Aluminum Foil
Snowboards
Contact Lenses
Bread

Today on "how it's made"...

Aluminum foil...

Snowboards...

Contact lenses...

And bread.

Aluminum foil has a multitude of uses, from heating something up in the oven to keeping something cold in the fridge.

But have you ever wondered how a huge block of solid aluminum gets transformed into a paper-thin sheet of foil?

The manufacture of aluminum foil requires the repeated thinning out of a large block of aluminum.

We begin by melting ingots of 100%-pure aluminum in a natural-gas furnace.

These ingots, called "pigs," are essential in alloys with zinc, titanium, and silica.

It takes 3 to 8 hours to melt 30 tons of aluminum in this remelting furnace, which operates at 1,380 degrees fahrenheit.

The fusion temperature of aluminum is 1,220 degrees fahrenheit.

A portion of aluminum is poured into this small mold to make a sample.

Solidifying in just seconds, the sample allows for testing to verify the contents of the prepared alloy.

Molten aluminum runs in a movable trough located above the tapping well.

At this stage, impurities are filtered out in special receptacles.

The molds are cooled with water to accelerate the solidification of the molten aluminum.

Ingots are unmolded and are ready for milling.

Each ingot is massive, measuring 14 feet in length, 5 feet in width, and 18 inches thick.

It weighs a whopping 8 tons, so it has to be handled by overhead cranes and placed on special plates.

This crust-removing machine removes 1/10 of an inch of the ingot's thickness.

Impurities are eliminated to achieve a perfectly smooth finish.

All traces of the liquid used to cool the decrusting knives have to be eliminated.

The many steps in the thinning of the ingot begin.

First, the aluminum block is crushed by the hot mill rollers.

Temperatures in the rollers are between 850 and 1,000 degrees fahrenheit.

Pressure on the ingot is continually verified by a technician.

If the pressure is too great, the technician will lower it.

The heat is so high that the ingot risks sticking to the mill's roller.

To prevent this, everything is cooled with a liquid that's 95% water and 5% oil.

Starting from a thickness of 18 inches, the ingot becomes increasingly thinner with each pass-through.

Depending on requirements, the ingot will go through the machine between 12 and 16 times.

The ingot now measures about 3 inches in thickness.

It has to get down to just 2/10 of an inch.

At this stage, the ingot is about 2 inches thick and measures almost 30 feet in length.

This conveyor transports the plate during its milling stages.

The ingot has become a sheet 2/10 of an inch thick.

It is sufficiently thin to proceed to spooling, where it spools onto itself before being sent to the cold rolling mill.

There, its thickness will be reduced still further.

The aluminum sheet has become very thin now and risks being broken by the tension needed for cold rolling.

So the sheet is doubled to avoid this breakage.

One final reduction in the mill, and the sheet will have the thickness required by the customer.

A liquid coolant is used to prevent the foil from sticking to the rollers.

Since the edges of the foil sheet are lightly damaged and crinkled, a knife removes a strip 4/10 of an inch wide.

Finally, the roll is cut to the desired width, and one huge ingot has produced nearly 8 miles of foil.

If you've ever tried snowboarding, you've probably discovered that those cool moves aren't quite as easy as the pros make it look.

Learning to maneuver a snowboard is a long and involved process, and it's much the same when it comes to manufacturing these surfboards for snow.

The snowboard is the delight of winter-sports enthusiasts.

Its core is made of a thin sheet of wood.

Various kinds of woods are used, depending on the type of board being made.

Bindings have to be firmly attached to the board.

Holes are drilled for inserts, to which bindings will be secured.

A template allows the holes to be precisely drilled.

Planing reduces the board to the required thickness.

A thick board is obviously more rigid than a thin one.

A shaping procedure refines the board's contours.

At this point, the board is still perfectly flat with no curvature.

The boards are then stored upright to await the next step.

Now they must secure the aluminum inserts, which will be embedded in the wood.

This thin sheet of fiberglass will create better support for the inserts.

Therefore, they will be more solid.

To make working on it easier, the board is securely held in place by clamps.

Epoxy, an extremely strong adhesive often used with composite materials, is applied to the fiberglass at room temperature.

It is essential to remove any excess epoxy, as well as eliminate all air bubbles so there will be a good adherence.

As for the top part of the board, it's made of a resistant plastic applied by silk-screening.

In silk-screening, ink is spread by this little squeegee.

This application is called a pass.

Colors have to be applied one at a time.

The inks must dry for several hours between each coat.

Now the board must be curved.

A cover is placed on the mold.

When the mold is closed, the board is given the desired curve.

Heat trapped in the mold makes the epoxy set and harden.

The board comes out of the mold, and any excess epoxy and wood are removed by a band saw.

To achieve a perfect cut, the saw blade is changed every 50 boards.

It's highly precise work and totally manual.

They apply, again by silk-screening, another coat, then another color.

This time, red.

The snowboard must now be protected.

A protecting varnish flows as a thin curtain.

The board passes beneath this curtain and then moves into a dryer for a six-hour stay.

Sanding removes surplus varnish from the edges of the board.

New holes are pierced into the board to locate the inserts installed at the beginning of production.

This sander removes imperfections in the hardened varnish and prepares the board for its second varnish coating.

Then the plastic base is sanded to obtain the desired finish.

The board is checked to see that it's perfectly flat.

A razor blade verifies that the different coats are well-adhered to one another.

Certain boards get an engraved aluminum insert-- a luxury touch.

The board is now ready for action.

This facility turns out over 500 snowboards per day in 30 different models.

People who have defective vision can always wear glasses, but in many cases, there's a less-noticeable alternative.

Contact lenses correct faulty vision without anyone knowing the wearer even has them on.

What goes into making these tiny optical aids is really eye-catching.

Contact lenses have been in existence for over a century.

At first completely rigid, they have become gas-permeable and as flexible as gelatin.

These small polyhema disks are used to make soft polymer contact lenses in a variety of colors.

We see here a patient's prescription, essential to the fabrication of lenses.

The process begins with data processing control of the shaping.

Data is supplied by computer, which controls a digital lathe.

They begin by shaping the inner curvature of the lens.

This digital lathe, rotating at 6,000 revolutions per minute, is equipped with an industrial diamond.

It shapes the inner surface-- the part that touches the cornea.

It must be free from any abrasions and imperfections and is polished with a super-fine abrasive paste.

Polishing is a crucial step because it assures excellent comfort and perfect vision.

A technician measures lens thickness with an extremely precise gauge.

They now shape the outer surface, the part that touches the eyelid.

The lens is glued with a special warm wax, when the lens is completed, an ultrasound device will remove the wax.

The wax takes on the desired shape in just seconds.

The comfort of a lens is also determined by its thickness.

It must be as thin as possible while retaining sufficient solidity.

They begin by shaping the outer diameter of the lens, which takes only a few seconds.

They now polish the outer surface of the lens.

This polishing, done at high speed, calls for an abrasive paste, some oil, and a small polyester cotton ball.

This apparatus polishes several lenses at the same time-- a step that takes only 60 seconds.

With everything computerized, quality is incomparable.

A technician then polishes the rims of the lens.

The polymer is hydrated to make it flexible.

Lenses remain immersed in a balanced ph saline solution for 24 hours.

The lens becomes engorged with liquid and expands, reaching the desired proportions.

This optical topographer is used to verify, through color distribution, whether the spread of optical power in the lens is precise enough to assure perfect vision.

And now we proceed with another important testing procedure.

The soft, fragile lenses are always handled with the greatest of care.

This unit, called a frontofocometer, is a metering device which verifies the optical precision of the lens.

The lenses are now completed and are cleaned.

They're stored in containers filled with a salt solution.

This little vial that we might find at optometrists' is sealed with a silicone cap and another of aluminum.

These vials are placed in a sterilizer at temperatures of 250 degrees fahrenheit for an hour and a half.

The contents will remain sterile for up to seven years if not opened.

The production of a lens involves 14 steps.

If we exclude the rather lengthy hydration process, actual lens production requires only 15 minutes.

They can produce almost 1,000 contact lenses per day-- all made from these tiny colored disks.

It's a staple for people all over the world.

Smothered in butter and jelly or dipped in gravy, it's a delicious treat that's hard to resist.

And we're willing to bet you can't resist the opportunity to find out what goes into the making of your daily bread.

Over 3,000 years ago, in the time of king tut, egyptians were already baking 40 varieties of leaven bread.

The greeks' contribution to this history was the oven and 70 varieties of flavored breads-- breads so good that the romans took the greek bakers to rome and their ovens to gaul.

By the middle ages, bread had become the primary food of western europe.

Multigrain bread is made from several ingredients such as flaxseed, buckwheat, soy, and millet.

