标题：马纳斯野生动物禁猎区
简介
中文名称： 马纳斯野生动物禁猎区 /马纳斯国家公园
英文名称： Manas Wildlife Sanctuary /Manas National Park
批准时间： 1992 
国家 印度-阿萨姆邦
IUCN(International Union for the Conservation of Nature and NaturalResources国际自然与自然资源保护联合会）管理分类IV (自然保护区）
世界自然遗产批准标准 –标准 ii,iii,iv
评为遗产的报告：世界遗产委员会第9届、第16届会议报告，1998年遗产保护状况报告。
生物地理学亚区4.09.01 （缅甸季风雨林）
详细
设立保护区的时间和历史 马纳斯 （现在也称为北卡姆拉普） 在1928年12月1日成为禁猎区，之前它的一部分地区已经在1907年和1927年成为森林保护区. 为了解决当地居民（因无法种植作物而）可能侵犯保护区的问题，当地政府在1971年从保护区中划出809公顷的土地作为种子农场。从1973年4月起，马纳斯国家公园被确定为马纳斯老虎保护区的核心区域. 1985年以“马纳斯禁猎区”的名义被列入世界遗产候选名单。1990年9月7日，禁猎区升级成为国家公园，由于加入了从前东部的潘巴里 (Panbari），科克拉巴里（Koklabari）和卡伊他玛（Kahitama）森林保护区，面积也从39，100公顷扩大到50，000公顷 （奥利弗Oliver,1993: K. Rao pers. comm.,1995). 由于政局不稳及随之而来的对公园基础设施的破坏，1992年被列入世界濒危遗产名录。范围 公园占据了283,712公顷的马纳斯老虎保护区的50,000公顷，并与不丹的皇家马纳斯国家公园（占地65，800公顷）相接壤。
土地所有制 国有 
海拔 从40米到150米 （德布罗意Deb Roy，未注明日期）.
自然环境
位于外喜玛拉雅山的山脚下，该地区地势低平. 马纳斯河从禁猎区西部分成三个支流穿流而过，直到禁猎区南64公里处汇入雅鲁藏布江。马纳斯河和其它河流夹带着由强降水、易碎的岩石特质和大倾斜角的积水处共同作用形成的大量泥沙和岩屑流经老虎保护区，形成了冲积梯田，包括堆有不同厚度沙子和土壤的厚厚的沉积岩层和碎石，以及多变的河道和沼泽。北部是所谓的 “巴巴布”（Bhabar）构造，由于是有一薄层的腐殖质，而后是砂壤土覆盖的厚厚的砂砾的沉积形成而非常容易渗水。南部的“毡帽” 地区则是由平坦的冲积层。在这里，地下水的水位十分接近地表。公园西部的博基（Boki）盆地地区在雨季有时会被淹没，但由于斜坡的作用不会持续很长时间。野生动物在洪水中的死亡率几乎可以忽略，因为它们能够寻找高地躲避 （佚名，1974；德布罗意，未注明时间）.马纳斯野生动物禁猎区照片(18张)
气候
温暖而潮湿 （最高达76%的相对湿度）。大部分降水集中在雨季（5月至9月）. 一般夏季最高气温37°C ，冬季最低气温一般为11°C. 年均降水量分布从巴塔巴里（Batabari）的3332mm 到卡楚冈的4489mm不等，数据基于单独记录的11到17年间的单独记录。（佚名，1974; 德布罗意，未注明时间.).
