After World War II, the massive destruction of non-combatant targets inflicted during the war prompted the victorious Allies to address the issue when developing the Nuremberg Charter of August 1945 to establish the procedures and laws for conducting the Nuremberg Trials (1945-1946). Article 6(b) of the Charter thus condemned the "wanton destruction of cities, towns or villages, or devastation not justified by military necessity" and classified it as a violation of the laws or customs of war, therefore, making it a war crime. This provision was similarly used at the Tokyo Trials of 1946-1948 to try Japanese military and civilian leaders in accordance with the Tokyo Charter (January 1946) for illegal conducts committed during the Pacific War of 1941-1945. However, due to the absence of positive or specific customary international humanitarian law prohibiting illegal conducts of aerial warfare in World War II, the indiscriminate bombing of enemy cities was excluded from the category of war crimes at the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials, therefore, no Axis officers and leaders were prosecuted for authorizing this practice. Furthermore, the United Nations War Crimes Commission received no notice of records of trial concerning the illegal conduct of air warfare. Chris Jochnick and Roger Normand in their article "The Legitimation of Violence 1: A Critical History of the Laws of War" explain that: "By leaving out morale bombing and other attacks on civilians unchallenged, the Tribunal conferred legal legitimacy on such practices."