinces were Burma, Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, Central Provinces, Punjab, and Assam. A Governor-General (Viceroy) in Calcutta was head of the government.
It should be noted that the british did not control the entirirty of modern day India. Goa was under Portugese sovereignity and the 4 cities that comprise modern day Pondicherry were under French revolutionary sovereignity.
However, it was also a time of political stability. India experienced democracy for the first time in millennia. There were no more wars between the fragmented kingdoms and empires.
The British government's biggest failing was the partition of India and Pakistan.They were unable to negotiate with Indian political leaders properly to ensure a smooth transfer of power. During the partition millions of Indians and Pakistanis died.
The British also did good things. They built railroads, telegraphs and telephones, improved trade, standardised laws, and water supplies. Many of these things were done to help improve commerce in India. They created the Indian Civil Service for administering rules and regulations. They also eliminated cruel and unusual practices like burning widows.
The British ruled India primarily for the economic benefit of Britain and for the social and political benefit of India. India produced cheap raw materials for British industry. These were purchased and sent back to the British industries. The finished goods were then imported back to India at reduced tariffs, making them much cheaper. Indians preferred to buy British manufactured goods and profits went back to Britain. This was also India's first introduction to the economic system of Capitalism.
Several people in India wanted to be free from British rule. The struggle for the supposed freedom was long and difficult. Many people protested against the British, often over the most insignificant things. The most important leader of the Hindu majority was Mohandas K. Gandhi. Gandhi believed in a non-violent opposition towards the British. He also believed that the best possible system of government for India would be to become a Commonwealth realm (Dominion) like Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa.
Because Hindus and Muslims fought each other, India was divided into two countries: Pakistan and India. Pakistan was also divided, decades later. India won its independence, along with Muslim Pakistan, and became a socialist republic on August 15, 1947. Pakistan won independence on 14 August, some hours before India.
On 15 August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two countries (dominions), India (Bharat) and Pakistan. With this the British Raj in the Indian subcontinent ended. On 26 January 1950, India adopted a constitution. From that day, India become a republic.
During last 60 years, the Republic of India has seen different stages in its national life.
The 1250s was a decade that began on 1 January 1250 and ended on 31 December 1259.
Torts involving property include walking on someone else's property without permission, taking someone else's property without permission, or damaging someone else's property. Walking on someone else's property without permission is called trespassing. Taking someone else's property without permission is called stealing or conversion.
Stefano Mei (born 3 February 1963 in La Spezia) was an Italian long-distance runner in several international athletics (also called "track and field") events.
Circumcision may be a religious ritual, a custom in certain tribes or countries, or a medical practice. The rates differs from country to country.
This change to the penis is common in many countries of the world including the United States and Israel. It is uncommon, but often causes the man to die. Circumcision has been suggested to reduce the risk of cancer of the cervix in female sexual partners and some cancers of the penis. Circumcision reduces, but does not eliminate, the risk of getting or spreading HIV/AIDS. Circumcision became more common in Africa after HIV/AIDS began but use of condoms remain more effective ways of preventing sexually transmitted diseases.
Those who believe that the foreskin is important for sexual pleasure are against circumcision. Others do not like circumcision because they believe it has no medical advantage, or that it is easy to clean under the foreskin, or that circumcision harms the penis or the mind. People who do not like circumcision of baby boys say doctors and parents should not make this decision. They say that the owner should choose when he is old enough to decide for himself. However, it will hurt more if done at a later age.
Through the influence of the United States Army in West Germany, routine infant circumcision was introduced in some German Hospitals. After the German reunification in 1990, circumcision drastically decreased in the German population. Traditional male circumcision is usually performed due to historical Jewish and Islamic influence in Andalusia by the Spaniards. In Pacific Islands, circumcision of boys is part of their tradition. In the Phillipines, the tradition of male circumcision is called Tuli, and 91,7% of male are circumcised. In South Korea 77% of male are circumcised, this tradition was taken by US American Military.
