Plastic Injection Moulds
Automotive Oil Filters
Filing Cabinets
Blown Glass

If you take a closer look at the products around you, you'll notice that many are made of parts that have been assembled together.

One way factories make product parts is by melting material such as metal, rubber, or plastic, then pouring or injecting them into molds.

To make a plastic part for a product, the manufacturer has to first commission a mold-making company to design and produce a plastic-injection mold.

The mold begins as bars of chromium steel, a highly durable metal that can withstand repeated high-pressure injection of plastic.

Workers assemble several bars into a block called a mold base.

They mount this base on a milling machine, which shaves the bars to the right dimension.

This step is critical, enabling them to later machine the base into a mold that's true to the technical design, right down to the hundredth of a millimeter.

A mold usually consists of two halves, each of which is comprised of several components.

The factory drills strategically positioned holes in each base for the guide pins and bushings that hold the components together when the plastic's injected.

A grinder now goes to work, smoothing and leveling all surfaces.

This prepares the base for the high-precision machining operations that will transform it into a mold component.

A computer-guided tooling machine called the cnc slowly machines the base, wearing away the steel, particle by particle, to create the mold-component shape.

This one, part of a mold for the plastic rim around a snowmobile's front headlight, takes 20 hours to complete.

From here, most mold components go on to a second tooling machine, especially if they require fine detailing that this cnc machine isn't capable of carving.

The second machine is outfitted with a copper electrode in the shape of the plastic part, in this case, a snowmobile oil gauge.

After polishing the electrode to ensure flawless casting, they use a sophisticated measuring device to verify the dimensions.

The electrode goes facedown on the second tooling machine, called the edm.

Directly underneath is the mold half that's been partially formed on the first machine.

A strong electric current runs through the electrode and penetrates the mold, forming a cavity in the shape of the electrode.

After tooling, they drill coolant lines.

This is for the cooling fluid they'll use to accelerate the hardening of the molten plastic.

Some plastic product parts, like that snowmobile oil gauge we saw earlier, have lettering on them.

The factory engraves the letters in reverse inside the mold cavity.

After the plastic's injected, the writing is right-side out and raised.

This surface of the mold cavity is pretty rough from all that tooling, so they polish it smooth to ensure proper casting.

Here's what the two halves of a finished mold look like.

The pins and bushings fit together to close the mold before injecting the hot liquid plastic.

Once the plastic cools and hardens, it's just a matter of extracting the molded plastic part.

Here's a different molding method-- a two-step process they're using to make buttons that go on the steering handle of a jet ski.

First, they mold a structural base out of hard, white plastic.

Then, they put the base into a second mold and inject a rubberlike gray plastic.

This softer plastic covers everything but the raised lettering, giving the button a softer feel.

Factories also make molds for aluminum injection and rubber injection, among other materials.

They build those molds from different types of metal but using the same techniques.

Changing your car's oil filter a couple of times a year is an easy way to prolong the life of your engine.

The oil pump forces oil through the filter to the moving parts in the engine.

The filter's job is to block dirt and metal debris from getting in between those parts and causing engine damage.

They make many oil-filter parts from steel coil-- a sheet of steel on a roll.

They start by unwinding the roll and feeding the coil into a press.

The press contains a series of dies, each of which progressively stamps the steel into the shape of the specific part they're making.

This press is churning out tapping plates, a component on the end of the oil filter that screws onto the car's engine.

Hot off the press, the tapping plates travel on a magnetic conveyer to the welding station.

There, a robotic arm loads them onto the welding carrousel.

But before any welding begins, a nozzle applies sealant around the rim of each plate.

This will fill any gaps left between the parts after welding.

A robot now welds the tapping plate to another steel part called the bottom ring.

This ring will hold the gasket, the rubber seal that prevents oil from leaking out as it travels through the filter into the engine.

The welded parts, known as the bottom assembly, now go onto a machine that cuts a thread pattern through the center.

This will enable the oil filter to be screwed onto the engine.

Another press produces the oil filter's steel body, called the cannister.

The dies first stamp out a rough cannister shape.

Then, they reduce the diameter and make the can taller.

Finally, they cut off the excess.

Elsewhere in the factory, another machine cuts and perforates pieces of tin-plated steel coil and rolls them into tubes.

We'll see where those tubes go shortly.

Yet another machine prepares the filter's key component-- a filter paper that works like a fine sieve, trapping dirt, carbon, and soot.

First, the machine pleats the paper so it will fit inside the cannister.

Next, the machine cuts the continuous ribbon of pleated paper into lengths.

It folds each piece into a circle, fastening the ends with a steel clip.

The next machine assembles what's called the filter cartridge.

It places each filter paper over a tube.

The tube's job is to reinforce the paper against the force of the oil pumping through it.

This machine glues a capping disk on each end of the filter paper to hold the tube in place.

A heater cures the glue.

Now for the final assembly.

As the cannisters go by upside down, automated arms insert the filter cartridges.

A worker then puts a thin, rubber disk on top of each cartridge.

This disk will prevent the oil from draining out of the filter.

Now for those bottom assemblies we saw them making earlier.

A worker positions one on each cannister.

Then, a machine called a seamer folds its edge down, forming a rim, just like the rim of a soup can.

Now the conveyer turns the filters right-side up, as they file by five nozzles spraying powder paint.

An infrared oven dries the paint in about 90 seconds.

Then, a printing machine stamps on the product information.

The conveyer now turns the filters upside down again, as they travel to the gasket inserter.

Its automated plungers insert a gasket into each bottom ring.

These automotive oil filters are finally finished and ready to do the dirty work.

Whether you work in a sprawling corporate office or in a home office, filing cabinets are an essential component of an efficient workplace.

They keep your paperwork tidy, organized, and out of sight, yet just a drawer away.

And when you're short on space, they make a handy counter for the coffee maker.

Filing cabinets begin as sheets of cold rolled steel, a thin type of metal that's easy to bend, weld, and paint.

As the sheet comes off the roll, it goes through a straightening machine that removes the curve, then, into a press, whose dies punch out the shape of the specific part, complete with holes, slots, and embossments.

A filing cabinet is made up of over 60 steel parts.

For the top-selling models, the factory has dies specially designed to punch out each part.

But that's too costly a system for models that aren't mass-produced.

To make low-volume or custom-made filing cabinets, the factory uses this computer-controlled punching machine.

