non-Iodized table salt
When it comes to salt, sometimes the simplest option is the best. Non-iodized table salt is simply table salt without added iodine. It offers a pure, salty flavor that makes it a versatile ingredient in the kitchen and beyond. Introduction to Non-Iodized Table Salt If you’ve ever examined a container of table salt closely, you might have noticed the label specifying “iodized” or “non-iodized.” This seemingly small detail reflects a significant difference in composition and, for some, in taste. Non-iodized table salt, as the name suggests, contains no added iodine. It’s essentially pure sodium chloride, often refined to a fine, uniform texture. While it might lack the added micronutrient found in iodized salt, it offers a clean, straightforward salinity that many cooks prefer, particularly for specific culinary applications. Important While non-iodized salt has its benefits, it’s crucial to get enough iodine from other sources if you choose this kind of salt. Include iodine-rich foods in your diet like seafood, dairy products, and some fortified foods. Culinary Uses of Non-Iodized Table Salt The primary culinary advantage of non-iodized table salt lies in its purity of flavor. Some people perceive a slight metallic or chemical aftertaste in iodized salt, especially when used in large quantities. Non-iodized table salt avoids this potential issue, providing a clean, neutral saltiness that allows the flavors of the other ingredients to shine. Here are some key culinary uses: General Cooking: For everyday seasoning of dishes during cooking, where a quick-dissolving, evenly distributed saltiness is desired. Baking: In baking, where precise salt measurements are crucial, the fine, uniform texture of non-iodized table salt ensures consistent results. Many bakers prefer it for its neutral flavor, believing it doesn’t interfere with the delicate flavors of pastries and cakes. Canning and Pickling: Non-iodized table salt is often the preferred choice for canning and pickling. Iodine can sometimes cause the color of preserved foods to darken, and some believe it can also affect the texture. Brining (in some cases): While kosher salt is often preferred for brining, non-iodized table salt can also be used, particularly when a finer texture is desired for quick dissolution. Sauce, soups, and stews: It is great for soups, sauces and stews. General Cooking: For everyday seasoning of dishes during cooking, where a quick-dissolving, evenly distributed saltiness is desired. Baking: In baking, where precise salt measurements are crucial, the fine, uniform texture of non-iodized table salt ensures consistent results. Many bakers prefer it for its neutral flavor, believing it doesn’t interfere with the delicate flavors of pastries and cakes. Canning and Pickling: Non-iodized table salt is often the preferred choice for canning and pickling. Iodine can sometimes cause the color of preserved foods to darken, and some believe it can also affect the texture. Brining (in some cases): While kosher salt is often preferred for brining, non-iodized table salt can also be used, particularly when a finer texture is desired for quick dissolution. Sauce, soups, and stews: It is great for soups, sauces and stews. Tips for Using Non-Iodized Table Salt Measure Carefully: Because it’s finely ground, non-iodized table salt is denser than coarser salts like kosher salt. This means a teaspoon of table salt will contain more sodium than a teaspoon of kosher salt. Adjust your measurements accordingly. Store Properly: Keep your non-iodized table salt in an airtight container in a cool, dry place to prevent clumping. Consider Your Iodine Intake: If you primarily use non-iodized table salt, ensure you’re getting enough iodine from other dietary sources (seafood, dairy, eggs) or consider a supplement if recommended by a doctor. Taste as You Go: When ever possible, taste as you go. Measure Carefully: Because it’s finely ground, non-iodized table salt is denser than coarser salts like kosher salt. This means a teaspoon of table salt will contain more sodium than a teaspoon of kosher salt. Adjust your measurements accordingly. Store Properly: Keep your non-iodized table salt in an airtight container in a cool, dry place to prevent clumping. Consider Your Iodine Intake: If you primarily use non-iodized table salt, ensure you’re getting enough iodine from other dietary sources (seafood, dairy, eggs) or consider a supplement if recommended by a doctor. Taste as You Go: When ever possible, taste as you go. 10 Fun Facts About Non-Iodized Table Salt It’s typically made by refining mined salt (rock salt) to remove impurities. It’s almost pure sodium chloride (NaCl). The fine, uniform crystals dissolve quickly and evenly. It’s often less expensive than specialty salts like sea salt or kosher salt. It’s sometimes called “plain salt.” It doesn’t contain any anti-caking agents (in most cases, check the label). It’s a good choice for people with certain thyroid conditions who need to limit iodine intake (under a doctor’s guidance). It won’t change the color of pickled or canned foods. It is