When a foreskin is removed from a baby, doctors can (with parents' permission) use the skin for important medical purposes. Doctors can replace skin on someone with burns or with foot sores caused by diabetes. Foreskins that have been removed can be used for medical research. A foreskin that has been cut off can be used to test new drugs and to find cures for diseases. The small piece of skin that was cut off can grow a huge amount of new skin, enough to cover several football fields. In the future, it may be possible to grow other parts of the body from this skin.
Since the Ice Age circumcision of males was practised
They are four circumcision styles: Low and Loose, Low and Tight, High and Loose and High and Tight.
The extreme High and Tight Style is done in USA, while the lower styles are common in Europe.
In Judaism, religious law orders that baby boys be circumcised on the 8th day after their birth. This is required even if the 8th day after birth is Shabbat (Saturday). In the Jewish faith, circumcision is an important tradition because it represents the newly born baby being included in the covenant (or agreement) which God made with the prophet Abraham. Medical studys confirm that the 8th day after birth, is the ideal day for a circumcision, because of the highest presence of the Coagulation factor Vitamin K Jews used to bury the foreskin after it was removed.
The Moirai (also known as the Fates) were the three goddesses of destiny in Greek mythology. They were Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos ().
The role of the Moirai is to control the fate of every being. The life of each being is represented by a "thread of life". Clotho spins the thread, beginning the being's life. Lachesis measures it (looks how long it is) and Atropos cuts the thread at the end of the person's life once they have reached their destiny, killing them.
The Moirai are considered to be above the Greek gods. However, in some stories, Zeus, the Chief God, is capable of controlling them.
The decisions of the Moriai about a person's life cannot be changed.
The whalers found out the paths whales liked to take in the ocean, and killed them mercilessly. It was a dangerous and frightening job. Whalers would jump into a small boat and follow the whale. Once they were close to it, they would throw a harpoon that was attached to a very long rope into the whale. The end of this harpoon was not at all like a spear. It had a switch blade on the end that would stay in the whale's skin. Once the harpoon was in the whale, the whale would start swimming as fast as it could. The whale might swim day and night with no stop for several days. Eventually, the tired and hurt whale would stop. The whalers would then kill the whale with one last harpoon. When the animal died, the whalers would haul the whale onto the ship (big or small), skin it, then boil the blubber for the oil.
Opinions are usually contrasted with facts. Facts are statements which are reliably supported by evidence. Opinions may or may not turn out to be facts.
A school year is the time of year when students go to school. In some countries, it starts after summer, and goes to the next summer. The typical school year in the United States ranges from 170 days to 190 days. In the south, a school year is 180 days for students and 190 days for teachers.
A side-scrolling video game or 2D game is a video game where the player goes toward one side of the screen, either to the left or the right, although this is different for each video game. A famous side-scroller is "Super Mario Bros." The character usually moves from left to right but sometimes it is the other way around. In the golden age of video games, Side scrollers were a big thing and they still are to this day.
Eating is taking in food to get energy or nutrients or for enjoyment. People and animals need to eat because they cannot make their own food inside their bodies like plants. All plants' energy comes from the Sun. Plants take the Sun's energy, and they are eaten as food. The animals then eat each other for their energy.
When a plant collects energy from the Sun through its leaves, it is called photosynthesis.
Too much food make people fat. Too little makes then thin.
Usually, a full bath will have a toilet, a sink, a bathtub (painted) , and/or a shower. If a bathroom has only a toilet and a sink, then it is called a half bath or a powder room. A master bath is connected to a master bedroom for the use of whoever lives in that bedroom and no one else.
A shower is a place where a person cleans themself by using water. They stand up when they use a shower and usually do not wear clothes in a shower. Showers have a shower head that squirts out water usually from above.
Showers are mainly used for hygiene.
Many Woodwinds, especially clarinets, are transposing instruments. Saxophones and most brass instruments are transposing instruments.
The Indian subcontinent or the Indo-Pak subcontinent, also called the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent is a term mainly used for the geographic region which includes: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Republic of India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. It is north of the Indian Ocean. It is south of the Himalayas, one of the world's largest ranges of tall mountains.
The subcontinent was once part of Gondwana, the ancient southern supercontinent. Geologically, the origin of the Himalayas is the impact of the Indian tectonic plate travelling northward at 15 cm per year to slowly squeeze the Eurasian continent, about 40-50 million years ago. The formation of the Himalayan arc resulted in the rock of the seabeds of that time being uplifted into mountains. An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone.
