Bead Wire
Mini Pepperoni
Irrigation Sprinklers
Leather Gloves

The bead is the lip of the tire that fits to a wheel rim.

High-tensile steel wires inside the bead pull the tire tightly and uniformly to the rim.

These bead wires provide stability so the wheels can start turning.

These bronze-coated steel wires are the muscle in the bead of a tire.

They're a source of hidden strength that we don't usually think about.

But without them, tires wouldn't properly grip the rim, and riding on wheels would be dangerous.

Production starts with coils of high-carbon steel.

A forklift slides the coils onto metal cones.

A worker cuts the ties around the wire.

Then the cone moves into an upright position on the carousel.

A motorized system uncoils the wire and pulls it up through the cone.

At the top, a guide positions the wire to enter a descaler.

The device has a revolving sandpaper belt which smoothes and refines the wire.

Next, the wire travels through a channel filled with powdered soap, which acts as a dry lubricant.

Then, the system pulls the wire through a series of dies, each with progressively smaller openings.

The process is called drawing because it draws down the diameter of the wire, stretching it longer and thinner.

The process reduces the wire's diameter by almost half.

A carriage lifts the thinner wire onto a spool that winds it up.

The table the spool sits on turns to deliver the wire to the next operation.

The spool of wire is one of 40 that now unwind simultaneously at a controlled speed.

Large cones keep them separate so they'll be ready for the next stage of the journey-- a trip through a long oven.

It's heated to an incredible 1,800 degrees.

Inside, intense heat recrystalizes the microstructure of the wires.

This reduces brittleness.

Then spools take up the wires.

The wires take a dip in a tank filled with hot water and phosphate solution.

A floating foam blanket keeps the solution hot.

The phosphate solution and a subsequent rinse lubricate the bead wire for the next process-- a second drawing that squeezes the wire even longer and narrower.

The holes in a series of dies become progressively narrower to reduce the wire's diameter even further.

After each trip through a die, a drum winds up the wire.

Each drum turns a little faster than the one before it.

That's because longer wires need to be wound up quicker to prevent slack in the system.

This final drawing process brings the wire's diameter down to less than 1 millimeter.

The bead wires are now at the correct width.

Next, the bead wires receive their bronze coating.

Bronzing the steel wires allows them to adhere to the tire rubber.

After the bronze solution dries, two rollers straighten the wires.

Then a spool winds up the bead wire.

They produce bead wire in different thicknesses and metal coatings for a variety of tire sizes.

They test the wires before they leave the factory.

If it can withstand up to 1,500 pounds of force before it breaks, then it's ready to be shipped to the tire factory.

Once they're installed in rubber tires, these bead wires will be an important source of strength, doing their part to keep your vehicle moving forward safely.

Mini pepperoni makes a great portable snack.

It's made of red meat or poultry.

This protein-packed snack can alleviate even the most serious hunger pains.

The meat sticks are fermented and dehydrated, so they don't need to be refrigerated.

This brand of mini pepperoni is made entirely of pork.

It comes in a variety of flavors, each made with different seasonings.

First, they prepare the raw meat.

They combine different cuts in specific proportions to attain their target meat-to-fat ratio.

The meat comes from the pig's back, shoulder, and belly.

The butcher loads the pork into an automated grinder.

It grinds the pork until it's the right texture for mini pepperoni.

The meat was frozen, then partially thawed before entering the machine.

As a result, the pork grinds cleanly.

The seasoning recipe includes paprika, cayenne pepper, dextrose, anise, and salt.

They also mix in sodium nitrate, a preservative that prevents bacterial growth and gives the meat a cured flavor.

They load the ground pork into a mixer and pour in some lactic acid bacterial culture, which will kick-start fermentation later.

Next, they add the seasoning mix and a premeasured amount of concentrated liquid paprika.

They continue mixing for a couple of minutes, distributing the ingredients evenly.

Then they transfer the ground pork from the mixer to a meat buggy.

They roll the meat buggy over to the filling machine...

And empty the contents.

A worker loads a tube of sausage casing.

The casing is made of bovine collagen.

The filling machine pumps out 1.6 ounces of ground pork then twists the casing between each one to form a link.

The machine feeds 25-link chains onto a hanging line.

The line spaces them out to preserve their perfect sausage shape.

One casing tube makes 100 links.

Next, they ferment, smoke, and dry the meat.

Workers hang three dozen 25-link chains on each smokehouse rack.

Then they roll the rack into the smokehouse.

First, they humidify and heat the links to approximately 77 degrees, triggering fermentation.

The lactic acid bacterial culture starts feeding on the dextrose in the seasoning.

The process increases the acidity in the meat, preventing harmful bacteria from growing.

It also produces a fermented flavor.

After about 14 hours, they lower the temperature and humidity to halt fermentation.

Next, they start up the smoke generator, which they've loaded with maple and beechwood chips.

They run several smoking cycles until the links change color and acquire a slightly sweet and smoky taste.

Then they raise the heat again to cook the meat thoroughly.

Finally, they dry the links in a temperature and humidity-controlled room for a couple of days.

Workers separate the links and put 10 into the bottom of each tray.

The trays go into a vacuum-packing machine, which sucks out the air then seals the top with plastic.

The pepperoni is tested by an in-house lab before packaging.

They confirm that the moisture content is sufficiently low and the acidity reading is sufficiently high.

If it is, the final product is considered shelf-stable, meaning that it isn't perishable and doesn't require refrigeration.

Where mother nature fails, a center-pivot irrigation system can succeed.

If you can't afford to wait on the rain, these systems can water your crops.

They're essentially a huge sprinkler on wheels that pivots around a central point in a slow, circular path.

Developed in the 20th century, center-pivot sprinklers have become a staple on large farms.

They can be up to a half-mile in length and sprawl across fields, ensuring there isn't a dry spot in sight.

They custom-design each sprinkler for the field it will be irrigating.

Then, they transform flat, high-strength steel into a water pipe for the sprinkler system.

The steel travels between forming tools and then a series of rollers.

They curve the steel upwards, taking it from flat to cylindrical.

More rollers squeeze the pipe to close the gap.

Then an automated induction welder can fuse the joint.

A carbide blade trims excess metal from the welded seam.

The metal is collected on a spool to be recycled.

Next, they douse the pipe with coolant.

A plasma torch then moves along the pipe to cut it into 40-foot sections.

The pipes fall off the cutting line and roll into a holding area.

After the pipes have been inspected for flaws, a team clamps flanges to the ends.

These flanges will be used to link the water pipes in the field.

They weld the flanges to the pipes.

Next, the welder uses a plasma torch to cut outlets for sprinkler heads.

He welds a threaded fitting onto each outlet.

The water pipe is complete.

They'll use dozens of these pipes for a single irrigation system.

Next, a progressive die stamps hook plates from steel.

Hook plates hold the spans of the sprinkler together.

They also keep the sprinkler flexible as it moves.

Robots weld mounting plates and other parts to a pipe, creating a base for the sprinkler system's wheeled towers.

Then they dip all the parts in molten zinc.

The zinc hardens as it cools to give the pipes a glossy, rust-proof finish.

Next, an employee assembles the sprinkler heads.

She screws a weight to the plastic sprinkler body to stabilize it.

Then she snaps on a spray nozzle.

The nozzles come in various sizes for different applications.

Finally, she adds a pressure regulator.

The next member of the team lubricates the wheel rims with soapy water.

Then he installs the rubber tires.

The tire size and tread are selected based on expected field conditions.

These tires should allow the sprinkler system to rotate freely.

They ship the parts of the sprinkler system to the field.

They arrange the pipes on the ground in the correct configuration...

And set all the structural components beside them.

Then they start assembling the immense sprinkler system, beginning with the triangular supports for the water pipes.

They hoist the ends of two pipes onto the supports and bolt them at the flanges.

They repeat this process until the structure stretches across the field.

A crew member screws the sprinklers to hoses.

He connects the hoses to u-shaped fittings screwed into the pipes.

Next, they complete the electrical wiring.

Then they roll the wheels to the end towers and bolt them to the gear motor hubs.

It takes a full day to assemble a center-pivot sprinkler system in the field.

By tapping into an underground source, the system can pump out water through the sprinkler heads.

During a drought, this irrigation system can provide a long, cold drink for crops on a hot summer day.

Gloves have long been a part of human history.

Up until the middle ages, most people ate with their hands.

So, ancient romans wore silk or linen gloves to protect their hands from hot food.

Today, leather gloves are mainly used to provide warmth, but they can also make a fashion statement.

These gloves are made of high-quality lambskin.

The tanneries process the hides to make the leather smooth, supple, and very durable.

The gloves are then handcrafted in france.

Making a fine pair of leather gloves starts with a master glove-cutter.

Cutting expertise is just as important as the quality of leather they use.

First, he adds water to make the leather supple.

Then he stretches the skin in a single direction.

This prevents the glove from stretching and losing its shape after it's made.

He uses a rectangular template to make indentations in the leather, then cuts them with shears.

He produces two rectangles, one for each glove in the pair.

He stretches the leather again.

A master glove-cutter knows how to optimize the natural stretch in the skin.

He deliberately leaves room in certain areas for comfort and eliminates stretch in other areas to preserve the glove's fit.

Using the template again, he marks and makes his final cuts.

The rectangle is for the section of the glove that covers the hand, called the trank.

He marks the glove size with a white pencil.

He follows the same procedure to cut pieces of leather for the other parts of the glove.

They include the thumb, the pieces that go in between the fingers called the fourchettes, and the decorative trim.

He uses a die to cut each part.

There's a separate die for each part of every glove model.

There's also a different die for each size.

The cutter places a few pieces into a trank die.

Then, he covers the leather with a resin block to prevent damage from the press.

The press quickly cuts the pieces.

Then, all the cut pieces are sent to the sewing department.

The head seamstress makes a paper pattern.

This model has three rows of stitching and three circular openings on the back of the hand.

She places the pattern on the leather then uses talc to transfer the design.

She uses specialized tools to punch out the openings and perforate the stitch holes.

Then another seamstress sews the glove together.

She starts with the three rows of decorative stitching.

