It was in Egypt andMesopotamia(modern-day Iraq) thatcivilizationarose, and it is there that we find the earliest examples of thatkeyfeature ofcivilization, writing. These examples, in the form of inscribedclaytablets that date toshortlybefore 3000 B.C.E., have been discovered among thearchaeologicalremains of the Sumerians, a gifted people settled in southernMesopotamia.

The Egyptians were not far behind in developing writing, but we cannot follow thehistoryof their writing in detail because they used aperishablewritingmaterial. Inancienttimes the banks of the Nile were lined withpapyrusplants, and from thepapyrusreeds the Egyptians made a form of paper; it was excellent inqualitybut, like any paper,fragile. Mesopotamia’s rivers boasted no such useful reeds, but its land did provide goodclay, and as aconsequencetheclaytablet became thestandardmaterial. Thoughclumsyandbulkyit has avirtuedear to archaeologists: it isdurable. Fire, for example, which is death topapyruspaper or other writing materials such asleatherand wood,simplybakes it hard,therebymaking it even moredurable. So when a conqueror set a Mesopotamian palaceablaze, he helped ensure thesurvivalof anyclaytablets in it. Clay, moreover, is cheap, and forming it into tablets is easy, factors that helped theclaytablet become the preferred writingmaterialnot onlythroughoutMesopotamiabut far outside it as well, in Syria, AsiaMinor,Persia, and even for a while in Crete and Greece. Excavators have unearthedclaytablets in all these lands. In the Near East they remained in use for more than two and a halfmillennia, and in certain areas they lasted down to the beginning of thecommonerauntil finally yielding, once and for all, to moreconvenientalternatives.

The Sumerians perfected a style of writing suited toclay. Thisscriptconsists of simple shapes, basically justwedgeshapes and lines that could easily be incised in softclaywith a reed or woodenstylus; scholars have dubbed itcuneiformfrom thewedge-shapedmarks (cunei inLatin) that are its hallmark. Although the ingredients are merely wedges and lines, there are hundreds of combinations of thesebasicforms that stand for different sounds or words. Learning thesecomplexsigns required long training and much practice;inevitably,literacywas largely limited to a smallprofessionalclass, the scribes.

The Akkadians conquered the Sumerians around the middle of the thirdmillenniumB.C.E., and they took over the variouscuneiformsigns used for writingSumerianand gave them sound and word values that fit their own language. The Babylonians and Assyrians did the same, and so did peoples in Syria and AsiaMinor. Theliteratureof the Sumerians was treasuredthroughoutthe Near East, and long afterSumerianceased to be spoken, the Babylonians and Assyrians and others kept it alive as aliterarylanguage, the way Europeans keptLatinalive after the fall of Rome. For the scribes of these non-Sumerian languages, training was doublydemandingsince they had to know the values of the variouscuneiformsigns forSumerianas well as for their own language.

The contents of the earliestclaytablets are simple notations of numbers of commodities—animals, jars, baskets, etc. Writing, it wouldappear, started as aprimitiveform of bookkeeping. Its use soon widened to document themultitudinousthings and acts that are involved in daily life, from simple inventories of commodities tocomplicatedgovernmental rules and regulations.

Archaeologists frequently findclaytablets in batches. The batches, some of whichcontainthousands of tablets,consistfor the most part of documents of the types just mentioned: bills, deliveries, receipts, inventories, loans, marriage contracts, divorce settlements,courtjudgments, and so on. These records offactualmatters were kept instorageto beavailablefor reference-they were, in effect, files, or, to use thetermpreferred by specialists in theancientNear East, archives. Now and then these files include pieces of writing that are of a distinctly different order, writings that do not merelyrecordsome matter of fact but involvecreativeintellectualactivity. They range from simple textbookmaterialto literature-and they make anappearancevery early, even from the thirdmillenniumB C E.

