标题：伊曼努尔·列维纳斯
百科名片
中文名：                          伊曼努尔·列维纳斯职业：          哲学家、伦理学家、《塔木德》注释家法文名：                         Emmanuel Levinas主要成就：                20世纪欧洲最伟大的伦理学家国籍：                                         法国代表作：                            《从存在到存在者》
人物简介 
伊曼努尔·列维纳斯（Emmanuel Levinas：1906.1.12-1995.12.25)，出生于立陶宛考纳斯，是当代法国著名的犹太哲学家，通过融通思考希腊文化和希伯来文化，通过对传统认识论和存在论的批判，他为西方哲学提供了思考异质、差异、他性的重要路径，从而揭示了从伦理的维度重建形而上学的可能性。同时也是是20世纪欧洲最伟大的伦理学家，他最为彻底地反对自古希腊以来的整个西方哲学传统，并在此基础上提出了最激进的真正意义上的“他者”理论，成为当下几乎所有激进思潮的一个主要的理论资源。
人生经历与哲学贡献
列维纳斯幼年在立陶宛接受过传统的犹太教育。二战后，师从神秘的犹太导师舒沙泥，研习《塔木德》(犹太教法典)。直到生命的后期列维纳斯才承认舒沙泥对其学术影响的重要性。
列维纳斯于1924年在法国阿尔萨斯的斯特拉斯堡大学开始接触哲学研究。在那里他遇到了一生的学术伙伴——法国哲学家布朗索（Maurice Blanchot）。1928年他转去弗莱堡大学跟随胡塞尔研习现象学，并在那里遇到了海德格尔。于是列维纳斯成为最先关注海德格尔与胡塞尔的法国知识分子，并翻译了胡塞尔的著作《笛卡尔之冥想》，其后也将他们的思想引介到自己的哲学之中，例如《胡塞尔现象学的直觉理论》、《实体与存在》等。
刊发于纽约时报的列维纳斯讣告提到，他对自己付之于海德格尔的热情表示遗憾，因为后者与纳粹关系紧密。甚至在一次公开的演讲中列维纳斯提到，人们应该以宽恕之心对待德国人所犯下的罪行，但海德格尔不应被宽恕。
博士毕业后，列维纳斯到巴黎的一所私立犹太中学，后进入高等教育体系。他先于1961年在普瓦提埃大学教书，后于1973年来到索邦大学，直到1979年退休。他也是瑞士弗莱堡大学的兼职教授，并于1989年荣获巴尔扎恩哲学奖。
列维纳斯于50年代进入法国知识分子的思想前沿，他的观念基于“它者的规范”或按他自己的话讲“规范为哲学第一本位”。对于列维纳斯来讲，它者是不可知的，并且无法凝练出基于自我的客观规律，因为这只会囿于传统的形而上学观念（这被列看做是本体存在论）。他更倾向于把哲学看作是“爱的智慧”而非传统希腊语中的“智慧之爱”。这样，规范成为独立于主观的实体，成为凌驾于主体的民族责任；继而这种责任超越了客体对真实之探索的意义本身。[1]
列维纳斯在一生中曾遭遇了纳粹带来的不幸，见证了西方世界在二十世纪所经历过的几乎所有暴力。这些以奥斯维辛大屠杀作为顶峰的历史暴力渗透在他的问题与思考中，以至于对他，就像阿多诺所说的，哲学的根基不再是惊奇，而是恐怖。列维纳斯追问理性是如何同野蛮结合在一起的，并勇于提出要反对海德格尔式的哲学气候（没有伦理的“存在”），以及反对希腊哲学传统中“中性”化的哲学概念对于伦理所具有的优先性。他认为对于哲学，还有一项伟大的工作需要完成，即“以希腊语言来讲述希腊文化所不知的道理”，因此终其一生，他都在探索如何在仍然用理性的方式来思考的同时，给哲学的内在注入另一种“生气”：给予这说着古希腊语言的哲学来自希伯来的气息，在这不可磨灭的历史耻辱的记忆深处，唤醒那同样是不可磨灭的上帝的“踪迹”。虽然列维纳斯和阿多诺一样，为了走出这恐怖而承担起了批判“本真性行话”的思想使命，但是，与阿多诺所设想的“无人的乌托邦”不同，列维纳斯思考的是一个使爱邻人成为可能的“人的乌托邦”。列维纳斯一反时代潮流地坚持思考主体和人道主义的可能性，这或许是一条更具批判性、更尖锐，但也更为积极的道路。[2]
主要著作
《从存在到存在者》 
《和胡塞尔、海德格尔一起发现存在》
《整体与无限论外在性》
《别样于存在或超越本质》
《伦理与无限》
中国学界对列维纳斯的研究
1.杨大春等主编：《列维纳斯的世纪或他者的命运》（“杭州列维纳斯国际学术研讨会”论文集），中国人民大学出版社，2008.