植被
印度马纳斯野生动物禁猎区主要有三种植被：（a）位于禁猎区北部的热带半绿林（例如樟树）。（b）热带干湿落叶林（最为常见），代表树种有：木棉树、苹婆、石梓属和木蝴蝶属。（c）位于禁猎区西部的广阔的冲积草原，由许多草类、各种树木和灌木丛组成（例如油柑、木棉树）；这片草原又可进一步细分为湿润的冲积草原和丘陵稀树大草原。沿着水路，最早出现的是干燥落叶林，后来湿润落叶林就映入眼帘，最后植被又渐渐地被茂密的热带半绿林所代替。草原覆盖了禁猎区一半的面积。目前禁猎区内被正式确认的双子叶植物一共有393种，单子叶植物98种。
野生动物
印度马纳斯野生动物禁猎区的风景使人流连忘返，神秘而富饶的丛林中生活着各种各样的动物。这里的野生动物数量在印度首屈一指。野生动物禁猎区中总共有55种哺乳动物，36种爬行动物和3种两栖动物记录在册。此禁猎区也是印度所确定的保护区里拥有哺乳动物最多的，而且其中有不少是东南亚雨林的典型动物代表。
禁猎区中的哺乳动物主要包括金叶猴、普通叶猴、长臂猿、暗色豹、老虎、普通豹、金猫、鱼猫、虎猫、熊狸、大懒熊、野狗、恒河海豚、印度大象、印度犀牛（1980年时大约有75只）、侏儒猪、沼泽鹿、黑鹿、拱鹿、印度麂、水牛、印度野牛、大松鼠、硬毛野兔和印度穿山甲。其中金叶猴近年来只在马纳斯野生动物禁猎区和印度与不丹交界处发现过；这里老虎的数量在印度位居第二，截止到1984年有记载的老虎达123只；禁猎区里的印度大象业已达到2000头，还有超过1000头的大象在印不交界处附近自由的生活着。
禁猎区内的爬行类动物包括各种蛇类（如蔓蛇、飞蛇、阿萨姆邦小蛇和金环蛇）和蜥蜴。阿萨姆邦海龟近来也有记载。
印度马纳斯野生动物禁猎区有纪录可查的鸟类达300多种，其中包括濒危的大杂色犀鸟、饰以花环的犀鸟等。1989年，就是在这里，印度首次正式发现了杂色鹞鹰。令人惊喜的是，世上罕有的带点塘鹅和几种鹳类也在这里出没过。
部落
印度马纳斯野生动物禁猎区的周围居住着一些部落民族，禁猎区的东南部有一个享受国家补贴的林庄。大约有5万人分布在老虎保护区缓冲地带的144个村落里（这些村庄一般不会有什么变动）。禁猎区的森林中建有一套带走廊的平房，可以提供48个人的住宿。林中还有好多休息室和野营地呢！在马纳斯野生动物禁猎区中沿河泛舟或是以象代步游览美景，真是别有一番意境；当然，河边垂钓也不失为一种闲情野趣吧。
评价
马纳斯野生动物保护区位于喜马拉雅山脚下一片冲积草原和热带森林里，是多种野生动物的家园。其中包括许多濒危物种，如老虎、小灵猪、印度犀牛和大象。外界威胁：1992年，世界遗产委员会决定把这一地区列入世界濒危遗产名录。委员会考虑到，1992至93年期间，围绕这一地区的军事活动已经对公园的基础设施造成很大破坏。政局不稳看来已导致偷猎的增加。约33头犀牛被偷猎。1997年1月，由印度政府和联合国世界遗产中心共同承担的监督委员会进一步确认，基础设施的损坏在扩大，野生动物的数量在减少，特别是独角大犀牛数量减少。然而世界遗产重视生态系统多样性（标准II）与景色特征完整性（标准III）的相适宜。印度政府、阿萨姆邦政府和公园当局正在精心制作一个6百万美元的恢复计划，预计1997年中投入实施。
英文原文
COUNTRY India – Assam（阿萨姆邦） 
NAME Manas National Park 
IUCN(International Union for the Conservation of Nature and NaturalResources国际自然与自然资源保护联合会）MANAGEMENT CATEGORY
IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Natural World Heritage Site – Criteria（标准） ii,iii,iv
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL PROVINCE 4.09.01 (Burma Monsoon Forest) 
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION The park lies in the districts of Barpeta（巴匹达） and Kokrajhar（科克拉贾），41km north of Barpeta Road township. It spans the Manas River and is bounded to the north by the international border with Bhutan,to the south by the populated regions of North Kamrup（卡姆拉普） and to the east and west by forest reserves. The park,which includes part of Manas Reserve Forest and all of North Kamrup Reserve Forest,constitutes the core of Manas Tiger Reserve which lies in the forest divisions of Kachugaon,Haltugaon,Western Assam Wildlife and North Kamrup. 26°37'-26°50'N,90°45'-91°15'E 
DATE AND HISTORY OF ESTABLISHMENT Manas (previously also known as North Kamrup) was declared a sanctuary on 1 October 1928,parts of it having been notified as reserved forests in 1907 and 1927. Encroachment（侵犯） pressures from local people led the government to set aside 809ha from the sanctuary for a seed farm in 1971. It was established as the core of the Manas Tiger Reserve with effect from April 1973. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1985 as Manas Sanctuary. The sanctuary was upgraded to national park status on 7 September 1990,and enlarged from 39,100ha to 50,000ha by the inclusion of the former Panbar（潘巴里）i,Koklabari（科克拉巴里） and Kahitama（卡伊他玛） Forest Reserves in the eastern sector (Oliver,1993: K. Rao pers. comm.,1995). Placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 1992 due to civil unrest and subsequent damage to infrastructure. 
