Beginning in 1904, American commercial filmmaking became increasingly oriented toward storytelling. Moreover, with the new emphasis on one-reel films, narratives became longer and necessitated a series of camera shots. Filmmakers faced the challenge of making story films that would be comprehensible to audiences. How could techniques of editing, camerawork, acting, and lighting be combined so as to clarify what was happening in a film? How could the spectator grasp where and when the action was occurring?

Over the span of several years, filmmakers solved such problems. Sometimes they influenced each other, while at other times two filmmakers might happen on the same technique independently. Some devices were tried and abandoned. By 1917, filmmakers had worked out a system of formal principles that were standard in American filmmaking. That system has come to be called the classical Hollywood cinema. Despite that name, many of the basic principles of the system were being worked out before filmmaking was centered in Hollywood, and, indeed, many of those principles were first tried in other countries. In the years before the First World War, film style was still largely international, since films circulated widely outside their country of origin.

The basic problem that confronted filmmakers early in the silent-movie era was that audiences could not understand the causal, spatial, and temporal relations in many films. If the editing abruptly changed locales, the spectator might not grasp where the new action was occurring. An actor’s elaborate pantomime might fail to convey the meaning of a crucial action. A review of a 1906 film lays out the problem: “Regardless of the fact that there are a number of good motion pictures brought out, it is true that there are some which, although photographically good, are poor because the manufacturer, being familiar with the picture and the plot, does not take into consideration that the film was not made for him but for the audience. A movie recently seen was very good photographically, but the story could not be understood by the audience.” In a few theaters, a lecturer might explain the plot as the film unrolled, but producers could not rely on such aids.

Filmmakers came to assume that a film should guide the spectator’s attention, making every aspect of the story on the screen as clear as possible. In particular, films increasingly set up a chain of narrative causes and effects. One event would plainly lead to an effect, which would in turn cause another effect, and so on. Moreover, an event was typically caused by a character’s beliefs or desires. Character psychology had not been particularly important in early films. Comical chases or brief melodramas depended more on physical action or familiar situations than on character traits. Increasingly after 1907, however, character psychology motivated actions. By following a series of characters’ goals and resulting conflicts, the spectator could comprehend the action.

Every aspect of the silent-film style came to be used to enhance narrative clarity. Staging or framing action in depth could show the spatial relationships among elements. Intertitles written texts appearing periodically throughout a silent movie to explain the action could add narrative information beyond what the images conveyed. Closer views of the actors could suggest their emotions more precisely. Color, set design, and lighting could imply time of day, the milieu of the action, and so on.

Some of the most important innovations of this period involved the ways in which camera shots were put together, or edited, to create a story. In one sense, editing was a boon to the filmmaker, permitting instant movement from one space to another or cuts to closer views to reveal details. But if the spectator could not keep track of the temporal or spatial relations between one shot and the next, editing might also lead to confusion. In some cases, intertitles could help. Editing also came to emphasize continuity among shots. Certain visual cues indicated that time was flowing uninterruptedly across cuts. Between scenes, other cues might suggest how much time had been skipped over. When a cut moved from one space to another, the director found ways to orient the viewer.

Questions:
question_stem: Paragraph 1 implies that compared with later films, American films before 1904 were
choices: tag: A
text: less likely to be made for commercial reasons

tag: B
text: less likely to be narrative films

tag: C
text: more likely to combine editing, camerawork, acting and lighting

tag: D
text: more likely to be filmed using multiple camera shots
answer_key: B
explanation: implies，推理题。before，信号词判断可能是逆向推理（可以自行百度排中律了解这种逆向推理的本质）。按题干中名词及1904到原文1段定位 Beginning in 1904，American commercial filmmaking became increasingly oriented toward storytelling. 1904开始以叙事为导向，那么之前没有以叙事为导向。less likely to 与 increasingly oriented 相反 narrative films= storytelling。托福考试是证据型考试，推理题要遵循客观证据。如果原文找不到解题线索的，一般是犯了主观臆断的错误。所以 B。

question_stem: According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true about the filmmaking style known as classical Hollywood cinema?
choices: tag: A
text: It consisted of devices that were tried elsewhere but abandoned.

tag: B
text: Its principles were largely developed after 1917.

tag: C
text: A great many international filmmakers adopted it after the First World War.

tag: D
text: A large number of its principles were developed outside the United States.
answer_key: D
explanation: （如果文章排版有问题，Over the span of several years…. 和 Despite that name… 这两部分是一个段落，合在一起是第二段。）事实题。用题干 Hollywood cinema 定位，最先找到的是 Hollywood cinema 的定义句。一般做了定义的专有名词是需要读者理解，且后面解释部分容易出题，所以务必往下看。indeed, many of those principles were first tried in other countries. many of those principles= A large number of its principles in other countries= outside the United States。注意 C 选项，本题是事实题，不能推理。在海外发展，不意味着他人就会采纳，而且说大量国际电影制作人采纳。这个 great many 也是文中没说的。所以 D

question_stem: According to paragraph 3, which of the following did NOT generally cause a lack of understanding in very early silent-movie audiences?
choices: tag: A
text: Lack of familiarity with the plot