The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year. Over the next 10 million years it may travel about 1,500 km into Asia. About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also leads to earthquakes from time to time.
A centaur is a creature in Greek mythology. It has the upper body of a human, but below the waist it has the body of a horse. There are also female centaurs. Centaurs lived in far away places, including Thessaly and Cyprus. They were wild, like wild horses.
In everyday use, "ape" often refers only to hominoids other than humans.
The diets of apes are similar to those of other primates. They eat fruits, nuts, seeds, leaves and sometimes other animals. They are generally omnivores, though most of their intake is primarily herbivorous.
Hattingen an der Ruhr is a city about 60,000 people in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. It belongs to the Ruhr area. It is south of Bochum and Essen. Very famous is its "Altstadt".
Morning wood is an informal term for a morning erection, for which the technical medical term is "nocturnal penile tumescence". It means an erection that a man sometimes has while asleep or right after waking up. Men who do not have erectile dysfunction can experience this sensation. It usually happens during Rapid Eye Movement sleep. Other slang terms include "morning glory" and "morning tent".
Tagalog is one of the main languages spoken in the Philippines and is the national language of the country. More than 22 million people speak it as their first language.
It was originally spoken by the Tagalog people in the Philippines, who were mainly in Bulacan, Cavite, and some parts of Luzon. Now, Tagalog is spoken nationwide and used by Filipinos from different parts of the country to understand each other.
Diwali (also: Deepawali) is one of India's biggest festival. The word 'Deepawali' means rows of lighted lamps. It is a Festival of Lights and Hindus celebrate it with joy. During this festival, people light up their houses and shops with mall cup-shaped oil lamp made of baked clay). They worship the Lord Ganesha for welfare and prosperity marks the beginning of a new year. People clean and decorate their house before the festival. They do colorful rangoli art works on floors.
Deepawali is celebrated and is a public holiday in cous, shops school's offices and temples are thoroughly cleaned, whitewashed and decorated with pictures, toys and flowers. On the day of Deepawali, people put on their best clothes and exchange greetings, gifts and sweets with their friends and family.
At night, buildings are illuminated with earthen lamps, candle-stickweed. People buy sweets for their own families and also send them as presents to their friends and relatives. The Goddess Lakshmi is also worshiped in the form of earthen images, silver rupee. Hindus believe that on this day, Lakshmi only enters houses which are neat and tidy. People offer prayers for their own health, wealth and prosperity. They leave the light on in buildings believing that Lakshmi will not have difficulty in finding her way in.
Diwali is one of the most important festivals of the Hindus. It comes on Amavasya day in the month of Kartik. Both rich and poor wear new clothes on this day. Lots of sweets are made. People light divas and burn crackers. They ex- change greetings and sweets. Goddess Laxmi is worshipped on this day.
It is a festival of light and during this day people in India burst firecracker and draw rangoli on the floor.
Diwali Holds A Special Place In The Hearts Of Millions, Transcending Boundaries Of Region, Culture, And Religion.
Hanuman was awarded boon of Immortality by Mother Sita ( Wife of Lord Rama) and is still alive
Hanuman is a very powerful and strong god. He finds an important place in the Ramayana. He was a devotee of Rama, a form (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, a god of Hindus. Hanuman is a figure of strength, perseverance and devotion. When he was young he thought the sun a mango. One of his most famous stories was when he helped Rama rescue Sita from Ravana which is the famous story of Diwali.
Indra was a very important God during the vedric period. Later his importance became less. Gods like Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva became more important in Hinduism.
Indra in current form of mythology, is similar to that of Zeus in Greek mythology. Though his importance has come down, he is still considered to be king of Gods. His status is below that of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. Thus, he is considered to be king of lesser Gods.
Badrinath is an important pilgrimage place for the Hindus. The place is in Uttarakhand state of India, and is located at a high altitude in the Himalayas. The Hindu scriptures say that the place is sacred to Vishnu, one of the gods of Hindus.
The History of Japan has old texts (things people have written) that go back to the 8th century AD, but archaeologists have found proof of people living in Japan for the last several thousand years from the time when the last Ice age ended.