This protective grill prevents foreign matter from accidentally falling into the recipe mix-- a recipe that calls for a half a ton of flour.

The ingredients, ground in a mill, are kept in these 36 enormous containers.

We begin by mixing the ingredients together.

These kneading troughs are used to ferment the yeast, a step which takes three hours.

The fermenting yeast makes the dough rise considerably.

This huge mixer kneads the dough for about eight minutes.

When thoroughly homogenous, the contents are emptied into a large tub.

The dough weighs a little over a ton.

The dough is loaded onto a slide situated above the dough divider.

At the bottom of the machine, a small hole allows the dough to escape.

Two mechanically operated arms cut the dough pieces into equal lengths.

It forms 192 of these a minute.

The dough then falls onto a conveyor.

Here dough pieces are rolled into balls, which can be more easily worked.

The doughballs are floured to prevent them from sticking during their transport and when they're molded.

Here the balls of dough leave the divider and go to the molder.

During transport, the dough can rest, allowing the yeast to act.

The dough is then folded and rolled.

The machine can handle three per second for a total of 11,500 an hour.

The dough is rolled out to the exact size and falls into baking molds.

Here we see the making of hot dog rolls.

These little doughballs have to be shaped lengthwise and fermented before molding.

Here the hog dog rolls are being machine-molded.

Dough pieces must not touch one another, so they're spaced apart by a small mechanical arm.

Now we go back to multigrain bread production.

Squatted down at the bottom of the molds, the dough pieces go into the proofer, where they rise for an hour at 110 degrees fahrenheit and at 70% humidity.

Then they bake for 20 minutes at 490 degrees.

When finally baked, the loaves end up with a nice golden color.

A vacuum system draws the loaves from their molds.

They're then placed on a conveyor to cool.

A guidance system takes care of carrying the breads to various sections of the bakery.

When well-cooled, breads go to the slicer, which cuts 65 loaves a minute.

They are sliced by 7-foot-wide and 16-inch-long steel saw blades.

These blades are changed every two weeks.

Sliced loaves are automatically packed at 65 per minute.

They're now ready for shipping.

Some 5 1/2 hours have passed between preparation of the dry flour and packaging of the baked bread.


Champagne Hoods & Foils
Pneumatic Systems
Espresso Machines
Pizza Ovens

Champagne toasts are common at weddings, birthdays, and many other special occasions, but if the cork isn't secured properly, it can pop off at the wrong moment.

So champagne manufacturers have developed hoods and foils to keep the bottles closed until the right moment.

The foil covering that protects the cork is part of the iconic champagne look.

Unwrapping it is like opening a special present.

Underneath the foil is a wire hood and disk that keeps everything in place.

The flat disks begin as thin sheets of steel.

A suctioning device transfers the sheets to a printing machine.

The machine slices the sheets into strips.

Then, the suctioning device moves the strips to the next step in the production line.

It positions the strips on a machine that quickly punches out the round disk components.

The wire hoods are made out of galvanized steel.

A series of large bobbins feed the steel into a multiphase machine.

The wire is coated with colored lacquer for increased protection and aesthetic appeal.

On a rotating carousel, the machine twists two horizontal strands of wire.

It leaves enough room for a vertical loop between each set of twists.

Next, the device twists the vertical loop.

A blade cuts the wire in between each newly formed cross.

Then, a mechanism removes the crosses and transfers them to the next stage of production.

A machine shapes the bottom of the crosses in three steps.

First, it pinches the wire together at the four extremities.

Then, it forms a bend.

And finally, it folds them over to create a hook.

A device folds the feet up and hooks them onto a wire circle called a belt.

The wire structures are ready for the disk insert.

A press forces the disks into a die to create rounded caps.

Finally, the machine inserts the newly formed caps into the wire structure.

The champagne wire hoods are now complete and ready for their bottles.

It takes 15 steps to build a wire hood.

Incredibly, the machine can build each hood in under 2 seconds.

The wire hood holds the cork in place, but the polylaminate foil wrapper protects it from the elements.

This specially made foil is composed of polythene film sandwiched between two sheets of aluminum.

A high-speed cutter trims the edges.

Then, the polylaminate rolls through a bath of varnish.

The polythene film is made out of granules.

They dye the polylaminate gold using a high-speed printing process.

The polylaminate foil is coated with specially formulated ink that dries instantly under ultraviolet light.

The foil transfers to a perforation machine.

This allows customers to easily unwrap the champagne bottle.

A hot stamping machine adds decorative elements and the brand name to the foil.

Another device adds a strip of glue to one edge.

A machine cuts the foil, then a device equipped with cylindrical rods, called mandrels, wraps the foil into cones.

The glue strip holds the cone together.

A machine places a disk on top of the cones.

They crimp the ends to increase the cone's rigidity.

Then, a vacuum sucks the completed cones off the mandrels.

No bottle of bubbly is complete without a hood and foil.

This factory quickly produces both in any style or color the winery requests.

The factory's speed and versatility allows them to produce wire hoods and foils for 50% of the sparkling wines made in france.

Pneumatic tubes were originally used to transfer money and sensitive documents.

Today, these systems have a different purpose.

Hospitals use them to quickly transport blood samples to their labs.

For patients who need a quick diagnosis, these pipelines are a lifeline.

Many hospitals have a series of pneumatic pipes running behind their walls.

Health care workers seal medical samples in capsules and put them in the system.

These pipelines can be several miles long.

A computer allows users to monitor the capsule's movement.

Compressed air instantly pushes the capsules through the tubing.

They arrive at the lab in seconds.

The building process starts with the send-and-receive unit.

A worker glues tubes to a plate.

Both are made of plastic to reduce static.

He slides the tubes through holes in the top of the unit's metal housing.

He places more tubing inside the housing, then installs the track.

The tubing slides back and forth on the track to shift between send and receive mode.

He screws a bracket to the box.

It contains a motor for the sliding mechanism.

Then, he places the unit in an upright position.

He connects the motor to a power source to test it.

He confirms that the motor moves the plastic chutes back and forth smoothly.

The worker connects an air source to the system to verify that the seals and vents work properly.

At the next station, a technician removes the temporary door.

Then, he wires the motor to the electrical power source.

He bundles the wires and trims the plastic ties.

He screws the computerized control panel to the door.

Then, he reattaches the door.

The technician wires the control panel and verifies that it works.

Then, he connects the computer in the send-and-receive unit to one in a diverter unit.

He confirms that the two computers communicate.

Each pneumatic delivery system has several diverters.

They allow the medical capsules to turn a corner or change direction to reach their final destination.

He installs a gear and motor.

Then, he tests the movement of the pipe from one outlet to the next.

If everything works properly, he screws the back panel on.

Then, they connect the diverter and other transfer units to tubing in the walls of the hospital.

Next, they make the delivery capsules.

A worker places the plastic body in a machine.

He activates it, and the machine spins a cap onto the body.

The spinning also generates heat, which fuses the two parts.

He slides the capsule onto a post to keep it in place.

Then, he hooks one end of a spring to the lid framework and the other end to the sliding lid.

He screws the sliding lid to the framework.

Now, the lid easily snaps open and shut.

He places a rubber casing onto the end and stretches a rubber gasket around the rim.

He wraps fabric bands around both ends.

This helps buffer the capsule during the journey through the pipeline.

He tucks the bands into the rims using a screwdriver.

He installs plastic bumpers inside.

They help cushion any blows to the capsule and its contents during the ride through the pipeline.

This capsule is now ready for a test run.

The technician inserts it in the shoot and programs the path.

He opens the door to monitor its progress.

The tubes slide over to collect the capsule and then slide back to drop it into the main pipeline.

Compressed air blows it through the system.

It zips through the pipes and arrives safely at its final destination.

In the 1880s, italians developed special machines to make espresso.

As the name implies, this coffee drink can be produced in seconds.

Soon, the appeal of this quick brew expanded beyond italy, and today, espresso is enjoyed all over the world.

Making good espresso is as much a science as it is an art.

Professional machines balance temperature and steam pressure to produce espresso with kick and crema.

Professional espresso machines are made of high-carbon steel sheets.

Computer programmed tools carve different shapes out of the steel.

These parts will be the framework for the espresso machine.

The tools also cut holes for screws, bolts, and components like the steam tap.

An employee places a freshly cut control panel into a hydraulic press machine.

The press bends the panel to the correct shape and creates tabs for assembly.

This is the panel before and after bending.

After bending the other panels, they assemble the framework.

The worker attaches a receptacle to capture excess water.

He installs meters to control the flow of water.

They release different amounts for long or short espressos.

He turns the base right side up and screws the side framework to it.

He attaches the front panel to the sides.

The espresso machine's framework is now in place.

Next, they make the group heads.