This equipment operates at a far slower speed than the presses we just saw, but the advantage is that it can be programmed to punch out any size, shape, or design, no matter how complex.

Several filing-cabinet parts are designed to be bent into shape.

Workers do that manually, using a machine called a press brake.

This particular part will become the top of the filing cabinet, so they're making downward folds along the perimeter to create 1 1/2-inch-wide edges with strong and tight corner seams.

This machine is called a dedicated bender because it only bends one type of part-- the filing-cabinet doors.

The factory produces doors in such high volume that it pays to design a special machine to shape them.

The doors are also bent downward along the perimeter to create edges half-an-inch wide with tight corner seams.

The cabinet's base is welded from the same type of steel sheeting as the other parts.

Small steel reinforcements make it rigid enough to support the excessive weight of file-filled drawers.

To join the cabinet's side and back, robots perform what's called "resistance welding," fusing metal using heat from an electric current.

The next set of robots welds the side and back unit to the cabinet top.

After this, workers attach the base using what's called "mig welding"-- welding that adds extra metal along the joint to create a strong seam.

Once again, it doesn't pay to invest in robotic welding equipment for models that aren't mass-produced.

They manually weld low-volume items such as those small filing cabinets that roll under desks.

In the paint department, rotary atomizers envelop the filing cabinets in a mist of paint that contains a synthetic resin for durability.

These atomizers lace the paint particles with a negative electric charge.

This draws the particles to a positive charge on the cabinets, creating a thorough and even coat.

After 20 minutes in an oven to bake the paint, assembly can begin.

Ball-bearing sliders on which the drawers will sit, tracks for the fold-down doors, and doorstops, so the doors can't be pulled off their tracks.

There's also a locking system that simultaneously bolts both sides of each door, making the files inside inaccessible.

The last step is to install the doors and drawers using a rubber mallet, so as not to damage the finish.

Each drawer can support up to 200 pounds of files.

An interlock system lets you open only one drawer at a time.

This prevents the cabinet from toppling forward.

A glassblower can transform a sizzling blob of molten glass into sheer sculpture or objects that are both functional and decorative.

Blowing glass can be on the cutting edge of modern design, quite a feat for an art that's more than 2,000 years old.

The first hollow glass objects date back to 1,500 b.c. the invention of the blowpipe around 30 b.c. revolutionized the craft.

Until then, objects were either carved from solid glass blocks or molded from molten glass.

The blowpipe enabled glassmakers to expand and shape glass.

It made fast, inexpensive production possible.

This meant that everyday items, not just luxuries, could now be made of glass, accessible not just to the rich but to the ordinary people, too.

When you see these spectacular shapes and colors, it's hard to believe that blown glass comes from this bland, clumpy stuff.

This is silica, a natural material derived from sand, mixed with thinners and stabilizers, such as potassium and limestone.

The glassblower recycles any leftover, colorless glass then loads the mix into the melting furnace.

After 12 hours at fusion temperature, 2,200 degrees fahrenheit, the raw material transforms into colorless liquid glass.

The glassblower uses a blowpipe, a long steel tube with a ring or pear-shaped end to collect what's called a gather, a glob of this red-hot molten material.

To color the gather, she quickly rolls it in finely ground colored glass.

At this stage, the glass is honey-like in consistency, though it's cooling and thickening by the second.

She fuses the color layer by reheating the glass for a few seconds in a smaller furnace called a glory hole.

Next, she rolls the glass against a ladle-shaped block to form a starting shape for blowing.

A gentle blow or two bulges it into a hollow bubble.

By now, the cooling glass has thickened to the consistency of caramel, making it more controllable and shapable.

The glassblower stretches and shapes the glass with different blocks and hand tools.

Now the glass is like hardened caramel, and it will hold its final shape.

She scores the glass where it meets the blowpipe, then cools it down further with compressed air.

On the opposite end of the glass, with a bit of hot glass, she attached a solid-metal maneuvering rod called a pontil.

Then she applies a single drop of cold water on the score line to break the glass off the blowpipe.

Using another pontil, she plugs the resulting hole with hot glass.

Then, it's back to the melting furnace to attach a gather.

It's critical to always rotate the glass so that it doesn't droop and become lopsided.

The glassblower shapes this gather, not with a block, but by hand.

She protects herself from the intense heat by using a thick stack of soggy newspapers.

Using an ordinary pair of scissors, she forms ridges.

Then, she twists the ridges to spiral them.

She cools and hardens the finished design using compressed air.

Then, it's a quick blast into the glory hole to equalize the temperature throughout the piece.

This blown-glass lemon reamer has taken all of eight minutes to make.

Now it goes into an electric kiln for a slow 12-hour cooldown to prevent cracking.

Meanwhile, the glassblower starts a new piece-- a large vase.

More blowing, more shaping.

Then, while her co-worker blows air to expand the glass and thin it out, she cools the vase's bottom with wet newspapers.

This holds the shape while she scores the cutoff point at the top.

After reheating the glass to resoften it, they stretch it, lengthening the vase.

Once they finalize the shape, they use a wooden paddle to flatten the base.

Now for some eye-catching decoration-- vivid colored glass coiled like taffy over the entire vase.

Certain designs require cutting off a portion of the finished piece.

That leaves a rough, opaque edge they must extensively grind and polish.

A lemon reamer, a vase, even a mortar and pestle-- a glassblower's work is clearly remarkable.


Educational Robots
Boxing Belts
Boat Radar Mounts
European Style Radiators

Artificial intelligence is an area of computer science focused on creating intelligent machines that work and react to humans.

The term "robot" first appeared in 1920.

It comes from the czech word "robota," meaning "forced labor".

This facility makes a type of educational robot equipped with a series of interconnected servomotors.

This type of equipment allows the robot to move with an extraordinary degree of dexterity.

Construction starts from scratch.

Tiny bushings are created from a steel rod placed inside this high-tech automated machining device.

A technician monitors the operation as the machine shapes the parts with digitized precision to the design specifications.

The high-speed steel bits carve the metal at an incredible speed.

This machine can manufacture 1,309 parts per every eight-hour shift.

The parts fall into a vibrating mechanism that feeds them into the next phase of production.

A specialized device called a gear-hobbing machine quickly and accurately cuts a series of cogs to create tiny sprocket wheels.

A technician uses state-of-the-art measuring devices to gauge the profile, tooth alignment, and pitch of sample parts to ensure they are up to standards specified in the manufacturer's control plan.

