Bartering was abasictrademechanismfor many thousands of years; oftensporadicand usually based onnotionsofreciprocity, it involved themutualexchangeof commodities or objects between individuals or groups. Redistribution of these goodsthroughsocietylayin the hands of chiefs,religiousleaders, or kin groups. Such redistribution was abasicelementin chiefdoms. The change from redistribution toformaltrade—often based on regulatedcommercethat perhaps involved fixed prices andevencurrency—was closely tied to growingpoliticaland socialcomplexityand hence to thedevelopmentof thestatein theancientworld.

In the 1970s, a number of archaeologists gavetradeaprimaryrole in the rise ofancientstates. British archaeologist Colin Renfrew attributed thedramaticflowering of the Minoancivilizationon Crete andthroughtheAegeanto intensified trading contacts and to theimpactofoliveandvinecultivationonlocalcommunities. As agricultural economies became more diversified andlocalfood supplies could be purchased bothlocallyand over longer distances, a far-reachingeconomicinterdependenceresulted. Eventually, this led to redistribution systems for luxuries andbasiccommodities, systems that were organized and controlled by Minoan rulers from their palaces. As time went on, the self-sufficiency of communities was replaced bymutualdependence. Interestin long­-distancetradebrought about some culturalhomogeneityfromtradeand giftexchange, and perhapsevenled topiracy. Thus, intensifiedtradeandinteraction, and the flowering of specialist crafts, in acomplexprocessofpositivefeedback, led to much morecomplexsocieties based on palaces, which were theeconomichubs of a new Minoancivilization.

Renfrew’s model made some assumptions that are now discounted. For example, he argued that theintroductionofdomesticatedvines and olives allowed asubstantialexpansionof land undercultivationand helped to power theemergenceofcomplexsociety. Many archaeologists and paleobotanists now question this view, pointing out that theavailableevidenceforcultivatedvines and olives suggests that they were present only in the later Bronze Age. Trade,nevertheless, was probably one of many variables that led to theemergenceof palace economies in Minoan Crete.

American archaeologist William Rathje developed ahypothesisthat considered anexplosionin long-distanceexchangeafundamentalcause of Mayancivilizationin Mesoamerica. He suggested that thelowlandMayan environment wasdeficientin manyvitalresources, among themobsidian, salt, stone for grindingmaize, and manyluxurymaterials. All these could be obtained from the nearby highlands, from theValleyof Mexico, and from other regions, if the necessary trading networks came into being. Such connections, and the trading expeditions tomaintainthem, could not be organized byindividualvillages. The Maya lived in arelativelyuniformenvironment, where everycommunitysuffered from the sameresourcedeficiencies. Thus, argued Rathje, long­-distancetradenetworks were organizedthroughlocalceremonialcenters and their leaders. In time, thisorganizationbecame astate, and knowledge of its functioning was exportable, as werepottery,tropicalbird feathers,specializedstone materials, and otherlocalcommodities.

Rathje’shypothesisprobably explains part of thecomplexprocessof Mayanstateformation, but it suffers from theobjectionthatsuitablealternativerawmaterials can be found in the lowlands. It could be, too, thatwarfarebecame acompetitiveresponsetopopulationgrowth and to the increasingscarcityofprimeagricultural land, and that it played an important role in theemergenceof the Mayan states.

Now that we know much more aboutancientexchangeandcommerce, we know that, because no oneaspectoftradewas anoverridingcause of cultural change orevolutionincommercialpractices,tradecan never be looked on as a unifyingfactoror as aprimaryagent ofancientcivilization. Many ever-changing variables affectedancienttrade, among them the demand for goods.There were also the logistics oftransportation, theextentof the trading network, and the social andpoliticalenvironment. Intricatemarketnetworks channeled supplies along well-defined routes. Authorities at both ends mightregulatethe profits fed back to thesource, providing theincentivefor further transactions. There may or may not have been amarketorganization. Extensive long-distancetradewas aconsequencerather than a cause ofcomplexsocieties.