These parts will shoot hot, pressurized water through the packed ground coffee.

The worker installs valves that will regulate the water flow.

The valves allows release built-up pressure so that the filter holders can be removed after brewing.

The group heads fit into slots in the front of the framework.

He secures them with nuts at the back.

He places a large copper-and-brass boiler in the espresso machine chassis and connects the water lines.

The tank will generate steam to froth milk for cappuccinos.

It will also supply hot water for tea.

Heat exchangers run through the boiler to supply the hot water for brewing.

He connects copper pipes to the heat exchanger outlets on the boiler.

Then, he links them to the group heads.

The pipes have been pre-bent in order to easily fit into the group heads.

He tightens the fitting for the hot water tap.

Next, he installs the pump that pressurizes the water.

He screws it to one side of the framework.

A worker then wires the electronics to the front of the machine.

The employee fits the control panel to the front framework.

He slips rubber molding around the protruding seam.

Then, he screws knobs onto the levers.

He tucks a heating coil into the upper part of the machine.

The top of the machine works as a cup warmer.

The espresso stays hot longer when served in heated cups.

A worker then encases the steel espresso machine in polycarbonate molded panels.

The plastic parts are slightly rounded to make the espresso machine look less boxy.

He seats a steel drip tray under the group heads.

And he places the cup tray over the heating element.

The espresso machine is ready for the filter basket holders.

They're equipped with winglets that hook into the group heads.

The worker tests the espresso machine to confirm that there are no leaks in the hydraulic circuitry.

The machine appears to be in good, working order.

Now, it's time for a coffee break.

The best-tasting pizzas are made in traditional wood-fired pizza ovens.

They're constructed primarily of natural clay bricks that can withstand high temperatures and retain heat.

If a chef prefers to not use a wood-burning oven, a more convenient gas version is available, as well.

This italian company has been handcrafting classic pizza ovens since 1892.

While the tile or paint options change over time, the construction of the oven itself has remained the same for four generations.

It begins with the oven's rounded top.

They lay clay bricks on a dome form, working inward from a steel edge.

These bricks are made in house.

They can withstand temperatures of over 900 degrees fahrenheit.

That's fast enough to bake a traditional neapolitan pizza in just 60 seconds.

They combine sand, soil, concrete, clay and water in a mixer.

They pour this mixture into a steel mold for the base of the oven.

Once they fill the mold to the top, they place a circular template in the exact center of the mold.

Then, they begin constructing the oven's combustion chamber.

This is where the pizza is baked.

The carefully place clay bricks along the template's inner perimeter.

Then, they remove the template and add more bricks.

They work from the outside in, towards the center.

The oven floor serves as the cooking surface.

It's comprised of four pie-shape pieces made of the same heat-resistant clay as the bricks.

Each piece is 2 inches thick.

They slide the floor in temporarily so they can correctly position the bricks around it.

They remove the floor pieces and begin mortaring the bricks.

Once complete, this oven will weigh over 5,000 pounds.

The company makes even larger models that can weigh more than 3 tons.

They lay a second row of bricks on top of the first.

Then, they fill the middle with clay.

The team covers the clay with soil.

They pack down the soil as they go to create a hard, stable surface.

Now, they can permanently install the oven floor.

Next, they position the oven's cast iron mouth.

They lay bricks in a circle around the mouth to form the wall of the combustion chamber.

They lay most of the bricks vertically to fit in as many as possible.

More bricks will provide better insulation in the chamber.

The team pours water on the top edge of the wall.

They remove the oven mouth and apply the mortar.

Then, they lower the dome onto the wall to enclose the combustion chamber.

A worker repositions the mouth and mortars it in place.

He installs the over mouth, a cast iron plate bearing the manufacturer's name.

He levels it, then fills the gap between the mouth and oven floor with plaster.

They also use plaster to create a smooth surface on top of the mouth.

Now, the smoke will rise through the hood toward the chimney instead of being trapped in the oven.

They position steel side plates and weld them to the over mouth.

Then, they wield on a curved steel front plate.

Next, they construct a funnel-shaped stainless steel hood.

They fill the hood with the same mixture they used for the oven's base.

They cover the dome with wire mesh to compact the mix.

Then, they apply a final coat of the mixture.

A worker lays a cast iron plate on the base, directly in front of the mouth.

He spreads a smooth finishing layer of concrete on both the dome and the base.

Then, they paint the steel and cast iron parts with anti-corrosion paint.

They install marble on the base and apply paint or tile to the dome.

They mount the oven steel door last.

They fire up the oven for 9 days to dry all the natural construction materials.

Then, this oven is complete.


Guitar Pickups
Heated Furniture
Water Well Cylinders
Nonconductive Tools

Guitar pickups were invented during the time of the big-band era.

Jazz music incorporated both guitar and large brass sections.

To offset a guitar's mellow tones, a pickup device was developed to amplify the vibration of the guitar's strings, generating a louder sound.

The guitar pickup was invented in the early 20th century.

The device allowed musicians to plug into a new sound that would later define rock 'n' roll.

Production starts with an edged steel part.

A technician applies glue to the spine and attaches plastic strips to the glued areas for full adhesion.

He glues a second edged steel part to the first, creating a bobbin for wire windings.

He applies clear polyester tape along the inner edges of the bobbin.

The tape will serve as electrical insulation, supplementing an insulating coating that's been applied to the metal.

Using an abrasive wheel, he scuffs off the finish on the end of the bobbin to prepare it for soldering.

The scuffed bobbin is the one on the left.

Then the bobbin is mounted to a winding mandrel.

The craftsman wraps thin copper wire around the end of the bobbin and activates the winding mandrel.

As the mandrel spins, the bobbin gathers the copper wire together to produce a wad that's 4,000 windings thick.

The bobbin containing thousands of copper-wire windings has created a path for magnetic energy.

Next, the ends of the copper wire are soldered to the bobbin.

The craftsman applies a direct current through the coil and measures the electrical resistance.

Once the current falls within the acceptable range, he solders connection cables to the windings.

Then the coil is submerged in hot liquid wax.

The wax will encase the wire windings to prevent mechanical vibrations.

Next, the craftsman inserts brass pins into a press fixture.

He places a steel channel on top of the pins, piercing the pins through the channel.

He flattens the heads of the pins with the press while allowing the ends to extend through the channel.

To stabilize the assembly, he places rubber and steel washers over the protruding pins.

He mounts a brass plate to the pins and adds more washers to electrically ground the assembly.

The craftsman presses the pins to flatten them, securing the plate to the channel.

A second steel channel is attached to the plate on top of the first channel.

The dual coil assembly contains a higher output and will counteract electromagnetic interference.

While most pickups have magnets inside the coils, this pickup contains magnets on the outside of the coils.

This design reduces hum from electrical interference.

The craftsman solders a ground wire to the unit and applies more solder to one of the pins to connect the coil cables.

The coils are inserted in the channels.

A burnt-chrome finish can be applied to the pickup's outer casing.

The burnt-chrome casing produces a discoloration that adds visual interest.

He now pipes a generous amount of epoxy into the casing cavity and inserts the pickup.

He solders wire from the cover to the pickup to ground the unit.

The pickup is placed over the strings of a guitar, and he plugs it into an amplifier.

once he confirms the tone is acceptable, he measures the resistance.

The craftsman tests the direction the current travels through the pickup.

This method is called phase.

He also assesses the strength of the magnetic field through a method known as polarity.

Even though it's taken just 15 minutes to make this guitar pickup, due to its sustainability, it should last for years, providing musicians with plenty of good vibes.

when you're sitting outdoors and it starts getting chilly, you can shiver, put on more layers of clothing, or press a button to let the furniture you're sitting on warm you up.

Designed for use in the outdoors and in colder indoor spaces, heated furniture is a hot new trend.

This heated lounge is hip and practical.

Discreet drain holes prevent rainwater from puddling, and the easy-to-reach heat control knob is located underneath the seat.

Benches, multi-seat lounges, and single chairs can all be made into heated furniture.

The first step is to coat a fiberglass mold with a release agent.

Once a rubber insert is glued into the drain hole, a technician mixes the ingredients for the casting material together.

Ingredients include pigment containing metal oxides, which prevent color fading, a concrete mix containing a blend of fibers for extra strength and resistance, and water containing proprietary additives.

The ingredients are mixed together for about three minutes until the concrete is the consistency of cake batter.

A thin layer is sprayed on to the fiberglass mold, and any raised areas are flattened to remove air bubbles.

The chair's color will never rub off or peel because the pigment is mixed right into the concrete.

Next, technicians add the heating element, a cable that is wrapped around the piece of furniture.

The cable is tacked in place with a separate mix of concrete that has a higher fiber content.

The entire heating element is embedded in a full coat of the high-fiber concrete.