Another operator mounts a gear plate on a device, fastening it to a smaller part called the sun gear.

Once all the required parts are tested and prepped, technicians begin putting them all together to create d.c. motors.

Since the robots are specialty items with small production quantities, this facility is able to assemble each motor by hand.

The gears used in the motors are made of a variety of metals to account for different requirements of torque and loading force within the device.

Moving with speed and precision, specialists are able to assemble each motor in less than 10 minutes.

Next, the tiny control unit is installed.

That will allow the user to manipulate the robot.

The technician carefully attaches the bottom portion of the unit inside the motor container with a small cordless drill.

Once the unit is firmly secured, he expertly positions the wire leads to prepare them for the next step.

A technician quickly solders the wires in place.

Now that the installation of the control panel is complete, a technician finalizes the d.c. motor assembly by attaching the cover and securing it down with four screws using a cordless drill.

Next, the individual motors are installed into the framework of the robot.

One motor becomes the robot's head, while the remaining motors are attached to hinged joints that correspond to a major body part.

Then the robot's wiring is plugged in, ensuring the motors are connected to each other.

They now form parts of an integrated device which can act together.

Technicians use a 3-d printer to create a suit of armor for the robot, which they mount on its exterior to give it a more finished look.

A specialist plugs the robots into a computer and programs their different movements.

The robot tech communicates with the robot's control panel to make it do remarkable things.

But first, an old-fashioned rock 'em sock 'em before they take over the world.

When professional boxers win a title, they're crowned the champ and rewarded with a belt to be worn around the waist.

Each international organization commissions a belt that's custom-designed to its specifications and prominently features the organization's logo in the belt's central medallion.

These boxing championship belts are entirely handcrafted.

The laterals, the side pieces flanking the ornate centerplate, are sometimes engraved with a fighter's portrait.

When a boxing association commissions a new design, the company's artisans prepare a sketch for each piece.

Following the sketch, they sculpt a clay model.

From that, they cast a plaster model, then a metal model, refining the sculpture at each step.

Artisans use the final metal model to produce a rubber mold, which is used to cast the piece in white metal.

The extracted castings are quite rough, so the workshop's craftsmen use files, chisels, and automated tools to refine the shape.

Some of the devices and techniques are routinely used by jewelers, while others were designed specifically for this purpose.

Once the intricate details are completed, the team files down rough spots along the perimeter.

The belts feature a three-dimensional sculpture of an eagle fused to the centerplate.

An artisan heats the wings with an open flame to make them pliable.

Then he bends them to render the eagle more lifelike.

Every piece must be meticulously hand-polished on a buffing wheel.

This prepares the metal to be plated with gold or rhodium.

The piece is electroplated with copper, then nickel, then 18-karat gold.

The nickel carries the shine through to the surface.

After a thorough buffing on the surface, the pieces are embellished with crystals into molded cavities.

Sometimes the championship winner may order precious stones such as diamonds and rubies to replace the crystals, depending on their preference.

A team of enamelers paints the finished pieces with jewelry-grade enamel.

This requires a steady hand and close attention to detail.

Once the piece is painted, it's put into an oven to bake the enamel.

The belt strap is made of high-grade bonded leather.

A craftsman traces a belt template in the leather, then cuts it out with a knife.

Then they adhere the strap to leather or high-grade vinyl.

The designer sews the strap's lining separately, stitching black spandex over a faux-fur backing and attaching the authenticity label which bears the belt's serial number.

This distinguishes it from cheaply made copies.

The craftsman attaches leather/high-grade vinyl piping to the strap perimeter.

He places a brand sticker on the back next to an inscribed tribute to the originator of the modern boxing belt.

They adhere the lining.

Then, after smoothing out the layers of the belt with a hammer, the designer stitches the lining to the strap.

Some belts have buckles, others hook-and-loop fasteners, which are stitched to the strap at the same time as the lining.

Once the belt is finished, the centerplate and laterals are attached.

It's essential to wear gloves while doing this to protect the pristine surface.

The final step is to place an engravable brass plate into each lateral.

Then the championship belt is delivered in a hand-crafted protective case for a knockout presentation.

Radar helps sailors navigate through inclement weather while on the water, ensuring they aren't operating blind.

These specialized pedestal mounts elevate the radar systems, which maximize the antenna's range.

The mounts also provide equipment stability while traveling over rough waters.

Boat-radar mounts are one of the most critical pieces of navigation equipment to have on deck.

Radar-mount construction begins with a computer-generated drawing that specifies the height and angle of the tower.

The parts are made from extruded marine-grade aluminum.

A machinist clamps the first top plate in a jig and sets the tower upside down on the top plate.

The jig holds the tower in position as he tack-welds the assembly in place.

After clamping side gussets to the tower, the technician turns it right-side up and inserts the bottom tabs in a baseplate to position it for assembly.

Using an angle ruler, he confirms that the tower stands at 90 degrees.

Then he welds the radar-equipment tower to the base.

He sets the tower on its side to measure locations for tack welds, marking each with a pen.

Next, he makes larger stitch welds intermittently.

This will secure the gussets to the tower.

The machinist installs a gusset arm or bracket in the middle of the radar tower.

Using a metal puck as a guide, he centers another top plate on the gusset arm.

He clamps it and measures its placement to verify that it's properly centered, and welds it to the arm.

He removes the puck and installs another mounting arm at the base.

A computerized drill cuts bolt holes in a radar-mounting plate.

Radar-bolting patterns vary, so it configures them to match up with a specific radar system.

Once the bolt holes are placed, the drill carves around the border of the plate, reshaping it from square to round.

The circular profile will match the base of the satellite-radar system.

In a process known as countersinking, he bevels the rims of the bolt holes to a graduated profile.

This method will provide a stronger connection between the mounting platform and the radar system.

With a special deburring tool, the technician removes sharp edges left by the countersinking process.

He smooths the outer edges of the mounting plate using a hand sander.

The mounting plate is placed in a tub of vibrating ceramic stones mixed with water.

The friction removes any lingering imperfections and sharp edges.

Another technician cuts aluminum wings for an accessory extension.

The extension could hold a number of accessories, including a radio, gps antenna, or deck lights.

The parts are hollow in order to house wiring.

The wings will be assembled to a center trunk.

But first, they cap one end of each wing.

This wing will contain wiring snaked through from holes in the sides of the trunk.

The technician welds a wing to each side of the trunk.