They form three raised lines and stretch the round openings into ovals.

The rest of the glove is machine-sewn.

The seamstress turns the trank inside out and stitches the fourchettes to the fingers.

Then she sews on the thumb and the trim on the cuff.

She finishes off the cuff with an engraved rivet.

Another seamstress attaches a silk jersey lining to the inside of the glove.

There are also linings made of cashmere, wool, fur, and polar fleece.

She hand stitches the lining to the leather in each fingertip.

She turns the glove right-side out, using a wooden tool to gently push out the fingers.

A final seamstress slips the gloves onto heated hand forms.

She rubs the leather with a downward motion to manually iron out all the wrinkles.

The packager wears a pair of cotton gloves to ensure the leather remains pristine.

These leather gloves were artisan-crafted using century-old techniques and nothing more advanced than a simple sewing machine.

Now they're ready to stylishly warm up even the coldest hands.


Rubber Balls
Motion Chairs
Montreal Smoked Meat
Motorized Scooters

today on "how it's made"-- rubber balls.

Motion chairs.

Montreal smoked meat.

And motorized scooters.

A lot happens when an inflated rubber ball hits the ground.

The rubber compresses and quickly snaps back to its round shape.

That snapping back makes the ball bounce.

In addition, the air inside the ball acts as a tightly coiled spring increasing the rebound.

When an inflated rubber ball falls to the ground, it bounces back, and players catch it on the rebound.

This type of ball is at the heart of many games, from basketball to soccer to volleyball.

At the core is an inflated rubber bladder.

Making it starts with a sheet of natural rubber.

The factory worker folds it in a specific configuration.

He places a die on top and activates a press to force it through the layers, which cuts out the shape.

He now has the bladder of a sports ball.

He brushes an adhesive around the hole in the bladder and inserts a plug.

Another worker inflates the rubber bladder as she places it in a spherical chamber.

It heats and cures the rubber for 5 minutes at a temperature of 284 degrees fahrenheit.

The rubber bladder spins on a revolving cylinder, causing it to take up nylon threads.

The threads twist around the bladder and form a layer that both strengthens it and keeps it round.

The material that will form the exterior of the ball is made using colored synthetic rubber, natural rubber, magnesium carbonate, and mineral oil.

Once it cures, a worker rolls it into thick sheets and slices it to a specific width.

He folds it several times.

This blue rubber will be used for volleyballs.

The folded rubber now travels between a series of rollers.

They flatten it and press it extremely thin, and it becomes both lightweight and formable.

An automated blade slices the rubber into shorter pieces.

A metal pattern cutter will now be used to cut the rubber into strips, which will fit together to form the outside of the ball.

These particular strips are for a basketball.

The worker places the pattern on several pieces of rubber.

A press forces the sharp-edged pattern through the rubber to cut out fish-shaped strips that are designed to fit around the round bladder.

She lines the two halves of a bonding shaper with the strips.

She inserts the bladder and re-inflates it.

She closes the bonding chamber and activates it.

Inside, heat and pressure cause the strips to stick to the bladder.

To make a medicine ball, which is used for exercising, a different pattern cutter is used.

The forming process is the same, but this ball has a unique visual impact very different from that of the basketball.

Back at the basketball station, a worker applies the brand name to the outer skin in two places.

Glue helps the decals stick to the rubber.

This mold will now transfer a pattern onto the rubber ball while also baking the lettering into it.

Another worker places the ball in the mold and pumps more air into the bladder.

He closes the lid.

The mold applies heat and pressure to emboss the pattern onto the rubber.

The lettering has penetrated the rubber, and the worker peels off the decal plastic.

Another worker replenishes the air that's been lost to make the ball completely full and round.

The ball is now ready to receive its stripes.

The worker paints black rubber into grooves that were formed during embossing.

This rubber quickly cures to become part of the ball.

Another worker inserts a fill valve into the hole.

Then, mechanical fists squeeze the ball to deflate it.

This prepares it for packaging.

With the valve inside, it can be easily re-inflated by the customer.

A worker wraps it in plastic and ships it to the retailer.

Making this rubber basketball has only taken a couple of hours, but it should be able to take a lot of knocks and bounce right back.

Having a desk job doesn't mean one has to sit still.

With a motion chair, the office worker can keep moving while staying seated.

The support structure is engineered for flexibility, so while sitting, a person can bounce, tilt, and sway.

Motion chairs redefine the act of sitting.

The stem is springy, and the connection to the seat is elastic.

This allows the office worker to be active while sitting.

Making a motion chair starts with glass-reinforced plastic, which is a strong and lightweight material.

These granules will be used to make the core of the seat.

A robot inserts a steel fastener in the center of the seat mold.

The mold closes, and the machine melts the plastic and injects it into the mold.

The plastic quickly solidifies around the steel fastener, and it becomes part of the seat core.

A robot with suctioning grippers pulls the convex-shaped seat core out.

A worker assembles a height-adjustment lever in the hole beside the one for the seat stem.

A molded plastic top completes the seat core.

He anchors it to the core with numerous screws, so even with heavy use, the top should stay firmly in place.

He visually inspects the seat core and confirms that it looks solid.

Cushioning foam and fabric complete the seat.

A worker assembles roller mechanisms that will facilitate the vertical movements of the chair's stem.

Using a special assembly tool, she presses the plastic roller and two end brackets on a metal cylinder.

She then applies an index to an aluminum support column that serves as a guide for setting the tension of an outer spring.

She inserts the roller mechanisms in slots at the other end of the column.

Strips of fabric tape keep the rollers in place.

An air cylinder presses the outer sleeve onto the column so that it sits above the tension index.

A screw between the inner and outer cylinders keeps them in position.

Next up is a compression part for setting the position of the outer seat spring.

A worker slides a metal ring between the compression part and the support column.

He inserts a gas spring into the double-walled seat stem.

He now slides the outer spring onto the assembly.

He installs a plastic casing over the gas spring.

Then he puts the seat stem inside a press chamber.

He adds a top collar to the center of the gas spring as well as a snap ring.

He activates the press, and it squeezes everything together.

Next is a stand with flexible rubber parts that will make lateral movement possible while sitting.

The worker attaches the flexible stand to a circular base.

He confirms that holes for rolling casters or gliders in the base are the correct dimension.

He screws a dial for setting lateral movement onto the protruding fastener.

He secures it with a nut and tightens it.

He covers the nut with a rubber cap.

A tester will now evaluate the motion chair's performance.

He attaches the stem to the base, and he fastens the seat to the protruding rod.

He sits down and bounces around to test the range of movement.

These tests are done intermittently to confirm that the the product consistently meets requirements.

This motion chair is now ready for shipping.

The packer plugs a hole in the base ring.

This hole is for attaching an optional backrest.

He applies a sticker with the product name.

All of the parts of the motion chair can be easily assembled on location.

Designed to discourage rigid sitting and encourage movement in any direction, it will compel the person using it to use his or her core muscles and be less sedentary on the job.

With the motion chair, it just may be possible to get fit while you sit.

For at least a century, montreal's jewish delis have been serving smoked meat on rye.

The exact origins of this particular deli meat are a matter of debate with many claims to its invention.

The juicy details have been lost to time, but montreal smoked meat continues to have an enduring appeal.

A cross between corn beef and pastrami, montreal smoked meat has attracted a foodie following around the world.

Montreal smoked meat starts with brisket, which is a cut from the cow's upper chest.

A worker thaws the previously frozen briskets in a refrigerator for 10 hours.

A team slices off the biggest chunks of fat using round, air-powered blades.

The excess fat will be shipped to another factory and used to make soap.

The workers use a sharp butcher's knife to remove smaller pieces of fat, leaving just enough for flavor.

Next, they prepare the brine.

Along with salt and sugar, there's a secret recipe of spices that includes peppers, mustard seed, allspice, and cinnamon.

The operator combines the salt and sugar with ice-cold water in a high-speed mixer.

The spices have been premixed in water to produce a spice concentrate.

The next worker loads the trimmed briskets onto a conveyor.

It takes the briskets under an array of long needles that inject the brine into the meat repeatedly.

Laced with brine, the briskets then fall into a bin.

A worker transfers the juicy briskets into a vacuum tumbler.

It pulls air from the chamber, causing the briskets to absorb more brine.

The tumbler tosses the briskets for 10 hours, massaging the brine into the meat.

A layer of protein also forms on the surface.

This holds the brine in place.

In the meantime, a worker mixes the ingredients for the dry rub.

It's comprised of the same spices that were used in the brine along with clumps of fresh garlic.

After the briskets have been well marinated, the operator adds the dry rub.

He turns on the tumbler for another half hour.

The dry rub mixture coats the surface of the meat.

This system is an alternative to rubbing the spices onto the briskets by hand.

It's faster and very efficient.

Coated with smoked meat spices and injected with flavorful brine, the briskets are now ready for roasting.

An employee rolls racks of the spicy briskets into a huge oven.

The briskets steam-roast at 210 degrees fahrenheit for 8 to 10 hours, but the workers don't actually smoke the briskets.

It's the spices and brine that give them that montreal smoked meat flavor.

After the briskets have been chilled, workers transfer them to plastic bags and place them on a conveyor.

Moving forward, a vacuum-sealing head drops down to shrink-wrap the plastic to the meat.

The vacuum seal and the smoked meat spices combined give the meat a long shelf life.

Refrigerated, it will stay fresh for up to 45 days.

This plant ships the entire brisket to restaurants.

At the restaurant, they will re-steam and slice the brisket before serving.

Next, the smoked meat is pre-sliced to sell in supermarkets.

An automatic meat slicer carves it into thin pieces in seconds.

A worker retrieves the sliced smoked meat and sets it on a tray.

Transferred to a weigh station, workers divide the slices into 6-ounce portions.

Then they roll up the smoked meat slices.

A worker places the rolled meat into plastic pouches on a rack.

The racks move forward, and a vacuum sealer applies a top film, creating little packets of sliced smoked meat.

After a quick bake to pasteurize the meat, he puts six packets into compartments on a conveyor.

A pusher moves the six packets of smoked meat into an open box.

The system seals the ends of the boxes.

Workers weigh the box of smoked meat slices.