Archeologists have found several pieces of pottery of that time. Some are clay figures and some are vessels and potteries of different shapes.
The Yayoi period covered about 550 years, from around 300 BC till around 250. The name came from a location in Tokyo.
Different clans controlled different areas and they also fought among themselves. Some Chinese texts tell about this time. These texts describe Japan as Wa. Later, the Yamatai came into being when about 30 parts of Japan of that time united under a queen named Himiko.
The period from the mid-3rd century until the mid-6th century is known as the Kofun period.
Kofun is a large tomb and people who had social power were buried in them. Buddhism had not reached Japan by this time. Kofuns were made in many places. This fact lets us to know that many social groups all around the country made up an authority, and this leads to the Yamato dynasty.
The Yamato dynasty started to take more action against Korea and China. In the 4th century, they started to advance to Korea to get iron. By this, cultures and technologies of Korea and China started to be introduced to Japan. They also fought with Goguryeo and Silla, which are countries in Korea. In the 5th century, the five kings of Wa made effort to have relationship with China.
Tthe Asuka period was from mid-6th century till around 710. Asuka is the base of Yamato dynasty. Buddhism had reached Japan.
From the end of the 6th century to the early 7th century, Empress Suiko and her nephew Prince Shotoku changed the political system so that the emperor got power. They also sent missions to the Sui Dynasty.
In 663, Japan fought with the Tang Dynasty and Silla (Battle of Baekgang), but lost.
The first Japanese book was written in 712, the Kojiki. The second Japanese book written was in 720, the Nihon Shoki.
The period from around the 12th century to the 19th century is called feudal period in the history of Japan. The Japanese Emperor was the head of the government, but he had no real power. Many powerful families (called daimyo and military groups called shogun) ruled Japan during this period. The feudal period of Japan is generally sub-divided into different periods named after the shogunate which ruled during that period.
The years 1185 to 1333 are known as the Kamakura period. This is named after city of Kamakura which was the center of power of the Kamakura shogunate. Minamoto no Yoritomo was the founder and first shogun of the Kamakura shogunate. Mongols tried to invade Japan between the years 1272 and 1281. Japanese were successful at driving away the Mongols. But, this badly affected Japan. Shogunate also became weak and its rule ended in 1333. For a short time, Go Daigo became the emperor of Japan.
In 1542, a Portuguese ship reached Japan and made the first direct contact with European culture, including the knowledge of firearms. In the next few years, merchants and also some Christian missionaries from European countries, mainly Portugal, the Netherlands, England, and Spain, reached Japan.
Azuchi-Momoyama period covers the years from 1568 to 1600. During these years, different parts of Japan became united again. Japan's military power grew. In 1592, Japan wanted to conquer China. At that time China was ruled by the Ming Dynasty. Toyotomi Hideyoshi was one of the main leaders of Japan. He sent an army of 160,000 samurai to Korea. The Japanese could not win and retreated back to Japan. In 1597, Japan again sent an army to Korea. In 1598, Toyotomi Hideyoshi died. After his death, the Japanese dropped the idea of conquering Korea and China.
The Japanese brought many Koreans to Japan. They were very good at making pottery and at other arts. Some of them were very educated. Japan gained new information and knowledge from the Koreans.
Yaita Kinbee Kiyosada, the Japanese blacksmith who was ordered to copy and reverse engineer Portuguese matchlock muskets could not make the screw properly himself and had to give his 16-year-old daughter Wakasa in marriage to a Portuguese man in exchange for the Portuguese teaching him to build the muskets. Today Japanese in Tageshima regard Wakasa as a heroine for giving herself to a Portuguese man in exchange for teaching how to screw the end of the musket barrel. A statue was built in her honour as well as candy, restaurants and boast named after her.
Japanese prostitutes were required to prove they were not Christian in order to work in prostitution by the Tokugawa government.
During the Edo period, Japan had many small rulers. There were about 200 of them. They were called daimyo, and they were all ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate which was led by the Tokugawa clan. The shogunate's capital moved to Edo, modern-day Tokyo. Fifteen shoguns controlled the Tokugawa shogunate during the Edo Period.