Then a finishing coat of the first mix is applied, and the structure is left to cure at room temperature for 24 hours.

Now cured, this white chair is ready to be extracted.

A technician pumps compressed air through the drain-hole insert.

Due to the release agent application, the cast chair easily pops off the mold.

The rough edges are smoothed with a diamond file.

Then the drain-hole plug is removed.

At another station, a technician coats the entire surface of another chair with a sealant that blocks moisture.

Moisture penetration weakens concrete and draws out the natural salt, which leaves white stains.

Meanwhile, a welder constructs the chair's frame with parts made out of stainless-steel tubes and plates.

The chair has three legs, plus cross members that act as conduits for electrical wires.

The cross members connect to a stainless-steel box, which will house the temperature control unit.

A technician fills the channel with adhesive along the perimeter.

He places the frame into the channel.

The adhesive will take a day to cure.

Next, the electrical wiring is assembled.

The technician fishes two electrical wires through the frame.

One wire connects the power-cord plug to the temperature control unit.

The other runs from the temperature control unit to the temperature control switch.

He glues the switch into a hole in the right front leg.

All the wires are embedded in rubber, making them waterproof.

The temperature control unit is installed in the box at the center of the frame.

Then a temperature sensor is installed underneath the seat.

The technician hammers plastic and stainless-steel feet into the bottom of the legs.

This prevents the legs from scratching the floor and levels the furniture on an uneven surface.

Lastly, a bronze drain is inserted into the drain hole.

A quality controlled heat test measures the surface temperature with an infrared thermometer.

If all is operating correctly, the sensor under the seat tells the thermostat and the temperature control unit when to turn the heat on or off.

Ever since the ancient egyptians developed the shaduf around 4,000 years ago, people have been creating new ways to move water.

Before people relied on electricity, windmills generated power using water-well cylinders.

These simple but highly effective mechanisms are still in use today.

Production of this water-well cylinder began in the late 1800s.

The design was so effective, it hasn't changed since.

To create the valves integral to water-well cylinders, the process starts with a specialized mold made out of compressed sand.

These orange tube-shaped objects are called cores, also made from compressed sand.

The cores allow molten metal to flow around them, ensuring that the valve cage remains hollow.

With the top of the mold casing in place, the assembly moves to the next station on the production line.

A robotic arm lowers the jacket and weight on to each mold to prevent the molten metal from escaping.

A metal worker drops pieces of metal, called returns, into a crucible.

When the temperature of the molten metal reaches 2,102 degrees fahrenheit, it's ready to pour.

Another metal worker uses a device called a cradle to hoist and move the crucible.

He pours the liquefied metal into a sprue hole, which flows into the mold openings.

The molds cool as they head to a vibratory conveyor system.

The vibrations break the sand apart, leaving in its place the newly formed metal parts.

A technician removes the parts with a hook and mounts them on an overhead transport system.

The transport system carries them into a blast machine.

Inside, steel shot blasts the metal clean.

When the parts emerge from the blast machine, the castings are ready for the next phase.

Using a band saw with a diamond-tipped blade, a metal worker carefully cuts the castings into their component parts.

Rough castings have a seam called a parting line, where the two halves of a mold meet.

A metal worker grinds off the excess casting.

The rough casting goes through a machining process.

As the valves are assembled, a small piece of newspaper is placed inside to prevent any damage to the balls during shipment.

These brass, precision-ground balls are crucial components that permit or prevent water flow as they move up and down inside the valve cage.

These components are made of leather that's been pressed, formed, and coated with graphite to lubricate them.

Water-well cylinders have both a check valve and a plunger valve.

A technician tightens a follower on a plunger valve.

While a check valve remains stationary and prevents water from escaping, a plunger valve isn't fixed, so it allows water to move out the top.

A water-well cylinder requires caps and connectors.

A cnc lathe machines a brass cap to the required parameters.

As the component spins at 800 rpm, carbide-tipped cutting tools hone, bore, and thread it where needed.

The cylinders are made from brass tubing.

The 3-millimeter-thick seamless tubing is made from a brass billet heated until soft enough to draw through an inner and outer die.

The result is a strong, corrosion-resistant cylinder that can handle water pressure and immersion for decades.

A cnc device threads both ends of the cylinder to receive the cap and connector.

A technician brushes a pipe-compound sealant on to the threads.

The sealant ensures a watertight fit.

Then he screws the cap to the bottom end of the cylinder.

He adds the top connector and inserts both ends into a lathe.

With the bottom held firmly in place by the lathe chuck, he places a wrench on the top end and lets the machine tighten the parts.

Next, the check valve and the plunger valve are inserted into the cylinder.

This clear acrylic version of the cylinder demonstrates how the process works.

As the plunger valve slides up and down, the check valve remains stationary.

It's hard not to be pumped about an old technology so good.

Nonconductive digging and cutting tools protect workers from potential hazards such as underground power lines.

When a nonconductive tool hits a live wire, the risk is neutralized.

The handle blocks the flow of electrons and reduces the risk of unexpected shocks.

Workers who need to dig run the risk of hitting live electrical wires.

The nonconductive handles of these tools will counteract the flow of electricity, stopping danger in its path.

The handles are made of fiberglass.

They are made using a process known as pultrusion.

A machine pulls glass twine through the stages of production.

Each piece of twine is comprised of hundreds of glass strands.

The twine unwinds through an orange resin bath, which permeates the glass fibers.

A die compresses the resin-soaked glass to a specific length and width.

The result is slightly larger than what is ultimately needed.

The compressed fiberglass travels through a microwave oven for preheating.

Then the fiberglass enters a second heated die.

The process squeezes the handle to its final size, shapes it, and cures the material.

As it's pulled forward, the long fiberglass form cools and solidifies.

This machine, called the tractor, is doing the pulling.

The tractor's treaded rubber pads grab the fiberglass shaft and deliver it to a circular saw.

The saw slices the fiberglass shaft to a specified length.

Since the fiberglass is only partially cured, the handles are cooled at room temperature for 24 hours.

The handles vary based on the type of tool.

A machinist cuts one end of the handle on an angle to fit the blade shank.

Using a sharp disc, he carves spiral grooves at the base of the angle cut.

These grooves allow the shovel shank to fuse with the end of the handle.

Next, the handle is placed in an injection-molding machine with the grooved end extended into the mold.

Glass-filled nylon pellets move through the machine's heated chamber and melt.

An auger forces the thick liquid into the mold.

The shovel shank takes shape around the end of the handle, and glass-filled nylon liquid flows into the grooves.

The shank becomes integral to the handle.

Next, a machinist clips the excess material from the newly formed shank.

The glass and nylon shank is also nonconductive.

The shank end is submerged in a cooling bath.

Using a drill, the machinist removes bolts from nuts installed in the shank during molding.

This leaves the nuts embedded in the shank.

They'll be used to attach the shovel blade.

Meanwhile, another technician applies a rubber gasket to the end of the shank.

The gasket has holes that keep the nuts open.

He places the shovel blade on the assembly, aligning the holes with the nuts.

He secures the shovel blade to the shank with screws.

It's nonconductive from the handle to the metal blade, so the user can safely grip it at almost any spot.

Apart from being nonconductive, this shovel must also be heavy-duty.

To test its strength, an inspector inserts the blade into a machine.

Once he has determined the test area, the chain is connected to a container filled with sand bags that weigh 250 pounds.

He lowers the platform that holds the load and observes the handle.

If the handle bends but doesn't break, it's sufficiently strong.

The inspector places the shovel in another tester and runs 10,000 volts of electricity through the tool to measure the leakage at the end of the handle.

If it's minimal, he assigns the shovel a unique serial number and brands it as certified according to electrical standards.

On site, a nonconductive tool can be indispensable, providing the user a safe handle on a potentially dangerous situation.


Cartridge Blades
Chocolate Banana Loaves
Vending Machines
Dive Computers

Today on "how it's made," cartridge blades, chocolate banana loaves, vending machines and dive computers.

Developed in the middle of the 20th century, the cartridge blade is an invention with many cutting edges.

The plastic cartridge houses up to five razor blades.

With multiple blades, fewer shaving strokes may be necessary, which results in a faster shave.

For the multibladed cartridge razor, getting rid of stubble is no trouble.

When the many blades become dull, the cartridge can simply be popped out and replaced with a new one.

Making cartridge blades starts with coiled steel strips that are a few miles long.

The strips unwind around guide rollers that orient them for entry into punch machines.

Revolving cylinders help feed the steel strips to the punches.

The punches cut holes in the steel, spacing them at precise intervals.

These holes will allow production machinery to grip the steel and move it through the blade-making process.

Machinery pulls the steel ribbons through an oven, which heats them to a searing 1,832 degrees fahrenheit.