简介：该论文集汇集了美国、英国、法国、比利时、以色利等国外著名列维纳斯研究专家及国内该领域几乎所有的著名学者的研究成果，代表了列维纳斯研究的最高、最全面的成就，对于掌握列维纳斯丰富多样的思想以及他与两希传统复杂关系具有非常重要的参考价值。 
2.王恒著，《时间性：自身与他者》，江苏人民出版社，2008.
简介：《时间性——自身与他者(从胡塞尔海德格尔到列维纳斯)》是国内第一本对作为现象学家的列维纳斯的哲学思想的追溯性研究著作。其主要观点是：时间问题是现象学思想传统中一以贯之的根本，胡塞尔的时间意识就是主体性本身，海德格尔认为时间性就是存在的境域，而对于列维纳斯，正是在时间中才有真正的他者出现，或者说与他者的关系才真正有时间的呈现。时间之谜，就是主体之谜，就是他者之谜，列维纳斯正是基于时间，才另立了“作为他者的主体”这一后现代伦理之要义。《时间性——自身与他者(从胡塞尔海德格尔到列维纳斯)》适合于德国和法国哲学、后现代思潮、伦理学等方面的研究者和有兴趣者。
附：列维纳斯英文简介
Introducing Levinas to Undergraduate Philosophers 
Anthony F. Beavers 
The question of the source of the moral "ought" is no small question, nor is it 
unimportant. Our own philosophical tradition has dealt with the question in several 
ways producing a variety of answers. Some of these include locating the "ought" in 
the structure of reason (Kant), in the human being's desire for pleasure 
(Utilitarianism), or in the will of God (Aquinas). The reason why the question is so 
important is because different conceptions of the source of the moral ought 
ultimately give rise to different conceptions of what is right and wrong; they also 
affect the way we answer the biggest of all ethical questions, why be good. 
Levinas begins his answer to this question precisely with the origin of the moral 
ought, which unfolds on the level of the individual. For him, ethics is, first and 
foremost, born on the concrete level of person to person contact. He does not find 
the moral "ought" inscribed within the laws of the cosmos, in reason, or in any 
universal desire for pleasure. Instead, each individual case of moral conflict 
produces the moral "ought" itself. 
Today I wish to do nothing more than present an exposition of the source of 
the "ought" in Levinas. [1] It will be difficult to present an argument here, 
because the moral "ought" for Levinas has already occurred before reason comes on 
the scene. To present a rational argument for what occurs before reason is 
impossible; to do so would be to take reason into a domain where reason cannot go, 
in this case, to the point of contact between one person and another. Thus, Levinas 
can only have for us an evocative appeal. The goal of presenting ethics in this 
fashion is not to discover the truth of ethics, but to make an appeal for ethical 
transFORMation. Levinas invites us to listen, not only to what he has to say, but, 
more importantly, to the voice of the Other, who sanctions all of our moral 
obligation. 