AREA The park comprises 50,000ha of the 283,712ha Manas Tiger Reserve. Contiguous（邻近的） with Royal Manas National Park (65,800ha),Bhutan. 
LAND TENURE（土地所有） State 
ALTITUDE Ranges from 40m to 150m (Deb Roy,n.d.). 
PHYSICAL FEATURES Lying in the foothills of the Outer Himalaya,the area is low-lying（低地） and flat. The Manas River flows through the western portion of the park,where it splits into three separate rivers,and joins the Brahmaputra（雅鲁藏布江） some 64km further south. These and other rivers running through the tiger reserve carry an enormous amount of silt（泥） and rock debris（屑） from the foothills,resulting from the heavy rainfall,fragile nature of the rock and steepgradients（大倾斜角） of the catchments（积水处）. This leads to the formation of alluvial（冲积台地） terraces,comprising deep layers of deposited rock（沉积岩） and detritus（碎石） overlain（堆在上面） with sand and soil of varying depth,shifting river channels and swamps（沼泽）. The northern portion is represented by the 'Bhabar' formation,which is very porous（多孔渗水的） due to the deep deposits of coarse detritus overlain by sandy loam（砂壤土） and then a thin layer of humus（腐殖质）. The 'Terai'（毡帽） tract in the south consists of fine alluvial deposits with underlying pans. Here,the water table（地下水位） lies very near to the surface. The area of the Boki basin,in the west of the park,is sometimes inundated（淹没） during the monsoon（季风） but never for very long due to the sloping relief. Mortality to wildlife is negligible as animals are able to stake refuge on islands of high ground (Anon.,1974; Deb Roy,n.d.). 
CLIMATE The climate is warm and humid (up to 76% relative humidity) with most rain falling during the monsoon season (May-September). The mean（平均） maximum summer temperature is 37°C and the mean minimum winter temperature is 11°C. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 3332mm at Batabari to 4489mm at Kachugaon,based on 11 and 17 years of records,respectively (Anon.,1974; Deb Roy,n.d.). 
VEGETATION（植被） The three main types of vegetation are:- (a) Tropical semi-evergreen forests in the northern part of park,with common trees including Aphanamixis polystachya（沙椤），Anthocephalus chinensis（团花），Syzygium cumini（海南蒲桃），S. formosum（石斛蒲桃），S. oblatum（高檐蒲桃），Bauhinia purpurea（羊蹄甲），Mallotus philippensis（粗糠柴），Cinnamomum tamala（柴桂），Actinodaphne obovata（倒卵黄肉楠）； (b) tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (the most common type),characterised by trees such as Bombax ceiba（木棉），Sterculia villosa（绒毛苹婆），Dillenia indica（五桠果），D. pentagyna（小花五桠果），Careya arborea（不知道是甚么），Lagerstroemia parviflora（小叶紫薇），L. speciosa（大花紫薇），Terminalia bellirica（油榄仁），T. chebula（毛诃子），Trewia polycrapa（滑桃树属的一种植物），Gmelina arborea（云南石梓），Oroxylum indicum（木蝴蝶），Bridelia（土蜜树） spp.; and (c) extensive alluvial grasslands in the western part of the park,comprising many different grass species together with a variety of tree and shrub species (e.g. Dillenia pentagyna（小花五桠果），Phyllanthus emblica（余甘子），Bombax ceiba（木棉），and species of Clerodendrum（赪桐属），Leea（火筒树属），Grewia（扁担杆属），Premna（豆腐柴属）and Mussaenda（玉叶金花属））. The grasslands can be subdivided into wet alluvial and highland savanna types. There is also a considerable variety of aquatic flora along river banks and in the numerous pools (Jain and Sastry,1983). Dry deciduous forests represent early stages in succession and are replaced by moist deciduous forests away from water courses,which,in turn,are succeeded by tropical semi-evergreen climax forest. Grasslands cover about 50% of the park. Some 393 species of dicotyledons（双子叶植物），including 197 trees,and 98 species of monocotyledons have been identified (Jain and Hajra,1975; S. Deb. Roy,pers. comm.). 