Questions:
question_stem: The word "notions" in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: ideas

tag: B
text: rules

tag: C
text: degrees

tag: D
text: traditions
answer_key: A
explanation: 【题目翻译】段落中的“notions”一词最接近于下列哪个选项？
A：想法
B：规则，条例
C：程度
D：传统

【判定题型】：题目要求选出与高亮单词意思最接近的选项，故判断本题为词汇题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“notions”,定位到原句“Bartering was a basic trade mechanism for many thousands of years; often sporadic and usually based on notions of reciprocity, it involved the mutual exchange of commodities or objects between individuals or groups. ”。

【词汇解析】：词汇“notions”的意思是“概念，见解，打算”,带入到原句中，原句的意思是“物物交换是数千年来的基本交易机制；它是偶发的，并且通常是基于互惠这一概念，它包括个体或群体之间相互交换商品或物品的行为”。

【选项分析】
A：想法。同义替换，正确
B：规则，条例。不符，错误
C：程度。不符，错误
D：传统。不符，错误

question_stem: According to paragraph 1, what development occurred as political and social complexity increased?
choices: tag: A
text: The prices of most commodities rose.

tag: B
text: Formal trade emerged.

tag: C
text: Chiefs became more powerful

tag: D
text: Bartering became the preferred means of trade.
answer_key: B
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第1段，随着政治和社会复杂性的增加，发生了什么发展？
A：大多数商品的价格都上涨了。

B：正式贸易出现了。

C：酋长们变得更强大了

D：易货贸易成为首选的贸易方式。

【判定题型】：题目问的是文章中的具体细节信息，故根据题目问法可以判断本题为事实信息题。

【关键词定位】根据题干中的“political and social complexity”,定位至最后一句话，原句为“he change from redistribution to formal trade—often based on regulated commerce that perhaps involved fixed prices and even currency—was closely tied to growing political and social complexity and hence to the development of the state in the ancient world.”，意思是“从再分配到正式贸易——通常是基于包括固定价格甚至是货币在内的有规划的商业模式——的变化与政治和社会越来越复杂息息相关，因此也与古代国家的发展有关。”。

【逻辑分析】：结合题目问法和出题句，进行逻辑分析。

【选项分析】
A.文章未提及商品价格上涨。故错误。
B.根据原文“The change from redistribution to formal trade”, B 选项为同义替换，正式贸易的出现，因此选项 B 正确。
C.文章未提及酋长们是否变得更强大，故错误。
D.第一段还未提及什么是贸易的首选方式。故错误

question_stem: The word “diversified” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: organized

tag: B
text: selective

tag: C
text: varied

tag: D
text: efficient
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】段落中的“diversified”一词最接近于
A：Organized, 有组织的，安排有秩序的。
B：Selective, 选择性的。
C：Varied, 多变的，各式各样的。
D：Efficient, 有效率的

【判定题型】：题目要求选出与高亮单词意思最接近的选项，故判断本题为词汇题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“diversified”,定位到原句“As agricultural economies became more diversified and local food supplies could be purchased both locally and over longer distances, a far-reaching economic interdependence resulted. ”。

【词汇解析】：词汇“diversified”的意思是“多样化的，各种的”,带入到原句中，原句的意思是“随着农业经济变得更加多样化，地方粮食供应既可以在当地购买，也可以在更长的距离内购买，因此产生了一种深远的经济相互依存关系。”。

【选项分析】
A：Organized, 有组织的，安排有秩序的。不符，错误
B：Selective, 选择性的。不符，错误
C：Varied, 多变的，各式各样的。同义替换，正确
D：Efficient, 有效率的。不符，错误

question_stem: According to paragraph 2, which of the following controlled the systems of redistribution of goods in ancient Crete?
choices: tag: A
text: Local community leaders

tag: B
text: Olive growers

tag: C
text: Minoan rulers

tag: D
text: Long-distance traders
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第2段，以下哪一项控制了古克里特岛的货物再分配制度？
A：当地社区领导

B：橄榄种植者

C：米诺统治者

D：长途贸易商

【判定题型】：题目问的是文章中的具体细节信息，故根据题目问法可以判断本题为事实信息题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“ control”,定位到 Passage 2 第4句，原句为“Eventually, this led to redistribution systems for luxuries and basic commodities, systems that were organized and controlled by Minoan rulers from their palaces. ”，意思是“最终，这导致了奢侈品和基本商品的再分配制度，这些制度是由米诺统治者从他们的宫殿组织和控制的。”。