the most common salt besides Iodized Salt. It’s a staple ingredient in kitchens around the world. It’s typically made by refining mined salt (rock salt) to remove impurities. It’s almost pure sodium chloride (NaCl). The fine, uniform crystals dissolve quickly and evenly. It’s often less expensive than specialty salts like sea salt or kosher salt. It’s sometimes called “plain salt.” It doesn’t contain any anti-caking agents (in most cases, check the label). It’s a good choice for people with certain thyroid conditions who need to limit iodine intake (under a doctor’s guidance). It won’t change the color of pickled or canned foods. It is the most common salt besides Iodized Salt. It’s a staple ingredient in kitchens around the world. Culinary History of Non-Iodized Table Salt Salt’s culinary history is as old as civilization itself. Before the advent of iodization in the early 20th century, all table salt was, by default, non-iodized. Mined salt (rock salt) was often refined to remove impurities, resulting in a fine, white salt similar to what we know as table salt today. This salt was used for seasoning food, preserving meat and vegetables, and a variety of other purposes. The specific methods of refining and the resulting texture likely varied depending on the region and the available technology. However, the essential function – providing sodium and enhancing flavor – remained constant. The introduction of iodized salt in the 1920s was a major public health initiative to combat iodine deficiency, but non-iodized table salt continued to be produced and used, particularly by those who preferred its flavor or had specific culinary needs. Read More Nutritional Information on Non-Iodized Table Salt The nutritional profile of non-iodized table salt is straightforward: it’s almost entirely sodium chloride. Sodium is an essential electrolyte, crucial for fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle contraction. However, excessive sodium intake is linked to high blood pressure and other health problems. The recommended daily intake of sodium is generally around 2,300 mg (about one teaspoon of table salt), but many people consume far more than that, largely due to processed foods. Non-iodized table salt, unlike iodized salt, contains no added iodine. This means that if you rely solely on non-iodized table salt, you need to ensure you’re getting enough iodine from other dietary sources to prevent iodine deficiency. Read More Read More: Culinary History of Non-Iodized Table Salt Ancient Times: Salt as a Precious Commodity Salt’s importance to early civilizations cannot be overstated. Its ability to preserve food, particularly meat and fish, was crucial for survival, especially in times of scarcity or during long journeys. Archaeological evidence suggests that salt production and trade were well-established by 6000 BCE. Early methods of obtaining salt included: Solar Evaporation: Seawater was collected in shallow pools or pans and allowed to evaporate under the sun, leaving behind salt crystals. This method, while yielding a mixture of crystal sizes, would have naturally produced some fine salt. Mining Rock Salt: In areas with underground salt deposits (halite), salt was mined directly. This rock salt was often crushed or ground for use. Brine Springs: Natural springs containing high concentrations of salt were another source. The brine was often boiled to evaporate the water and extract the salt. Solar Evaporation: Seawater was collected in shallow pools or pans and allowed to evaporate under the sun, leaving behind salt crystals. This method, while yielding a mixture of crystal sizes, would have naturally produced some fine salt. Mining Rock Salt: In areas with underground salt deposits (halite), salt was mined directly. This rock salt was often crushed or ground for use. Brine Springs: Natural springs containing high concentrations of salt were another source. The brine was often boiled to evaporate the water and extract the salt. In these early methods, the resulting salt would not have been specifically categorized as “iodized” or “non-iodized.” Iodine, as a distinct element, was not discovered until 1811. The salt produced would have simply been salt, with variations in purity and crystal size depending on the source and the processing methods. However, because it lacked the added iodine of modern iodized salt, it functionally represents the “non-iodized” salt of history. Ancient civilizations highly valued salt. The Romans, for example, built roads (like the Via Salaria, or “Salt Road”) specifically for transporting salt. Roman soldiers were sometimes paid in salt – the origin of the word “salary” (from the Latin salarium, meaning “salt money”). In ancient China, salt was a major source of government revenue, and salt production was often a state monopoly. The Middle Ages: Salt and Culinary Practice Throughout the Middle Ages, salt remained a crucial ingredient in European cuisine. Medieval cookbooks often mention salt, although they rarely specify the type. It’s likely that both coarse and fine salt were used, depending on the dish. Fine