Questions:
question_stem: The word “key” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: frequent

tag: B
text: essential

tag: C
text: original

tag: D
text: familiar
answer_key: B
explanation: 【题目翻译】文章中“key”这个词的意思最接近于以下哪个选项？
A：频繁的
B：本质的
C：原始的
D：熟悉的

【判定题型】：题目要求选出与高亮单词意思最接近的选项，故判断本题为词汇题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“key”,定位到原句“It was in Egypt and Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) that civilization arose, and it is there that we find the earliest examples of that key feature of civilization, writing.”。

【词汇解析】：词汇“key”的意思是“关键的”,带入到原句中，原句的意思是“文明是在埃及和美索不达米亚（现今的伊拉克）兴起的，正是在那里，我们发现了文明的关键特征——写作的最早例子”。

【选项分析】
A：频繁的。不符，错误
B：必要的。同义替换，正确
C：原始的。不符，错误
D：熟悉的。不符，错误

question_stem: The word “virtue” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: price

tag: B
text: design

tag: C
text: desirable quality

tag: D
text: physical characteristic
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】文章中“virtue”这个词的意思最接近于以下哪个选项？
A：价格
B：设计
C：令人满意的品质
D：物理特征

【判定题型】：题目要求选出与高亮单词意思最接近的选项，故判断本题为词汇题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“virtue”,定位到原句“Though clumsy and bulky it has a virtue dear to archaeologists: it is durable.”。

【词汇解析】：词汇“virtue”的意思是“优点”,带入到原句中，原句的意思是“尽管它笨拙又笨重，但它有一个值得考古学家珍视的优点：它很耐用。”

【选项分析】
A：价格。不符，错误
B：设计。不符，错误
C：令人满意的品质。同义替换，正确
D：物理特征。不符，错误

question_stem: Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
choices: tag: A
text: In part because of its low cost and ease of use, clay became the preferred writing material throughout Mesopotamia and well beyond it.

tag: B
text: Clay was cheap throughout Mesopotamia, so clay tablets from Mesopotamia became the preferred writing material as far as the Mediterranean.

tag: C
text: For a while, the clay tablet was the preferred writing material in Crete and Greece.

tag: D
text: Moreover, because clay was used as the writing material of choice in Mesopotamia, Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, and the Mediterranean, it was cheap and popular.
answer_key: A
explanation: 【题目翻译】下面哪个句子最能表达文章中突出句子的基本信息？不正确的选择会以重要方式改变含义，或者漏掉必要的信息。
A：部分原因在于粘土成本低，使用方便，粘土成为整个美索不达米亚和远不止美索不达米亚的首选书写材料。

B：整个美索不达米亚的粘土都很便宜，所以从美索不达米亚来的粘土片就成了地中海地区人们最喜爱的书写材料。

C：有一段时间，粘土碑在克里特和希腊是首选的书写材料。

D：此外，因为粘土在美索不达米亚、叙利亚、小亚细亚、波斯和地中海被用作首选的书写材料，所以它既便宜又受欢迎。

【判定题型】：根据题目问法，题目要求选择和高亮句意思逻辑都最为接近的句子，故判断本题为句子简化题。

【句子分析】原句的核心：Clay is cheap and forming it into tablets is easy. Clay tablet became the preferred writing material. 粘土很便宜，很容易制成粘土片。粘土片成为首选的书写材料。

【选项分析】
A：A 选项的逻辑关系词为 because，句子的两个核心 low cost and ease of use 和 became the preferred writing 与原句的句子核心吻合，故 A 选项正确。
B：并不是便宜才能成为首选材料，而是因为容易制作成粘土片。B 错误。
C：没有说出“便宜”和“容易制成粘土片”这2个理由。C 错误。
D：因果关系不对。D 错误。

question_stem: What can be inferred from paragraph 2 about clay as a writing material?
choices: tag: A
text: It had to be baked before it could be written on.

tag: B
text: Its good points outweighed its bad points.

tag: C
text: Its durability was its most important feature for its users.