Japanese peasant men were not required to kill wives who committed adultery but samurai were. The majority of the Japanese people in this period were townspeople, fisher people or peasant commoners and they did not take adultery, virginity or paternity of their children as serious issues unlike the samurai families. Japanese commoner women and men mixed with each other and had out of wedlock or bastard children through adultery and they made up the majority of prostitutes. Japanese commoners did not have surnames until the Meiji restoration in the 19th century.
The Edo period is a very important period in the history of Japan. The main developments include:
In 1867, the Tokugawa Shogunate returned its political power to the emperor. The emperor did not know how to rule the country because the last time the emperor had power was 500 years before. So, the shogunate still remained in authority.
Beginning from the early 17th century, the Tokugawa shogunate followed a policy of seclusion, known as sakoku in Japanese language. They suspected that traders, merchants, and missionaries from Europe wanted to bring Japan under the control of European powers. All traders and missionaries from other countries were forced to leave Japan, except for the Dutch, the Koreans, and the Chinese. Even during the period of seclusion, the Japanese continued to gain information and knowledge about other parts of the world.
"For years several countries have applied for trade, but you have opposed them on account of a national law. You have thus acted against divine principles and your sin cannot be greater than it is. What we say does not necessarily mean, as has already been communicated by the Dutch boat, that we expect mutual trade by all means. If you are still to disagree we would then take up arms and inquire into the sin against the divine principles, and you would also make sure of your law and fight in defence. When one considers such an occasion, however, one will realize the victory will naturally be ours and you shall by no means overcome us. If in such a situation you seek for a reconciliation, you should put up the white flag that we have recently presented to you, and we would accordingly stop firing and conclude peace with you, turning our battleships aside." -Commodore Perry
After Commodore Perry's visit, Japan began to deliberately accept Western culture to the point of hiring Westerners to teach Western customs and traditions to the Japanese. Many Japanese politicians have since also encouraged the Westernization of Japan using the term Datsu-A Ron, which means the argument for "leaving Asia" or "Good-bye Asia". In Datsu-A Ron, "Westernization" was described as an "unavoidable" but "fruitful" change. After Japan's surrender to the United States and its allies ended World War II, the Westernization process of Japanese culture was further intensified and today, Japan is among the most Westernized countries in Asia.
The Iwakura Mission or Iwakura Embassy was a Japanese diplomatic voyage to the United States and Europe conducted between 1871 and 1873 by leading statesmen and scholars of the Meiji period. Although it was not the only such mission, it is the most well-known and possibly most significant in terms of its impact on the modernization of Japan after a long period of isolation from the West. The mission was first proposed by the influential Dutch missionary and engineer Guido Verbeck.
Many Japanese buildings, products and planes were copies of western ones like the Tokyo dome of 1988 which copied the 1981 Metrodome, the Japanese DSK A 25 in 1954 which copied the BMW's R 25 of 1951, the Japanese zero fighter of 1939 which copied the Gloster F.5/34 of 1937 and the Toshiba vacuum cleaner of 1931 which copied GE's electric cleaner of 1928 and Seiki's Nippon camera of 1941 which copied Leica Illa's camera of 1935 and Shigeru Mizuki's rocketman in 1958 which copied DC Comics superman of 1938. The "Japanese" military planes Kawasaki Ki-5, Kawasaki Army Type 92 and Kawasaki Army Type 88 were designed by aircraft engineer Richard Vogt, a German.
The Japanese let volunteers from Okinawa into their army since 1890 and in 1898 Okinawa was given universal military conscription and were parts of all arms of the Japanese military, unlike Koreans where there was no conscription until the very last year of World War II since the Japanese did not trust Koreans unlike Okinawans. Taiwanese were also distrusted by the Japanese, with volunteers from Taiwan only allowed in 1942 and conscription only implemented in 1945.
Chinese bandits called Honghuzi fought against Japan or Russia in the Russo-Japanese war.
Japanese in Canada were interned as potential fifth columnists. Japanese in Australia were also interned as potential fifth columnists. Latin American countries like Peru also expelled their Japanese residents to the US to be interned during the war. Mexico also interned Japanese.