The steel then enters a cooling chamber, followed by another oven.

The temperature extremes change the steel's molecular structure.

It becomes harder and stronger.

The steel rewinds and then unwinds between grinding stones that hone the edge into a very sharp gothic arch profile.

They're now ready to break the steel into individual blades.

A mechanical punch snaps it.

And it breaks cleanly.

With a skewer holding the blades in alignment, a technician scrutinizes the edges for any defects.

After applying coatings to prevent rust and add durability, they bake the blades in a special furnace.

This binds the coatings to the blades.

At another station, they transform plastic pellets into the razor cartridges.

This machine melts the pellets and injects the liquid plastic into molds as pressure is applied.

The plastic solidifies into the shape of razor cartridges.

The cartridges bounce along a circular feeder.

The feeder orients them front-side-up and then funnels them into the next machine.

This one resembles an octopus with numerous tentacles.

The tentacles are robots.

The first one places the cartridges in a fixture on a revolving table.

As the table turns, it serves up the cartridges to the next robots in the assembly line.

In quick succession, these robots snap a total of five blades into the cartridges.

By now, the holes used to move the blades through the assembly process have been trimmed off.

And it's a perfect fit.

They now place back casings in front of the cartridges and install pieces of metal on the parts.

The metal pieces are sacrificial anodes.

Their sole purpose is to be sacrificed to corrosive forces to save the blades.

After that, robots flip the back casings then transfer them to the cartridge blades and click them into place.

The cartridge blades are now fully assembled.

The robotic system takes them into a station with more quality control cameras.

If no problems are found, the blades move into another mechanized system.

This one installs a temporary plastic cover to protect the consumer and keep the blades sharp until it's time for a shave.

Robotic arms pick up the clear plastic protectors two at a time and place them in slots in the assembly machine.

They then snap the cartridge blades into the plastic covers.

With the protectors in place, the robots send the cartridge blades down a chute and into a bin.

They're now ready for retail and the business of personal grooming.

Many schools today require all food on the premises to be allergy-free because so many children have life-threatening to peanuts, tree nuts or dairy products.

Often, these allergies are so severe that just touching or inhaling the allergen can cause a potentially deadly reaction.

These kid-sized chocolate chip banana loaves contain no peanuts, tree nuts or dairy products.

Nothing else this company makes contains them either to eliminate any possibility of cross-contamination.

As a further precaution, all the ingredients come from suppliers whose facilities are also entirely peanut, tree nut and dairy-free.

To make the batter, workers first combine water, canola oil and sugar.

Then they add pureed banana and mix until the ingredients are well blended.

They add wheat flour, then sea salt, baking soda and preservatives such as citric acid, routinely used in packaged foods, to prevent the growth of bacteria and mold.

The final ingredients are eggs and chocolate chips, not milk chocolate because these snacks are dairy-free.

Instead, chocolate chips are custom-made for this bakery by a producer of certified kosher pareve foods, meaning the products contain neither meat nor dairy ingredients.

A pump moves the finished batter from the mixing bowl to a large hopper that feeds the automated production line.

At the start of that line, more than 620 loaf baking pans pass under spray nozzles, which lightly grease them with canola oil.

This prevents the baked loaves from sticking to the pan.

Then the pans enter the depositor, which drops 1.5 ounces of batter into each loaf cavity.

This one batch of batter produces 6,666 loaves.

The filled pans enter a multilevel vertical oven in which they zigzag up and down 13 baking zones of varying temperatures.

After 27 minutes, the loaves are fully baked.

However, they can't be packaged yet because they're piping hot.

So the next station on the line is a multilevel vertical cooling chamber.

Its fans draw out the hot air while blowers introduce filtered cold air.

When the pans exit the cooling chamber about 25 minutes later, the loaves are just slightly warm.

A robot now descends on two pans at a time.

It jabs the loaves with needles to lift them out then withdraws the needles to drop them on a conveyer belt that's ventilated to help the loaves finish cooling.

This belt transfers them to a narrower one that leads to the packaging area.

There, workers line up the loaves in single file on a track that leads to the wrapping machine.

Each loaf is roughly 3 1/2 by 2 inches and 1 1/2 inches high.

Even though each one started out as 1 1/2 ounces of batter, some moisture evaporated during baking, reducing the final loaf weight to 1.4 ounces.

Under the watchful eye of a sensor, the loaves enter the wrapping machine where printed transparent film envelops them.

The two edges of the film overlap slightly underneath the loaves.

The machine seals the edges with a combination of heat and pressure.

Then it simultaneously seals and cuts the film in between the loaves.

Each chocolate chip banana loaf is now individually wrapped.

Workers pack the snacks into the retail packaging.

The box moves into a glue machine, which seals the flaps.

The bakery conducts several quality control checks throughout production, for example, testing the viscosity and ph level of the batter.

It also tests the finished product.

Once per hour, they cut up a loaf and place the pieces in a moisture analyzer.

The correct moisture level ensures that the loaf has a proper cake texture and isn't dry because as much as this snack needs to be safe for kids with allergies, it also has to taste great.

Vending machines are a common sight in public places.

The first modern vending machines in 1880s england didn't sell food at all.

They dispensed postcards.

Nowadays, automated vending has come full circle with machines selling not just food but electronics and other consumer goods.

Thirsty?

Just select a drink.

Enter its number on the keypad.

The led monitor displays what you've chosen and how much it costs.

Then insert the money.

The monitor shows your credit, how much you've paid.

The credit resets to zero when the machine releases your drink and returns any change you're due.

The vending machine has a welded steel body onto which workers assemble the other components such as the see -through refrigerator and an lcd monitor to display advertising.

Workers assemble the machine's payment and display system, starting with the machine's control board.

They install the led monitor and the keypad, which are integrated into a single unit.

After bolting the unit securely in its window in the housing, the workers screw the control board securely in place, then plug the led monitor and the keypad into the board.

They install the coin acceptor.

It can be set up to recognize up to 16 different types of coins.

When a customer inserts money, the coin acceptor transmits the value to the control board, which displays the amount on the led monitor, calculates it into the purchase of the item and directs the coin acceptor to dispense any required change.

Next, workers install the bank note acceptor.

It identifies the denomination of an inserted bill with an optical scanner and, to make sure the currency is genuine, measures fluorescent ink with uv light and reads magnetic ink printing with a magnetic scanner.

It sends the value of the bill to the control board.

They plug the data transfer cables from the money acceptors into the control board along with a cable for the controllers that operate the machine's product release motors and the data transfer cables coming from the two coin hoppers, which collect the inserted coins and dispense change.

Then they close up the machine with cover panels.

A worker constructs the product feed trays that go into the vending machine's refrigerator.

The first step is to attach partitions to a back panel to form columns.

Each column's width is set to the dimensions, weight and type of packaging of the product it will dispense, from small featherlight bags of chips to heavy glass beverage bottles.

A feed tray can have up to six columns.

The trays are constructed entirely of stainless steel because it withstands refrigeration temperature and doesn't rust when exposed to moisture.

Workers install a motor at the back of each column.

Once the tray's installed in the fridge, those motors plug into the control board.

When the customer pays for the selected product, the board activates the motor for the corresponding column to release the product.

Side-by-side columns designed to be stocked with the same product have linked motors.

That way, if one column sells out, the linked one with more of the same product kicks in.

Each motor moves the product with a steel drive spring.

There are seven different sizes of springs.

Workers install the size that has the correct spacing between the rolls that corresponds to the dimensions of the product being dispensed from that column.

Once the customer pays for the selection, the motor rotates the spring 360 degrees to release the product and move the one behind it to the front of the line.

Once all the product feed trays are installed, workers adjust the refrigerator thermostat and stock the products.

Then they test the machine.

First, they purchase a product with paper currency.

They make sure the bills feed smoothly, that the bank note acceptor sends the right data to the control board, that the board calculates the transaction accurately and activates the correct motor.

They run the same test with the coin acceptor to make sure its sensors correctly detect the coin, dimension, weight and chemical composition and transmit accurate information to the control board, all this to ensure the vending machine customers get exactly what they paid for.

Dive computers help divers safely return from the deep.

These wrist computers keep tabs on the time and depth of the dive.

And they calculate a safe ascent.

The journey back to the surface must often be done in stages, or the diver could fall victim to decompression sickness.

A dive computer is something someone wears when they're ready to take the plunge.

Strapped to the wrist like a watch, it provides critical safety data during the dive.

They start with panels of four printed circuit boards.

A technician confirms that the tracks and pads are correctly located.

A conveyor then takes one of the panels into a machine that precisely positions a metal mesh stencil over it.

An automated squeegee spreads solder paste onto the circuit boards through the open areas of the stencil.