tag: D
text: It was not available in Egypt.
answer_key: B
explanation: 【题目翻译】从第2段可以推断出粘土是以下哪个选项？
A：它必须烤好才能写下来。

B：它的优点大于缺点。

C：耐用性是其用户最重要的特性。

D：在埃及没有这种东西。

【判定题型】：根据题干中出现的关键词“imply”/“infer”/“suggest”等其他表示推断的词，判定本题为推理题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“a writing material”,定位到 Passage 2 第5句，原句为“Fire, for example, which is death to papyrus paper or other writing materials such as leather and wood, simply bakes it hard, thereby making it even more durable. ”。

【逻辑分析】文中提到 clay 的缺点是：clumsy and bulky, 但是 it has a virtue dear to archaeologists: It is durable…. Became the preferred writing material not only throughout Mesopotamia but far outside it as well. 后面讲到的都是 clay 的优点。
5、【选项分析】
A：它必须烤好才能写下来。是越烤越坚硬，并不是烤了才能写。错误。

B：它的优点大于缺点。与文章意思相符，正确。

C：耐用性是其用户最重要的特性。不仅仅在说优点，也有缺点，意思不完整，C 错误。

D：在埃及没有这种东西。在文章里是有提到的，D 错误。

question_stem: In paragraph 2, why does the author discuss the Egyptian use of papyrus as a writing material?
choices: tag: A
text: To describe the superiority of papyrus over leather and wood as a writing material

tag: B
text: To explain why writing in Egypt did not develop as quickly as it did Mesopotamia

tag: C
text: To explain why archaeologists' knowledge of the early history of writing relies mainly on Sumerian cuneiform

tag: D
text: To explain why the Sumerians preferred clay tablets for writing over papyrus
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】在第2段中，作者为什么要讨论埃及人使用纸莎草作为写作材料？
A：描述纸莎草作为书写材料比皮革和木材的优越性。

B：解释为什么埃及的文字发展没有美索不达米亚那么快。

C：解释为什么考古学家对早期文字史的知识主要依靠苏美尔楔形文字。

D：解释为什么苏美尔人喜欢用粘土片而不是用纸莎草写字。

【判定题型】：根据题干问法“why …… discuss”，题目询问“xxxxxx”(文章引用内容)的修辞目的，可以判断本题为修辞目的题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“ papyrus”,定位到 Passage 2第2句，原句为“In ancient times the banks of the Nile were lined with papyrus plants, and from the papyrus reeds the Egyptians made a form of paper; it was excellent in quality but, like any paper, fragile. ”。

【引用内容分析】作者先描述了 in ancient times, Egyptians 用 papyrus reeds 制造 paper, 之后，clay tablet 成为 standard material. 最后又成为 preferred material. 

【选项分析】
A：文章主要是在说粘土，并不是莎草。A 错误。
B：这一段的主题并不是文字发展，而是材料。B 错误。
C：综合第二段的描述可知，C 为正确选项。
D：题目说的是莎草，而不是粘土片。D 错误。

question_stem: According to paragraph 3, all of the following are true of cuneiform writing EXCEPT:
choices: tag: A
text: It was composed of very simple shapes.

tag: B
text: It was perfected by the ancient Sumerians.

tag: C
text: It influenced the choice of material on which it was written.

tag: D
text: It was understood by very few Sumerians.
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第3段，除外，楔形文字如下：
A 它由非常简单的形状组成。

B 它被古代苏美尔人完善了。

C 它影响了书写材料的选择。

D 只有很少的苏美尔人能理解。

【判定题型】：根据题干中出现的大写“EXCEPT”/"NOT" 等其他明显表示否定的词，可以判定本题为否定事实信息题，需要找出与原文信息不符的那个答案。

【关键词定位】：根据题干关键词“cuneiform writing”,可以将出题范围锁定在 Passage 3。

【选项分析】
A 选项对应原文 This script consists of simple shapes. 正确
B 选项对应原文 The Sumerians perfected a style of writing. 正确
C 选项原文没有提及，错误。
D 选项对应原文 literacy was largely limited to a small professional class, the scribes. 正确

question_stem: According to paragraph 4, how did the Akkadians use the Sumerian language?
choices: tag: A
text: They used Sumerian for speaking but used their own national language for writing.