This step completes the accessory-extension structure.

Next, it's time to build an arm for a navigation light.

A hydraulic press bends the arm to the desired curvature.

A measuring tool indicates the angle of the bend.

The technician drills a hole for the installation of the light.

After a powder-coat finish has been applied to all the parts, the mount is ready for assembly on the boat.

By using critical navigational equipment, this boat-radar mount will ensure that any boater will be able to find their bearings.

European radiators exude both warmth and style.

The heating-tube technology can be modified for electric or hot-water heating systems and can be made in a range of designs.

These radiators can blend into a background or stand out to make a statement on the wall.

This european-style radiator is typically mounted to a wall so it doesn't take up floor space, allowing more room for furniture and people.

Making panel radiators starts with steel flat tubes.

Using a circular saw, the machine cuts a stack of the tubes to length.

These flat tubes will be held together by struts known as headers.

An automated drill punches holes for bushings into the ends.

At the next station, a machine inserts bushings into the holes and welds them together.

Another welding device seals the ends of the flat heating tubes.

The tubes are stacked.

Meanwhile, technicians prepare the headers, which are made of square steel tubes.

An automated machine punches holes in the headers.

These holes will allow hot water to flow throughout the radiator.

A circular saw cuts the header to its specified length.

Most radiators are custom-made, and sizes are determined by the heating requirements of the space.

The headers are equipped with endcaps and fittings to supply water and vent air.

A technician inserts the caps into the ends of the header tube and hammers them down.

He clamps several of the capped headers in a fixture.

The fixture holds them in position as an automated welder joins the caps to the headers.

Here is the header tubing before and after the holes were punched and the endcaps were welded.

With the header clamped into another fixture, a drill carves a threaded connector into the side.

This connector will be used to plumb the radiator to the hot-water system.

It's now time to build the grid of heating tubes.

First, a machine moves the header into position.

An automated arm slides the flat heating tube into place on the header, and a welding device joins them together.

The automated welder installs flat tubes on each side of the headers and applies the company logo.

Strips of steel will be used to make fins that direct heat upward.

A machine punches a series of notches in the steel to mount the fins to the back of the radiator.

A hydraulic press bends the notched steel, creating an accordion-like profile.

These ridges create pockets that will capture hot air and allow it to rise.

The fins coil up at the end of the line for easy transfer to the next station.

At this point, all the flat tubes have been fully assembled to the headers.

An operator places the fins, which have been cut to a specified length, on the back of the flat-tube grid.

A machine welds the fins to the heating tubes between the folds.

This step produces a heating panel that will radiate heat up and out.

Another team member installs metal trim on the top of the radiator.

He places mounts on the back corners and welds them together.

These mounts will house threaded bolts, which will be used to level the radiator to the wall.

The radiator is now fully assembled.

The radiator undergoes a quality-control test.

Technicians pump in air and submerge it in water.

If bubbles appear, it indicates a leak.

If not, the radiator is removed from the water.

Electrostatically charged epoxy particles are sprayed onto the device, which provide a protective layer.

This european-style radiator is now ready to release some major heat.


Recycled Skateboard Guitars
Solar Street Lights
Dolls

With flips and jumps part of the sport, active skateboarders damage their decks beyond repair every few months.

But instead of tossing the ruined skateboards into landfills, their being reclaimed for a different kind of trick-- a transformation into electric guitars.

From skateboards to fretboards, it may seem quite a leap, but making electric guitars out of old skateboards is not such a wild idea.

Skateboards are often made of multiple layers of rock maple, which is a traditional toned wood for guitars.

A guitar maker evaluates the condition and color of the boards.

And once he's made his selections, he aims a heat gun at the grip tape on top to soften it.

He pries the edges of the softened tape away from the board using a razor.

He grabs the tape and pulls it off the skateboard.

He can now get a better look at the damage done to the board, and he decides it can be salvaged.

He sands off the adhesive and the graphics.

The sanding doesn't remove the turquoise color.

The dye has penetrated the wood and is part of its intrinsic appeal.

He cuts off the nose and the tail of the board and discards them.

He'll just be using the wheel bases.

The next step is to laminate five of the skateboards together.

He applies a liberal coat of glue, spreading it with a putty knife for complete coverage.

He adds the final board to the glued stack and places the stack in a hydraulic clamp.

To protect the surface of the skateboards, he sets a wooden board on top.

The clamp squeezes the skateboard sandwiched together as the glue sets.

A day later, he removes the now laminated skateboards.

A blade shaves the surface of the stack smooth and brings out the grain.

He trims the edges of the stack so that they're more even.

He applies glue in a zig-zag pattern to one of the side edges and spreads it across the entire edge.

He joins another skateboard stack to this one and clamps the two together.

Fused together, they form a block that's large enough to be crafted into an electric guitar body.

With a pencil, he traces around the template of a guitar shape to transfer the outline to the laminated skateboards.

Using a bandsaw, he cuts out the shape.

The skateboard colors form a random pattern within the guitar shape.

He places the template on the guitar body once again and secures it with double-sided tape.

With a router, he fines the profile, giving the guitar smoother lines.

Using a different pattern as a guide, he routes and drills cavities to accommodate the guitar's neck, electronics, and bridge.

He removes the template and inspects his work.

He sands the edges of the cavity smooth.

Then he drills several holes in the back of the guitar for attaching the neck later.

With the guitar body held steady in a clamp, he bores a hole for the input jack.

After crafting the neck of the guitar from reclaimed skateboards, he files it aggressively to shape it to the desired profile.

He then sands the entire neck.

The body undergoes an extensive sanding, too, and then he coats it with clear gloss.

This is the first of seven to eight coats with a sanding in between each one.

With curing time, this lacquering process takes three weeks.

After wet sanding and buffing, the guitar body and neck have a mirror finish.

The guitar maker nestles the neck in the hollow space at the front of the body and screws it in place from the back of the guitar.

This recycled skateboard guitar can now be assembled and wired and is set up to rock.

It takes a month to transform some battered, old skateboards into a sleek electric guitar.

Trading the half-pipe for the stage, these skateboards are no longer hasbeens.

Solar street lights are a 21st century innovation.

Powered by the sun's rays, they take the concept of renewable energy to the streets.

There's no need to tap into the grid.

These lights are standalone systems, so even if there's an electrical power outage, these street lights will stay on.

Solar street lights take energy from the sun during the day, store it, and then use it to shine brightly at night.