A huge proportion of Japanese Brazilians were pro Axis and some engaged in terrorist activities to sabotage Allied war efforts. Many Japanese even suffered mass delusion when the war ended and believed that Japan had won the war and that the Allied fleet was wiped out.
Japanese Americans were funding the Japanese military before the Pearl Harbor attack.
Before the beginning of the Second World War, Japan was fighting with China. This is called Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). According to the United States government's Department of State's Office of the Historian, the US did nothing to help China against the Japanese from 1937 to 1940 when Japan and China were engaged in total war. US officials and policymakers did not want to help. Japan's military obtained the majority of its iron, steel and oil from the United States between 1937 and 1940. The treaty of commerce between the United States and Japan continued until January 1940 and even then the United States did not embargo Japan right away. The United States only began giving aid to China after 1940 when Japan and China already fought for three years. When the Second World War broke out in 1939, Japan went to the side of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Japanese planes attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The fighting continued for 4 years. When the USA dropped the first atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan accepted defeat and surrendered in 1945.
The occupation of the Philippines by Japan ended at the war's conclusion. The American army had been fighting the Philippines Campaign since October 1944, when MacArthur's Sixth United States Army landed on Leyte. Landings in other parts of the country had followed, and the Allies, with the Philippine Commonwealth troops, pushed toward Manila. Fighting continued until Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945. The Philippines suffered great loss of life and tremendous physical destruction, especially during the Battle of Manila. About 1 million Filipinos had been killed, a large portion during the final months of the war, and Manila had been extensively damaged.
After the end of the Second World War, Japan came under international control. Japan became an important friend of the US when it entered into the Cold war with Korea. Over next few years, many political, economic and social changes took place. The Japanese Diet came into being. In 1951, USA and 45 other countries signed an agreement with Japan, and Japan again became an independent nation with full power (a country with full sovereignty) on 28th April 1952.
A 1973 article in the New York Times reported that Indonesians hated Japanese businessmen due to their practices and attitudes towards them.
The Jewish American engineer Jerome Lemelson developed the camcorder and walkman audio recorder for the Japanese company Sony.
The Heisei era was until April 30 2019.
The current era in Japan is called the Reiwa era. It started in May 2019.
The history of of Saudi Arabia as a nation state began with the Al Saud dynasty in 1727.
The territory that is modern Saudi Arabia was the site of several ancient cultures and civilizations. The prehistory of Saudi Arabia shows some of the earliest traces of human activity in the world.
It was founded in the area of Nejd, the central part of the Arabian Peninsula. The Sa'udi emirate's leadership is a traditional form of rule on Arabia since the 18th century. Over the next century and a half the family went through a lot of opposition and hurdles. The family faced opposition from powerful families of Arabia but also rulers of Egypt and the Ottoman Empire.
In 1902 Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud, also known as Abdul Aziz Al-Saud, took over the city of Riyadh from another family named Al-Rashid. He continued to win more areas, and on 8 January 1926, he became the King of Hejaz and the Sultan of Nejd. On 20 May in 1927, the government of the United Kingdom accepted him as the King of those areas ruled by him (the Nejd and Hejaz). His kingdom now became a sovereignty. The modern nation state of Saudi Arabia was established in 1932 as 'the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia' declared by King Abdul-Aziz Al-Saud. Petroleum oil was found in Saudi Arabia on 3 March in 1938, which made the country rich since the export of oil started to bring in a lot of money.
But the history of the Arabian Peninsula contains more history, which led to the development of the Saudi state. Inhabitants and cultures can be traced back 63,000 years ago. The most significant event that happened in the Peninsula is the rise of the Islamic religion presented by Prophet Muhammad. The Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate and Fatimid Caliphate all occupied the Arabian Peninsula and thus helped it develop to how we know it today. More dynasties were there in history, but the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina were under the protection of the Hashemite Sharifs of Mecca from the 10th century onwards.