【逻辑分析】可知此系统由 Minoan rulers 控制。

【选项分析】
A.社区是相互依赖的，故错误。
B.文章未提及橄榄种植者，故错误。
C.符合文意，正确。
D.长途贸易商不是控制者，贸易只是其中一个过程。故错误。

question_stem: According to paragraph 2, Renfrew believed that one effect of long-distance trade in the Aegean was
choices: tag: A
text: a greater effort to control piracy

tag: B
text: greater cultural similarity throughout the region

tag: C
text: a decline in local olive production

tag: D
text: a decline in the use of luxuries for gift exchanges
answer_key: B
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第2段，伦弗鲁认为爱琴海长途贸易的一个影响是
A：加强对海盗的控制

B：整个地区的文化相似性更大

C：当地橄榄产量下降

D：用于礼品交换的奢侈品使用减少

【判定题型】：题目问的是文章中的具体细节信息，故根据题目问法可以判断本题为事实信息题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“long-distance trade”,定位到 Passage2 第6句，原句为“Interest in long¬-distance trade brought about some cultural homogeneity from trade and gift exchange”，意思是“对远程贸易的兴趣使贸易和礼品交换产生了某种文化同质性”。

【逻辑分析】远程贸易的兴趣对文化同质性有影响。

【选项分析】
A.未提及海盗。故错误。
B.原文中的 cultural homogeneity 意为文化趋同，和 B 选项中的 cultural similarity 互为同意，因此 B 选项正确。
C.未提及橄榄产量。故错误。
D.也未提及奢侈品。故错误。

question_stem: According to paragraph 3, what was a major problem with Renfrew’s model?
choices: tag: A
text: He overlooked the fact that only the Minoan palaces had access to domesticated vines and olives.

tag: B
text: He wrongly assumed that the introduction of domesticated vines and olives led to the cultivation of more land.

tag: C
text: Trade in domesticated plants was much more important to the emergence of Minoan palace economies than he thought.

tag: D
text: Domesticated vines and olives do not appear to have been available as early as he thought
answer_key: D
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第3段，Renfrew 模型的主要问题是什么？
A：他忽略了这样一个事实，即只有米诺王朝的宫殿才有机会获得驯化的葡萄藤和橄榄。

B：他错误地认为引进驯化的葡萄藤和橄榄会导致更多的土地耕种。

C：驯化植物的贸易对米诺宫经济的出现比他想象的要重要得多。

D：驯化的葡萄藤和橄榄似乎没有他想象的那么早就有了。

【判定题型】：题目问的是文章中的具体细节信息，故根据题目问法可以判断本题为事实信息题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“Renfrew’s model”,定位到 Passage 3第3句，原句为“pointing out that the available evidence for cultivated vines and olives suggests that they were present only in the later Bronze Age.”，意思是“指出栽培葡萄和橄榄的现有证据表明它们只存在于青铜时代晚期”。

【逻辑分析】可知，家养的葡萄藤和橄榄没有 Renfrew 预想中出现的那么早。

【选项分析】
A.未提及，故错误。
B.这不是主要问题，这只是举得一个例子。故错误。
C.文章未提及，故错误。
D.D 选项为同意替换，文中 they were present only in the later Bronze Age 对应 D 选项中的 do not appear to have been available as early as he thought. 所以 D 选项正确。

question_stem: According to paragraph 4, which of the following was true about ancient Mayan communities?
choices: tag: A
text: They each created their own separate trading networks with communities in the nearby highlands.

tag: B
text: They all had many luxury materials that they were able to trade for resources that they lacked.

tag: C
text: They all needed to obtain a number of important materials through trade with other regions.

tag: D
text: They all gradually reduced their trading activities with communities in the Valley of Mexico and developed trading networks with other regions.
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第4段，关于古玛雅社区，以下哪一项是正确的？
A：他们各自与附近高地的社区建立了各自独立的贸易网络。

