Ernest Renan (19th century) interpreted the "Second Horseman" to be symbolic of The Great Jewish Revolt and the insurrection of Vindex. During "The Great Revolt", civil war broke out amongst the Jews. The civil war not only dissipated their stand against Rome, but also divided the Jewish people into factions that eventually dis-unified Jerusalem. Hugo Grotius (17th century), interprets “the earth”, in verse 4, as the "land of Judea". Johann Jakob Wettstein (18th century), identified the "Red horse" as representing the assassins and robbers of Judea in the days of Antonius Felix and Porcius Festus. Volkmar, a "modern rationalist preterist", broadened the scope of the "Second Horseman" to include major battles that occurred after the year 66: the Jewish–Roman wars, Roman–Parthian Wars, and Byzantine–Arab Wars.