salt, whether obtained from sea salt evaporation or by grinding rock salt, would have been preferred for seasoning sauces, stews, and other dishes where quick dissolution was important. Salt was also essential for preserving food, particularly meat, fish, and vegetables. Salting, pickling, and brining were common methods for extending the shelf life of perishable foods, and these techniques relied heavily on salt – often coarse salt for dry-curing, but finer salt could be used in brines. The Early Modern Period: Refining Techniques As culinary practices evolved and trade expanded, so did the methods for producing and refining salt. Salt pans became more sophisticated, allowing for greater control over the evaporation process and the resulting crystal size. Techniques for grinding and purifying salt also improved. While the concept of “iodization” was still far in the future, the salt being produced and used during this period was, by definition, non-iodized. The focus was on achieving a reasonably pure and consistent product, suitable for both seasoning and preservation. The Industrial Revolution and the Rise of Refined Salt The Industrial Revolution brought significant changes to salt production. New technologies allowed for the mass production of refined table salt, typically mined from underground deposits and heavily processed to remove impurities. This refined salt was characterized by its fine, uniform texture, consistent purity, and – importantly – its lack of iodine. This refined, non-iodized table salt became increasingly common in the 19th and early 20th centuries, largely replacing the coarser, less refined salts that had been used for centuries. It was readily available, inexpensive, and dissolved quickly, making it convenient for both cooking and table use. The Advent of Iodization: A Public Health Shift In the early 20th century, the problem of iodine deficiency and its associated health problems (particularly goiter) became a major public health concern. Scientists and public health officials identified salt as an ideal vehicle for delivering iodine to the population. The introduction of iodized salt in the 1920s marked a significant turning point. However, it’s crucial to understand that this did not mean the end of non-iodized table salt. Non-iodized salt continued to be produced and sold, catering to those who preferred its flavor, had specific culinary needs (like canning and pickling), or had medical reasons to avoid added iodine. Non-Iodized Table Salt Today: A Continued Presence Today, non-iodized table salt remains readily available, often alongside iodized salt on supermarket shelves. It’s chosen by cooks for several reasons: Pure Flavor: Some people perceive a slight metallic or chemical taste in iodized salt, particularly when used in large quantities. Non-iodized salt offers a clean, neutral saltiness. Culinary Applications: It’s often preferred for baking, where precise salt measurements are crucial, and for canning and pickling, where iodine can sometimes affect the color and texture of preserved foods. Dietary Choices: Individuals with certain thyroid conditions may need to limit their iodine intake and are advised by their doctors to use non-iodized salt. Pure Flavor: Some people perceive a slight metallic or chemical taste in iodized salt, particularly when used in large quantities. Non-iodized salt offers a clean, neutral saltiness. Culinary Applications: It’s often preferred for baking, where precise salt measurements are crucial, and for canning and pickling, where iodine can sometimes affect the color and texture of preserved foods. Dietary Choices: Individuals with certain thyroid conditions may need to limit their iodine intake and are advised by their doctors to use non-iodized salt. The culinary history of non-iodized table salt is, in essence, the history of salt itself before the widespread adoption of iodization. It’s a story that spans millennia, connecting ancient civilizations, medieval kitchens, and modern culinary practices. While iodized salt plays a crucial role in public health, non-iodized table salt continues to hold its place in the kitchen, valued for its simplicity, purity, and versatility. It serves as a reminder of the long and essential relationship between humans and this fundamental seasoning. Read More: Nutritional Information on Non-Iodized Table Salt The Foundation: Sodium Chloride (NaCl) At its core, non-iodized table salt is almost entirely sodium chloride (NaCl). This simple chemical compound is the defining characteristic of salt, and it’s where the primary nutritional considerations lie. By weight, sodium chloride is roughly 40% sodium and 60% chloride. Sodium (Na): Sodium is an essential electrolyte, meaning it carries an electrical charge when dissolved in bodily fluids. It plays critical roles in: Fluid Balance: Sodium helps regulate the balance of water inside and outside cells. This is crucial for maintaining blood pressure, proper nerve function, and overall cellular health. Without adequate sodium, cells would either shrivel up or burst. Nerve Impulse Transmission: Sodium ions are