So even when the sun sets, they still provide light.

Manufacturing begins with the assembly of an led circuit board.

The technician places the optics or lenses, onto the aluminum board and adds a silicone-foam gasket for water proofing.

She secures the assembly with a stainless-steel plate.

This completes the solar street light's led board.

The next worker assembles the led board to the base of an aluminum heat sink.

It will disperse excess heat from the led board.

He uses several screws to secure the led board to the heat sink.

He installs the driver, which will provide power to the led board.

Once in place, he connects the led driver to the input power lead.

He now builds the decorative housing.

He screws aluminum tiers together.

He applies adhesive to the upper inner rim.

He inserts an optically clear polycarbonate lens, and the flange adheres to the adhesive-coated rim.

He screws the led heat sink assembly to an aluminum lid.

He now applies a special adhesive to the outside rim of the light fixture housing.

He presses foam tubing onto the area.

Once compressed by the lid, it will provide a water-tight seal.

With everything in an upside down position, he lowers the assembly over the led heat sink and screws it to the lid.

A technician plugs the fixture into an electrical testing unit.

He confirms that all the leds are illuminating and that there are no electrical issues.

The manufacturers then transfer the light fixture to a solar light factory.

Upon arrival here, a technician does more testing to verify that its function hasn't been compromised along the way.

The team is now ready to add the solar power system to the led street light.

A technician programs the solar charge and load controller.

Another team member places the battery that will hold the solar charge into a vented cabinet.

He connects the battery to a side clip and ground wire.

He tucks insulating foam to the sides and connects a load fuse to the battery wiring.

He plugs the controller into the battery.

In addition to regulating the battery charge and energy load, it's also a timer for the light's operation.

Next up is the solar array.

It's a group of photovoltaic panels or solar cells.

The technician sets the solar array front-side down on the workbench.

He threads cable through an aluminum back panel.

This cable will serve as a ground wire.

He pushes a pop rivet through a hole beside the cable and slides the eyelid on the end of the cable over it.

He then pulls the pin through the rivet.

He threads wires from the panel junction box and into the opening beside the ground cable.

He tucks them into a flexible cable at the back.

He rivets the aluminum back plate to the solar panel array.

He pulls the wires from the junction box through holes in a cover.

He solders electrical pins to the ends of the wires and plugs them into a single connector.

With the junction box cover installed, the solar street light system is ready for final testing.

The team assembles the street light to a pole in the factory, they connect everything, and stuff the wires into the pole's cavity.

They screw the led light fixture to the bracket on the pole, and it's ready to shine.

The street lamp controller senses when it's dark and automatically illuminates.

It will also a detect a well-lit environment and switch the light off.

Now, that's street smarts.

The doll just may be the earliest recorded toy.

There's archaeological evidence that in ancient greece, rome, and egypt, people made dolls from available materials, such as clay, wood, bone, and leather.

But doll manufacturing began in germany in the 1400s.

This french company has been hand-crafting dolls since 1860.

The materials have changed over the years, but the doll making techniques have essentially remained the same.

The body parts are still cast in traditional copper molds.

The factory makes one line of dolls out of tinted vinyl.

This pinkish color is for caucasian dolls.

However, the factory also makes black and mediterranean dolls.

Each tray holds the six molds required for a single doll-- head, torso, arms, and legs.

The worker sets the machine to fill each one with a specific quantity of vinyl.

He closes each mold with a twist cap.

He tightens each cap with pliers to prevent leaks.

Then he places the molds in an oven at 410 degrees fahrenheit.

Throughout baking, the oven rotates the molds in two directions to ensure the vinyl spreads evenly inside the mold cavity.

He removes the molds from the oven seven minutes later...

Then submerges them in water for precisely 23 seconds.

This stops the baking and solidifies the vinyl.

The worker uses pliers to remove the caps...

Then switches to a pair of needlenose pliers to grab each cast-vinyl limb and yank it out of the mold.

To remove the head, he pierces a hole to release trapped air, then, with a stick, compresses the head just enough to pry it out.

The vinyl is still flexible.

As it cools, it will become more rigid, yet still soft enough to stamp out eye sockets and implant strands of synthetic hair.

This factory makes another line of dolls out of colorless polyethylene granules mixed with ground-tinted polyethylene left over from the molding process.

The molding machine melts the granules and simultaneously extrudes and inflates the liquid poly into a balloon, which the mold shapes into a specific part.

This mold makes the torso.

Workers simply switch the mold onto the machine to produce a different part.

A worker snaps off the excess polyethylene.

These are the leftovers which get ground up and combined with new, colorless granules.

As the polyethylene cools, it hardens.

That's why these dolls have molded hair and eyes, which are later painted.

Each part comes out of the mold with a glossy finish and is seamed where the two halves of the mold met.

A worker buffs the part against a felt wheel rotating at high speed to wear down the seam.

But this discolors that area in the process.

To make this surface finish uniform, the parts tumble in a rotating drum filled with sand for about seven minutes.

The sand rubs against the surface of the part, removing the shine and discoloration.

When the part comes out of the sanding drum, its uniform surface is seamless, smooth, and matte.

Back to the vinyl dolls now, it's time to address that bald scalp.

This factory uses hair-stitching machines from the 1950s.

Before that time, hair was glued to the head.

The hair is nylon and comes in a range of shades.

This machine's thick needle repeatedly pierces the vinyl, stitching on the strands as the seamstress moves the doll's head in concentric circles.

Once the head is completely covered, she parts the hair, then stitches on more in the middle to add thickness and height.

In addition to soft vinyl dolls and hard polyethylene dolls, the factory also makes combination dolls that have soft heads, with hair on hard bodies.

But all types of dolls become more lifelike as this process continues.

Dolls are recognized as an important contributor to the development of healthy children.

Dolls give kids children of their own to care for, a chance to emulate their parents and engage their imaginations as they feed, dress, and cuddle their dolls and lullaby them to sleep.

These vinyl dolls have what are known as sleeping eyes.

When the doll lies down, its eyes close.

Before installing the eyes, workers warm the head with a heat lamp.

This makes the vinyl flexible enough for the press to lodge the eye into the socket with a shot of compressed air.

The eyes are made of metal and plastic.

Once installed, they often require a slight adjustment so the doll isn't cross-eyed.

For safety, molded pockets inside the head hold the eyes securely in place so that children can't pull them off.