It has taken about 30 hours to produce this batch of montreal smoked meat.

It's time to slice it thin and pile it thick between slabs of mustard-slathered rye.

Now, that's a deli lunch, montreal-style.

A motorized scooter is a souped-up version of an ordinary scooter.

Instead of propelling the wheels by pushing off the ground with one leg, an engine does most of the work.

Some motorized scooters are kids' toys, but others are sturdy vehicles suitable for commuting, utility, and recreation.

This motorized scooter has wheels large enough and tires wide enough to drive on any surface, even off road.

The manufacturer contracts this factory to make the frame components.

Machines cut hollow steel tubes to the required length.

Then workers program an automated bending machine to bend each one to the required shape.

They make five tubular frame parts per scooter, strictly following the technical drawing supplied by the manufacturer.

The scooter company subcontracts the frame assembly to another factory.

There, a welder mounts the components on a jig, which positions them correctly while he welds them together.

The non-tubular, flat-frame parts are prepared in house, cut from sheet steel by a computer-guided laser cutter.

These flat crossbars support the footboard on which the rider stands.

This flat plate supports the battery, and these arms support the rear wheel and motor.

After applying a coat of anticorrosion paint, workers install the side reflectors and the knob that secures the battery.

The paint is baked on for maximum durability.

The scooter manufacturer subcontracts the wheel rims to another factory that specializes in high-precision metal spinning.

A worker there mounts an aluminum disk onto a computer-guided lathe, positioning it right next to a rim-shaped steel mold.

Two rollers push and stretch the disk over the mold, forming the aluminum to the rim's shape.

Another worker mounts the rim on a manual-spinning lathe to finish the shaping.

First, with a cutting knife, he trims the edge.

After lubricating the edge with soap, he uses a forming bar to turn it inward to form a lip.

Then, with the forming roller, he stretches the lip to shape a flange.

Back at the scooter factory, a worker begins installing the vehicle's silent electric motor.

Its cable will plug into the electronic module that runs the motor, accelerator, and battery.

The motor is actually located inside the hub of the rear wheel.

This mounting ring holds it in place.

He installs a brake disc on top of the motor and another on the front wheel.

A mechanical cable connects each handlebar brake lever to the brake calipers.

When the driver pulls the levers, the brake calipers clamp the discs to the wheels, stopping rotation.

Now the final assembly-- workers bolt the rear wheel to the frame's support arms.

They insert the height-adjustable fork, made of steel and aluminum, into the steering column.

Next, the worker installs the handlebars, which have a thumb-operated accelerator throttle, an lcd monitor and two hand brakes, each with a mechanical cable for the calipers.

Each hand brake also has one electrical cable.

He connects the throttle line and the electrical cables to the monitor.

Then he connects the monitor to the controller.

When the rider brakes, the controller also cuts power to the motor, which allows the scooter's 48-volt lithium ion battery to regenerate.

This screw knob holds the battery securely against the battery support plate.

He connects the battery to the controller, then the mechanical cable from one hand-brake lever to the front brake calipers and from the other hand brake lever to the rear calipers.

Charging the battery takes four hours when plugged in to a regular household outlet, and a full charge lasts 31 to 37 miles.

The scooter can climb an 11% incline and reach a top speed of 20 miles per hour.


Ice Cream Cones
Tent Trailers
Shoe Polish
Pliers

Today on "how it's made"...

Ice-cream cones...

Tent trailers...

Shoe polish...

And pliers.

The ice-cream cone is the original edible container.

Invented over a century ago, it adds crunch to the melt-in-your-mouth taste of ice cream.

And it's one container that doesn't end up in the trash can, so you could say it adds a bit of virtue to the guilty pleasure of the double scoop.

The first ice-cream cones were rolled waffles.

And today's cones are simply modern versions of that.

Waffle-cone batter starts with a lot of dark brown sugar.

Caramel coloring is added...

Along with some secret flavoring ingredients.

Water is piped into the blender.

It's ice cold to keep the batter from getting too sticky.

A computer controls the addition of flour from a tank on the floor above.

Vegetable oil is added as a giant beater mixes all the ingredients.

The batter then flows out of the blender and into a refrigerated tank.

An agitating blade keeps the blend at the consistency of pancake batter.

Next, nozzles deposit batter onto baking plates that look like moving waffle irons.

Top plates flip down, and the baking plates roll through a glass heated oven for a quick bake.

The top plates lift up, revealing the cooked waffle patties.

Automated arms help transfer the patties to rolling tools.

The tools grab the patties and twist them into cones.

The cones fall down a chute and ride an open elevator up and down to cool and harden.

The waffle cones slide down another chute and move into lanes on a conveyor.

Automated fingers help guide them into paper jackets.

A computer with a camera eye counts the cones and sends a message to a machine that stacks them in the right increments.

Here, a technician activates a device that pushes on a ball inside a cone to test the cone's breaking point.

Looks like this waffle cone can hold up to some heavy licking.

Over in the sugar-cone department, the baking-plate system is designed differently.

It makes patties that are fan-shaped and have a flat edge.

This shape, along with a firmer batter, means sugar cones are stronger than waffle cones, so they're a more popular choice for hard ice cream.

Packers stack the cones in styrofoam trays.

Then the packages travel through a curtain of high-density, polyethylene film.

A heated sealer finishes the wrapping job.

An x-ray machine sends information about the contents to a computer that counts the cones and alerts inspectors to any problems.

Next, automated arms pick up cartons and open them so the packs of cones can be inserted.

But there's still one more cone variety in the works-- colorful cake cones.

Cake cones are less sugary than other varieties and have a more cake-like texture.

Batter is pumped into upright molds.

Cake cones are shaped differently from waffle and sugar cones, because they have flat rather than pointed bottoms.

Metal cores plunge into the molds to complete the shape.

This action also enhances the cake cone's flaky texture.

The cones are baked as they pass by a gauntlet of gas heaters.

Then it's down a chute and off to the packaging station.

Unlike the other cones, cake cones come out flaky and crispy without a cooling-down period.

A mechanical arm picks up paper sleeves and drops them in front of the cones.

These cones are now on their way to an ice-cream stand near you, where they'll be used to scoop up ice cream lickety-split.

When we return, building a tent trailer from the bottom up.

Tent trailers allow you to travel without reservations.

Who needs a hotel if you can park the pop-up?

Besides, you don't get fresh air and campfires at a hotel.

Tent trailers have been around since the early part of the 20th century.

And you could describe them as an overnight success.

Today's tent trailers are equipped with modern conveniences that would make anyone a happy camper.

Workers begin production by welding tubular steel components together to establish a solid framework.

Once it's painted, plumbed, and partially wired, wheels are bolted into place.

The water-storage tank goes in next.

Then aircraft-grade steel cables are strung from corner posts to a central bar.

This bar is called a "whiffletree".

Cranking up the whiffletree will cause the cables to lift the corner posts, raising the trailer's roof.

The trailer is wheeled to the next station, where workers lower a vinyl-covered wooden floor onto the chassis...

And secure it with screws.

Then they connect a cluster of wires to those already installed on the chassis to run things like kitchen appliances and stereos.

The interior front wall is riveted to steel bulkheads and the trailer chassis.

More wiring is threaded through the bulkheads to the trailer's side lights, and then the exterior panel is installed.

Workers slide the roadside panel over the lift posts and secure it.

The curbside exterior panels come in two pieces to create a space for the trailer door.

Corner molding completes this assembly.

Next, workers move inside and install the framework for some bench seating.

They install the lower cabinetry for the kitchenette, then join it to the upper cabinet with a long, metal hinge for easy pivoting.

A mini fridge is inserted in the lower cabinetry, and this folding kitchenette is complete.

This is the pull-out platform for one of the mattresses.

It slides into channels in the exterior walls.

But there's a lot more work to do before anyone can take a nap.

The trailer's tent is made out of water-resistant fabric.

The five sections are sewn separately, then zipped together at an inspection station.

Inspectors scrutinize every seam for flaws.

Once the tent passes inspection, it's fit onto the trailer one section at a time.

Now it's time for a little roofing.

The trailer's roof is made by sandwiching together many materials.

And that takes a lot of industrial adhesive.

The glue is rolled onto these plywood slats.

These foam insulation boards also get a generous coating.

Workers place the glued foam onto the roof's fiberglass outer skin.

They position the wooden slats along the perimeter and add bands of metal for more reinforcement.

The final layer is vinyl-coated plywood.

It will be the ceiling of the trailer.

A large roller compresses the glued layers together.

After grooves and notches have been cut into the roof, it's wired up, and 12-volt interior lights are installed in the ceiling.

Trim is added to the roof's edges along with a gasket to keep it watertight.

The roof's flaps are folded in a tray-like configuration, and the corners are capped.

Workers are now ready to raise the roof and install the tent.

The assembly is inserted into grooves in the trailer ceiling using a pneumatic hammer.

This tent trailer is now ready to pop up anywhere.

It can accommodate a small family and is equipped to feed them outdoors or inside.

It even comes with a screen door, because you never know when adventure will come knocking.

Coming up, a production line you can really take a shine to.

Mud and scuffing have long been the bane of shoes and boots.

In mediaeval times, wax was used to soften and waterproof leather footwear.

But it had a dull finish.

It wasn't until the early 20th century with the invention of shoe polish that footwear really started to shine.

All it takes is a bit of polish and a lot of elbow grease.

A vigorous brushing can enhance the job and help transform shoes from drab to fab.

Shoe polish starts with mineral spirit solvent and different combinations of carnauba wax.

The waxes go into a melter, where they're heated to 260 degrees.

The mixture cooks for 15 minutes, while beaters keep everything blended together.

This is dye fluid in a deep-black shade.

In another tank, the dye fluid and waxes are added to the solvent blend.

Agitators mix it for three minutes.

Tin-container bottoms tumble down a chute and up a magnetic conveyor belt.

A worker flips the tins right-side up then pushes them onto another conveyor.

Once they're lined up, they're ready to be filled.

Automated arms space the tins as they arrive at the filling head.

The filling heads inject hot, liquid shoe polish into the tins.

The polish is precisely doled out so there is no spillover.

