The political situation of the region led many intellectuals (Poles and Ukrainians) to believe that the only alternative to decadence is getting back to the folk roots: moving out of large cities and mixing with "simple men". Focusing on "chłopomania" within Polish culture, Romanian literary historian Constantin Geambaşu argues: "Initially, the Cracovian bohemians' interest in the village followed purely artistic goals. Preoccupied with the idea of national freedom, the democratic Polish intellectuals were made aware of the necessity to attract and enlist the peasantry's potential in view of [Poland's] independence movement. The notion of social solidarity is formed and consolidated as a solution to overcome the impasse faced by Polish society, especially given the failure of the January 1863 insurrection."