These vinyl dolls have painted hair.

The painter applies the hair and facial colors with an air brush.

There's a different stencil for each model.

This one has light-brown hair and eyebrows, a pale pink mouth, and rosy pink cheeks.

All the paint is non-toxic.

Polyethylene dolls get some extra pampering with a manicure and a pedicure.

The assembler takes a thick length of elastic, ties a large knot at one end, then with a tool, pokes the knot into a hole in one of the legs.

She threads the other end of the elastic through holes in the torso and pulls until the leg and torso are connected.

Then she knots the other end of elastic and pokes that knot into the hole of the other leg.

She repeats the process at the top of the torso, connecting the first arm, the head, and the second arm with the same elastic.

This traditional assembly method makes the dolls limbs and head moveable.

Workers here have been assembling dolls this way since 1860.

This is the last of what were once many factories in france handcrafting dolls.

Traditional operations are fewer and fewer worldwide, as most dolls today are mass produced in asia.

The assembler makes sure that the limbs and head move properly before sending the doll to the next department.

Meanwhile, other departments are producing a range of outfits and accessories.

Before dressing and packaging a polyethylene doll, the worker has to wipe it down, as buffing down the seams left a layer of plastic dust.

This doll comes in a ballerina outfit, white tights, pink leg warmers, pink ballet shoes with flowers and ribbons, of course...

And a pink tutu.

Although there are no hard and fast rules, doll collectors usually prefer the hard polyethylene dolls, while the softer, vinyl dolls are designed for children.

After putting the finishing touches on the outfit, the dresser brushes and styles the doll's hair.

This little ballerina wears a pink bow in her ponytail.

All the clothes are removable, to allow a child to change the doll's outfit.

The last step before packaging is to hang an elegant, color-coordinated manufacturer's tag on the doll's right wrist.

They may be wearing today's styles and fashions, but these handcrafted dolls are a testament to a toy-making tradition that goes back centuries.


Table Tennis Tables
Plastic Model Kits
Light Microscopes

Table tennis is more commonly known as ping-pong.

Folding table-tennis tables are popular in homes and kept outdoors because they can be closed up and rolled out of the way.

These tables can also fold down on just one side, allowing for solo play.

This high-end outdoor table-tennis table has an aluminum bottom that prevents the tabletop, called the plate, from warping or splitting due to expansion and contraction.

A press stamps cups into a sheet of aluminum.

This pattern creates nearly equal areas both in contact and out of contact with the rest of the plate layers, providing flexibility to withstand temperature-related movement.

Each table needs two embossed aluminum sheets-- one for each half of the plate.

A technician assembles frames for the plate halves out of square extruded aluminum tubes, cut to the lengths and widths of the plate half perimeter.

An automated milling machine makes miter cuts, which allow the tubes to be made into rectangles.

Then, the technician moves the frames onto a rotating fixture...

And welds the corners together.

The frames are inserted into a brushing machine.

Inside, wire brush rollers allow the aluminum surface to become rough.

This helps the components to adhere to one another.

Another technician places the embossed aluminum sheet into a rectangular assembly jig.

And adds the brushed aluminum frame.

A conveyor transfers the jig to the next station.

Then, the jig connects with an 8-millimeter-thick sheet of particleboard, made of wood chips and glue.

The board is coated with a heat-activated adhesive film on both sides.

At the next station, an aluminum sheet is placed on top of the particleboard.

This step completes the plate component assembly.

Next, the conveyor loads the jig into a press.

Once 12 jigs have been loaded onto the press, it heats to 239 degrees fahrenheit.

And compresses them for about 10 minutes.

This process activates the adhesive and bonds the components of each plate into a single unit-- one framed plate half.

Each plate half goes through an automated milling machine.

The machine trims any excess material from all four sides to ensure the table won't have any sharp edges.

The plate half goes through a paint machine, then into an oven.

The process repeats, applying a second coat of paint and a u.v.-resistant clear coat.

A machine applies paint through a screen stencil, printing the lines that mark the boundaries of the playing surface.

After the paint is dried in an oven, a team places the finished plate half in a cardboard box and attaches folding legs to the base.

The factory mills the legs in-house out of high-tensile steel, then finishes them in baked-on paint.

The net, along with several components, are packed and made in-house, which the consumer later assembles to the table.

Components include the net posts, side panels, wheels, wheel brakes, and the ball return box.

Finally, the plate half is transferred to an automated system, which completes the packaging.

Many ping-pong tables on the market require the net to be removed every time you fold the table.

The design of this table enables the net to remain in place whether the table is folded for storage or has one or both sides open for playing.

Less setup time means more time to play.

Plastic model kits were developed before world war ii, when people became interested in seeing machines in small-scale replication.

Today plastic model kits continue to offer building opportunities to hobbyists, who love the challenge of putting little pieces together.

With a plastic model kit, a colossal ocean liner can be replicated in small scale.

Built with nearly 2,000 pieces, assembly is all about the details.

Each model kit starts with extensive research and design, a process that can take up to a year to complete and cost up to $100,000 dollars.

Using the computer design, a set of steel molds is made for every piece of the kit.

Tools carve into steel chunks to make the molds.

Precision work done entirely by machinery.

Installed in large dies, the molds are linked by channels.

Melted plastic will flow through the channels to fill the molds.

Clear polystyrene is used for transparent components.

The melted polystyrene is pumped under high pressure into the molds.

Once the plastic hardens, a pusher ejects the parts.

The connected kit parts are known as a tree.

The opaque polystyrene pellets are used to form the other kit parts and are molded separately.

The scale of the parts is 1 to 24, which means the model will be 1/24 the size of the original.

Since the manufacturing is automated, the risk of contamination is reduced.

Next, the tree is put through a technical analysis test.

The technician photographs the tree and compares it to an image already fit to scale.

If some parts haven't taken shape or if they're only partially formed, more pressure may be needed to ensure that the polystyrene flows into all the mold cavities.

A technician compares a randomly selected tree to the design and verifies that no parts are poorly formed or missing.

Once the confirmation is attained, the technician slides the model kit parts into a clear plastic sleeve.

Before it's ready for retail, the kit needs a set of illustrated instructions.

The designer deconstructs the model and then reconstructs it on his computer as he draws up the instructions.

With the instruction manual complete, a team packs all the components of the model kit in a box.

One of each of the kit trees is placed in each box.

The kit also includes decals and large, separately molded parts, like the ocean liner hull.