This era covers thousands of years with many different cultures and communities. The oldest evidence that point to inhabitants of the Peninsula is perhaps 63,000 years old. There are inhabitants that had trading relations with many parts of the ancient world, but the hot and harsh climate had made large settlements difficult. So bedouin groups were naturally also present. Some settlements had always existed around oases; these are places in the deserts where growth and water are available. For instance there was a culture called the Dilmun culture among them, which was very old and existed along the Persian Gulf. It was as old as the ancient civilizations of the Sumerians and Egyptians. But also the Kindite kingdom and other ancient communities were present.
It is better to refer to the History of Arabia page when discussing the pre-Islamic era. This page (History of Saudi Arabia) will cover more of the post-Islamic era because of its strong relationship with Saudi Arabia.
The Hejaz area became an important center as Islam rose in the 620s. After Prophet Muhammad of the Quraysh tribe started calling to Islam in 610, the already existing cities of Medina (formerly called "Yathrib") and Mecca eventually became the holiest places of Islam and thus most of Muslims. The number of followers rapidly began to grow after the migration (or Hijra) of Muhammad and his companions in 622 from Mecca to Medina. During the completion of the religion, both these cities became the holiest places in the Muslim World. Masjid al-Haram and Al-Masjid al-Nabaw I am the main locations of pilgrimage where Muslim hopes to visit the Kaaba primarily in Masjid al-Haram and the Prophet's tomb in Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at least once in their lifetime.
Muhammad and his companions went through the Arabian Peninsula in the following years and united the divided tribes of Arabia under one flag. This led to Medina becoming the capital of the newly established Islamic state ruled by the Prophet Muhammad.
After Muhammad died in 632, a new head of the state, called caliph, was named: Abu Bakr. He was the first of the four caliphs whose caliphate was called that of the Rashidun, which means 'rightly guided'. After dealing with the Ridda wars, wars against rebellious tribes who rebelled after Muhammad's death, he started to campaign against the Byzantines. Abu Bakr himself did not live to see the results of his initiative after suffering a natural death in 634. But his successors did.
Umar was the second caliph and managed to lead the Muslims to conquer Roman Egypt and even expand to present day Libya in the west. Umar's caliphate eventually went all the way to the Indus River in the east after conquering the Sassanid Empire. Eventually in 644 it was neither the past famines or plagues that killed Umar, but a Persian slave.
Uthman ibn Affan followed Umar as a caliph and ruled the longest of the four caliphs. In his twelve years of rule he standardized the Qur'an, spread the empire westwards to the Maghreb and even a part of Spain and eastward further into Central Asia. He was also assasinated which lead to Ali ibn Abi Talib being the fourth Sunni caliph and the first Shia imam.
The death and assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib in 661 gave birth to a new era where the Umayyad Caliphate thrived and continued to expand the land left by the Rashidun.
After Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab got exiled from Uyaynah, he sought refuge in Diriyah, where some of his followers were residing. At that time, Muhammad bin Saud was the local chieftain of Diriyah. Two brothers and the wife of Muhammad bin Saud were followers of Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab's ideology. They encouraged cooperation between Muhammad bin Saud and Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab. Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab needed military support to secure his ideology and preaching, while Muhammad bin Saud needed pastoral support. Fulfilling these needs eventually led to an alliance between the scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab and the local ruler Muhammad bin Saud creating the First Saudi State, the Emirate of Diriyah.
When Muhammad bin Saud died in 1765, his son Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud who was a dedicated student of Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab, became the leader of the Emirate of Diriyah. In his reign, the Emirate of Diriyah expanded in territory throughout the Arabian Peninsula. In the eastern part of the peninsula, Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud got Al-Hasa, Qatar, Al-Buraimi and Bahrain under his influence. In the western part of the Peninsula, Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud conquered parts of the Hejaz region. During the conquests of Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud, the Saudi State got involved in a war with the Ottomans. At this stage, the campaigns of the Ottomans against the Saudi State failed, and Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud was expanding his territory inside Ottoman territories. With the death of Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud in 1803, his son Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud became ruler. Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud conquered the holy cities of Mecca and Medina for a few years, which gave him the title of Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. Eventually the Egyptians, who were supported and led by the Ottomans, destroyed the powers of Al Saud in 1818. It marked the end of the First Saudi State.