essential for transmitting nerve signals throughout the body. These signals control everything from muscle movement to thought processes. Muscle Contraction: Sodium is directly involved in muscle contractions, including the rhythmic beating of the heart. Chloride (Cl): Chloride, the other half of the NaCl equation, is also an essential electrolyte and works in close partnership with sodium. Its key functions include: Fluid Balance: Chloride contributes to the osmotic pressure that keeps fluids properly balanced within the body. Digestive Health: Chloride is a crucial component of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach. HCl is essential for breaking down food, activating digestive enzymes, and killing harmful bacteria. Acid-Base Balance: Chloride helps maintain the proper pH balance (acidity and alkalinity) in the body, which is vital for numerous biochemical reactions. Sodium (Na): Sodium is an essential electrolyte, meaning it carries an electrical charge when dissolved in bodily fluids. It plays critical roles in: Fluid Balance: Sodium helps regulate the balance of water inside and outside cells. This is crucial for maintaining blood pressure, proper nerve function, and overall cellular health. Without adequate sodium, cells would either shrivel up or burst. Nerve Impulse Transmission: Sodium ions are essential for transmitting nerve signals throughout the body. These signals control everything from muscle movement to thought processes. Muscle Contraction: Sodium is directly involved in muscle contractions, including the rhythmic beating of the heart. Fluid Balance: Sodium helps regulate the balance of water inside and outside cells. This is crucial for maintaining blood pressure, proper nerve function, and overall cellular health. Without adequate sodium, cells would either shrivel up or burst. Nerve Impulse Transmission: Sodium ions are essential for transmitting nerve signals throughout the body. These signals control everything from muscle movement to thought processes. Muscle Contraction: Sodium is directly involved in muscle contractions, including the rhythmic beating of the heart. Fluid Balance: Sodium helps regulate the balance of water inside and outside cells. This is crucial for maintaining blood pressure, proper nerve function, and overall cellular health. Without adequate sodium, cells would either shrivel up or burst. Nerve Impulse Transmission: Sodium ions are essential for transmitting nerve signals throughout the body. These signals control everything from muscle movement to thought processes. Muscle Contraction: Sodium is directly involved in muscle contractions, including the rhythmic beating of the heart. Chloride (Cl): Chloride, the other half of the NaCl equation, is also an essential electrolyte and works in close partnership with sodium. Its key functions include: Fluid Balance: Chloride contributes to the osmotic pressure that keeps fluids properly balanced within the body. Digestive Health: Chloride is a crucial component of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach. HCl is essential for breaking down food, activating digestive enzymes, and killing harmful bacteria. Acid-Base Balance: Chloride helps maintain the proper pH balance (acidity and alkalinity) in the body, which is vital for numerous biochemical reactions. Fluid Balance: Chloride contributes to the osmotic pressure that keeps fluids properly balanced within the body. Digestive Health: Chloride is a crucial component of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach. HCl is essential for breaking down food, activating digestive enzymes, and killing harmful bacteria. Acid-Base Balance: Chloride helps maintain the proper pH balance (acidity and alkalinity) in the body, which is vital for numerous biochemical reactions. Fluid Balance: Chloride contributes to the osmotic pressure that keeps fluids properly balanced within the body. Digestive Health: Chloride is a crucial component of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach. HCl is essential for breaking down food, activating digestive enzymes, and killing harmful bacteria. Acid-Base Balance: Chloride helps maintain the proper pH balance (acidity and alkalinity) in the body, which is vital for numerous biochemical reactions. The RDA and the Sodium Debate: A Balancing Act The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for sodium is a subject of ongoing discussion and refinement within the scientific and medical communities. Current guidelines generally recommend limiting sodium intake to less than 2,300 milligrams per day, which is roughly equivalent to one teaspoon of table salt. Some organizations, particularly those focused on cardiovascular health, advocate for even lower intakes, around 1,500 mg per day. This is where the primary nutritional concern with any type of salt, including non-iodized table salt, arises. While sodium is essential, excessive sodium intake is strongly linked to: High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): This is a major risk factor for heart disease, stroke, and kidney disease. High sodium levels cause the body