The polish now needs to solidify, so the tins travel through a cooling tunnel.

When they emerge, the polish is a thick paste.

Workers perform a breaking-strength test to be sure the final product has the right consistency.

The polish-filled tins now funnel onto a conveyor that merges with a lid feeder.

The feeder lowers the lids onto the tins.

A compression wheel presses the lids in place with just the right amount of force.

And this polish is now ready to shine.

There's a different packaging system for liquid shoe polish.

A blow molding machine forces hot air into plastic to form containers.

Then the mechanized rack holding the containers rotates and places the newly formed bottles on another conveyor.

It moves them under a flame, which melts the rough edges.

Revolving conveyors move under filling heads, which pump in liquid polish.

Workers insert valves into applicators.

Then this machine press-fits the applicators onto the polish-filled containers.

Using hydraulic pressure, another machine snaps clear domes onto the applicators.

Rollers affix labels onto both sides of the bottles.

The bottles then move through an inspection station.

A mirror helps workers scrutinize the labeling job.

A technician now takes a preliminary reading of the gloss on some leather.

He applies some paste polish and rubs it in with a horsehair brush.

He takes another reading, and the gloss on this leather has increased by a factor of 2, which means this polish passes muster and is ready to add some high luster to your footwear.

When we return, plier production-- the gripping truth.

Pliers date back to around 2,000 b.c. ancient drawings show greek gods with pliers at the forge.

Today, forgers still make pliers, but these days, they use automated tools to shape the metal.

Without them, a lot of electricians, plumbers, and mechanics would be out of a job.

Pliers have three basic parts--  handles, a rivet, and jaws.

All the parts are made from steel that metal workers forge into shape.

First, a powerful electric furnace heats the steel red hot in just a few seconds.

Then a metal worker sets one sizzling rod at a time on a forming die.

A massive die forger hammers the rod against the die with tons of force.

It takes up to four strikes on separate impressions for the rod to acquire the die's shape.

Then the forging is placed onto a press that trims off any excess steel.

Two forged rods are needed to make one pair of pliers.

This pair will be for gripping, so the next step is to machine the teeth into the jaws.

Workers set the plier halves into the broaching machine.

Its tiny cutters, dozens of them, shave away steel under a shower of lubricant.

When the cutters pull away, the jaw of each plier half now has a nice set of teeth.

The factory must heat-treat the steel to harden it, a process called "austempering".

The plier halves travel through a gas-fired furnace for about 2 hours at a blazing 1,500 degrees.

Then the steel is dunked in salt water to cool rapidly and evenly.

The teeth on these pliers will have to take a lot of abuse, so they get a laser-heat treatment to make them even harder and more durable.

Now the pliers are ready for assembly.

For gripping pliers, a worker inserts a single piece ribbon and joins the two halves.

He then sets the joint onto a machine that spins at high speed, generating the force and friction needed to set the rivet.

Cutting pliers are also held together with a rivet, but the setting process is different.

The parts go into a press that applies both heat and pressure to secure the rivet firmly.

Next, workers insert the cutting pliers between two stone grinding wheels.

Again, lubricant prevents the steel from overheating as the wheels wear down the rivet until it lies flush with the plier surface.

The cutting pliers go into a gas oven for another two hours of heat treating, a process called "martempering".

When they come out, they cool in an oil solution rather than the salt solution that cools the gripping pliers.

Steel is a finicky material, so it's critical to manage the heat-treating process meticulously.

Otherwise, the metal will be substandard.

After heat-treating, the pliers go into a bath of rust inhibitor that helps protect the steel from corrosion and lubricates the riveted joints.

A robotic arm runs one pair of pliers at a time against a grinding belt, polishing all surfaces except the handles for a sleek finish.

Then a laser engraves the company logo and product number.

Automated bars now lower hundreds of pliers handle deep into a tank containing liquid vinyl.

No messy drips here.

Before dipping, the factory heat the pliers to help this coating stick to the steel.

Next, the pliers go into an oven.

The heat hardens the protective coating, cushioning the handles so they're easier on the hands.

Whatever their shape or size, pliers are a toolbox essential for anyone looking to ply their trade.


People have been steaming food for thousands of years.

Once upon a time, steamers were made out of clay pots with perforated floors.

Today, we've come up with all sorts of metal and plastic innovations.

The traditional bamboo steamer is a perfect balance between the old and the new.

Perfected by generations of craftsmen, traditional bamboo steamers are lightweight, strong, and durable.

They look like simple cooking tools, but building them requires enormous artisanal skill.

The craftsman buys lengths of bamboo from local farmers.

He uses a traditional planer he crafted himself to smooth the bamboo joints.

A customized chopper tool helps him split the bamboo lengthwise.

He inserts a bamboo stick to hold the split open.

After removing the chopper, he pulls on the stick to split the entire length of the bamboo.

The craftsman splits the sections again.

To assemble the steamer base, the craftsman will split the bamboo into 32 pieces.

The cover will require 128 pieces.

A custom-made knife knocks down the intersections of the bamboo.

For the steamer's cover, the craftsman splits the bamboo horizontally.

Next, the craftsman uses this slicing tool to cut the wood.

He sets the desired width and slices a thin sheet of wood lengthwise.

He uses this section of wood to form the base of the steamer and slides a bamboo ring over it to hold it in place.

Then he punches small holes with a drill...

And reinforces the joint with stainless steel wire.

The installation process begins.

First by installing a series of inner rings which will serve to reinforce the structure of the steamer and to support multiple levels of steamers inside it.

The craftsman uses special techniques to ensure that each joint is perfectly aligned for maximum strength.

Working almost entirely by hand with skills acquired over time, he meticulously creates a strong, yet lightweight piece of kitchen equipment.

The basket still needs a bottom to rest dumplings in.

The craftsman begins building the basket floor by custom fitting a series of rugged cross pieces.

He ensures that each piece fits perfectly before proceeding.

Then he inserts thin, more pliable pieces of bamboo to hold the cross pieces in place.

Next, he lays the final layer on top, placing the pieces with their outer sides facing up to form a smooth surface for food to sit on while steaming.

With the floor of the steamer in place, it's time to secure the upper pieces by binding them to the support pieces.

To do this, he threads a stainless steel wire through the cracks, twisting the ends tightly to the base.

Then he gives the inner support rings under the steamer floor a few taps, securing them in place.

The basket's base is now complete.

Next, the craftsman begins weaving the bamboo pieces together that will form the cover.

He uses a traditional pattern called a twill weave.

Then he inserts paper before adding a second layer of bamboo.

The paper will help prevent steam from escaping the basket too quickly.

He then snaps in a series of carefully sized reinforcements to keep the layers in place.

Finally, he custom fits another interior ring under the reinforcements to hold everything together, tapping it carefully into position.

The steamer cover is now complete.

A three-wheel motorized scooter provides the rider with more stability than a two-wheeled scooter.

By utilizing three points of contact with the ground, this scooter is less likely to skid or fall over when making a sharp turn, or while driving on an unpaved surface.

This high-end, three-wheeled scooter has the look and comfort of a motorcycle without the high price tag.

It can reach speeds of up to 85 miles per hour and travel about 186 miles on a full tank of gas.

At the factory, mechanics begin assembling the engine by pressing two ball bearings into the left side of an aluminum crankcase.

They insert a third ball bearing that's assembled to the gear shaft.

Then the crankshaft is installed on the opposite end.

In between the two cases, a gasket is mounted to prevent oil from leaking out.

Mechanics fit the right side of the crankcase to the left side and bolt them together.

They place one end of the drive chain around the crankshaft, and then another.

This gear is installed for the oil pump.

As the crankshaft rotates, the interior of the engine is greased with oil.

This gear rotates the crankshaft, which starts the engine.

And this gear, assembled to a generator, goes on the crankshaft.

When the generator rotates, it provides electric current to run the scooter's lights and other electrical components.

Technicians close up the right side of the crankcase with a cover...

Install the water pump...

And cap the generator.

Next, mechanics install reduction gears onto the ball bearings that were placed in the left side of the crankcase.

Reduction gears lower the rotation speed of the crankshaft to make it more manageable for the drive shaft which turns the wheels.

A pulley-based automatic transmission system called a cvt is assembled.

It's powerful, fuel-efficient, and runs smoother than a standard, gear-based, automatic transmission.

Technicians attach the piston to the piston rod and place it into the engine's single cylinder.

The bottom of the piston rod is linked to the crankshaft.

They place an aluminum cover over the transmission and install the cylinder head, which is equipped with several sensors for fuel injection and other functions.

Next, mechanics mount the rear wheel onto the drive shaft.

This aluminum swing arm supports the wheel and engine.

The steel frame is pained black and is engraved with the scooter's vehicle identification number.

Technicians bolt the frame to the front of the engine and to a pair of shock absorbers at the back.

They install part of the front suspension system, one on each side of the frame.

Then they mount the three wheel hubs and install each integrated brake disc with a brake caliper.

Back to the front suspension system, mechanics connect a shock absorber to each triangular arm.

They install the handlebars, brake levers with hydraulic cables, and switches for the lights, signals, and horn.

Once the ignition switch and vinyl seat is built in, mechanics install the rear lights and turn signals, the l.e.d. headlights...

And mount the three wheels and tires.

The last step is to run the scooter through a series of tests.

The test evaluates the functionality of the lights, turn signals, front and rear brakes, acceleration, and the accuracy of the speedometer.

There is no question this scooter provides a ton of stability.

With a front suspension system designed to keep both front wheels on the ground, the rider is guaranteed a smooth and enjoyable ride.

A conservatory is designed to let in sunlight.

It's often referred to as an extension of the home, allowing people to enjoy the warmth of the sun without ever having to step outside.

A prefabricated conservatory can be assembled in three days, so you can quickly have an indoor place in the sun.

Producing a prefab conservatory starts with a customized computer-generated design.

First, a designer selects the parts for the framework.

This piece of vinyl cladding will be part of a decorative ridge.

Then all the materials are placed on racks.

There can be 50 to 500 pieces, depending on the size of the conservatory.

Using a circular blade, the metal cutter trims aluminum components to various lengths and angles, according to his measurements.

