Althoughliteracyappeared independently in several parts of theprehistoricworld, the earliestevidenceof writing is thecuneiformSumerianscripton theclaytablets ofancientMesopotamia, which,archaeologicaldetectivework has revealed, had its origins in theaccountingpractices ofcommercialactivity. Researchers demonstrated that preliterate people, to keeptrackof the goods they produced and exchanged, created a system ofaccountingusingclaytokens assymbolicrepresentations of their products. Over many thousands of years, the symbols evolvedthroughseveral stages of abstraction until they became wedge- shaped (cuneiform) signs onclaytablets, recognizable as writing.

Theoriginaltokens (circa 8500 B.C.E.) were three-dimensionalsolidshapes—tiny spheres, cones, disks, and cylinders. Adebtof six units ofgrainand eight head oflivestock, for example might have been represented by six conical and eight cylindrical tokens. To keep batches of tokens together, aninnovationwas introduced (circa 3250 B. C. E.)wherebythey were sealed insideclayenvelopes that could be broken open and counted when it came time for adebtto be repaid. But because the contents of the envelopes could easily be forgotten, two-dimensional representations of the three-dimensional tokens were impressed into the surface of the envelopes before they were sealed. Eventually, having two sets ofequivalentsymbols—theinternaltokens andexternalmarkings—came to seemredundant, so the tokens were eliminated (circa 3250-3100 B.C.E.), and onlysolidclaytablets with two-dimensional symbols were retained. Over time, the symbols became morenumerous,varied, andabstractand came torepresentmore thantradecommodities, evolvingeventuallyintocuneiformwriting.

Theevolutionof the symbolism is reflected in thearchaeologicalrecordfirst of all by the increasingcomplexityof the tokens themselves. The earliest tokens, dating from about 10,000 to 6,000 years ago, were of only the simplest geometric shapes. But about 3500 B.C.E., morecomplextokens came intocommonusage, including many naturalistic forms shaped like miniature tools, furniture, fruit, and humans. The earlier,plaintokens were counters for agricultural products, whereas thecomplexones stood for finished products, such as bread, oil,perfume, wool, and rope, and for items produced in workshops, such as metal, bracelets, types of cloth, garments, mats, pieces of furniture, tools, and avarietyof stone andpotteryvessels. The signs marked onclaytabletslikewiseevolved from simple wedges, circles, ovals, and triangles based on theplaintokens to pictographs derived from thecomplextokens.

Before thisevidencecame to light, the inventors of writing were assumed by researchers to have been anintellectualelite. Some, for example, hypothesized that writing emerged when members of thepriestlycaste agreed among themselves on written signs. But theassociationof theplaintokens with the first farmers and of thecomplextokens with the first artisans—and the fact that the token-and-envelopeaccountingsysteminvariablyrepresented only small-scale transactions—testifies to therelativelymodestsocialstatusof the creators of writing.

And not only ofliteracy, but numeracy (the representation of quantitative concepts) as well. Theevidenceof the tokens provides further confirmation thatmathematicsoriginated in people’sdesireto keep records of flocks and other goods. Another immenselysignificantstep occurred around 3100 B.C.E., whenSumerianaccountants extended the token-based signs to include the first real numerals. Previously, units ofgrainhad been represented by direct one-to-onecorrespondence―by repeating thetokenorsymbolfor a unit ofgrainthe required number of times. The accountants, however, devised numeral signsdistinctfromcommoditysigns, so that eighteen units ofgraincould be indicated by preceding a singlegrainsymbolwith asymboldenoting “18.” Their invention ofabstractnumerals andabstractcounting was one of the mostrevolutionaryadvances in thehistoryofmathematics.

What was the socialstatusof the anonymous accountants who produced thisbreakthrough? Theimmensevolumeofclaytablets unearthed in the ruins of theSumeriantemples where the accounts were kept suggests a socialdifferentiationwithin the scribal class, with a virtual army of lower-ranking tabulators performing themonotonousjob of tallying commodities. We can onlyspeculateas to how high or low the inventors of true numerals were in the scribalhierarchy, but it stands toreasonthat this laborsavinginnovationwould have been the brainchild of the lower-ranking types whose drudgery is eased.