The solder paste will act as glue for over 100 tiny electrical components.

Next, the circuit boards receive those electrical components.

A robot peels them off plastic strips and places them on the soldered areas at an impressive rate of 13,000 pieces per hour.

The parts include microprocessors, sensors and memory chips.

Then the circuit boards head into an oven with several different heating and cooling zones.

As they travel through these zones, the soldering particles melt to bond the components to the circuit boards.

Passing through the cooling zones, the solder hardens.

And this solidifies the bonds.

The circuit boards have now received all of the necessary parts.

A technician places the panel of circuit boards in an automated optical inspection machine.

Here, a camera takes a picture of the panel and sends it to a computer.

The computer scans the circuit boards for missing components, positioning errors and soldering defects.

If there are no flaws, the panels move on to a programming station.

Here, a technician positions them under probes.

The probes descend and load software into the microprocessors.

This brings them to life and enables them to control all of the board's functions.

Another technician trims and cuts the panels using circular saws.

She then punches out the four round circuit boards and transfers them to a tray that has an electrically conductive surface.

The surface protects the boards from mechanical and electrical shocks until they're ready to be assembled into the dive computer module.

Now the fabrication of that module begins.

The technician places a buzzer mechanism behind a backlight.

She transfers the two of them to the reverse side of a display screen.

She places a plastic framework on top.

And she inserts rubber connectors in it.

These little rubber parts will make the connection between the circuit board and the digital display.

The next assembler inserts the circuit board into the digital display unit.

She installs a temporary battery and checks the digital monitor to confirm that it's functional.

Satisfied that it's in good working order, she sets it aside temporarily.

In the next stage of production, the worker removes any dust particles from the screen using blasts of compressed air.

She snaps the dive computer module into a tough plastic case that's designed to withstand a lot of water pressure.

She cleans a glass face plate and places it over the digital screen.

This face plate will protect the screen from water.

The next part is a metal bezel.

It surrounds the face plate and will be used to secure it to the casing.

She flips the assembly around and screws the bezel to the case from the back.

She inserts the computer battery into a titanium back plate.

She then installs the battery assembly in the back of the module and secures it with screws.

This completes the dive computer module.

All that's left is to attach the wrist strap, and this dive computer is ready to probe underwater and provide critical safety information.


Wooden Utensils
Transport Refrigeration Units
Moccasins
Electronic Impact Drills

Wooden utensils may date back to prehistoric times, yet today, they're a popular cutlery option for the modern dinner table.

Typically a high-end product, handcrafted by artisans, wooden forks, knives, and spoons appeal to people who are drawn to the organic beauty and warmth of wood.

Traditional in material but modern in design, each of these wooden utensils is meticulously handcrafted from a single piece of maple.

Maple is dense, so it doesn't develop cracks which can harbor bacteria.

It takes up to 28 steps to make a utensil.

First, a worker planes a maple plank to a specific thickness.

Then, they cut it into blocks the length of the utensil-- in this case, a fork.

The worker places each block on a curved template and traces the curve, which matches the arc of the fork's handle.

With a band saw, they cut along the trace line.

The center of the curve runs parallel to the grain of the wood.

This makes the handle and tines of the fork stronger than if the curve would run perpendicular to the grain.

They clamp the block to another template and profile the curve on a machine called a wood molder.

Then, with a band saw, following the curve, the worker cuts the block into strips 1/4 of an inch thick.

The curve is quite pronounced to give the fork an elegant line.

They clamp up to ten strips at a time onto this woodworking machine.

Then, they start her up.

Routers descend, and guided by computer software, simultaneously carve the strips into forks.

After seven minutes, each curved strip, while nowhere near the finished shape, does have a defined handle and four tines.

A strong squeeze snaps off the excess wood.

Only small nubs of excess wood remain, which a worker now removes by running the fork against a sanding belt.

From this point on comes finer detail work that can be done only by hand.

Starting on a balloon sander, a worker adds or releases air-- adjusting the inflation pressure-- to produce a soft surface against which to sand a curved utensil and a hard surface against which to sand a flat one.

Once they've refined the back of the fork, a worker manually sands the area that motorized sanders can't reach-- first beveling the tines to sharp points...

Then sanding in between the tines.

It's important to keep the tines thick so they won't wear out with use.

Next, the worker sands the entire fork with a fine-grit sandpaper to remove any faint ridges left by the balloon sander.

They finish with an ultra-fine sanding to make the fork feel silky smooth.

Now that the fork has its final shape, the worker stamps the company's logo into each handle.

To ensure the top of the fork remains smooth, they soak it in hot water.

This draws up the wood's short fibers so they can then be sanded down.

The final step is an intricate, hand-applied finishing process-- three coats of a proprietary mixture of food-safe plant oils, waxes, and lemon.

Lemon works like a solvent, diluting the mixture, so that it penetrates deep into the pores of the wood.

After the last coat dries, a worker manually polishes the surface with an ultra-fine abrasive pad, sweeps off any dust, then lets the finish cure for 28 days.

The finish brings out the grain and color of the wood.

It also protects against food stains, abrasion, and moisture over the lifetime of the utensil.

Wooden cutlery doesn't just look different, it sounds different-- no ting of metal utensils on dishes as you eat.

When dining a la wood, the only thing you'll hear is conversation.

The invention of transport refrigeration units in the 1940s changed our food-consumption patterns forever.

Suddenly, florida oranges were available in snowy regions and frozen food could be delivered far and wide.

Previously, ice had been used to preserve perishables so the trucks couldn't go far.

Transport refrigeration units are designed for the long haul.

When trucks are parked, they can be plugged into an electrical outlet to keep the cargo cool.

Production starts with this computerized punch cutter.

It cuts holes and slots in steel panels that will be used for the housing of the compressor and condenser.

A worker then serves up the panels to a bending machine.

It folds them so they can be assembled to each other to form the refrigeration unit's housing.

An automated machine bends copper pipe to form it into tubing for refrigerant.

Each bend changes the direction of the pipe.

It's an alternative to using fittings for this job.

It means fewer seams, reducing the risk of leaks.

A worker then joins the pipe to create the evaporator coil in which liquid refrigerant is converted to gas to draw heat from the area to be cooled.

Once the evaporator coil is complete and he's installed additional copper pipes for defrosting, a worker assembles it to the housing.

The fan panel completes the evaporator.

During operation, it will blow cool air into the truck trailer.

The unit can be set to refrigerate or freeze, depending on the trailer contents.

A technician puts together the unit that goes on the outside of the truck.

It compresses and then condenses the refrigerant during the cooling cycle.

She secures the compressor and the copper pipes to the steel housing.

She places a motor in the housing beside the compressor.

Using a rubber belt, the technician links the motor pulley to the compressor pulley.

She completes the connections for the inlet and outlet pipes.

The condenser is next.

It transforms refrigerant vapor back to liquid.

Using more copper pipe, the technician links the condenser to the compressor.

She connects a pipe to a little steel vessel that will hold liquid refrigerant not in circulation.

The technician installs a filter unit on the outside wall and links the refrigerant pipe network to it.

The mesh filter inside will catch dirt in the refrigerant gas and will trap any lingering humidity.

Back to the compressor now, the technician installs a second motor.

This one will keep the refrigeration system working even when the truck is shut off.

All the trucker will need to do is plug the power cable into an electrical outlet.

She attaches a pressure sensor to the pipe.

The technician melts metal filler into the joint where the discharge pipe links to the condenser.

This seals the connection.

The electronics for the control panel are next.

The technician screws the metal board that holds them to the housing.

Then, she makes all the electrical connections.

Now, a safety test.

Another technician connects the compressor and condenser unit to a vacuum and activates it.

It suctions out air in the system.

He then injects nitrogen gas and traces of refrigerant.

If the gas escapes, it will indicate a leak in the system.

To find escaping gas, he uses a special leak detector.

It sucks in tiny amounts of air and analyzes it for the refrigerant.

This enables him to pinpoint exactly where any problem might be.

Another technician powers up the unit and confirms that the control panel is working and that the compressor motors are fully operational.

They fill the system with nitrogen gas.

It's a temporary measure to protect it from oxidation during shipping.

The on-site installer will replace the nitrogen with refrigerant.

It has taken approximately an hour to manufacture this transport refrigeration unit.

When it comes to keeping food chilled or frozen, it should deliver for many years to come.

The indigenous people of north america invented moccasins to protect their feet from harsh weather conditions and to provide spiritual protection in the form of symbols stitched into the leather to evoke sacred places and things.

The idea was to protect both the soles of the feet and the soul.

Today, moccasins are mass-produced.

Factories make their own versions of this traditional footwear.

This one generates up to 100 pairs of moccasin slippers a day.