To get this lecture off the ground, I will derive Levinas' moral "ought" by starting 
with an assumption: ethics occurs always in relation to other persons. When asked 
how to define ethics, I am assuming that our answer will include an important 
reference to other people. This is not necessarily to say that there can be no 
ethics without at least two people -- though this is the case for Levinas. It is to 
say that ethics is an important issue for us because it governs the way in which we 
relate with one another. This assumption is not unfounded: indeed, St. Thomas tells 
us that "harm should not be given to an other". Kant's Categorical Imperative 
indicates that the moral agent should "treat humanity, whether in his/her own person 
or the person of another, not only as a means but also as an end in itself." And 
Mill's "principle of utility" implies others when he notes that ethics is rooted in 
the notion of the greatest happiness for the greatest number. If ethics is concerned 
with the other, then it would appear that in order to fill out a complete account of 
ethics, the means by which two people come in contact with each other will be 
vitally important. Here, then is the root of Levinas' concern: to establish the 
source of contact between persons or the source of interpersonal meaning, and in 
finding this meaning, Levinas finds the ethical. 
To a non-philosopher, the source of contact between persons seems to be a 
superficial question. The answer is, at first, easy. The other person is met in 
experience everyday, on the street, in the classroom, in the workplace, etc. To a 
philosopher, however, the question is not so easy: we in the tradition recognize the 
difficulties inherent in interpersonal contact. Does the other person have a mind? 
Is the other a creation of my imagination, as Descartes asks looking out of his 
study at the automata that pass by dressed in coats and hats? In light of these 
questions, though, we can never truly deny the existence of the other in the context 
of the street, the classroom, or the workplace, even if we can deny such contact in 
a theoretical context. It is on the level of life, then, as opposed to that of 
theory, that Levinas has his appeal. 
Levinas comes directly out of the tradition established by Descartes, Kant and 
Husserl. "Every idea is a work of the mind," writes Descartes in his Meditations. 
[2] Ideas are created, invented by a mind, not discovered. This leaves Descartes 
with a problem: "How can [ideas] that have their origin in the mind nevertheless 
give us knowledge of independently real substances." [3] He answers this question 
through proofs for God's existence and divine veracity. But as the tradition 
progresses, Kant notes that God cannot be used within philosophy to the extent that 
Descartes would like. Thus, Descartes is left alone in his world with only his 
ideas: there is no contact with an other who is not an other in one of his ideas. 
Husserl takes this to its logical consequences in the fifth of his Cartesian 
Meditations and notes that the other is "there," present to me, but only in the 
sense that the other has for me. He writes, "Consciousness makes present a 'there 
too', which nevertheless is not itself there and can never become an 'itself- 
there'." [4] The other of Husserl's Cartesian Meditations is not an extra-mental 
other, that is, one who exists independently of me; rather, the other is only the 
meaning that I constitute for the other. In other words, the meaning of being an 
other comes down to my interpretation of the other, an interpretation which is the 
working of my own mind quite apart from what or whether the other may be. 
If we can accept this notion that ideas are inventions of the mind, that ideas are, 
when it comes down to it, only interpretations of something, and if ethics, in fact, 
is taken to refer to real other persons who exist apart from my interpretations, 
then we are up against a problem: there is no way in which ideas, on the current 
model, refer to independently existing other persons, and as such, ideas cannot be 
used to found an ethics. There can be no pure practical reason until after contact 
with the other is established. 
Given this view towards ideas, then, anytime I take the person in my idea to be the 
real person, I have closed off contact with the real person; I have cut off the 
connection with the other that is necessary if ethics is to refer to real other 
people. This is a central violence to the other that denies the other his/her own 
autonomy. Levinas calls this violence "totalization" and it occurs whenever I limit 
the other to a set of rational categories, be they racial, sexual, or otherwise. 
Indeed, it occurs whenever I already know what the other is about before the other 
has spoken. Totalization is a denial of the other's difference, the denial of the 
otherness of the other. That is, it is the inscription of the other in the same. If 
ethics presupposes the real other person, then such totalization will, in itself, be 
unethical. 
If reducing the other to my sphere of ideas cuts off contact with the other, then we 
are presupposing that contact with the other has already been established. And if 
contact with the other cannot be established through ideas, then we must look 
elsewhere. Thus, Levinas looks not to reason, but to sensibility, to find the real 
other person. 