tag: B
text: They used the complex cuneiform signs developed by the Babylonians and Assyrians rather than the Sumerian signs.

tag: C
text: They developed their own cuneiform shapes on clay tablets to replace those used by the Sumerians.

tag: D
text: They assigned new sound and word values to the signs of Sumerian cuneiform.
answer_key: D
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第4段，阿卡迪亚人如何使用苏美尔语？
A 他们用苏美尔语说话，用本国语言写作。

B 他们使用的是巴比伦人和亚述人发明的复杂楔形符号，而不是苏美尔符号。

C 他们在粘土片上发展了自己的楔形形状来代替苏美尔人使用的那些。

D 他们给苏美尔楔形文字的符号赋予了新的声音和单词值。

【判定题型】：题目问的是文章中的具体细节信息，故根据题目问法可以判断本题为事实信息题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“the Akkadians”,定位到 Passage 4 第1句，原句为“The Akkadians conquered the Sumerians around the middle of the third millennium B.C.E., and they took over the various cuneiform signs used for writing Sumerian and gave them sound and word values that fit their own language. ”，意思是“大约在公元前三千年中期，阿卡迪亚人征服了苏美尔人，他们接管了书写苏美尔语的各种楔形符号，并赋予他们适合他们自己语言的声音和词语价值”。

【逻辑分析】：结合题目问法和出题句，进行逻辑分析。

【选项分析】
A：文章说的是用苏美尔字，赋予其价值，而不是用苏美尔语说话，用本国语言写作。故错误。
B：文章中是说书写苏美尔语的各种楔形符号。故错误。
C：文章说是他们接管了书写苏美尔语的各种楔形符号。故错误。
D：D 选项对应原文 The Akkadians…Sumerian and gave them sound and word values that fit their own language. 故 D 为正确选项。

question_stem: Paragraph 4 answers all the following questions about Sumerian writing in the period after the Sumerians were conquered EXCEPT:
choices: tag: A
text: Did Sumerian literature continue to be read?

tag: B
text: Did Sumerian continue to be spoken?

tag: C
text: Did scribes compose new texts in Sumerian?

tag: D
text: Did Sumerian have the same fate as Latin had after the fall of Rome?
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】第4段回答了关于苏美尔人被征服后苏美尔语写作的所有下列问题，除外：
A 苏美尔文学继续被阅读了吗？

B 苏美尔语还在说吗？

C 抄写员用苏美尔语写新课文了吗？

D 苏美尔人的命运和罗马沦陷后拉丁人的命运一样吗？

【判定题型】：根据题干中出现的大写“EXCEPT”/"NOT" 等其他明显表示否定的词，可以判定本题为否定事实信息题，需要找出与原文信息不符的那个答案。

【关键词定位】：根据题干关键词“Sumerian writing”,可以将出题范围锁定在 Passage 4。

【选项分析】
A 选项对应原文的 The literature of the Sumerians was treasured throughout the Near East. 
B 选项对应原文的 and long after Sumerian ceased to be spoken. 
C 选项没有提及。
D 选项对应原文的 the Babylonians and Assyrians… the way Europeans kept Latin alive after the fall of Rome.

question_stem: The word "document" in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: include

tag: B
text: influence

tag: C
text: organize

tag: D
text: record
answer_key: D
explanation: 【题目翻译】文章中的“document”一词最接近于
A:包括
B:影响
C:组织
D:记录

【判定题型】：题目要求选出与高亮单词意思最接近的选项，故判断本题为词汇题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“document”,定位到原句“Its use soon widened to document the multitudinous things and acts that are involved in daily life, from simple inventories of commodities to complicated governmental rules and regulations.