A technician closes the box.

As it moves down a conveyor, a laser prints the date of production and the batch number on the side.

Then, the box is wrapped in plastic, and the ends are sealed with heat guns.

A year of planning has gone into making the plastic mold kit.

But took less than 10 minutes to mold the kit parts and package them.

Building the model will take 10 to 12 hours.

The factory does a test build on each model to confirm that it comes together as planned.

This is the iconic constellation aircraft, a world war ii military transport plane that was later converted to a commercial airliner.

Assembling a plastic model kit can be a great learning experience for the builder.

Decals mimic the i.d. information on the outside of the original aircraft.

These decals have been pretreated with adhesive.

Soaking the decals in water activates them.

The assembler brushes more water onto the design spots on the model.

And applies the decals to the dampened spots.

As the glue dries, they adhere to each other.

The plastic models can also be painted beforethe decals are applied for refined and clean look that really comes together.

The light microscope was invented in 16th-century europe.

It allowed the human eye to see tiny things that couldn't be seen before.

A sophisticated research tool with focused light and optical lenses, can magnify biological tissue, minerals, and computer chips.

Observation is an important aspect of science.

The light microscope increases the power of observation, making it possible to see things that can't be seen with the naked eye.

This 19th-century microscope represented a turning point, with lenses that delivered more light to specimens, increasing resolution.

A light microscope often has multiple lenses, all made from special optical glass.

A drill with a core bit tunnels into the glass to produce several solid cylinders.

The drill cuts them larger and thicker than the final specifications.

This gives technicians extra material to work with.

A tool moves the cylinder against a spinning blade slicing it into lens blanks.

The cylinder is first glued to a glass block, then glued to the tool.

This method holds the cylinder in the correct position.

Since bits of glue are left on the lenses, a thorough washing removes them.

Next, a device grips the lens using vacuum pressure and angles it for grinding.

Multiple grinding tools remove any excess glass and shape the radius of the lens.

In a process known as lapping, a technician applies a fine abrasive compound to a bowl with the desired contours.

He rotates and rubs the lens against the bowl to further shape the lens.

He rinses off the lens and holds it against a light while he examines it for scratches.

He measures the radius of a master lens and compares it to that of the lens he's been working on.

If the measurements are off, he'll remove more material.

Once additional material is removed, he measures the thickness of the lens and compares it to what it was before the adjustments.

Next, these polishing tools will be used to fine-tune the profile of the microscope lenses.

To protect the lenses during polishing, a technician sprays on a temporary lacquer.

These tools will remove just a fraction of a millimeter of glass, but it will make an important impact.

Polishing liquid provides fine abrasion and enables the tool to move across the glass.

Then, a robot trims the edges of the lens.

A device clamps the lens in place as trimming continues along the edges.

Trimming allows the lens to reach the correct diameter.

Next, the lenses are cleaned in multiple water-based solutions.

In the baths, the vibrations from high-frequency sound create a gentle scrubbing action.

The intensive cleaning leaves the lenses pristine.

A technician places the freshly cleaned lenses in round trays.

She handles them very carefully inserting them individually into each tray slot.

Because they're extremely fragile, the slightest pressure could crack them.

The lenses in the trays will receive an antireflective coating-- one that will prevent a loss of light due to reflection.

Next, the antireflective material is loaded into a coating machine.

The technician adds a specific amount of magnesium fluoride into a receptacle in the base.

She inserts a piece of aluminum oxide in the next receptacle.

And transfers the microscope lenses to the chamber, placing the rack on top.

Inside the chamber, heat and a targeted plasma beam evaporate the materials.

They precipitate onto the lenses, forming a coating.

Coming up, all is revealed as the lenses come together in the microscope.

Light microscopes bring the invisible into focus.

Similar to telescopes, a tiny specimen is placed under the lens assembly, from which the viewer can discover what lies within.

By magnifying the minuscule, the light microscope has become an indispensable scientific tool.

The light microscope often has multiple lenses.

Throughout the production process, the lenses are put under the microscope to confirm that the geometry is correct.

A technician magnifies the lenses one at a time, measuring their radius and the diameter.

Meanwhile, computerized tools shape the edges of glass prisms.

The prisms are triangular lenses that bend or refract light, aligning colors at a focal point for a clearer image.

Once the shaping is complete, a technician positions a prism on a holder to be calibrated.

She aims a laser at it.

The light passes through the prism, reflected in a mirror, and bounces back.

A computer magnifies the surface of the prism a thousand times bigger than its original size, measuring the degree to which the prism refracts light and the flatness on each side.

This is an inside look at a microscope lens assembly, revealing the combination of lenses.

A prism can be an important part of this combination.

The cast-aluminum housing has been equipped with the circuitry.

Some of the connections have already been made.

It's ready for the focusing mechanisms that allow the user to zoom in on tissue or other specimens.

A technician inserts the motorized focus drive into the housing so that the ends protrude from both sides.

He attaches adjustment knobs to the ends.

The larger part of the knob is for quick motorized focus.

The small one is for slower and more precise focusing.

He slides a protective rubber cap onto the fine-focus component of the knob.

Another technician mounts a system for revolving lenses to the microscope.

This is called the nosepiece.

He wires the nosepiece to the controls.

Using compressed air, a technician cleans a part known as the side port revolver.

It's equipped with a mirror, prism lens, and a magnifying lens.

It will reflect light to the lenses in the eyepiece or external cameras.

Then the side port revolver is tested.

At this point, multiple lenses have been installed in the tube lens assembly.

The technician screws the assembly to a revolver.

Light from the illuminated specimen shines through the tube lens in parallel rays the rays are projected onto the eyepiece or external camera.

He looks through the eyepiece to check the positioning of the lens in the revolver slot making adjustments if needed.

A reflected-light illumination system is installed.

This part directs light through the lens and onto the specimen, then back through the lens to the eyepiece or external cameras.

This system makes it possible to magnify opaque specimens.

Then a technician installs the transmitted light arm.

The light arm is used for magnifying transparent or thin specimens.

It does this by directing light through them.

A technician performs a final inspection.

He places specimens under the microscope, checking the brightness of the transmitted light and the resolution of the magnified image.

He tests the focus of all the lenses in the nosepiece to confirm that each one delivers a sharp, clear view.

He verifies that the revolving mechanisms move smoothly and are in good working order.

After this final inspection, this light microscope is ready for research.