Sensibility, for Levinas, goes back to a point before thought originates, before the 
ordering of a world into a system or totality. [5] Sensibility is passive, not 
active as thought is, and it is characterized primarily by enjoyment. Life as it is 
lived, (rather than understood), is lived as the satisfaction of being "filled" with 
sensations, the satisfaction of feeding on the environment. 
Departing from Heidegger who maintains that we live from things through their 
function as tools and implements, Levinas maintains that we live from these things 
as nourishments. I eat my bread; in the activity of eating it becomes a part of my 
body. I bathe in the music of Beethoven's "Moonlight Sonata"; in the activity of 
bathing. I "digest" the music. It becomes me. This "living from" is a matter of 
consumption, a matter of taking what is other and making it become a part of me. 
Levinas writes: 
Nourishment, as a means of invigoration, is the transmutation of the other into the 
same, which is the essence of enjoyment; an energy that is other, recognized as 
other, recognized ... as sustaining the very act that is directed upon it becomes, 
in enjoyment, my own energy, my strength, me. [6] 
This taking on of what nourishes me conveys a separation between me and what has yet 
to nourish me. "Enjoyment is made," writes Levinas, "of the memory of its thirst; it 
is a quenching." [7] Enjoyment then includes the memory of once not having been 
satisfied with what now satisfies me. Thus, enjoyment also involves stepping back 
from my environment; "living from ... delineates independence itself, the 
independence of enjoyment and happiness ..." [8] Before enjoyment, there is me and 
the other thing that has yet to nourish me, even if the otherness of what will 
nourish me becomes apparent only in enjoyment, in the "memory" of its thirst. I can 
represent the bread, but this will not feed me. I must eat it. But then in eating my 
bread, the memory of hunger, evinces a separation between the bread and me. Thus, in 
enjoyment, the self emerges already as the subject of its need. 
If Levinas is correct, then, the human being starts first as happy, satisfied with 
the plenum of sensations. He/she enjoys them. This enjoyment as independence is the 
initial FORMation of the I. But, this self, the self of enjoyment, constitutes an 
egoism. It is happy, but selfish. The self of enjoyment journeys into the world to 
make everything other part of itself, and it succeeds very well at this task. Cohen 
summarizes all of this nicely: 
[Sensation] is called "happiness" because at this level of sensibility the subject 
is entirely self-satisfied, self-complacement [sic], content, sufficient. Instead of 
[rational] synthesis, there are vibrations; instead of unifications, there are 
excitations; rather than an ecstatic self, there are margins of intensities, 
scattered stupidities, involutions without centers -- egoism and solitude without 
substantial unity; a sensational happiness ... This event does not happen to 
subjectivity, this eventfulness, this flux, is subjectivity. [9] 
Thus, Levinas finds on the level of sensibility a subjectivity that is more 
primordial than rational subjectivity. [10] It is not limited by the sphere of one's 
own ideas, but by the egoist self that goes out to enjoy the world. What is 
important here is that, unlike the sphere of ideas, sensibility reaches further out 
into the domain of the extra-mental. [11] 
Having established subjectivity on the level of sensibility provides Levinas with a 
place "where" the other can be met, not in the cabinet of consciousness, but on the 
street, in the classroom, or in the workplace, where the egoism of enjoyment has the 
possibility of becoming "filled" with sensations. Furthermore, establishing 
subjectivity on the level of sensibility leads Levinas to a point where he can 
establish that the human subject is, first and foremost, passive. Sensations come to 
me from the outside only to be swallowed up on the inside. But, unlike the contents 
of ideas, sensations are discovered, given. They are not invented. 
The ethical moment, the moment in which the moral "ought" shows itself, is found, 
for Levinas, on the level of sensibility when the egoist self comes across something 
that it wants to enjoy, something that it wants to make a part of itself, but 
cannot. That which the self wants to enjoy but cannot is the other person. The 
reason that it cannot enjoy the other person is not rooted in some deficiency of 
sensibility, but in the other person who pushes back, as it were, who does not allow 
him/herself to be consumed in the egoism of my enjoyment. The other resists 
consumption. The presence of the other, on this level, is not, properly speaking, 
known. The other person is encountered as a felt weight against me. 