Another designer welds aluminum parts to build a gutter system.

He makes tight welds for waterproof joints.

Next, a team assembles the frame to confirm that the parts connect together.

If successful, the framework will be taken apart for reassembly on site.

After the roof's ridge beam is set on stands in the center of the frame, technicians bolt one end of a load beam to the eaves and the other to the elevated ridge.

More beams are added to create a truss system to support the roof.

The stands supporting the ridge beam are removed.

A designer measures and maps out roof panels on polycarbonate.

The polycarbonate has a hollow, waffle structure that gives it insulating properties.

He cuts out the panels according to his measurements.

After sealing the edges with felt, the panels are mounted to the roof.

Vinyl cladding on the exposed structural bar secures the panels.

The designer tapes the vinyl with a hammer to flare it against the polycarbonate.

Then he installs the vinyl ridge gap.

The elaborate, molded finials make a statement while stopping water from dripping into the top of the roof.

He peels off the protective liner to reveal the translucent polycarbonate panels.

On another production line, an automatic saw cuts vinyl components for the walls at the specified length.

Routers carve holes for hardware.

Saws cut notches in specific locations, enabling them to join the rest of the building framework.

A technician arranges the vinyl posts and beams in a thermal welder.

The machine melts the parts where they intersect and fuses them together.

Each part of the wall frame is welded separately, and then joined together.

The welding leaves the seams a bit rough, so a machine trims off any excess vinyl.

A circular saw moves in and cleans up the exterior corners.

To customize the color, designers spray the wall frame with an acrylic paint that chemically bonds to the vinyl to prevent chipping.

Back to the white frame.

A team inserts a glass panel in the ridged rim.

Strips of vinyl around the edges hold the glass in and keep water out.

The team assembles a factory display model.

The wall panels are installed into grooves on the frame and connected by aluminum posts.

Next, the doors are installed.

A technician tightly pulls the wall frames to the aluminum posts using nylon composite devices.

Vinyl casings cover the posts and any nylon locks.

Using a crane, the team lowers the roof onto the structure and bolts it in place.

The conservatory is complete.

Now it's time to relax while sitting indoors.

People have used copper pots and pans for thousands of years.

Copper is an ideal heat conductor, allowing food to be cooked quickly and evenly.

Copper pots allow for more precise temperature control, which means dinner is less likely to be served burnt.

In the culinary world, copper is a precious metal.

Besides being a great conductor of heat, copper pots look good on the cooktop.

To cut out a round blank, a craftsman places a centering disk on a copper sheet.

He links it to a plasma torch using a metal spindle.

The spindle holds the torch at a specific distance so that, as the torch cuts out the circle, the radius is exact.

The coppersmith ensures that the cutout is as close to the edge of the copper sheet as possible to minimize waste.

Next, he examines the circular blank.

The plasma cutting has left the edges frayed, so he smoothes them by clamping the copper blank in a lathe.

He taps the blank with a rubber mallet and centers it between the clamping chucks.

The coppersmith uses a tool to check that the blank is positioned correctly.

Then he adds oil to the cutting tool and moves it against the spinning blank.

It trims the circumference, creating a cleaner edge and removes any flaws.

He files the rim of the copper blank to make it smooth and even.

Using sandpaper, he finishes the edge.

With the imperfections removed, the copper blank is formed into a sauce pan with sloping sides.

Two craftsmen press a roller against the copper blank so that it conforms to the shape of a mold.

That's part of one of the clamping chucks.

This process is called metal spinning.

While one craftsman moves the roller across the copper blank, the other applies pressure.

This shaping method takes eight to ten rounds.

Finally, the pan has taken shape, but the forming process has left fine lines on the surface.

So as it continues to spin, the coppersmith smoothes it down.

He applies lubricant to a cutting tool and trims the rim of the saucepan.

This gives the pan the desired height.

The cutting leaves the edges very sharp, so he files them down again.

The copper saucepan is ready for the cast-iron handle.

Cast iron has less thermal conductivity than copper, so the heat from the pan will travel more slowly up the handle.

The craftsperson clamps the handle to the saucepan.

This holds it tightly in place as he drills rivet holes through both the iron handle and the copper pan.

The craftsman removes the clamp and bolts the handle to the pan temporarily.

This stabilizes it for the drilling of the second rivet hole.

A rivet is inserted in the second hole from the inside of the pan.

The coppersmith heats the tail of the rivet to soften it.

Then the pan is transferred to an anvil.

Using a pneumatic hammer, the coppersmith flattens the first rivet, removes the temporary bolt, and installs the second rivet.

He heats the pan over a flame and melts a tin bar to the bottom.

He spreads the molten tin up the sides of the pan using a rag that's been soaked with a flux chemical.

The flux cleans the copper and allows the tin to flow more smoothly.

The tin lining will prevent acidic foods from leeching raw copper into the food.

The heat from the tinning flame has caused some discoloration.

The coppersmith removes the stains by using a cotton buffing wheel and polishing compound.

As he continues, the polishing takes the copper to a high sheen.

This copper saucepan is now ready for the stovetop.

But first, the craftsman pounds a steel stamp into the bottom of the pan, imprinting it with the company logo.

For cookware that only takes a couple hours to make, a copper pan can last for decades.

And if it's well cared for, it won't even show its age.


Witness Samples
Pressure Washers
Bee Hives
Cast Iron Cookers

today on "how it's made"...

Witness samples.

Pressure washers.

Bee hives.

And cast iron cookers.

Special coatings applied to optical glass change the way it transmits light, so that it becomes more or less reflective or even electrically conductive.

Testing beforehand on little glass discs known as witness samples bears witness to the quality of the coatings.

With witness samples, it's all about the optics.

They must be flawless on the surface in order for optical coatings to be applied and properly evaluated.

A diamond drill cuts solid cylinders out of a block of optical glass.

Each one is an inch in diameter.

A worker glues the cylinders together to a glass plate.

This keeps them in a tight pack so that they can be cut into discs.

The worker suspends the cylinder pack above a grid of piano wire.

The wire moves back and forth to grind a silicon carbide slurry into the glass cylinders, to cut them at intervals about a tenth of an inch.

The sliced cylinders then go into a hot bath for 15 minutes.

This dissolves the glue.

The glass discs separate, and are released from the base plate.

The worker rinses each disc individually to remove any remaining glue.

She sets the discs on a cardboard surface to dry.

Once loaded into slots, a robot collects the disc using suctioning fingers.

The robot inserts a disc into a suctioning clamp, and nudges it to further establish it there.

A diamond cutting wheel meets up with the disc held in the clamp, and machines a bevel into the disc.

A technician places plastic carriers with disc-size slots on a pad in a polishing machine.

The carrier's gear-style teeth intermesh with teeth on the machine's hub and outer frame.

She transfers the glass discs to the slots in the carriers.

The upper polishing pad descends, and the carriers rotate as the pads buff the discs on both sides.

The glass goes from frosty to transparent.

She rinses off the polishing compound.

Then, for an intensive cleaning, an automated rack system lowers the discs into a series of tubs.

In the first one, they undergo another rinse.

In the next tub, a special cleaning solution has been added to water-- one that won't leave a soapy residue.

Sound waves bubble through this washtub to gently scrub the disc.

After another rinse, it's into a dryer.

It blows hot air onto the glass samples to dry them without leaving streaks.

A worker tests one witness sample from every production run.

Both a camera and a laser scan the sample, and a computer analyzes the information.

The witness samples are now ready for coating.

The technician loads the sample into fixtures in the coating machine.

Using a lift, he elevates the fixtures to the top of the coating chamber.

He inserts small crucibles of coating material in the base of the coating machine.

The materials are metal oxide compounds that make glass less reflective.

For demonstration purposes, the chamber remains open, and he sets the fixtures in motion.

As they spin, the coating materials will be heated to the point of evaporation, forming a cloud that will condense on the samples at a certain thickness.

The technician closes the chamber, and the process begins.

An intense electron beam heats the coating materials.

Once the coatings have cured to the glass, they can be evaluated.

A computerized machine takes measurements to confirm that the reflective properties are correct.

The witness sample has done its job, and the coatings are ready for production.

Armed with a pressure washer, it's easy to get carried away and go on an outdoor cleaning spree.

It can be used to wash down the driveway, clean the siding on the house, remove dirt from the deck, wash the car, and much more.

A pressure washer contains an electric motor, which drives a pump that propels water at high pressure down a hose, and out a trigger-operated nozzle.

The machine's mechanics and electronics are hidden from view by a two-part plastic cover.

The two main parts of the electric motor are the rotor and the stator.

To make the stator, this automated station winds 1,640 feet of copper wire-- or, for certain models, aluminum wire-- then inserts the winding into the slots of a steel cylindrical frame.

The rotor is also a steel cylinder.

It will sit inside the stator, attached at one end to the motor shaft.

When the power washer is turned on, the a/c current passing through the stator winding creates a rotating magnetic field.

This turns the rotor, driving the motor shaft, which drives the pump.

At the next station, a worker prepares the stator's electrical connections, securing them with a cable tie.

She contains and protects the copper winding with tape.

Then, the stator moves on to receive the rotor.

On another assembly line, a worker mates the guide for the motor's three pistons with the aluminum cylinder head and the motor, now in an oil-filled aluminum housing.

The motor drives a rubber plate which moves the pistons, which move various internal components that pressurize the water.

A worker places a new stator on the carrier to prepare it for motor assembly.

Then on the pumpset, he installs a plastic water inlet pipe.

He places the bottom section of the motor housing around the new stator that's heading to the motor assembly.

The automated handling system removes the completed pumpset and transfers it to another carrier, which transports it to the final assembly line.

A worker installs a rubber tube, which keeps water out of the motor.

He pulls the stator electrical connections through it, then installs a watertight plastic box containing all the electronics and the power switch.

He plugs the power cord into the circuit board inside the box, then screws down the stator's ground wire.

A worker connects both power and water.

Then a test machine automatically runs the unit through all the functions.

Remember that two-part plastic cover?

An injection-molding machine makes the parts in separate operations--  a yellow top and a black bottom.