to retain water, increasing blood volume and putting extra strain on blood vessels. Fluid Retention (Edema): Excess sodium can lead to fluid buildup in tissues, causing swelling, particularly in the hands, feet, and ankles. Kidney Strain: The kidneys are responsible for filtering excess sodium from the blood. Chronically high sodium intake puts extra strain on these vital organs, potentially leading to kidney damage over time. Cardiovascular disease: Some reaserch shows correlation between high sodium intake and cardiovascular issues. High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): This is a major risk factor for heart disease, stroke, and kidney disease. High sodium levels cause the body to retain water, increasing blood volume and putting extra strain on blood vessels. Fluid Retention (Edema): Excess sodium can lead to fluid buildup in tissues, causing swelling, particularly in the hands, feet, and ankles. Kidney Strain: The kidneys are responsible for filtering excess sodium from the blood. Chronically high sodium intake puts extra strain on these vital organs, potentially leading to kidney damage over time. Cardiovascular disease: Some reaserch shows correlation between high sodium intake and cardiovascular issues. It’s crucial to understand that the issue isn’t with sodium itself, but with the imbalance between sodium intake and the intake of other electrolytes, particularly potassium. A diet high in processed foods (which are often loaded with sodium) and low in fresh fruits and vegetables (which are good sources of potassium) can exacerbate this imbalance. Trace Minerals: A Whisper of Complexity (Mostly Absent) Highly refined non-iodized table salt is typically very pure sodium chloride, containing negligible amounts of other minerals. However, less refined versions, or those from specific sources, might contain trace amounts of: Calcium: Important for bone health, nerve function, and muscle contraction. Potassium: Another essential electrolyte that helps counterbalance the effects of sodium on blood pressure. Magnesium: Involved in hundreds of biochemical reactions in the body, including energy production, muscle and nerve function, and blood sugar control. Iron: Essential for carrying oxygen in the blood. Calcium: Important for bone health, nerve function, and muscle contraction. Potassium: Another essential electrolyte that helps counterbalance the effects of sodium on blood pressure. Magnesium: Involved in hundreds of biochemical reactions in the body, including energy production, muscle and nerve function, and blood sugar control. Iron: Essential for carrying oxygen in the blood. It’s extremely important to emphasize that the amounts of these trace minerals in non-iodized table salt, even in less refined versions, are extremely small. They are not a significant source of these nutrients in a typical diet. Relying on table salt for these minerals would be both ineffective and potentially dangerous due to the risk of excessive sodium intake. A balanced diet rich in whole foods is the best way to obtain these essential minerals. The Defining Absence: No Added Iodine The key characteristic that distinguishes non-iodized table salt from its iodized counterpart is, of course, the absence of added iodine. Iodine is an essential trace element required for the production of thyroid hormones (thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)). These hormones play crucial roles in: Metabolism: Regulating the body’s metabolic rate, influencing energy production, and affecting body weight. Growth and Development: Thyroid hormones are particularly critical during fetal development and childhood, influencing brain development, bone growth, and overall physical maturation. Cognitive Function: Adequate iodine is essential for normal cognitive function throughout life. Metabolism: Regulating the body’s metabolic rate, influencing energy production, and affecting body weight. Growth and Development: Thyroid hormones are particularly critical during fetal development and childhood, influencing brain development, bone growth, and overall physical maturation. Cognitive Function: Adequate iodine is essential for normal cognitive function throughout life. Iodine deficiency can lead to several health problems, including: Goiter: An enlargement of the thyroid gland, often visible as a swelling in the neck. Hypothyroidism: A condition in which the thyroid gland doesn’t produce enough thyroid hormones, leading to fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, and other symptoms. Cretinism: In severe cases of iodine deficiency during pregnancy, the child can develop cretinism, characterized by severe intellectual disability and stunted physical growth. Goiter: An enlargement of the thyroid gland, often visible as a swelling in the neck. Hypothyroidism: A condition in which the thyroid gland doesn’t produce enough thyroid hormones, leading to fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, and other symptoms. Cretinism: In severe cases of iodine deficiency during pregnancy, the child can develop cretinism, characterized by severe