Thus, for Levinas, the other has some power over me. Indeed, the other is a 
transcendence that comes from beyond the categories of my thought, from beyond the 
world, from the other side of Being. Because of the other-worldliness of the 
epiphany of the other in the face-to-face, the face speaks thus: "I am not yours to 
be enjoyed: I am absolutely other," or to put the claim in Levinas' terms, "thou 
shalt not kill." 
John Burke describes the initial approach of the other person in terms of 
astonishment or surprise. In so doing, he also notes the essential element of 
radical passivity that arises from contact with the other person. He writes, "My 
astonishment seems less an activity of mine, a willful projection of a function of 
my interests, than the deepest mode of passivity." [12] Vulnerability arises from 
such a surprise, a being caught off guard by the epiphany of the other person. My 
solitude is invaded by the other person who comes from nowhere. [13] 
This element of "catching off-guard" is important here, because it indicates more 
about the presence of the other than the mere perception of the other. This catching 
off-guard makes me aware of the presence of the other as an other who is due my 
concern, not because I choose to give it to the other, but because it is demanded of 
me. I want to consume the other, but cannot. [14] Several steps are involved in 
elucidating this moment. In this discussion, I will present two of them: proximity 
and substitution. These two notions will lead us to an understanding of ethical 
responsibility in Levinas, though it must be understood that responsibility is not 
derived from these steps; it is, rather, bound up with them. 
The face of the other, that element of the other that is the ground of interpersonal 
contact, indicates an immediacy with the other person that Levinas 
calls "proximity." [15] Proximity is felt as immediate contact. Levinas writes: 
... the proximity of the Other is not simply close to me in space, or close like a 
parent, but he approaches me essentially insofar as I feel myself -- insofar as I 
am -- responsible for him. It is a structure that in nowise resembles the 
intentional relation which in knowledge attaches us to the object -- to no matter 
what object, be it a human object. Proximity does not revert to this intentionality; 
in particular it does not revert to the fact that the other is known to me. [16] 
The proximity of the other demands a response; thus, Levinas claims that proximity 
is responsibility, or the ability to respond. [17] Proximity must then be thought of 
as a weight upon me that comes from the outside. But unlike Sartre who finds an 
antagonism in this entry of the other from the outside, Levinas finds the 
possibility of ethics, or the ground upon which ethics first shows itself. Not only 
does the possibility of ethics show itself here, the self now takes on a different 
characteristic. A new subjectivity is born that indicates that my self, as a 
subject, is a primary projection towards the other as a move of responsibility to 
the other. The very meaning of being a social subject is to be for-the-other. 
Levinas writes, "Subjectivity is being a hostage." [18] In other words, subjectivity 
arises from confrontation with the other person where the other is dominant, never 
reducible to the domain of the same. Subjectivity means, in this context, subjection 
to the other. 
The self is a sub-jectum: it is under the weight of the universe ... the unity of 
the universe is not what my gaze embraces in its unity of apperception, but what is 
incumbent upon me from all sides, regards me, is my affair. [19] 
The self is subjected to the other who comes from on high to intrude upon my 
solitude and interrupt my egoist enjoyment. The self, feeling the exterior in the 
guise of the other pass through its world, is already obligated to respond to the 
transcendent other who holds the self hostage. In turn, this means that "the latent 
birth of the subject occurs in obligation where no commitment was made." [20] I do 
not agree to live ethically with the other at first, I am ordered to do so. The 
meaning of my being a self is found in opposition to the other, as an essential 
ability to respond to the other. I am, above all things, a social self indentured a 
priori, made to stand in the place of the other. 
