France was taking over from Italy as the center of artistic bookbinding during the early sixteenth century. Political upheaval in Italy, the Sack of Rome in 1527, and the French occupation of Milan had caused innovations such as gold tooling to reach to France, where they were swiftly embraced and refined. The Franco-Ottoman alliance brought high-quality morocco leather and an influx of highly proficient gilders. French bookbinders began manufacturing gold-tooled books in 1507. By 1535, they were capable of "large-scale production" exhibiting impressive "decorative effect, beauty of design and skill in execution."