intellectual disability and stunted physical growth. The introduction of iodized salt in the early 20th century was a major public health success, dramatically reducing the incidence of iodine deficiency disorders in many parts of the world. However, it’s crucial to remember that non-iodized table salt provides no iodine. Additives: Anti-Caking Agents Many brands of table salt, both iodized and non-iodized, contain anti-caking agents. These are added to prevent the salt crystals from clumping together, especially in humid environments. Common anti-caking agents include: Sodium aluminosilicate Calcium silicate Magnesium carbonate Yellow prussiate of soda (sodium ferrocyanide) Sodium aluminosilicate Calcium silicate Magnesium carbonate Yellow prussiate of soda (sodium ferrocyanide) These additives are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by regulatory bodies like the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and similar agencies in other countries. However, some individuals may prefer to avoid them due to personal preferences or concerns about potential sensitivities. If you’re concerned, check the ingredient list on the packaging. Pure, unadulterated non-iodized table salt will simply list “salt” (or “sodium chloride”) as the only ingredient. The Nutritional Label: What to Expect The nutritional information label on a package of non-iodized table salt is typically very straightforward: Serving Size: Usually ¼ teaspoon (approximately 1.5 grams). Sodium: The amount of sodium per serving will be listed, typically around 590-600 milligrams. This represents a significant portion of the recommended daily limit. Other Nutrients: The label will likely show 0% for other nutrients like calcium, potassium, iron, and, crucially, iodine. Ingredients: The ingredient list will typically state “salt” and may include any anti-caking agents used. Serving Size: Usually ¼ teaspoon (approximately 1.5 grams). Sodium: The amount of sodium per serving will be listed, typically around 590-600 milligrams. This represents a significant portion of the recommended daily limit. Other Nutrients: The label will likely show 0% for other nutrients like calcium, potassium, iron, and, crucially, iodine. Ingredients: The ingredient list will typically state “salt” and may include any anti-caking agents used. The Bottom Line: Sodium, Chloride, and Nothing Else (of Nutritional Significance) The nutritional information for non-iodized table salt boils down to these key points: Sodium and Chloride: It’s almost entirely sodium chloride, providing essential electrolytes but also posing a risk of excessive sodium intake if consumed in large quantities. No Significant Micronutrients: It’s not a source of vitamins, minerals (beyond sodium and chloride), or other micronutrients in any meaningful amount. No Iodine: It does not provide iodine, an essential nutrient for thyroid health. Additives May Be Present: Check the ingredient list if you’re concerned about anti-caking agents. Sodium and Chloride: It’s almost entirely sodium chloride, providing essential electrolytes but also posing a risk of excessive sodium intake if consumed in large quantities. No Significant Micronutrients: It’s not a source of vitamins, minerals (beyond sodium and chloride), or other micronutrients in any meaningful amount. No Iodine: It does not provide iodine, an essential nutrient for thyroid health. Additives May Be Present: Check the ingredient list if you’re concerned about anti-caking agents. Non-iodized table salt is a culinary staple valued for its ability to enhance flavor and preserve food. However, from a nutritional standpoint, it’s primarily a source of sodium and chloride, with no added nutritional benefits. It’s crucial to use it in moderation as part of a balanced diet that includes a variety of whole foods to ensure adequate intake of all essential nutrients, including iodine (from sources like seafood, dairy products, or iodized salt if appropriate). The focus should always be on a holistic dietary approach, not on relying on any single ingredient, especially salt, for nutritional needs beyond its basic electrolyte contribution. Non-iodized table salt, while often overshadowed by its iodized counterpart, remains a valuable and versatile culinary ingredient. Its clean flavor, fine texture, and lack of additives make it a preferred choice for many cooks, particularly in baking, canning, and situations where a pure, unadulterated saltiness is desired. While it’s important to be mindful of iodine intake, non-iodized table salt offers a simple, reliable way to season food and enhance the natural flavors of ingredients. It’s a testament to the enduring power of simple ingredients and a reminder that sometimes, the most basic choices are the most effective. Disclaimer All content and information (including recipes, articles, and other materials) on CookingHub.com are the opinions of the authors and are not intended to provide dietary, medical, legal, or political advice. Consult with a professional before deciding to follow these opinions. 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