FAUNA（动物志） A total of 55 mammals,36 reptiles and three amphibians have been recorded (Project Tiger,n.d.). Manas harbours by far the greatest number (21) of India's Schedule I mammals of any protected area in the country. Many are typical of South-east Asian rain forest and have their westernmost distribution here. Mammals include golden langur Presbytis geei （金丝猴）（R),a recently discovered endemic（地方性的） restricted to Manas and adjoining areas in Bhutan and numbering approximately 305 in 1980,capped langur P. pileata（戴帽叶猴），Hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock（白眉长臂猿），clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa（云豹） (V),tiger Panthera tigris (E) the second largest population in India numbering 80 in 1995,although this figure is disputed (Milne,1997),leopard P. pardus,golden cat Felis temmincki (I),fishing cat F. viverrinus (K),leopard cat F. bengalensis,marbled cat F. marmorata (K),binturong（熊狸） Arctictis binturong,sloth bear（懒熊） Melursus ursinus (I),wild dog Cuon alpinus (V),Ganges （恒河）dolphin Platanista gangetica,Indian elephant Elephas maximus (E),with up to 2,000 in the tiger reserve and more than 1,000 moving freely between Indian and Bhutan Manas reserves,Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis (E),pygmy hog （小灵猪）Sus salvanius (E),swamp deerC. duvauceli (V),with approximately 450 individuals (Deb Roy,1992),sambar（水鹿） Cervus unicolor,hog deer C. porcinus,Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak,water buffalo Bubalus arnee (V),probably representing the only pure strain of this species in India,gaur（印度野牛） Bos gaurus (V),giant squirrel Ratufa indica,hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus (E) and Indian pangolin（穿山甲） Manis crassicaudata. 
Over 450 species of birds have been recorded (Deb Roy,1990) including the threatened Bengal（孟加拉） florican（鸨） Houbaropsis bengalensis (E),great pied hornbill（大杂色犀鸟） Buceros bicornis,wreathed hornbil（花冠皱盔犀鸟
）l (Rhyticeros undulatus and other hornbills. The Bengal florican population was estimated at 34 in 1984 for the national park (Ali et al.,1985) and 80 individuals with 24 male territories were identified within the park during 1988 (Narayan et al.,1989). Pied harrier （鹞鹰）Circus melanoleucos nested during 1988 and 1989,the first confirmed record for India (Narayan et al.,1989). Uncommon waterfowl（水禽） species include spot-billed pelican（斑点鹈鹕） Pelecanus philippinensis (I),lesser adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus (V) and greater adjutant L. dubius (E) (Scott,1989). 
Reptiles include a variety of snakes (e.g. vine snake （蔓蛇）Ahaetulla nasutas,flying snake Chrysopelea ornata,Assam trinket snake（阿萨姆邦小蛇） Elaphe frenata and banded krait( 金环蛇）Bangarus fasciatus),gharial（恒河鳄） Gavialis gangeticus (E) (possibly introduced from neighbouring Bhutan or as a result of a captive breeding programme),and monitor lizard（巨蜥） Varanus sp. Assam roofed turtle Kachuga sylhetensis (K) has recently been recorded (Sarma,1988). 
CULTURAL HERITAGE Manas takes its name after the Goddess Manasa. The surrounding area is inhabited predominantly(mainly) by tribal people (Deb Roy,n.d.). 