The automated handling system extracts the part and places them on a carrier headed to the pad printer.

The printer stamps the model name in quick-dry ink on the top cover.

Workers will later attach the company name to the front of the machine.

The next station takes the top to the final assembly line, where the handling system turns it upside down and places the pumpset inside.

At the next stop, a worker installs a guide for the machine's water hose, then positions the bottom cover.

An automated machine screws the covers together.

Another worker installs a galvanized-steel axle and two rugged plastic wheels.

He applies a decal with safety instructions, plastic wheel covers, and a 33-foot-long rubber water hose wound on a plastic reel.

The pressure washer then goes off to the packaging area, where it's boxed with the handle, accessories, and detergents.

In the product-development stage, a sound engineer tests the prototype at a sound lab to make sure the noise the pressure washer emits isn't too loud and shrill.

He runs the machine amid nine microphones, each positioned three feet away in a different direction.

To pass the test, the noise must be a low bass-range hum.

To operate the pressure washer, the user connects a garden hose to the water-inlet pipe, connects the handle to the machine's hose, turns on the water and power, then pulls the trigger to spray.

For centuries, beekeepers used dome baskets called skeps as hives.

But to harvest the honey, the skeps had to be destroyed.

In the mid-19th century, they came up with a box hive with removable frames.

Bees built their honeycombs on the frames, which beekeepers could remove without destroying them.

A hive is home for thousands of bees.

The queen resides on the bottom level.

Worker bees have the run of the house and move around making honey.

Construction of this beehive starts with the inner cover of the hive.

A worker cuts a piece of pine plywood to the correct dimensions.

He places the plywood in a jig, and carves an oblong-shaped hole into it using a hand-held router.

This hole will provide both ventilation and an upper exit point for the bees.

For the body of the hive, he uses cypress wood because it's resistant to insect damage and rot.

With a table saw, the worker trims one edge of the wall panel, taking it from rough to smooth.

He cuts a little more off the other side of the panel to make it the correct width.

This gives this side a clean edge, too.

A circular saw automatically carves a drawer pull into the panel.

This pull is known as a handhold.

There will be handholds on all sides of the hive box for easy access.

The panel, front-side down now, rides a conveyer to the next operation.

Numerous saws cut long grooves along the bottom and the sides of the panel.

This creates joints that will fit the hive panels tightly together.

A worker stacks the panels to await the next stage of assembly.

Meanwhile, at another station, the next worker notches pieces of wood to make a part called the entrance reducer.

It's the doorway to the hive.

It will allow the bees to enter, but keep intruders like mice out.

He makes a wide entranceway on one side and a narrower one on the other.

A worker then cuts tongue-and-groove joints in wood that will be used for the bottom and the cover of the beehive.

Moving to the beehive stand, he cuts a 45-degree angle on both sides of a piece of wood.

This part will serve as a landing strip for the bees.

A team slices a sheet of galvanized steel to the desired length.

Using a press brake, a worker bends the edges of the sheet against a die.

This forms a cover that will fit over the roof of the hive.

At another station, a worker pipes glue along the inside groove of the roof frame.

He arranges the tongue-and-groove boards in a tight interlock and inserts them in the glued groove of the frame.

He applies pressure to further entrench them, and drives nails into the wood frame to secure the boards.

He fits the metal cladding over the wood roof.

It's been made to fit like a glove, so it takes a bit of maneuvering.

He now joins four of the panels to make a box.

And thanks to the grooved joints, the corners fit together neatly.

He glues them, and then secures the joints with nails.

This assembly will be the brood box that houses the queen bee.

He now builds the frame for the inner cover of the hive ceiling.

He applies glue to the frame.

He inserts the cover and pounds it to drive it further into place.

It's now time for the final assembly.

They install the floor on the stand and position the entranceway piece at the front.

The brood box is next.

They hang frames with starter honeycomb beeswax on the inner ledges.

They place a wire mesh excluder over the brood box to keep the queen bee out of the upper chamber.

The smaller worker bees will be able to move through it to deposit honey on more honeycomb frames.

They stack the inner cover on top, followed by the metal-clad roof.

This empty hive will soon be a-buzz with activity and honey.

humans have been cooking over fire with iron implements since, well, the iron age.

Today, most outdoor cooking requires some type of appliance.

And because of iron's superior ability to retain and diffuse heat evenly, a cast-iron cooker is sure to get everyone fired up.

This cast-iron cooker may look like an ordinary barbecue, but it does so much more than grill.

It also slow-smokes, caramelizes, sears, and even bakes.

To produce the cast iron, the company buys scrap pieces of new steel from steel mills and from factories that use steel to make their products.

Manufacturers heat the steel in a pre-heat furnace.

This evaporates any residual moisture and speeds up melting in the main furnace.

The main furnace operator adds a powdered chemical that solidifies the impurities so that he can scoop them out.

He also adds carbon, silicon, and other alloys to transform the steel into iron.

The molds are made of a sand, clay, finely ground coal, and water mix compressed at high pressure.

The molten iron causes the moisture in the mold to evaporate.

The resulting steam escapes through vent holes at the top.

This machine lowers the top half of the mold over the bottom half.

The furnace empties the molten iron into a ladle, which contains additional alloys.

A worker positions the ladle over an opening at the top of the mold and pours in the molten iron.

After about two hours, he breaks the sand mold and extracts the casting.

Workers use a sledgehammer to break off excess metal.

The cast-iron parts are still encrusted in sand, so workers load them into a shot-blasting machine.

Shot blasting is like sandblasting, except instead of sand, the machine pummels the surface with tiny steel balls.

The shot-blasting cycle thoroughly cleans the surface.

The surface is still quite rough, however.

So workers refine it with hand tools, hammering off any remaining excess metal and grinding the surface smooth.

The top half of the cooker has a handle on the front and half a hinge on the back.

The bottom half has the other half of the hinge.

A worker drills a hole through each hinge half for the shaft that will connect them.

He drills holes in the fire box that will let in air to feed the fire.

Using a template and laser cutter, he cuts an opening in the bottom for the ventilation-draft door.

He drills mounting holes around the vent, and installs the draft door.

Its perforated hole cover lets air in.

Its solid sliding door shuts it out.

The air intake feeding the fire regulates cooking temperature.

The cooker sits in a hand-crafted steel cart.

A welder places the parts for the cart's frame in an assembly fixture, which positions them correctly.

After welding the frame, he files down the welds so that they'll be virtually invisible once the frame is painted.

This computer-guided lathe machines the cart's cast-iron wheels to the final dimensions.

The sand molds used to cast the wheels were designed using century-old patterns for cast-iron pulleys.

Once workers have mounted the two wheels, the cart goes off to be painted.

Then, a worker installs shelves made of either stainless steel, hardwood, or composite decking planks.

Workers bolt the bottom half of the cooker to the cart.

Then they lower in the fire box, which holds the fuel for cooking.

The recommended fuel is hardwood lump charcoal.

Next, a worker mounts the cooker's temperature gauge.

Then he installs the top vent.

It consists of two cast-iron discs which rotate to let in more air or less air.

Having adjustable ventilation at both the top and bottom of the cooker enables more precise temperature control.

They position the top of the cooker over the bottom, and mate the two hinge halves with the steel shaft and two stainless-steel springs.

Fiber gaskets ensure good seal when the cooker is closed over the cast-iron grates.

Those grates are reversible, with one side higher than the other, providing a choice of cooking heights above the fire.


Plasma Gems
Special Effects Snow
Piano Restoration

These gemstones aren't mined.

They're made from garbage.

Using plasma technology, organic waste can be turned into energy, and inorganic waste can be made into a hard black glass.

Artisans then turn the glass into beautiful jewelry.

Black jewels glitter like genuine gemstones and are as hard as quartz.

But they aren't precious or even semiprecious.

They're pure garbage.

They're called plasma gems because of the plasma technology that creates them from waste.

This patented system converts almost any type of waste into clean energy without creating any harmful byproducts.

The process produces two useful materials-- energy and a hard black glass that artisans can cut into gemstones.

The process begins by shredding waste and placing it into the system's plasma reactor.

Inside the reactor, two electrodes generate an electrically-conductive gas.

These plasma arcs create temperatures exceeding 2,900 degrees, converting the carbon-based matter into a gas that can be used to produce electric power.

At the same time, the plasma arcs melt the non-carbon-based matter, such as glass, metal, and ceramics.

The gas fuels engines that produce electric power.

Once melted, the waste separates into two layers.

Metal oxides float to the top, and metals sink to the bottom.

The company casts the metals into ingots, which go to a recycling facility.

The metal oxides seen here solidify into glass rocks as hard as granite.

The company sells these glass rocks to artisans who use it to make gemstones for jewelry.

First, the artisan grinds a chunk of the rock down to a smaller starting shape with a flat side.

Then she glues on a brass dowel called a dob stick.

She activates the glue with a u.v. light.

She returns to the grinding wheel to further reduce the size of the stone and round it as much as possible.

Then she mounts the dob stick on a fastening machine.

She presses the stone against an abrasive disc called a lathe to file down the diameter.

The lathe's surface is made of diamond dust.

It's the only material strong enough to cut through hard black glass.

The artisan measures the stone numerous times as she works, ensuring the diameter is consistent all around.

Once the diameter is perfect, she adjusts the dob stick diagonally and begins cutting symmetrical facets that will reflect light.

You cannot set this machine to cut and polish at an exact angle, so the artisan has to work by feel, sensing how hard she must press the stone against the disc.

She checks her work with a magnification loupe to make sure all the facets meet at a precise point.

Once she finishes faceting the bottom of the stone, she glues a dob stick to the top of the stone.

Then she removes the first dob stick by softening the glue with a propane torch.

Now the artisan begins faceting the top of the stone, called the crown.

Once the sides are faceted, she flattens the pointed top, forming what's called the table.

She repositions the dob stick horizontally to polish a flat edge around the middle called the girdle.

She removes the dob stick and cleans off any glue residue with acetone.

She carefully centers the stone in a sterling-silver pendant.

The pendant is being held upright in a wad of shellac.

She uses a prong pusher to bend the prongs securely over the girdle, then rounds off and softens the prongs with a file.