This standing in the place of the other provides Levinas with one of his most 
powerful concepts, "substitution." Substitution arises directly from the self as 
held hostage by the other. It is the means by which my being responds to the other 
before I know that it does. Indeed, substitution is a sign of how other-directed the 
human being actually is. In comporting myself towards the other person in 
substitution, my identity becomes concrete. "In substitution my being that belongs 
to me and not to another is undone, and it is through substitution that I am 
not 'another,' but me." [21] 
If Levinas is correct here, the meaning of being a social subject is primarily to be 
for the other person. Again, substitution is indicative of a sacrifice of self -- it 
cannot be merely the idea of being in the place of the other person, for ideas have 
yet to come on the scene. As Lingis suggests: 
One is held to bear the burden of others: the substitution is a passive effect, 
which one does not succeed in converting into an active initiative or into one's own 
virtue. [22] 
While it is true that Levinas is vague on the essence of substitution, the 
suggestion seems to be that in being persecuted by an other person, I am made to 
consider the person as an other. However, since such consideration cannot be made on 
the conceptual level, this consideration becomes manifest in a comportment of the 
self to the other person. Consideration for the other means being-considerate-for- 
the-other. Substitution then is recognizing myself in the place of the other, not 
with the force of a conceptual recognition, but in the sense of finding myself in 
the place of the other as a hostage for the other. Substitution is the conversion of 
my being as a subjection by the other into a subjection for the other. 
To get a sense of how powerful Levinas' notion of substitution is, let me depart 
from the vocabulary of his language for a moment and cast the discussion into 
concrete terms. Suppose for a moment that you are walking down the street and the 
person in front of you pushes a garbage can into the street. You might pick up the 
garbage can, you might not -- but, certainly you will not feel like an injustice has 
been done to the garbage can. Now suppose that in the same situation, the person in 
front of you pushes another person into the street. Suppose further that this 
person, while lying on the ground looks up at you. Do you "feel" the need to 
respond? Levinas says that at this moment, the ethical command has been waged. You 
are obligated to respond. If the desire to respond does not, at first, present 
itself as a command, and you respond because you want to respond, then you have just 
been witness to the depth that substitution has taken in your own being. The desire 
to respond is already a responsiveness to the command of the other. 
Some ethicists find that if we respond to the person because we feel a personal need 
to do so, then we are really satisfying our own desire, and, as such, our action 
does not have true moral worth. Levinas' point is more profound on this score. He 
notes that there is a metaphysical explanation for why we have this desire to 
respond. The explanation is rooted, once again, in substitution. First of all, the 
person has a transcendence that the garbage can does not have, and secondly, we 
have, in fact, already substituted ourselves for the other. [23] Within Levinas' 
framework, the desire to help the other emerges because I am held hostage by the 
other to the core of my being, and, in substitution, I am made to stand for the 
other, before freedom and reason comes on the scene. 
This brings us, at last, to Levinas' notion of ethical "responsibility." This notion 
of responsibility, much in line with our concept of responsiveness, means that in 
being a subject I am already in the grip of the Other. It also entails that all 
thought enters on the scene after the epiphany of the other in the face-to-face. 
This is to say that the other person precedes my ethical subjectivity, and that 
ethics precedes any conceptual science. Inasmuch as responsibility is foundational 
for all interpersonal relationships, it is in responsibility that we are going to 
find a means to pass from an encounter with the real other person into ethics. 
Levinas writes: 
In [Otherwise than Being] I speak of responsibility as the essential, primary and 
fundamental mode of subjectivity. For I describe subjectivity in ethical terms. 
Ethics, here, does not supplement a preceding existential base [as Heidegger would 
have it]; the very node of the subjective is knotted in ethics understood as 
responsibility. [24] 
Furthermore, "the tie with the Other is knotted only as responsibility" [25] as 
well. Thus, responsibility is the link between the subject and the other person, or, 
in more general terms, the source of the moral "ought" and the appearance of the 
other person as person and not as thing are one and the same. There is no authentic 
sociality apart from ethics, and there is no ethics apart from sociality. To say 
that responsibility is foundational for ethics and interpersonal relations is to say 
then not only that responsibility is what relates one subject to another, but it is 
to go on to say that the meaning of the otherness of the other person is given in 
responsibility, and not in my interpretation of the other person. The very meaning 
of being an other person is "the one to whom I am responsible." Thus, the contact 
with the real other person that I spoke of at the beginning of this lecture as 
something presupposed by the very meaning of ethics turns out to be, in Levinas' 
account, the source of the moral "ought." 