Production starts with rabbit-fur pelts that are a by-product of the european rabbit-meat industry.

The furrier places a plastic template over the pelt.

He draws lines through the slats of the template.

This outlines stripes to be used to trim the moccasins.

Using a razor blade, he cuts out the fur strips and sets them aside.

One pelt will provide enough trim for two pairs of moccasins.

Using dies made of sharp steel, the furrier cuts out the suede leather parts.

A hydraulic press, as known as a clicker, drives the dies through through the leather to punch out the pieces.

The largest one will be used for the bottom and sides of the moccasins.

It's called the foot.

The other parts are a sole to reinforce the bottom and the vamp, which is the upper part of the slipper.

Next, the furrier cuts out pieces of thick polyester fleece which will be used to create plush liners.

He arranges the moccasin components in the correct sequence for sewing.

This is called a layout, and it helps the sewing process go faster.

The furrier presses an adhesive-back size label to the bottom of the foot part.

The sewing machine operator stitches the sole of the foot through to its fleece liner.

She also sews the label to the leather to fasten it more securely.

She folds the back sides up, inside-out, and sews them together to form the heel of the moccasin.

The worker trims the fleece that protrudes from the seam.

She then folds the heel right side out.

Now that the foot and sole have been joined and the heel formed, the worker turns her attention to the vamp.

She sews beaded designs into this moccasins' upper.

These geometric designs are a nod to the past, but their purpose is purely ornamental, not spiritual.

After lining the beaded vamp with fleece, the worker stitches a leather strip around the edges, creating a border known as a welt.

The welt gives the vamp a more attractive finish.

To sew the vamp to the rest of the moccasin, she uses a special sewing machine.

It pleats the top of the foot to fit the vamp as it stitches.

The moccasins are now structurally complete, and they're ready for the fur trim.

The worker stitches the rabbit-fur strips together to create one long strip that will fit to the moccasin.

The length of the strip will vary depending on the size of the moccasin.

She makes an initial chain stitch and then doubles back to lock the stitch down, in order to prevent it from unraveling.

She aligns the fur trim with the collar of the moccasin and sews it to it.

After stitching, the worker leaves the fur tucked down into the moccasin.

This makes it easier to apply glue around the top of the moccasin, so that when the fur is folded up and over it, it stays in place.

With that, this modern-day version of traditional indigenous footwear is ready for its first steps.

An impact drill is a power tool that's tough enough to bore through hard materials, such as brick, stone, and concrete.

It can also drive screws into softer materials like wood.

An electronic impact drill has the added feature of a switch that amps up the drill speed if the job requires it.

An impact drill is comprised of the drive unit, the back part with the electric motor, and the gear unit-- the front part containing the motor-rotated spindle that turns the drill bit.

To make the housing for the gear unit, the factory furnace melts down solid aluminum.

Then, an automated casting machine injects it at high pressure into a mold with six housing-shaped cavities.

Once the machine cools the mold to re-solidify the aluminum, a robot removes the hot housings and submerges them in water to cool them.

The robot then places the housings in an automated stamping press, which cuts off the connecting metal, separating the housings.

A computer-guided milling machine finalizes the shape of each housing and forms a collar for attaching a second handle that provides extra control when drilling through hard materials.

Elsewhere in the factory, a computer-guided turning lathe shapes a solid steel bar into the drill spindle.

Back to the gear housing now, a worker positions it next to a spindle assembly fixture.

She lines up a grooved wheel, called a ratchet wheel, over the housing and inserts another one into the spindle fixture.

Then, she puts the spindle through this second ratchet wheel and inserts the first ratchet wheel into the housing with a press.

The worker inserts the spindle with its wheel into the housing.

This makes the two ratchet wheels, so that they'll move up and down against each other when the spindle rotates.

After installing a seal and retaining clip, she completes the gear unit by installing the gears that rotate the spindle.

An automated injection-molding machine, meanwhile, produces the plastic housing for the electric motor.

The machine makes two housings at a time.

The motor is made up of a stationary component called a stator and a rotating component called a rotor.

A worker inserts the stator into the housing, pushes it down into position with a press, then secures it with screws.

He mounts the electronic unit that lets you regulate the speed of the spindle.

After installing a flange, the worker inserts the rotor and presses it into position.

The rotor has a fan attached to cool the running motor.

He connects the electronic unit to the motor.

Now, everything comes together.

Using an assembly guide, a worker positions half of the drill's plastic handle then wires the motor to the switch that's connected to the electronic unit.

Moving the switch increases or decreases the drilling speed.

Next, she takes the drill's power cable, applies a device that prevents the cable from kinking, then screws the cable to the switch.

The worker closes it all up by affixing the other half of the plastic handle.

This completes the assembly of the back part of the impact drill known as the drive unit.

A worker places the gear unit onto the drive unit.

An automated machine screws them together.

Every impact drill this factory produces undergoes performance testing and a critical safety test.

If the tool passes inspection, the spindle gets awarded its chuck.

The chuck is the component that holds the drill bit.

A computer-guided laser engraver marks the model number and all the technical data on the motor housing.

Then, workers pack the electronic impact drill along with a second handle and accessories into a sturdy plastic carrying case.

With this tool in your kit, you've got license to drill.


Underwater Robots
Lasagne
Band Saws
Ski & Trekking Poles

Robots perform many underwater tasks, which are impossible or too risky for divers to carry out, like collecting samples from the ocean floor for scientific research, exploring shipwrecks, inspecting underwater pipelines, searching for planted explosives, or recovering bodies.

This particular underwater robot is designed to find unconscious drowning victims.

Recent incidents have shown that a person recovered within 90 minutes can survive without brain damage when rescuers follow a specific resuscitation protocol.

The robot uses a protruding, interlocking jaw to grab the victim by a limb and haul him or her to the surface.

Its onboard camera gives operators at the surface an underwater view.

When the water's too murky to see anything, video-enhancing technology and imaging sonar detect the outline of objects.

Several thrusters propel the robot through the water.

For each one, technicians grease, then position a pair of o-rings onto end caps that they install on each end of the thruster housing.

The o-rings seal the end caps, keeping water out of the motor located inside the housing.

The motor shaft protrudes through propeller the end cap.

A mechanical bale secures both thruster end caps to the housing.

They fill the thruster with oil.

This prevents the thruster from imploding under pressure as the robot descends deeper and deeper.

After filling, they draw a vacuum to remove any air bubbles and draw the oil into every nook and cranny.

Then then install a reservoir, which they also fill with oil.

When the underwater pressure builds, this backup oil supply fills any remaining miniscule air gap the vacuum might have missed.

They close the reservoir with a sealing screw to prevent any oil from leaking out.

Now they turn their attention to the thruster's main component, a two-blade propeller made of durable nylon.

It goes on the back end of the thrusters.

They install the camera chassis onto the robot.

This chassis also carries the majority of the robot's electronics, such as the computer, communications equipment, and lighting.

Here they're hooking up the belt for the tiny motor, which tilts the camera to look up and down.

They cover the camera chassis with a transparent, acrylic dome called the viewing port.

A cap with an o-ring seal keeps water out.

They install the robot's power supply at the opposite end of the robot, then encase it in a metal tube, sealed on both sides with an end cap and an o-ring.

For the thrusters to work at maximum efficiency, the robot must be neutrally buoyant, meaning neither too light nor too heavy.

So once the robot is fitted with all its thrusters and electronics, technicians install the main float.

Certain models have additional floats.

They cap each propeller with a vented cover called a kort nozzle.

This isolates the water flow, maximizing the propeller's efficiency.

These bumper frames act like bumpers on a car.

They absorb the force of impact, protecting the robot from damage when it encounters underwater objects.

The bumper frames also serve as a structure to attach lights and other components, as well as specialized tools, such as that quick-release jaw, which grabs the victim by a limb.

They install the jaw at an angle so that it doesn't block the camera's view.

Now the sonar unit.

It also mounts to the bumper frames.

The sonar projects a 130-degree left-to-right 3-d image onto a monitor at the surface, showing the outline of objects around the robot.

Finally, at the top, they install a strobe light-- a flashing beacon that tells rescuers on the surface exactly where the robot is.

Every underwater robot goes out for a test drive.

They submerge it in a tank, which is essentially an aquarium inhabited by fish of the stick-on variety.

These inanimate creatures adhere to the glass, provide colorful images on which testers can focus and unfocus the camera.

From there on in, the first mission in open water awaits.

There are many ways to make lasagna, but no matter how it stacks up, people seem to never get enough of this classic italian dish.

Popular in italy for centuries, its appeals transcends boundaries and cultures.

Who anywhere can resist all those layers of flavor?

Ruffled, flat noodles define lasagna.

They give it structure.

In between the layers, the possibilities are endless.