B：他们都有许多奢侈的材料，可以用来交换他们所缺少的资源。

C：他们都需要通过与其他地区的贸易获得一些重要的材料。

D：他们都逐渐减少了与墨西哥谷社区的贸易活动，并与其他地区建立了贸易网络。

【判定题型】：题目问的是文章中的具体细节信息，故根据题目问法可以判断本题为事实信息题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“ancient Mayan communities”,定位到 Passage 4 第3句，原句为“All these could be obtained from the nearby highlands, from the Valley of Mexico, and from other regions,，意思是“所有这些都可以从附近的高地、墨西哥谷和其他地区获得”。

【逻辑分析】说的是材料的获得地，可以从附近的高地、墨西哥谷和其他地区获得。

【选项分析】
A.并没有独立的贸易网络，故错误。
B.他们缺少的材料是相同的，也没有奢侈的材料，故错误。
C.选项 C 为同意替换，其中 from other regions 对应 C 选项中的 with other regions. 因此选项 C 正确。
D.未提及和墨西哥谷社区有什么贸易活动，故错误。

question_stem: What can be inferred from the fact that the Maya lived in a “relatively uniform environment”?
choices: tag: A
text: The communities could not obtain resources they lacked by trading with each other.

tag: B
text: The communities’ ceremonial centers were all organized in much the same way.

tag: C
text: Increased competition between the communities to export their local commodities expanded commercial networks beyond the nearby highlands.

tag: D
text: Different communities tended to specialize in the production of different commodities.
answer_key: A
explanation: 【题目翻译】从玛雅人生活在“相对统一的环境”这一事实可以推断出什么？
A：社区之间无法通过贸易获得他们所缺乏的资源。

B：社区的仪式中心都是以同样的方式组织起来的。

C：社区间出口当地商品的竞争加剧，扩大了附近高地以外的商业网络。

D：不同的社区倾向于专门生产不同的商品。

【判定题型】：根据题干中出现的关键词“imply”/“infer”/“suggest”等其他表示推断的词，判定本题为推理题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“relatively uniform environment”,定位到 Passage4，原句为“The Maya lived in a relatively uniform environment, where every community suffered from the same resource deficiencies. ”。

【逻辑分析】因为玛雅人都居住在一个相对统一的环境中，所以肯定无法与彼此进行贸易往来以获取所需资源。

【选项分析】
A.符合文意，正确。
B.未提及以什么样的方式，故错误。
C.未提及是否竞争加剧，故错误。
D.未提及不同的社区专门生产不同的商品。故错误

question_stem: The word “prime” in the passage is closest in meaning to
choices: tag: A
text: low-lying

tag: B
text: easily accessible

tag: C
text: unused

tag: D
text: high-quality
answer_key: D
explanation: 【题目翻译】段落中的“prime”一词最接近于
A：Low-lying, 低洼的。
B：Easily accessible, 容易进入的。
C：Unused, 未使用的。
D：High-quality, 高质量的。

【判定题型】：题目要求选出与高亮单词意思最接近的选项，故判断本题为词汇题。

【关键词定位】：根据关键词“prime”,定位到原句“It could be, too, that warfare became a competitive response to population growth and to the increasing scarcity of prime agricultural land, and that it played an important role in the emergence of the Mayan states.”。

【词汇解析】：词汇“prime”的意思是“主要的，最好的”,带入到原句中，原句的意思是“也可能是，人口增长和日益稀缺的优质农业土地引发了战争，在玛雅国家的出现中发挥了重要作用。’

【选项分析】
A：Low-lying, 低洼的。不符，错误
B：Easily accessible, 容易进入的。不符，错误
C：Unused, 未使用的。不符，错误
D：High-quality, 高质量的。同义替换，正确

question_stem: What is the role of paragraph 5 in relation to paragraph 4?
choices: tag: A
text: It restates the hypothesis presented in paragraph 4 and reinforces it with further evidence.

tag: B
text: It presents evidence that the hypothesis discussed in paragraph 4 confuses cause and effect.

tag: C
text: It presents a critical assessment of the hypothesis presented in paragraph 4.

tag: D
text: It explains how the hypothesis discussed in paragraph 4 was initially formulated.
answer_key: C
explanation: 【题目翻译】第5段对第4段的作用是什么？
A：它重申了第4段中提出的假设，并用进一步的证据加以证实。