By 1824, the Al Saud family regained control over parts of the Nejd region. This is seen as the beginning of the Second Saudi State, the Emirate of Nejd. The Saudi ruler, Turki bin Ali, made Riyadh the capital of its state. It remains the capital of the Saudi State today. Turki bin Ali succeeded in retaking most of the lands lost to the Ottomans. In 1865 the Ottomans launched an attack on the Saudi State again. This time with help from the Al Rasheed family of Ha'il, who are another powerful family of the Nejd region. The Al Rasheed family defeated the Saudi State in 1891, which marked the end of the Second Saudi State. Abdul Rahman bin Faisal Al Saud, who was the Saudi leader at that time, retreated into the desert and eventually to Kuwait with his family.
In 1902, Abdul Rahman's son Abdulaziz regained Saudi territory from the Al Rasheed family. He even regained control over Mecca and Medina from 1924 to 1925. In 1932 he declared the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as it is known till today.
Still, Saudi Arabia's borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman were not final. The border with Qatar was finalized in 2001.
King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud died in 1953. His son, who was named Saud, became the king. He reigned for 11 years. In 1964, he was forced to step down, and his half-brother, Faisal, became the king. Faisal had the support of the senior members of the royal family and the religious leaders. Faisal also held the post of the Prime Minister. This tradition of being both the King and the Prime Minister still continues in Saudi Arabia. All Kings after Faisal have followed this practice.
Faisal took several new steps for economic development of Saudi Arabia. During his reign, many important political events also happened like the ones noted below:
In 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by one of his nephews. The nephew was found guilty, and he was sentenced to death. King Faisal's half-brother Khalid became the King and the Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia. During the reign of King Khalid, Saudi Arabia's importance in regional politics increased. The economic growth of the country also continued at a steady rate until his death.
The income of Saudi Arabia became less during King Fahd's reign. This was a result of lower price of petroleum oil. King Fahd's government used an economic policy that helped the country to survive with a lower income.
King Fahd helped Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war. Iraq's economy had become terrible on account of this war. The King also discussed with these two countries to stop fighting. Both countries (Iran and Iraq) stopped the fight in August 1988. The King also helped in making the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) a more vital organization. The GCC is an organization of six countries Persian Gulf. The purpose of the organization is to increase the development of and cooperation among the member countries.
In 1990, Saddam Hussein was ruling Iraq. The Gulf War of 1991 was when he invaded Kuwait. Many people thought that his army would also invade Saudi Arabia. King Fahd allowed some Western countries and the USA to send their forces to the country. Many Muslims were against that their most holy land was used by non-Muslim soldiers.
The presence of troops from Western countries has angered many Muslims. One of them was the rich man Osama bin Laden. He was forced to leave Saudi Arabia when he disagreed and opposed the King of Saudi Arabia. Other than Osma bin Laden and his followers, several other persons and groups did not like the presence of Western troops inside Saudi Arabia.
Those who opposed the presence of Western troops were persons and groups who attacked people. They tried mainly to attack the foreign forces in Saudi Arabia. Some examples of such attacks are given below:
The September 11, 2001 attacks in New York had resulted into many deaths and big destruction. After enquiry, it came to light that out of 19 suspected persons for these attacks, 15 were from Saudi Arabia.
A linga or a lingam is a very complex Phallus symbol of Hinduism. It is associated with Shiva, supreme god in main gods of the Hindus. The Hindu scriptures say that a linga represents energy and strength. In almost all the temples of Shiva, Shiva is shown in the form of a Circumcised linga.
Also in other places in the World of Ancient history, Shiva Limgam was worshipped.
Malnutrition is eating a diet which does not supply enough nutrients. There are two broad categories of malnutrition:
The Carolina parakeet (binomial name Conuropsis carolinensis) is an extinct species of parrot.
Match Game was a game show that ran from 1962 to 1999. Hosted Premierie on 1973 Present CBS GSN & More Premierie June 26 2016 on ABC During $100,000 Pyramid Match Game The Hollywood Squares (1983) Like The Price is Right in Wheel of Fortune October 31 1983 on 1962-2016 Present Finale Until of 1979 in 1980-1982 in 1990 Theme in 1960s-2010s Like Pyramid
Martin Luther King Jr. Day