tag: B
text: Shifts in time from scene to scene

tag: C
text: Shifts in place from scene to scene

tag: D
text: Poor photography by the filmmakers
answer_key: D
explanation: 否定事实信息题。题干位于段首audiences could not understand the causal, spatial, and temporal relations in many films. causal=A plot，起因、情节。spatial relations = If the editing abruptly changed locales, the spectator might not grasp where the new action was occurring=C Shifts in place空间、场景变化。temporal relations = B Shifts in time。D后文倒是有提到，although photographically good, are poor because the manufacturer, being familiar with the picture and the plot, does not take into consideration that the film was not made for him but for the audience. 这里出现了photographically，可是是good，这句话的意思是尽管有一些电影虽然在摄影上很好，但却很差，因为制造商熟悉影片和情节，没有考虑到这部电影不是为他拍的而是为观众拍的。photography并不差，所以D错，所以选D。

question_stem: Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
choices: tag: A
text: A number of well-photographed films need improvements to their plots so that audiences will not consider them to be inferior.

tag: B
text: Some photographically good films are nonetheless poor films overall because the filmmaker, who knows what the film is about, forgets that the audience does not.

tag: C
text: Manufacturers of films need to help familiarize audiences with the good motion pictures that are brought out because the films were not made with the audience in mind.

tag: D
text: Regardless of the number of good motion pictures that are brought out, there will still be many that audiences will consider to be poor.
answer_key: B
explanation: 尽管有许多好的电影问世，但确实有一些电影虽然在摄影上很好，但却很差，因为制造商熟悉影片和情节，没有考虑到这部电影不是为他拍的而是为观众拍的。两个重要逻辑：转折、因果；强调的是，尽管摄影好但整体还是差；因为影片和情节观众不知，filmmaker自己知。A. 不要推理，原文是因果关系，没有inferior这个比较；B. 转折因果逻辑在，句意也与原文一致（注意也有些题转折和因果只留结论也是可以的，不是逻辑不一致）所以B；C. help familiarize audiences with …帮观众熟悉；made with the audience in mind为观众着想。原文总体结论是差、消极、没有帮助也没有为观众着想；D. 尽管电影好，但仍有很多观众会认为差。原文电影是总体差，观众也没有表达主观感受。

question_stem: According to paragraph 4, all of the following were characteristic of early films EXCEPT:
choices: tag: A
text: character development

tag: B
text: slapstick chases

tag: C
text: physical action

tag: D
text: familiar situations
answer_key: A
explanation: 否定事实信息题。用characteristic of early films定位。Character psychology had not been particularly important in early films人物心理在早期电影中并不特别重要；depended more…. than on character traits.所以A不是早期电影特点；Comical chases or brief melodramas depended more on physical action or familiar situations than on character traits.滑稽的追逐=B或简短的情节剧更多地依赖于身体动作=C或熟悉的情况=D，而不是人物特征，不是A。所以选A。

question_stem: The word “imply” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: indicate

tag: B
text: determine

tag: C
text: illustrate

tag: D
text: define
answer_key: A
explanation: imply，推理题也高频使用这个词汇，必须认识；所在句：颜色、布景设计和灯光可以暗示一天中的时间、活动环境等等。A、暗示；B、决定；C、是图例阐明；D、定义。只有A合适。所以选A。

question_stem: According to paragraph 6, early filmmakers provided visual cues to audiences in order to
choices: tag: A
text: explain the intertitles

tag: B
text: eliminate the need for editing

tag: C
text: provide essential background information

tag: D
text: reveal character traits
answer_key: C
explanation: 找前面观点句，前面与句间转折But: But if the spectator could not keep track of the temporal or spatial relations between one shot and the next, editing might also lead to confusion. 为了让观众能跟踪一个镜头和下一个镜头之间的时间或空间关系，后面做了intertitles和also emphasize continuity among shots的工作；visual cues是为了说continuity among shots 也是为了But那句，让观众能把时空连起来；电影时空的前后连贯性是background information。But是指出问题，后面intertitles和continuity among shots（eg.visual cues）是两个并列关系，解决问题；A，visual cues和intertitles是因果/解释关系；B，两个并列的方法是editing，没有消除；D的character traits是无关项。所以C。

question_stem: Which of the following best describes the overall organization of the passage?
choices: tag: A
text: A theory is introduced, and supporting evidence for it is evaluated.

tag: B
text: A position is introduced, and then opposing views are discussed.

tag: C
text: Innovations are presented, and their impacts are questioned.

tag: D
text: Problems are presented, and means used to solve them are discussed.
answer_key: D
explanation: 首段提问，23456是有缺陷到提高的各种方法。具体为：首段段末：电影制作人面临的挑战是制作能够让观众理解的故事片。如何将剪辑、摄影、表演和灯光技术结合起来，以澄清电影中发生了什么？观众如何才能把握动作发生的地点和时间？2段开头：在几年的时间里，电影制作人解决了这些问题。3段电影人尝试但自己理解观众不理解；4段电影人从关注动作到变为关注人物心理；5段无声电影风格的每一个方面都被用来增强叙事的清晰度及其具体方法；6段将相机镜头组合，剪辑从一个空间移到另一个空间，导演找到了引导观众的方法。要注意A，开篇是challenge及之后的2个问题，不是theory；B，position是观点、立场，说后文讲对立，文中无；C，创新，question动词是消极的、表示质疑，文中没谈质疑创新带来的影响。所以选D。