Ingredients vary, depending on the recipe.

For a veggie lasagna, things start off with sautéed onions, seasoned with pepper and salt.

They add pureed tomatoes to the pungent mix.

Blades stir the ingredients as they simmer in this steam-heated mixer, and in no time, they have a full-body tomato sauce.

They pump the tomato sauce into lasagna tubs.

This saucy base is the first layer of flavor, but it also serves a practical purpose, preventing the noodles from sticking to the bottom of the tray during baking.

Workers arrange the broad and crinkled lasagna noodles over the sauce.

These noodles have been made from a blend of whole grain and semolina flours for a texture that's firm, yet tender.

Now for the filling ingredients.

This factory lasagna will be made of roasted, organic vegetables.

They include chunks of broccoli and uniformly mixed peppers, onions, carrots, zucchini, and mushrooms.

They load the sliced and diced veggies into the next steam-heated mixer.

The blades swing into action to stir the ingredients as they brown in oil.

This causes the natural sugars to break down and the vegetables to become sweeter.

Creamy mozzarella cheese will offset the sugary taste of the veggies.

They add the caramelized veggies, the shredded mozzarella, and more pasta noodles, building the layers of flavor.

And there's a lot more to come.

Over in another steam-heated mixer, a combination of milk, oil, and rice flour is on a low boil.

Paddles distribute the ingredients, and the sauce begins to thicken.

Shredded monterey jack and parmesan cheeses will enhance the creaminess and add another dimension of flavor.

Next, a serious dash of nutmeg and another one of salt spices it up.

And after more stirring action, the white sauce is velvety smooth and substantially thicker.

Meanwhile, a worker shovels crust into a grinder.

The crusts are broken pieces from a pizza production line, and they have been dried to a specific consistency, so they should grind up nicely.

A spiraling blade turns the crusts into uniform crumbs-- a classic lasagna topping-- adding a bit of crunch to the recipe.

With these final ingredients, they're ready to pile it on thick.

As the layering process continues, this meal really comes together.

The cream sauce and bread crumbs are the finishing touches.

With numerous sous chefs involved, things happen a whole lot faster here than on the home front.

They assemble 48 single-serving lasagna dishes per minute at this factory...

Then place them on trays and transfer them to a specialized freezer.

This is a blast freezer, which is also known as a shock freezer.

It brings down the temperature of foods very rapidly, preserving the flavor.

On the next shift, they remove the lasagnas from the freezer.

It's time to wrap up this meal.

The lasagnas ride a conveyer through a curtain of cellophane.

An automated system heat-seals the wrap around the trays.

Things move swiftly to prevent thawing.

They package 75 lasagnas per minute on this line, and then it's back in the freezer to await shipping.

Once something only mama made, now workers and machines team up to mass-produce this traditional comfort food.

So at mealtime, one only has to pop the frozen lasagna in the oven, and then mangia.

From the home workshop to the factory floor, the band saw is one of the most popular power tools around.

It's called a band saw because the blade is a metal band with teeth that moves continuously in a loop around two or three rotating wheels.

It can make straight, curved, and angled cuts.

This is an industrial band saw, designed to cut wood, aluminum, and composite materials, such as plexiglass.

It can cut pieces up to 12 inches thick and can divide a board up to 40 inches wide into two equal sections.

The tabletop tilts to a maximum 45 degrees for angled cuts.

It's made of sturdy cast iron.

The band-saw manufacturer purchases it from a nearby foundry, then uses a rotary grinder to make the surface, as we can see on the right, smooth and shiny.

One of the saw's key components is this lower bearing case.

It links the motor to the lower of two cast-iron wheels, which turn the saw blade.

Workers will later mount that lower wheel on one end of the bearing case shaft.

Now, on the opposite end of the shaft, they mount the drive pulley.

The motor will rotate the drive pulley, turning the shaft and consequently the lower wheel on the opposite end, which moves the saw blade looped around the lower and upper wheels.

Those cast-iron wheels, meanwhile, need a rubber edge to ensure the blade moves smoothly and without slipping.

Workers position a guide over the first wheel, then slip a rubber band onto the guide.

Next, they coat both the edge of the wheel and the rubber band on the guide with contact cement adhesive.

Then they carefully pull the rubber band off the guide, flip it over, and press the glued side against the glued surface of the wheel.

The first wheel now has a rubberized edge.

They repeat the same procedures for the second wheel.

In the meantime, another department has welded the band saw's steel steal cabinet.

After the cabinet gets a paint job, workers begin installing the various components, among them the support assembly for the upper wheel.

Behind the wall on which they mount the upper wheel, down at the bottom and protruding forward through the hole in the wall, they install the support for the lower wheel.

This support is the shaft of the lower bearing case, the side opposite the drive pulley.

After mounting the lower wheel, they move behind the wall, install an electric motor right below the lower bearing case, and link the two with a pair of belts.

So now when the motor runs, the pulley rotates, and the lower wheel turns.

Next, they bolt in the tabletop.

It tilts on trunnions-- pairs of mating, cast-iron supports-- one attached to the table's underside, the other to the cabinet's table frame.

Now for the most critical part of the assembly process.

Workers use this jig as a precision guide to align the wheels.

The wheels must be perfectly balanced to keep the saw blades stable while it's cutting.

Once the alignment's complete, workers remove the jig and loop the steel saw blade around the two wheels.

They adjust the blade to the correct tautness by simply setting the tension gauge to the width of the blade.

And finally, the last step.

Above the tabletop, they mount bearings which guide the blade.

Without these, the blade would wobble or drift offline due to the force of cutting through the wood or other hard material.

Now just a final check to ensure everything runs smoothly and make absolutely sure this band saw is up to speed when it comes to cutting construction materials.

Whether skiing down a snowy slope or hiking up a rocky one, pointed metal poles can provide much needed support.

They add balance and rhythm to both experiences.

Aluminum poles were first developed for skiing.

In recent years, the concept has been modified for trekking poles.

Ski poles and trekking poles look alike, but there are important differences.

Ski poles are one set length, while trekking poles can be extended as needed.

Ski poles begin with hollow shafts made of aircraft-grade aluminum.

They bake them for up to 12 hours to stiffen the metal.

Next, the poles travel between rollers, which apply pressure to straighten them.

The stiffening of the metal beforehand is key here.

It ensures that the aluminum doesn't snap during this critical straightening.

They insert one end of the ski-pole shaft into a device that squeezes it down to precisely tapered dimensions.

It's a shape that will better resist breakage and will also make the pole easier to swing.

An automated cutting tool spirals into the shaft to even the jagged edge.

Another cutter spins around the outside of the wider end of the pole to trim it.

Next, a machine punches a little hole in that wider end.

The hole will serve as a guide during the stenciling of the trade name and artwork onto the exterior.

With the ski poles tapered and trimmed, they head into an inspection station.

A supervisor scrutinizes each one.

Once he gives them the thumbs up, they're ready for sanding.

The ski poles spin between two sanding belts to remove dusty residue and rough up the surface so that the paint will adhere.

The poles now twirl on an overhead rail as a spray gun applies the paint.

An automated tool then squeegees paint through stencils to transfer designs and lettering onto the poles.

Each pass of the squeegee-like tool applies a different color, and this layering effect builds up the designs.

The poles now head towards an acid bath.

An electrical current ripples through the acid solution.

This causes the poles to oxidize for a scratch-resistant finish called anodizing.

Meanwhile, on the trekking poles' production line, machinery inserts long-wired, bristled brushes into the various shaft.

This roughs up the inner surface.

It's a step that will enable an expander device to grip it to extend the poles.

Next, a spray gun coats some unfinished poles with clear lacquer.

The owner of the factory now surveys a lineup of ski poles.

He's on the lookout for smudges or other flaws.

They meet his approval, and so it's on to the next step.

A carriage moves each ski pole forward towards a carbide tip and presses the tip into the tapered end.

With this tough tip in place, the ski pole is now equipped to pierce any hard snow pack.

Next, a worker slides rubber grips onto the handle end of the poles.

Like a big automated fist, a hydraulic mechanism shoves the grip more tightly onto the pole.

There are many different kinds of grips, each with a different look and feel depending on the type of pole being made.

Some ski-pole grips even have clips for attaching gloves.

Trekking-pole shafts now roll down the production line.

An automated arm slides plastic sleeves with carbide points onto the lower shaft section.

A spinning tool drives part of an expander mechanism into the trekking pole's middle shaft.

This expander will allow the pole to be lengthened or shortened to the user's preference.

Machinery then inserts the other part of the expander mechanism into the lower shaft.

Finally, a worker assembles the parts, sliding one section of the expander mechanism on the other.

Finally, she sharpens the tips.

And these poles are now ready for action.