Questions:
question_stem: Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
choices: tag: A
text: Sumerian script, the earliest known form of writing among prehistoric writing systems, was first used on clay tablets for accounting purposes.

tag: B
text: Although the earliest Sumerians engaged in commercial activity and practiced accounting, they were not as literate as people in other parts of the prehistoric world.

tag: C
text: Archaeologists have discovered that literacy was developed in several parts of the world, including ancient Mesopotamia.

tag: D
text: Archaeological detective work has revealed the commercial accounting practices of the Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia and provided a written record of their intense commercial activity.
answer_key: A
explanation: 【题目翻译】下面哪个句子最能表达文章中突出句子的基本信息？不正确的选择会以重要方式改变含义，或者漏掉必要的信息。
A：苏美尔文字是史前文字系统中已知最早的一种书写形式，最初用于粘土片上作会计用途。
B：虽然最早的苏美尔人从事商业活动和会计实务，但他们并不像史前世界其他地方的人那样有文化。
C：考古学家发现，在世界上几个地方，包括古代美索不达米亚，文化水平都有所提高。
D：考古侦探工作揭示了古代美索不达米亚苏美尔人的商业会计实践，并提供了他们激烈的商业活动的书面记录。

【判断题型】根据题目问法，题目要求选择和高亮句意思逻辑都最为接近的句子，故判断本题为句子简化题。

【句子分析】本题定位到原文：Although literacy appeared independently in several parts of the prehistoric world, the earliest evidence of writing is the cuneiform Sumerian script on the clay tablets of ancient Mesopotamia, which, archaeological detective work has revealed, had its origins in the accounting practices of commercial activity. 此处原文的大意是：尽管文字在世界各地独立出现，但是最早的关于文字的证据是苏美尔人的楔形文字，它出现于商业计数活动中。 题干问的是四个选项里哪一个正确传达了这个句子的意思。 

【选项分析】
A 的意思是苏美尔人的文字是最早的史前的文字系统，正确地传达了原文句子的重要意思，正确；
B 的意思是尽管苏美尔人进行了商业活动并且进行计数，但是他们并没有其他史前地区的人有文化，不符合原文意思，不选；
C 的意思是考古学家发现文字在包括美索不达米亚的多处地区产生，遗漏了楔形文字是最早的文字这一重要信息，不选；
D 的意思是考古发现告诉我们苏美尔人会进行商业活动和计数，并为其频繁的商业活动提供了书面记录，还是遗漏了楔形文字这一重要信息，不选。

question_stem: All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 2 as true of clay envelopes EXCEPT:
choices: tag: A
text: They contained batches of tokens.

tag: B
text: They could be reused frequently.

tag: C
text: They had markings on the outside.

tag: D
text: They could be used to record debts.
answer_key: B
explanation: 【题目翻译】在第2段中提及的关于粘土信封以下选项是正确的，除了__外.
A：里面有成批的令牌。
B：它们可以经常重复使用。
C：他们在外面有标记。
D：它们可以用来记录债务。

【题型判断】根据题干中出现的大写“EXCEPT”/"NOT" 等其他明显表示否定的词，可以判定本题为否定事实信息题，需要找出与原文信息不符的那个答案。

【关键词定位】本题定位到原文：整个第二段。 此段原文的大意是：苏美尔人会用一些小的象征物来代表一个人欠了多少债，然后这些象征物会被放进 clay envelope 里封存，为了防止人们忘记，这个 envelope 的外面还印着二维的符号。直到这个人来还债的时候，大家再打碎这个 envelope 去核对欠债的数目。 题干问的是哪个选项没有正确地说明 cave envelope 的情况。

【选项分析】
选项 A 的意思是它们含有很多象征物，正确；
选项 B 的意思是它们会频繁地被反复使用，无中生有，错误；
选项 C 的意思是它们在外部有标记，正确；
选项 D 的意思是它们可以被用来记录负债，正确。

question_stem: According to paragraph 2, the first two-dimensional symbols were
choices: tag: A
text: pictures of commodities drawn on clay tablets

tag: B
text: images sealed inside conical or cylindrical containers

tag: C
text: numbers used for keeping track of clay envelopes

tag: D
text: images of tokens pressed into the clay of envelopes
answer_key: D
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第2段，第一个二维符号是？
A:用泥板画的商品图片
B:密封在圆锥形或圆柱形容器内的图像
C:用于跟踪粘土信封的数字。
D:压在信封黏土上的代币的图片

【判断题型】题目问的是文章中的具体细节信息，故根据题目问法可以判断本题为事实信息题。

【关键词定位】

【逻辑分析】题目问二维代表最先是作何用，原文写 two-dimensional representations of the three-dimensional tokens were impressed into the surface of the envelopes before they were sealed.意为二维的代表图是为了防止忘记了信中内容成为了三维符号的代表图像（image）。

