Tradewas themainstayof theurbaneconomyin the Middle East, as caravans negotiated the surroundingdesert,restrictedonly byaccessto water and by mountain ranges. This has been so sinceancienttimes,partlydueto thegeologyof the area, which is mostlylimestoneand sandstone, with few deposits ofmetallicoreand other useful materials. Ancientdemands forobsidian(a blackvolcanicrock useful for making mirrors and tools) led totradewith Armenia to the north, whilejadefor cutting tools was brought from Turkistan, and thepreciousstone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One cantracesuch expeditions back toancientSumeria, the earliest known Middle Easterncivilization. Records showmerchantcaravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts ofPersiaand Arabia, where they tradedgrainforrawmaterials, such astimberand stones, as well as for metals and gems.

Reliance ontradehad several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilledindividualartisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. In these shops differences ofrankwere blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the samemodestestablishment, were usually members of the sameguildandreligioussect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The worker wasboundto the master by amutualcontractthat either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one ofpartnership.

Thismodeofcraftproductionfavoredthe growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitariancraftguilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city. These wereessentiallyprofessionalassociations that provided for themutualaid and protection of their members, and allowed for themaintenanceofprofessionalstandards. The growth ofindependentguilds was furthered by the fact thatsurpluswas not a result ofdomesticcraftproduction but resultedprimarilyfrom international trading; thegovernmentleft working people togovernthemselves, much as shepherds oftribalconfederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity of small-scalelocalegalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations forfellowship, worship, and production that flourished in this laissez-faire environment, individuals couldinteractwith one anotherwithinacommunityofharmonyandideologicalequality, following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by sharedconsensuswhile minimizing distinctions of wealth and power.

Themercantileeconomywas also characterized by apeculiarmoralstancethat istypicalof people who live bytrade—an attitude that is individualistic, calculating, risk taking, andadaptiveto circumstances. As among tribes people,personalrelationships and a careful weighing ofcharacterhave always beencrucialin amercantileeconomywith little regulation, where one's word is one'sbondand where informal ties of trustcementtogether an internationaltradenetwork. Nor have merchants and artisans ever had much tolerance for aristocratic professions ofmoralsuperiority, favoringinsteadan egalitarianethicof the openmarket, wheresteadyhard work, the loyalty of one's fellows, andentrepreneurialskill make all thedifference. And, like the pastoralists, Middle Eastern merchants and artisans unhappy with their environment couldsimplypackup and leave for greener pastures—an act of self-assertion wholly impossible in most other civilizationsthroughouthistory.

Dependence on long-distancetradealso meant that the great empires of the Middle East were built bothliterallyand figuratively on shifting sand. The centralstate, though often very rich and very populous, was intrinsicallyfragile, since thedevelopmentof new internationaltraderoutes could undermine the monetary base anderodestatepower, as occurred when European seafarers circumvented Middle Eastern merchants after Vasco da   Gama'svoyagearound Africa in the late fifteenthcenturyopened up a southernroute. Theecologyof theregionalso permitted armed predators to prowl the surrounding barrens, which were almost impossible for astateto control. Peripheralpeoplesthereforehad a greatadvantagein their dealings with the center, makinggovernmentauthorityinsecure andanxious.

Questions:
question_stem: According to paragraph 1, why has trade been so important throughout the history of the Middle East
choices: tag: A
text: The rare and valuable metals and stones found in Middle Eastern deserts have always been in high demand in surrounding areas.

tag: B
text: Growing conditions throughout the Middle East are generally poor, forcing Middle Eastern people to depend on imported grain.

tag: C
text: Many useful and decorative raw materials cannot be found naturally in the Middle East but are available from neighboring regions.

tag: D
text: Frequent travel, due to limited water supplies in the Middle East, created many opportunities for trade with neighboring societies.
answer_key: C
explanation: C 问 trade 为什么主要，这段第一句就说是 mainstay，第二句就给出了原因，说他们没有这个没有那个，所以答案是 C。A 说中东有 material，明显与原文说反；B 的中东很穷和 D 的 frequent travel 原文都没说。

question_stem: The word “repudiate” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: respect

tag: B
text: reject

tag: C
text: review

tag: D
text: revise
answer_key: B
explanation: B repudiate: 与……断绝关系，驳斥。A 是尊敬；B 是拒绝；C 是回顾，检查，复审；D 是修订。所以 B 的 reject 正确。

question_stem: According to paragraph 2, how did Middle Eastern shop owners treat their workers?
choices: tag: A
text: Workers were ranked according to their skill level, with the most-experienced artisans becoming partial owners of the shop.

tag: B
text: Shop owners treated different workers differently depending on how much the workers had in common with their masters.

tag: C
text: Workers were bound to their masters by unbreakable contracts that strictly defined the terms of their partnership.