【词汇解析】：词汇“document”的意思是“记录”,带入到原句中，原句的意思是“它的用途很快扩大到记录日常生活中所涉及的大量事物和行为，从简单的商品库存到复杂的政府规章制度。”。

【选项分析】
A:包括。不符，错误
B:影响。不符，错误
C:组织。不符，错误
D:记录。与原文语境吻合，故 D 选项为正确答案。

question_stem: According to paragraph 5, writing was first used for
choices: tag: A
text: simple bookkeeping

tag: B
text: descriptions of daily events

tag: C
text: counting the contents of clay tablets

tag: D
text: government reports
answer_key: A
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第5段，写作首先用于以下哪个选项？
A 简单的簿记

B 日常事件的描述

C 计算粘土片的含量

D 政府报告

【判定题型】：题目问的是文章中的具体细节信息，故根据题目问法可以判断本题为事实信息题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“writing”,定位到 Passage5 倒数第二句，原句为“Now and then these files include pieces of writing that are of a distinctly different order, writings that do not merely record some matter of fact but involve creative intellectual activity. ”，意思是“这些文件时不时地包括一些顺序截然不同的文章，这些文章不仅记录了一些事实，而且涉及创造性的智力活动。”。

【逻辑分析】找出文章第五段描述写作是用来记录什么的。

【选项分析】
A 简单的簿记。不符，错误
B 日常事件的描述。符合，正确
C 计算粘土片的含量。不符，错误
D 政府报告。不符，错误

question_stem: The phrase “Now and then” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: always

tag: B
text: occasionally

tag: C
text: sooner or later

tag: D
text: first and last
answer_key: B
explanation: 【题目翻译】文章中的“Now and then”这个短语的意思最接近于以下哪个选项？
A 总是
B 偶尔
C 不久之后
D 首先和最后

【判定题型】：题目要求选出与高亮单词意思最接近的选项，故判断本题为词汇题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“Now and then”,定位到原句“Now and then these files include pieces of writing that are of a distinctly different order, writings that do not merely record some matter of fact but involve creative intellectual activity.”。

【词汇解析】：词汇“Now and then”的意思是“时不时地”,带入到原句中，原句的意思是这些文件时不时地包括一些顺序截然不同的文章，这些文章不仅记录了一些事实，而且涉及创造性的智力活动。

【选项分析】
A 总是。不符，错误
B 偶尔。与原文已经吻合，故为正确答案。
C 不久之后。不符，错误
D 首先和最后。不符，错误

question_stem: According to paragraph 6, large batches of clay writing tablets were stored because the tablets
choices: tag: A
text: were being produced quickly and in large quantities

tag: B
text: did not serve any practical purpose for most Mesopotamians

tag: C
text: contained information that needed to be available for future reference

tag: D
text: could not be used again once they had been written on
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第6段，储存了大批的粘土书写片，因为粘土片？
A 正在迅速大量生产。

B 对大多数美索不达米亚人来说，没有任何实际意义。

C：包含需要供将来参考的信息

D：写完以后就不能再用了。

【判定题型】：题目问的是文章中的具体细节信息，故根据题目问法可以判断本题为事实信息题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“clay writing tablets were stored”,定位到 Passage 6 第3句，原句为“These records of factual matters were kept in storage to be available for reference-they were, in effect, files, or, to use the term preferred by specialists in the ancient Near East, archives. ”，意思是“这些事实记录被保存在仓库中，以供参考——实际上，它们是档案，或者，使用古代近东专家喜欢的术语，档案。”。

【逻辑分析】粘土片记录文字之后，变成了档案，供以后专家使用。

【选项分析】
A 正在迅速大量生产。不符，错误

B 对大多数美索不达米亚人来说，没有任何实际意义。不符，错误

C：包含需要供将来参考的信息。符合，正确
D：写完以后就不能再用了。不符，错误