Anthony F. Beavers 
The University of Evansville 
1. The process presented in this lecture follows the lines established in Totality 
and Infinity. Between the writing of this text and the later text, Otherwise than 
Being or Beyond Essence, Levinas changed his mind on the ordering of the process. 
See Lingis' introduction to Otherwise than Being for more inFORMation on this point. 
2. The Philosophical Works of Descartes, eds. Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. 
Ross, vol. II, Meditations (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 162. 
3. Robert Paul Wolff, Kant's Theory of Mental Activity: A Commentary on the 
Transcendental Analytic of the "Critique of Pure Reason" (Gloucester, Mass: Peter 
Smith, 1973), 32. 
4. Edmund Husserl, Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Pure Phenomenology, 
translated by Dorion Cairns (Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1960), 50, 139. 
5. The "world" for Levinas is always the world constituted in subjectivity. It 
should not, therefore, be taken as extra-mental. 
6. Levinas, Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority, translated by Alphonso 
Lingis (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1969), 111. 
7. Levinas, Totality and Infinity, 113. 
8. Levinas, Totality and Infinity, 110. 
9. Richard Cohen, "Emmanuel Levinas: Happiness is a Sensational Time," Philosophy 
Today 25 (1981): 201. This excellent article shows Levinas' debt to Husserl's 
phenomenology and his departure from it. 
10. There are at least three different types of subjectivity in Levinas: 1) rational 
subjectivity -- the self of representation that occurs in the "I think"; 2) 
subjectivity of being -- the self of enjoyment and need; and 3) ethical 
subjectivity -- the social self that arises from transcendent interpersonal contact. 
11. Levinas, Totality and Infinity, 109. "If cognition in the FORM of the 
objectifying act does not seem to us to be at the level of the metaphysical 
relation, this is not because the exteriority contemplated as an object, the theme, 
would withdraw from the subject as fast as the abstractions proceed; on the 
contrary, it does not withdraw far enough." 
12. John Patrick Burke, "The Ethical Significance of the Face," ACPA Proceedings 56 
(1982): 198. 
13. See Burke, "The Ethical Significance of the Face," 198. The reason that the 
other "comes from nowhere" is seen in the fact that the "world" for Levinas is 
constituted by my reason and exists "for me." The Other comes from beyond the world, 
hence, from a domain that is not able to be located by me. 
14. Levinas makes a distinction between desire and need. Need differs from desire to 
the extent that a need can be satisfied while a desire cannot. Thus, desire has a 
metaphysical significance. Put concretely, I desire the other person, but since the 
other cannot be reduced to the domain of the same, my desire for the other can never 
be fulfilled. 
15. See Andrew Tallon, "Intentionality, Intersubjectivity, and the Between: Buber 
and Levinas on Affectivity and the Dialogical Principle," Thought 53 (1978): 
304. "The radical passivity of Levinas's self ... emerges only with the advent of 
the other, with the face of the other drawing near me; This nearness (proximité) is, 
of course, not an intentionality by me or him alone, not a mental "state" or 
activity, but meaning between us." 
16. Emmanuel Levinas, Ethics and Infinity: Conversations with Phillipe Nemo, 
translated by Richard Cohen (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1985), 97. This 
elegant little book goes a long way in making Levinas' thought approachable to the 
uninitiated. 
17. See Emmanuel Levinas, Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence, translated by 
Alphonso Lingis (Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1981), 139: roximity, 
difference which is non-indifference, is responsibility." 
18. Levinas, Otherwise than Being, 127. 
19. Levinas, Otherwise than Being, 127. 
20. Levinas, Otherwise than Being, 140. 
21. Levinas, Otherwise than Being, 127. 
22. Alphonso Lingis in the translator's introduction to Otherwise than Being, xxxi. 
This introduction consists of a concise exposition of Levinas' thought in this work. 
23. I wish to thank Carl Weisner for helping me to develop this point. 
24. Levinas, Ethics and Infinity, 95. 
25. Levinas, Ethics and Infinity, 97.