【选项分析】
A:用泥板画的商品图片，在文章未提到，A 错误
B:密封在圆锥形或圆柱形容器内的图像，文章说的是密封在信封内的图像，B 错误。
C:用于跟踪粘土信封的数字。文章说的是用于跟踪信中的内容。C 错误。
D:压在信封黏土上的代币的图片。图片即为了防止忘记信中的内容。D 正确。

question_stem: According to paragraph 2, why were tokens eliminated?
choices: tag: A
text: They were not numerous or varied enough to represent all of the trade commodities.

tag: B
text: They were easily broken and then hard to count.

tag: C
text: They were difficult to keep together in batches.

tag: D
text: They were unnecessary when symbols were used on the surface of envelopes.
answer_key: D
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第2段，为什么取消了令牌？
A 它们数量不多，种类不多，不能代表所有的贸易商品。
B 它们很容易破碎，然后很难计数。
C 他们很难成批地保持在一起。
D 当在信封表面用符号时，这些符号是不必要的。

【判断题型】题目问的是文章中的具体细节信息，故根据题目问法可以判断本题为事实信息题。

【关键词定位】本题定位到原文：Eventually, having two sets of equivalent symbols—the internal tokens and external markings―came to seem redundant, so the tokens were eliminated (circa 3250-3100 B.C.E. ), and only solid clay tablets with two-dimensional symbols were retained. 

【逻辑分析】此处原文的大意是：因为其实 envelope 外面和内部的信息是重复的，冗余的，所以这些象征物最终消失了。题干问的是这些象征物为什么消失，因为重复所以不再必要了。

【选项分析】
选项 A 的意思是它们数量不够多，而且样式不够多样；错误
选项 B 的意思是它们很容易损坏并且不好计数；错误
选项 C 的意思是它们很难一起保存；错误
选项 D 的意思是外部也会印上符号后，它们变得不必要了。正确

question_stem: Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the difference between earlier tokens and later tokens?
choices: tag: A
text: Later tokens were made of many different materials, but earlier ones were made only of clay.

tag: B
text: Later tokens often looked like the commodities that they represented, but earlier ones did not.

tag: C
text: Later tokens represented agricultural products, but earlier ones represented finished products.

tag: D
text: Later tokens were based on pictographs，but earlier ones were based on naturalistic forms.
answer_key: B
explanation: 【题目翻译】从第3段中，关于早期令牌和后期令牌的区别，可以推断出以下哪一个？
A 后来的纪念品是用许多不同的材料制成的，而早期的纪念品只用粘土制成。
B 后来的纸币通常看起来像他们所代表的商品，而早期的纸币则不然。
C 后来的符号代表农产品，而早期的符号代表成品。
D 后来的符号是以象形文字为基础的，而早期的符号是以自然主义形式为基础的。

【判断题型】根据题干中出现的关键词“imply”/“infer”/“suggest”等其他表示推断的词，判定本题为推理题。

【关键词定位】本题定位到原文：The earliest tokens, dating from about 10,000 to 6,000 years ago, were of only the simplest geometric shapes. But about 3500 B.C.E., more complex tokens came into common usage, including many naturalistic forms shaped like miniature tools, furniture, fruit, and humans. 

【逻辑分析】此处原文的大意是：早期的符号一般都是最简单的几何形状，但是以后的符号类似于缩小版的工具、家具、水果或者人的形象。题干问的是我们可以从原文中推测出关于早期和晚期符号的什么信息，因此要在定位句中找出它们的区别和联系。

【选项分析】
选项 A 的意思是早期符号都是黏土做的，晚期的则是很多种材料做的，无中生有；选项 B 的意思是早期的符号不能像晚期符号一样看起来像是它们想象征的东西，正确；
选项 C 的意思是晚期的符号象征农具，早期的符号象征完成的产品，后半句无中生有；
选项 D 的意思是晚期符号基于象形文字，晚期符号基于自然形态，前半句无中生有。

question_stem: The word “likewise" in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: probably

tag: B
text: usually

tag: C
text: similarly

tag: D
text: apparently
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】与文中单词“likewise”意思最相近的是？
选项 A 的意思是可能
选项 B 的意思是经常
选项 C 的意思是相似地
选项 D 的意思是明显地

【题型判断】题目要求选出与高亮单词意思最接近的选项，故判断本题为词汇题。

【关键词定位】本题定位到原文：The signs marked on clay tablets likewise evolved from simple wedges, circles, ovals, and triangles based on the plain tokens to pictographs derived from the complex tokens. 