LOCAL HUMAN POPULATION There is one forest village in the south-east of the park,which it is proposed to dereserve and enlist as a revenue village along with other contiguous revenue villages (Deb Roy,n.d.). Some 54,000 people are distributed among 144 villages in the buffer zone of the tiger reserve (Anon.,1974); no relocation of these villages is contemplated (Deb Roy,n.d.). 
VISITORS AND VISITOR FACILITIES A forest bungalow（平房） at Mothanguri,within the park,provides dormitory style accommodation for 48 persons. A number of rest houses and camp sites are also available. The Tourist Department of Assam conducts tours,including boat trips down the river and elephant rides. Foreign visitors need a special permit to enter the park. Some 32,860 people visited the area in 1983-1984. Due to the Bodo agitation（煽动） in Assam,the park was closed in 1989 (K. Rao pers. comm.,1995),but in 1996 an estimated 8,000 tourists visited the park (IUCN,1997). 
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND FACILITIES The vegetation has been surveyed by the Botanical Survey of India (Jain and Hajra,1975). Tiger and elephant censuses are regularly undertaken by Project Tiger. The status of Bengal florican was investigated in May 1984 (Ali et al.,1985). In 1993,WWF(world wildlife fund) initiated a project to identify the essential needs of the fringe villagers with the aim of providing alternatives to their dependence on the park (WWF,1993). 
CONSERVATION VALUE Manas is noted for its spectacular scenery,with a variety of habitat types that support a diverse fauna,making it the richest of all Indian wildlife areas. The park represents the core of an extensive tiger reserve that protects an importantmigratory wildlife resource along the West Bengal to Arunachal Pradesh（阿鲁纳恰尔，实为中国领土）and Bhutan borders (Rodgers and Panwar,1988). Its wetlands are of international importance (Scott,1989). It is also the single most important site for the survival of pygmy hog and hispid hare (Oliver,1980) and golden langur (K. Rao pers. comm.,1995). 
CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The Assam Forest Department is responsible for the administration of the park. The park is essentially a wilderness zone and forms the core of the tiger reserve. The rest of the tiger reserve is classified as reserve forest. Normal forestry operations were carried out in the core area prior to its designation as a sanctuary,but these were confined mostly to the southern belt. Traditional hunting practices persisted but without any noticeable adverse effects on wildlife populations. Hunting ceased with the establishment of the area as a sanctuary and very little logging has been permitted since 1950. The last timber operation took place in 1964. Much stone was extracted from the area during the construction of the National Highway in 1963-1964. Plantations( 种植园）were established along the southern border to provide a buffer against agricultural encroachment（侵犯） but this work ceased in 1977. Grazing （放牧）by livestock（家畜） was phased out（逐渐停止） from 1963 to 1965. No exploitation is allowed in the park but tourists may visit the Mothanguri-Bansbari area. Such restrictions do not apply to the surrounding buffer zone of the tiger reserve,which is managed on a multiple-use basis. Here residents are allowed to selectively remove timber,collect firewood,cultivate land and graze their domestic livestock. They benefit from inoculation of their cattle,to prevent diseases being transmitted to the wildlife,but this is offset（抵消） by damage to their crops by elephants,wild boar and deer (Anon.,1974; Deb Roy,n.d.).
There is a management plan for the tiger reserve (Anon.,1973) but this is being revised. Controlled burning continues as the most important management practise,thus maintaining the composition of different habitats (Deb Roy,1990). International cooperative efforts have been made by the governments of India and Bhutan to manage the Manas ecosystem as a whole. Regular work carried out under the Project Tiger scheme includes: providing accommodation to the staff; development of roads and a wireless network to improve the efficiency of administration and anti-poaching operations; activities in both the core and buffer zones. Boundaries have been clearly marked and the staff are more vigilant（警惕的） than previously,leading to several successful prosecutions being brought against poachers（偷猎者）. Following recent successful breeding in captivity of gharial（印度鳄），there are plans to restock all the water channels in the area. 
A three year rehabilitation programme has been prepared by the Ministry for the Environment and Forests,the State Forest Department of Assam and the Directorate of Manas. This aims to restore protection infrastructure,and set up eco-development schemes for surrounding villages and habitat improvement programmes (UNESCO,1997a).