To remove the pendant, she softens the shellac over a flame, then submerges the pendant in acetone to remove any shellac residue.

On the hardness scale used in gemology, plasma gems are equivalent to many varieties of quartz.

Not bad for garbage that would otherwise be in a landfill.

Mother nature does not deliver on cue.

So when a film or television script calls for flurries, they use a snow machine to generate fake snowflakes.

The flakes are actually tiny soap bubbles that look surprisingly realistic on camera.

It's a sweltering day outside, but inside on the film set, it's winter.

These soapy flakes look like real snow.

They hang around just long enough to show up on screen before they evaporate.

To create these snowflakes, workers start with the same chemicals that are used in soap and shampoo.

A chemist combines the chemicals in a big mixing vat and adds purified water.

This produces a snow-making concentrate.

A machine pumps the concentrate into jugs.

Each jug contains enough base material to make it snow for up to 16 hours.

Now work begins on the snow-making machine.

A worker drills holes into the back of the snow head using a template as a guide.

He threads plastic tubing and wires through the front part of the snow head.

The wires are for a blower, and the tubing will be used to deliver the snow solution.

He applies silicone caulking around the rim and places the blower in the cavity.

This blower will introduce air to mix with the snow solution.

The caulking acts as a sealant to keep the air from escaping.

Next, he routes the wiring and tubing through the back part of the snow head.

Then he joins the two components.

He secures the two components with eight long bolts.

He encases the wiring and tubing in a polymer jacket that shrinks when heat is applied.

Next, a worker carves a hole in the center of a pre-manufactured blower guard.

He inserts the snow head in the hole so that the blower guard surrounds the back.

He ties the wiring and snow-solution tubing to the guard.

Next, he maps out screw holes and drills them into a big fan that will blow the fake snow around.

He screws in brackets that will be used to hang the machine high above a movie set.

He installs a metal guard in the front of the fan...

And attaches more brackets to the side.

These brackets act as a holder for the snow-solution pump.

Now he assembles the snow-head unit to the fan.

He ties the snow-solution hose to the snow-head nozzle using wires.

He flattens the wires to the nozzle and covers them with vinyl tape.

He fits a specially-designed fabric sock over the nozzle.

Liquid snow will be forced through the pores of the sock to form fake snowflakes.

He connects the snow-solution tubing to the pump and pulls the wiring through the top of the fan.

Next, a metal box that contains the controller for the electronics must be installed.

He runs the snow-solution tubing through it and makes all the necessary wiring connections.

The controller box is lowered onto the fan assembly and screwed in place.

He installs a weight on the end of the snow-solution tubing.

The weight will keep the tubing submerged in the snow-solution container.

This snow machine is now fully assembled.

It's over to the test station.

Here, a technician runs it for hours.

He checks that it generates a sufficient number of snowflakes and that the flakes are the right size and shape.

With his approval, these machines are ready to whip up a snowstorm when the director says "action".

A piano is a complex instrument.

The inner workings operate with exact precision.

Regular maintenance is required to ensure its longevity.

But even with proper care, a piano deteriorates with age.

This is where a talented team of specialists come in to restore a piano to its former glory.

a piano that's untunable, has sticking keys, or malfunctioning pedals is a pianist's worst nightmare.

These problems are quite common in older pianos, and the only cure is through a major restoration.

After decades of use, wood, leather, and wool felt components naturally deteriorate.

Metal pins develop cavities, screws rust, dust and dirt inhibit moving parts.

An old piano may require anything from minor touch-ups to a complete rebuild.

It takes up to two days just to take apart the piano.

This component, called the action, is the heart of the instrument.

It has thousands of parts, including 88 piano keys and the felt-covered hammers the keys activate.

Behind the action is the damper action.

The dampers stop the strings from vibrating, ending the piano note.

The restorers begin removing the dampers.

Every component must be laid out in an organized fashion.

This is so they know how to reassemble the instrument.

They separate the keyboard frame from the action.

The self-contained part that remains is called the action stack.

Like the dampers, the other wooden parts of the action stack deteriorate with age.

The felts are usually worn, and everything's caked in dust.

The restorers replace these components with custom-made replicas.

After cleaning and polishing the ornate brass structure, they begin reassembling the action stack.

Next, the restorers remove and discard any worn parts on the keyboard.

They clean the wood thoroughly and install replacement parts as needed.

The black keys are made of ebony wood.

They can be refinished to look brand-new.

Older white keys are covered with ivory, which is no longer used.

So instead, they install new synthetic coverings made of white acrylic or a similar material.

The steel and copper piano strings have rusted, tarnished, and fatigued with age.

The tuning pins can no longer maintain the tension on the strings.

This can change the sound of the instrument, so both the strings and tuning pins must be replaced.

The piano will also receive a new pin block.

The pin block is a laminated piece of wood that holds the pins in place.

To access the pin block, they have to remove a heavy cast-iron plate.

The plate holds the strings at a tremendous amount of tension.

Once they've removed the plate, they can take out the pin block.

They restore the ornate cast-iron plate by stripping off the old paint finish with chemicals.

Then they prime, repaint, and apply a protective coat of clear polyester.

Back in the reconstruction area, a restorer removes the piano's wooden soundboard and its support structure.

They use these original parts as a template for the new ones.

If the action is the heart of the piano, then the soundboard is its soul.

When the strings vibrate against the soundboard, it resonates with sound.

On every soundboard, the strings pass over a wooden bridge staggered by pins.

The height and positioning of the bridge and pins are critical for producing fine tone.

After removing the pins, the restorers use the old bridge to make a template for a new one.

Now they install all of the replacement parts-- soundboard, bridge, bridge pins, pin block, and tuning pins.

They install the newly-refurbished cast-iron plate and are ready to perform some cosmetic restoration.

A piano's wooden cabinet or case is constructed from hardwood.

To give the piano the look of fine furniture, the surface is covered in a thin layer of fancier wood such as mahogany, rosewood, or walnut.

This veneer usually requires restoration in older pianos.

Over time, paint peels and varnish darkens.

There's often fading from exposure to direct sunlight or cracking due to dry indoor air.

To restore the veneer, they begin by using a chemical stripper to remove the old finish.

Once they've stripped the piano-case parts down to the bare veneer, they sand away any imperfections.

Then they apply aniline dye.

It's a type of stain that penetrates deep into the veneer and enhances the grain of the wood.

Several coats of clear lacquer are applied over the aniline dye.

This piano was originally black, so they sand, stain, then paint the wood black.

They apply several coats of paint, letting each one dry overnight before sanding the surface and applying the next coat.

After the final coat, they let the paint cure for two weeks, then do a fine sanding.

To make the painted surface glossy, they use a high-speed buffer and a series of progressively-finer polishing compounds.

This is a slow and painstaking process.

It takes two or three days to complete work on a concert grand piano like this.

With the 20-plus parts of the case now refinished, the restorers are now ready to reassemble the piano.

They start by hooking the looped end of each new string onto a hitch pin.

Then they run the string over the bridge to the opposite end of the cast-iron plate, winding it around a tuning pin.

Restorers must wear gloves while restringing.

Natural oils and perspiration on the hands can tarnish the wires.

Next, they install the refurbished dampers.

The original wood has been sanded and refinished.

They also have new felts and new wires.

The dampers go into a brand-new damper action.

The restorers make minute adjustments and alignments, a meticulous process that can take a few days to complete.

But that's nothing compared to regulating the larger and more complex action, which can take several weeks.

They make more than a dozen precision adjustments to each of the 88 notes.

After they reinstall the action, they bookend the keyboard with wooden cheekblocks.

These are the originals, stripped, sanded, and stained.

The cheekblocks help align the keyboard so that the hammers strike in the right place.

The restorer checks the action one last time to ensure it's performing perfectly.

Then he's ready to tune the piano.

He weaves a strip of wool cloth through the strings to mute all but the one string they're tuning.

once he's tuned all the strings, the inner workings of the piano are as good as new.

restorers finish reassembling the piano case and give it a final dusting.

Except for the legs, all of the piano-case parts have a solid wood core covered in a newly-restored veneer.

This veneer isn't just for aesthetics.

It prevents the wood core from expanding and contracting with changes in humidity.

restoring an old piano is part technical challenge, part labor of love.

After many weeks of hard work, this instrument looks and sounds just as it did in its heyday.


Today on "how it's made"...

Car engines...

Flour...

Recliners...

And envelopes.

Car engines work by internal combustion, a process that happens in each of the engine's cylinders.

Air and a drop of gasoline enter the cylinder.

The piston moves upward, compressing the mixture.

The spark plug ignites the gasoline causing an explosion that drives the piston downward, powering the engine.

Engine components are housed in what's called the engine block.

It arrives at this plant partially made.

Here, they finish it off by machining the cylinder bores, the holes in which the pistons move up and down.

The tool carves a crisscross pattern on the cylinder bore walls.

Lubricating oil will cling to the grooves in this pattern enabling the pistons to move smoothly.

After machining, the engine block travels upside down to the engine assembly line.

When it arrives there, a scanner records the block's traceability code, a barcode that enables the factory to track the block through every stage of production.

As the engine block travels down the line, error-proofing devices ensure that each component is installed properly.

Elsewhere in the factory, the crankshaft is slowly taking shape.

The crankshaft is a bar that's rotated by the up-and-down motion of the pistons.

As it turns, it transfers power to the transmission.

The crankshaft starts out as a roughly shaped steel forging.

Robotic arms pass it down the line from station to station until, 20 tooling machines later, it's fully formed.

Now they install a steel disc with teeth called the reluctor ring.

They heat it and press it onto the crankshaft.

As it cools, it shrinks to a tight fit.

This ring helps time the combustion cycle.

As it spins, its teeth pass in front of a sensor, which reads the crankshaft's position and tells the engine to fire the spark plugs at precisely the right moment.

Now they balance the crankshaft.

If it's off-kilter, the engine will vibrate.

A computer analyzes the spin and determines whether they need to drill out metal at certain points to achieve equilibrium.

Back on the engine assembly line, the engine blocks are still upside down.

A robot lubricates the four bearings on which the crankshaft will turn, then it drops the crankshaft into position.