【词汇解析】单词在句子中的意思是：类似地。此处原文的大意是：这些被印在黏土板上的标志像是由简单的楔形、圆形、椭圆形或者三角形进化而来的，以后则进化成了来源于复杂标志的象形文字。

【选项分析】
选项 A 的意思是可能，错误
选项 B 的意思是经常，错误
选项 C 的意思是相似地，正确
选项 D 的意思是明显地，错误

question_stem: The word “Some” in the passage refers to
choices: tag: A
text: evidence

tag: B
text: inventors

tag: C
text: researchers

tag: D
text: intellectual elite
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】文章中“一些”一词指的是下列哪一项？
A 证据
B 发明家
C 研究人员
D 知识精英

【判定题型】：根据题干中出现的关键词“refer to”，判定本题为指代题。

【关键词定位】：根据题干中的关键词“Some”，找到该词所在的整句句子，以及上下文相关的句子 Some, for example, hypothesized that writing emerged when members of the priestly caste agreed among themselves on written signs.

【分析句子语法】：此处原文的大意是：例如，一些人假设文字起源于祭司一致认同的一套书写符号。题干问的是 some 在这里指代什么。some 后面是动词 hypothesize，又因为整个句子不能没有主语，所以可推断 some 是做主语，并且是 sb. 再根据文章的前后文，可得知是研究人员。

【选项分析】：（分析选项为什么对、为什么错）
选项 A 的意思是证据，错误
选项 B 的意思是发明家，错误
选项 C 的意思是研究者，正确
选项 D 的意思是高智商精英，错误

question_stem: In paragraph 4, why does the author mention the association of tokens with farmers and artisans?
choices: tag: A
text: To provide examples of the types of commercial activity that existed in Sumerian society

tag: B
text: To argue against the theory that writing was developed by an intellectual elite

tag: C
text: To contrast the way farmers used tokens with the way artisans used tokens

tag: D
text: To help explain why farmers and artisans had a relatively modest social status in Sumerian society
answer_key: B
explanation: 【题目翻译】在第4段中，为什么作者提到了令牌与农民和工匠的联系？
A 提供苏美尔社会存在的商业活动类型的例子。
B 反对写作是由知识精英发展起来的理论。
C 比较农民使用代币的方式和工匠使用代币的方式。
D 帮助解释为什么农民和工匠在苏美尔社会中的社会地位相对较低

【判定题型】：根据题干问法“why …… mention”，题目询问 the association of tokens with farmers and artisans 的修辞目的，可以判断本题为修辞目的题。

【关键词定位】本题定位到原文：But the association of the plain tokens with the first farmers and of the complex tokens with the first artisans—and the fact that the token-and-envelope accounting system invariably represented only small-scale transactions—testifies to the relatively modest social status of the creators of writing. 

【引用内容分析】此处原文的大意是：但是第一代农民和工匠也使用符号的这个事实也一直在证明其实文字的创造者的社会地位并不高。题干问的是作者为什么要提到符号和农民工匠之间的联系，文章中“但是”这一个转折表明了文字的创造和创造者的社会地位高低的联系并不强烈，因此是为了反驳该理论。

【选项分析】
选项 A 的意思是为了给苏美尔人社会里存在的商业活动提供例子。属于无中生有，错误。
选项 B 的意思是为了反驳文字是被高地位人创造出来的理论。正确
选项 C 的意思是为了对比农民使用符号的方式和工匠使用符号的方式。属于无中生有，错误。
选项 D 的意思是为了解释为什么苏美人社会里农民和工匠的地位比较低。属于无中生有，错误。

question_stem: The word “invariably” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: easily

tag: B
text: accurately

tag: C
text: always

tag: D
text: soon
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】与文中单词“invariably”意思最相近的是？
选项 A 的意思是简单地。
选项 B 的意思是准确地。
选项 C 的意思是一直地。
选项 D 的意思是很快地。

【判定题型】：题目要求选出与高亮单词意思最接近的选项，故判断本题为词汇题。

【关键词定位】本题定位到原文：But the association of the plain tokens with the first farmers and of the complex tokens with the first artisans—and the fact that the token-and-envelope accounting system invariably represented only small-scale transactions—testifies to the relatively modest social status of the creators of writing.