B：它提供了证据，证明第4段中讨论的假设混淆了因果关系。

C：它对第4段中提出的假设进行了批判性评估。

D：它解释了第4段中讨论的假设最初是如何制定的。

【判定题型】：根据题目问法，题目询问 xxx 组成或构成方式/段落与段落的关系/某一段在全文中所起的作用，故判断本题为组织结构题。

【内容分析】在第五段中，作者说 Rathje 的假设或许可以解释玛雅形成的复杂过程中的一部分，但是它也承受着可以在低地找到原材料合适的替代品的异议。所以可以看出作者的态度是带有批判性的。

【选项分析】
A.不是证实，而是批判。故错误。
B.未提出是否混淆因果关系。故错误。
C.符合文意，正确。
D.不是解释，是批判。故错误。

question_stem: Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
choices: tag: A
text: We now know that ancient trade cannot be considered a main factor in the rise of civilization, because no one aspect of it caused change in culture or commercial practices.

tag: B
text: We now know that the growth of civilization was an important factor in causing cultural change and in improving commercial practices.

tag: C
text: We now know much more about how ancient trade and commerce led to cultural changes and the evolution of commercial practices.

tag: D
text: We now know much more about the main factors and agents that led to ancient civilization, because we know what aspects of trade affected culture and commercial practices.
answer_key: A
explanation: 【题目翻译】下面哪句话最能表达文章中突出显示的句子中的基本信息？错误的选择会以重要的方式改变意义，或者遗漏重要的信息。
A：我们现在知道，古代贸易不能被视为文明崛起的主要因素，因为它没有任何一个方面引起文化或商业惯例的变化。

B：我们现在知道，文明的发展是引起文化变革和改进商业惯例的一个重要因素。

C：我们现在更了解古代贸易和商业是如何导致文化变革和商业实践的演变的。

D：我们现在更了解导致古代文明的主要因素和因素，因为我们知道贸易的哪些方面影响了文化和商业实践。

【判定题型】：根据题目问法，题目要求选择和高亮句意思逻辑都最为接近的句子，故判断本题为句子简化题。

【句子分析】highlighted 部分意为，现在我们已经了解了更多关于古代交换和贸易的内容，我们知道因为没有一个单一方面的贸易可以作为文化改变或者商业实践中的演变最重要的原因，贸易永远不会被视为一个统一因子或者是一个古代文明的重要媒介。

【选项分析】
A.根据句子主干，只有 A 选项符合。
B.原句未提到文明的发展。故错误。
C.古代贸易和商业是导致文化变革和商业实践的原因。故错误。
D.不是古代文明，而是古代交换和贸易的内容。故错误。

question_stem: According to paragraph 6, all of the following statements about trade in ancient civilizations are true EXCEPT
choices: tag: A
text: The spread of trade was influenced by many variables, none of which was the main cause.

tag: B
text: Political conditions were more important than demand for goods in the development of trade.

tag: C
text: Some markets had clearly established trading routes.

tag: D
text: The regulation of profits provided incentives for future trade.
answer_key: B
explanation: 【题目翻译】根据第6段，以下关于古代文明贸易的所有陈述都是真实的，除了
A：贸易的扩散受到许多变量的影响，其中没有一个是主要原因。

B：在贸易发展中，政治条件比商品需求更重要。

C：一些市场已经明确确立了贸易路线。

D：利润管制为未来的贸易提供了激励。

【判定题型】：根据题干中出现的大写“EXCEPT”/"NOT" 等其他明显表示否定的词，可以判定本题为否定事实信息题，需要找出与原文信息不符的那个答案。

【关键词定位】：根据题干关键词“trade in ancient civilizations”,可以将出题范围锁定在 Passage 6。

【选项分析】
A.这不是主要原因。故错误。
B.根据原文第三句话“There were also the logistics of transportation, the extent of the trading network, and the social and political environment.”可知，商业网以及社会与政治环境的重要性是并列的，并且均没有对商品的需求更加重要。因此选择 B 选项。
C.未提及，故错误。
D.未提及利润管制。故错误。