tag: D
text: The shop owner worked alongside the workers and often considered them partner and members of the family.
answer_key: D
explanation: D, 以 shop owners 做关键词定位至第二句，但第二句没有回答问题，所以往后看，后一句说老板和工人之间的界限被 blur 模糊了，而且他们同吃同住一起工作，所以答案是 D。A 的 workers rank 原文没说；B 说对不同工人态度不同，与原文相反；C 的 unbreakable contract 与最后一句相反。

question_stem: The author includes the information that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading in order to
choices: tag: A
text: support the claim that the mode of production made possible by the craft guilds was very good for trade

tag: B
text: contrast the economic base of the city government with that of the tribal confederacies

tag: C
text: provide a reason why the government allowed the guilds to be self-controlled

tag: D
text: suggest that the government was missing out on a valuable opportunity to tax the guilds
answer_key: C
explanation: 功能目的题，先看修辞点所在句子，只是一个例子，放弃；往前看，说有行业协会互助互惠，但这明显也还是一个例子，所以看本段中心句，说这种生产方式倾向于促进自律平等的同业协会的发展，所以答案是 C。

question_stem: According to paragraph 3, all of the following are true of the Middle Eastern craft guilds EXCEPT:
choices: tag: A
text: The guilds were created to support workers and to uphold principles of high-quality craft production.

tag: B
text: Each guild was very large and included members from a broad geographic area.

tag: C
text: The leaders of the guilds were chosen by popular vote.

tag: D
text: All guild members were treated as equals.
answer_key: B
explanation: EXCEPT 题，排除法。A 的 support workers 和 uphold principles 做关键词定位至第二句，原文的 mutual aid and protection 等于 support workers，maintenance of professional standards 等于 uphold principles，A 正确，不选；B 的 geographic area 原文没有对应点，错，选；C 的 vote 做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选；D 的 equals 做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选.

question_stem: The word “consensus” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: authority

tag: B
text: responsibility

tag: C
text: custom

tag: D
text: agreement
answer_key: D
explanation: D consensus: 一致，合意。A 是权威；B 是责任；C 是风俗，习惯；D 是同意，一致。所以 D 的 agreement 正确。

question_stem: According to paragraph 4, which of the following was NOT necessary for success in the mercantile economy?
choices: tag: A
text: Good business sense

tag: B
text: Reliable associates

tag: C
text: Family wealth

tag: D
text: Constant effort
answer_key: C
explanation: C  EXCEPT 题，排除法。A 与倒数第二句的 entrepreneurial skill 同义替换，正确，不选；B 与倒数第二句的 loyalty of one’s fellow 同义替换，正确，不选；C 在原文中无对应点，错，选；D 与倒数第二句的 steady hard work 同义替换，正确，不选.

question_stem: Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
choices: tag: A
text: Tribes people were comfortable forming personal relationships with merchants, who, like them, were bound by their promises to one another.

tag: B
text: Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful about whom they trusted and often conducted business with people they knew personally.

tag: C
text: While trade among merchants relied somewhat on regulation, among tribes people trade was based on personal relationships and careful character evaluation.

tag: D
text: Because tribes people were bound only by their promises to one another, personal relationships were formed only after careful weighing of character.
answer_key: B
explanation: B 原句的结构是在什么什么人当中，什么和什么很重要，在什么什么环境下。所以 B 正确。A 混淆原文概念，原文说在当时的环境下只能靠 promise 形成商业网络，人们和认识的人做生意，不是人们靠 promise 做生意；C 错，原文说没有 regulation，C 说反；D 错，因为 only 原文从来没说过。

question_stem: The word “ethic” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: set of moral principles

tag: B
text: division of labor

tag: C
text: economic system

tag: D
text: test of character
answer_key: A
explanation: A ethic: 道德规范，伦理。A 是一套道德准则；B 是劳动分工；C 是经济体制；D 是性格测试。所以 A 正确。

question_stem: According to paragraph 4, what choice did Middle Eastern merchants and artisans have that many other people have not had?
choices: tag: A
text: If they were unhappy in the mercantile environment, they could draw on personal connections to find a different kind of work.

tag: B
text: They were allowed to assert their opinions without having to listen to aristocratic professions of moral superiority.

tag: C
text: Following the example of the pastoralists, they could demand, and receive, better working conditions.

tag: D
text: If they didn't like their environment, they could move somewhere else.
answer_key: D
explanation: D 以 many other people 做关键词定位至最后一句，说如果不满意当地的商业环境，中东商人会像游牧民族一样迁移到其他地方，这是其他人做不到的，所以答案是 D。

question_stem: The word “intrinsically” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: fundamentally

tag: B
text: surprisingly

tag: C
text: consequently

tag: D
text: particularly
answer_key: A
explanation: A : intrinsically: 本质地，内部地，固有地。A 是根本地；B 是令人惊讶地；C 是因此，结果；D 是特别地，尤其。所以答案 A 正确。

question_stem: In paragraph 5, why does the author mention the new trade route opened up by Vasco da Gama's fifteenth century voyage around Africa?
choices: tag: A
text: To provide evidence that European seafarers took every opportunity to bypass Middle Eastern merchants

tag: B
text: To present an instance in which Middle Eastern states lost money and power because of their reliance on long-distance trade

tag: C
text: To argue this new route became necessary when European seafarers wanted to avoid Middle Eastern states whose central power had begun to erode

tag: D
text: To explain how da Gama helped European traders avoid the dangerous predators prowling the areas surrounding Middle Eastern cities
answer_key: B
explanation: B，修辞目的题，先把本句读清楚，说新的国际贸易路线可以决定金融资本所在的地方，并且能够侵蚀国家的力量，接着就说就像达伽马发现了新航路之后欧洲人绕过了中东，所以说达伽马的事儿是为了证明航线的发现能够削弱国家的力量，所以答案是 B。