【词汇解析】：词汇“invariably”的意思是“不停地，一直地”,带入到原句中，原句的意思是但是第一代农民和工匠也使用符号的这个事实也一直在证明其实文字的创造者的社会地位并不高。

【选项分析】
选项 A 的意思是简单地。不符合，错误
选项 B 的意思是准确地。不符合，错误
选项 C 的意思是一直地。符合，正确
选项 D 的意思是很快地。不符合，错误

question_stem: According to paragraph 5, all of the following statements about the development of numerals are true EXCEPT:
choices: tag: A
text: Numerals first developed around 3100 B.C.E.

tag: B
text: Numerals were created to keep records of commodities.

tag: C
text: The numeral “18” developed from the sign for grain.

tag: D
text: Accountants introduced unique numeral signs for use with signs for commodities.
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第5段，关于数字发展的下列所有陈述均属实，但哪一项不正确？
A：数字最早出现于公元前3100年左右。
B：数字是用来记录商品的。
C：数字“18”是从谷物的符号发展而来的。
D：会计师引入了独特的数字符号，用于商品的符号。

【判定题型】：根据题干中出现的大写“EXCEPT”/"NOT" 等其他明显表示否定的词，可以判定本题为否定事实信息题，需要找出与原文信息不符的那个答案。

【关键词定位】：根据题干关键词 he development of numerals,可以将出题范围锁定在 Passage 5 。

【选项分析】：
第五段主要讲述了数字的发展。  
选项 A 的意思是数字在公元前3100被发明，对应原文中的 Another immensely significant step occurred around 3100 B.C.E.，正确；
选项 B 的意思是数字是为了记录商品而产生的，对应 The evidence of the tokens provides further confirmation that mathematics originated in people’s desire to keep records of flocks and other goods.，正确；
选项 C 的意思是18这个数字来自于谷物的符号，但是原文中提到18的时候只是在举例说如果有18个单位的谷物，则标号为18+谷物符号，并没有说18这个数字起源于谷物，属于无关缠绕，错误；
选项 D 的意思是会计把数字符号和商品符号结合起来用，对应原文 The accountants, however, devised numeral signs distinct from commodity signs 这一句，正确。

question_stem: The word “unearthed” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: discovered

tag: B
text: protected

tag: C
text: buried

tag: D
text: forgotten
answer_key: A
explanation: 【题目翻译】与文中单词“unearthed”意思最相近的是？
选项 A 的意思是发现，
选项 B 的意思是保护，
选项 C 的意思是埋葬，
选项 D 的意思是忘记。

【判定题型】：题目要求选出与高亮单词意思最接近的选项，故判断本题为词汇题。

【关键词定位】本题定位到原文：The immense volume of clay tablets unearthed in the ruins of the Sumerian temples where the accounts were kept suggests a social differentiation within the scribal class, with a virtual army of lower-ranking tabulators performing the monotonous job of tallying commodities. 

【词汇解析】：词汇“unearthed”的意思是“出土的”,带入到原句中，原句的意思是：大量的黏土板从苏美人的庙宇遗迹里被发掘出来。

【选项分析】：（分析选项为什么对、为什么错）
选项 A 的意思是发现，符合，正确
选项 B 的意思是保护，不符，错误
选项 C 的意思是埋葬，不符，错误
选项 D 的意思是忘记，不符，错误

question_stem: The word “brainchild" in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: symbol

tag: B
text: concern

tag: C
text: pride

tag: D
text: invention
answer_key: D
explanation: 【题目翻译】与文中单词“brainchild”意思最相近的是？
选项 A 的意思是象征，
选项 B 的意思是关心担忧，
选项 C 的意思是骄傲，
选项 D 的意思是发明。

【判定题型】：题目要求选出与高亮单词意思最接近的选项，故判断本题为词汇题。

【关键词定位】本题定位到原文：We can only speculate as to how high or low the inventors of true numerals were in the scribal hierarchy, but it stands to reason that this laborsaving innovation would have been the brainchild of the lower-ranking types whose drudgery it eased. 

【词汇解析】：词汇“brainchild”的意思是“独创的观念、点子”,带入到原句中，原句的意思是我们只能推测一下真正数字的发明者在社会里的地位，但是这种节省劳动力的发明应该是来自于可以帮助他们把苦工变得更加容易的低阶级人。

【选项分析】
选项 A 的意思是象征，不符，错误
选项 B 的意思是关心担忧，不符，错误
选项 C 的意思是骄傲，不符，错误
选项 D 的意思是发明，符合，正确