The pistons come next-- six per engine because these are six-cylinder engines.

The pistons are made of aluminum.

Robots install them into the cylinder bores of the engine block.

A steel connecting rod attaches each piston to the crankshaft.

Now workers can close up the back of the engine block.

A robot applies sealant to the rear cover.

They bolt it on manually with a tool called a multi-spindle torque gun.

On another line, they assemble the two heads that'll cover the top of the engine block.

This robot is applying sealant to spark plug tubes before inserting them into the heads.

The heads cap off the cylinder bores.

They provide each cylinder with a spark plug and four valves-- two for allowing the fuel mixture in and two for releasing the exhaust.

The black tubes running front to back are the cam shafts, the components that open and close those valves.

There are four per engine.

A robot applies sealant and then bolts a cover onto the front of the engine block, the head, and a component called the timing chain.

This chain connects the crankshaft to the cam shafts so that they rotate in unison.

This ensures the valves open when the pistons are in the right position.

Finally, they spin the engine mechanically to make sure the components function properly.

The grain most commonly ground into flour is wheat.

Flour mills use high-protein or hard-wheat species to make bread flour and lower-protein or soft-wheat species to produce cake and pastry flour.

All-purpose flour is a compromise with medium protein.

As soon as the wheat shipment arrives, a grain probe vacuums up samples from throughout the load.

If the samples pass quality inspection, the mill gives the truck the go-ahead to dump the wheat onto an underground conveyor.

From there, the grain goes into a cleaning machine, where a system of sieves removes impurities such as straw, sticks, and grain dust.

The wheat then goes into storage silos until milling time.

The protein content of wheat varies by species, so the first step is to blend together the right varieties of wheat for the type of flour they'll be making.

From the blender, the wheat goes through a second, more intensive cleaning system that removes the tiniest of impurities, such as weed seeds and dust.

On the way to the milling machines, a scale tracks production quantities.

This mill's vertical-production line is five stories high.

Gravity carries the wheat downward through a succession of milling machines.

Each one grinds the grain between steel rollers and then sifts it.

Particles too large to pass through a sieve continue downward into the next milling machine and so on.

By the time the wheat hits the last machine, anything that's not fully processed gets vacuumed up to the top to begin the cycle again.

Mills make white flour by grinding only the wheat kernel's soft inner part, called the endosperm.

This requires removing the bran, the kernel's hard skin, and the germ, its seed.

That separation begins as soon as the wheat kernels enter the very first milling machine.

Rollers break off the germ and bran and crush the endosperm into pieces called semolina.

Sifting removes the germ and loose bran pieces, but much of the semolina remains covered in bran particles.

So between each milling station is a purifier, a machine that uses controlled air currents to float the lighter bran above the heavier semolina, enabling sieves to separate the two components.

The semolina goes through repeated grind, sift, and purify cycles until it's completely clean.

Only then can it be finely ground into flour.

The ground semolina passes through a series of sieves.

This ensures it doesn't leave the final milling machine until it's been ground to the right powdery texture.

There are three main types of white-wheat flour.

Bread flour has high protein, enabling dough to rise well and bake to a firm texture.

Cake flour has low protein, which produces a crumbly texture.

All-purpose flour is the compromise-- its medium-protein content makes it suitable for baking both bread and cakes.

By the end of production, the flour mill has produced three distinct products-- bran, used for animal feed and baking...

White-wheat flour...

And wheat germ for the health-food market.

Leftover by-products go into livestock feed.

In the mill's quality-control lab, they bake the product for which the flour is designed and then examine its appearance, texture, and taste.

They use specialized equipment to calculate the volume, the density, protein, and moisture contents.

With baked goods destined for retail sale, like these cookies, it's especially important to measure the dimensions.

If dough overexpands, the cookies won't fit in their package.

Just prior to packaging, the mill enriches its white flour with vitamins and minerals.

This replaces the vitamins and minerals lost when the milling process removed the bran and germ.

They shake the bags to settle the flour.

Bagged flour in various sizes goes out to supermarkets, restaurants, and commercial bakeries, while tanker trunks ship bulk flour to large industrial bakeries.

The first reclining armchair was introduced by the la-z-boy company in 1928.

Today, many companies make motion furniture, as the industry calls it, and the term "recliner" no longer refers to just armchairs.

You can buy reclining couches and even reclining sectionals.

This factory makes reclining chairs and couches in both fabric and leather.

The furniture construction is the same, regardless of the material, but leather upholstery requires a few extra steps.

They begin by inspecting the hide, marking serious defects with one color of tape and minor imperfections with another.

A computer-programmed cutting machine scans and registers the tape markings, then automatically cuts and discards the defective parts.

It cuts upholstery pieces for hidden areas, such as the undersides of seat cushions, from the imperfect leather and visible parts from flawless leather.

Once all the pieces are cut, they sew together the back, seat, and arms.

Then, they stuff the arms and back.

They position the open end against a blowing machine that fills it with polyester fiber.

Workers weigh each part before and after filling.

This ensures they've blown in the right amount of fiber and that both arms have equal filling.

Next, they'll fill the seat with foam.

A compression machine squeezes it, then a worker sprays on silicone lubricant.

This enables the seat cover to slide on easily.

Foam is made of a chemical mixture, the formulation of which determines the density-- the higher the density, the higher the quality.

Elsewhere in the factory, they cut the frame components from plywood using a computer-guided band saw.

These long pieces will form the seat frame.

A 3-seater couch has 3 separate frames, enabling each seat to recline individually.

A machine lines one side of each piece with steel spring clips.

A worker then dabs the ends in glue and assembles the pieces, reinforcing them with long, glue-coated staples.

As the staples enter the wood, friction-generated heat melts the glue.

The glue then dries, securing the staples.

Now comes the step known as "springing the seat".

They hook five thick, steel springs into the spring clips, then hammer the clips closed to lock the springs in place.

They connect the springs with a plastic-covered wire so that, when you sit on the seat, all the springs react in unison.

They assemble the frame pieces for the arm, using glue and glue-coated staples, plus a few screws at strategic points.

They screw the arm to the seat and begin upholstering.

First, a layer of felt to cushion the springs, then wood, cardboard, and foam to form the rounded shape of the armrest.

After lubricating with silicone spray, they slip on the leather and staple it in place.

They upholster the backrest and sides in the same manner.

The reclining mechanism arrives at the factory with the sides preassembled.

Workers install the connecting pieces, then a bushing that reduces the noise the mechanism makes.

Finally, they install a spring to control the recline speed.

They screw the mechanism to the seat frame...

Then hook up the operating handle and test it out.

To cover the back of the furniture, they attach metal tacking strips to the leather...

Then turn the edge under and hammer the tacks into the frame, using a pneumatic hammer.

The last step is to attach the back to the seat.

There's the detachable flap at the bottom, providing access to a locking spring inside.

The locking spring lets you remove the back if you have trouble getting the furniture through a doorway.

At this factory, workers are encouraged to lie down on the job, but only to inspect the furniture.

After examining the fabric and sewing, they assess the comfort and test the reclining motion.

Talk about a cushy job.

We rip it open with barely a thought, more anxious to read its contents than to take a moment to truly appreciate its form and function, and then we ruthlessly discard it.

The humble envelope just doesn't get much respect despite its distinguished 4,000-year history.

As early as 2,000 b.c., the babylonians baked special clay wrappers to transport documents.

Eventually, people made envelopes from lighter materials, such as animal skins and leaves.

By about 1,000 a.d., it became the custom to simply fold a letter and seal it with a drop of wax.

But everything changed in 1837 with england's new penny-postage system.

To mail a letter, the sender now had to buy a postage-paid paper wrapper that folded into an envelope.

One of the many envelope styles this factory makes is a 12-by-18-inch envelope made of natural-colored kraft paper.

A machine, appropriately called the sheeter, cuts the roll into 21-by-25-inch sheets.

A worker selects the cutting die for this style and installs it on an automated press.

As each stack of sheets passes underneath, the press applies 11 tons of pressure, forcing the die right through like a giant cookie cutter.

The shaped sheets are called "envelope blanks".

Workers now load the blanks into the feeder of an automated piece of equipment called a blank-sheet envelope-folding machine.

As we see here in slow motion, revolving steel blades first make scorelines, four in all-- one down each side, creating the envelope's side flaps, one across the top, creating the seal flap, and one across the lower end, creating the bottom flap.

Folding blades hold the paper down along the scorelines, while arms push up from underneath, folding the side flaps toward the center.

Just before the flaps meet, the machine runs a line of glue down their edge.

The flaps adhere to each other, forming the center seam that runs down the back of the envelope.

The machine then glues the bottom flap and folds it closed.

You can see in slow motion how it also applies glue to the seal flap at the top, keeping that flap open so that the glue will dry.

The sender has to just remoisten the glue to seal the envelope.

The finished envelope exits the folding machine and enters another machine that counts them and stacks them upright.

This more sophisticated piece of equipment is called a web-roll envelope-folding machine.

They feed the roll of paper directly into the machine and, as we see here in slow motion, it does everything from cutting, scoring, folding, and gluing the blanks to counting the finished envelopes.

For this style, a die even punches out an address window in the front of the envelope.

This all-in-one machine goes through all the steps at lightning speed-- 20 envelopes per second.

The thin, transparent film that covers the address window is usually made of polypropylene.

The machine cuts it to size and glues it to the envelope.

This machine doesn't have folding blades to hold the paper down along the scorelines.

Instead, the blanks roll through a series of rotating cylinders with air holes.

A suction system vacuums the blank to the cylinder while the operation is being performed, then releases the vacuum to transfer the paper to the next cylinder, where it's vacuumed on for the duration of the next operation.

Internal-mail envelopes are opened and closed repeatedly, so they don't have a lick-and-stick seal flap like regular envelopes do.

As we see here in slow motion, an automated machine rivets a cardboard button to the back of the envelope.

At the same time, it rivets another button, with a piece of string, to the flap.

Envelope factories use many different types of paper, from top-quality vellum to kraft paper.

With printing equipment incorporated right into the folding machines, they can print return addresses, even elaborate custom designs.