By imaging small things, big discoveries are possible.


Temporary Metal Fences
Asphalt Shingles
Expanded Polystyrene Products
Hard Candies

Today on "how it's made"...

Temporary metal fences...

Asphalt shingles...

Expanded polystyrene products...

And hard candies.

Temporary metal fences securely cordon off dangerous areas on construction sites.

At open-air events such as concerts and festivals, they mark the perimeter and help direct traffic flow.

Seasonal businesses such as garden centers use them to protect their merchandise from thieves and vandals.

It all starts with a giant spool, roughly 4 1/2 miles of galvanized steel wire.

A machine called the "straightener" uncoils the spool and straightens out the wire.

The next machine cuts the lengths they'll need to construct the fence panels.

A worker feeds those wire lengths into another machine, arranging them in the proper configuration.

The lights show where they go for this particular model of fencing.

These lengths will form the panels' vertical pieces.

The machine carries them over to the automated welding station.

At the welding station, a magnetic arm grabs the panels' horizontal pieces and feeds them, one by one, into position over the vertical pieces.

Then the welding begins.

This is electrical welding.

A strong electric current zaps the joints, melting the metal and fusing the pieces together.

It's faster and neater than traditional welding.

The machinery then stacks the welded panels and moves them down the production line.

Some panels are welded on another kind of electrical welding machine.

It feeds the horizontal pieces onto the vertical ones using a different technique.

But the result is the same.

Workers position each welded panel in a manually operated pneumatic press.

Then they bend the panel at certain key points.

This makes it more rigid and, therefore, stronger.

Next, workers trim off the surplus wire sticking out along the edge of the panel.

And then the final step-- they position a round galvanized steel post on each side of the panel.

A robotic welder then welds these side posts in place.

When it comes time to erect this temporary fence, all they'll have to do is place each panel in footings that sit on the ground, then line up the panels side by side and attach them by clamping together the side posts.

All the fence components are made of heavy-duty galvanized steel.

That makes this temporary metal fence highly durable, maintenance-free, and rustproof.

Asphalt roof shingles come in many different colors, textures, and patterns.

They're one of the least expensive roofing materials.

They're also very durable.

Some even carry a lifetime warranty.

But they can only go on a roof with a steep-enough slope.

At the heart of every asphalt shingle is a membrane.

It can be made from fiberglass or, like this one, from organic fibers like wood chips, recycled cardboard, and paper.

The giant rolls of membrane feed what's known as a "felt looper".

It builds up enough reserves so that workers can change rolls as needed, without stopping production.

From there, the membrane enters a machine called the "saturator," where it's drenched in hot liquid asphalt, a petroleum derivative.

When this saturant dries, the membrane will be impermeable.

Next comes a thicker asphalt coating, mixed with powdered limestone.

They apply it to both the top and bottom.

This coating will make the membrane flexible.

It will also form a protective barrier against harsh weather.

With that coating still wet, they spread color ceramic granules over the top surface.

This gives the shingles their color and makes them resistant to the sun's ultraviolet rays.

Granules that don't stick to the wet asphalt get recycled back into the system.

Next they apply a cellophane strip to the back surface so the shingles won't stick together in the package.

Then they shower the back surface with powdered stone, also to prevent sticking.

Even by this point, the asphalt coating is still piping hot, too hot for the shingle material to be cut to size.

So it's off to the cooling section, where cold rollers and water jets bring down the temperature.

The next machine applies strips of adhesive asphalt.

The sun's heat will activate them, keeping the shingles stuck to each other.

The process to this point is the same, regardless of color.

The only thing that will differ from this point on is how the shingle's bottom edge is cut.

That determines the shingle's profile.

On the way to the cutting station, the shingle material passes through the finish looper.

Like the felt looper we saw at the beginning, the finish looper accumulates enough reserves so that production won't come to a standstill if there's a problem.

The cutting machine cuts to size and profile.

Standard shingles measure 39" x 13.3".

This model has a straight edge, but some styles have a curved bottom.

An automatic counter keeps track of production.

The machine automatically stacks the shingles for packaging, usually 21 sheets to a bundle, which is enough to cover roughly 32 square feet of roof.

Asphalt shingles come in about 50 different colors and in about a dozen different shapes and profiles.

They wrap each bundle of shingles in paper that's been treated with polyethylene to prevent water penetration.

The bundles then go onto pallets, which the factory wraps in a plastic bag that's water- and u.v.-resistant.

The warranties on asphalt shingles range from 20 years to lifetime.

Generally, the thicker the asphalt and granule protective barrier, the more durable the shingle, and the longer the guarantee.

We call it "packing foam," but its real name is "expanded polystyrene packaging," those feather-light white foam inserts that come with many boxed items.

They not only secure the merchandise within the box-- they also act as a shock absorber during transport.

Polystyrene plastic comes in tiny pellets about 4/100 of an inch in diameter.

The first step is to expand them inside a steam chamber.

The 392-degree-fahrenheit heat causes the pentane gas in the pellets to escape, allowing air to enter the pellets and inflate them up to 40 times their original size.

Here are the polystyrene pellets before...

And after expansion.

The factory then bags the pellets in huge sacks.

To make expanded polystyrene products, they start by dumping sacks of expanded pellets into what's called the "block mold" machine.

The more pellets they put per cubic yard, the denser the product will be.

They steam-fuse the pellets together, molding them into a block that's roughly 16 feet long by 3 feet wide by 2 feet high.

This molding process takes from 5 to 20 minutes, depending on the density.

A scale built into the conveyor belt weighs the block to make sure it meets specifications.

Depending on its density, a block this size can weigh anywhere from 99 to 440 pounds.

Now the block is ready to be cut into whatever product the client has ordered.

Expanded polystyrene is best known as packaging material, but it also has many other uses.

Here they are slicing a block into insulation panels.

Builders use expanded polystyrene insulation for basements, roofs, foundations, and inside and outside walls.

Regardless of the product, they cut polystyrene blocks using a copper-and-nickel wire that's electrically heated.

It melts the polystyrene on contact, enabling fine, precision cuts, almost to the hundredth of an inch.

To make expanded polystyrene packaging, they custom-cut the specific shapes required.

These squares they're gluing together have been ordered up by a furniture manufacturer.

They're designed to fit onto the bottom of chair legs to protect them from damage during shipping.

This machine handles more detailed and complex jobs.

Its cutting wire is guided by computer software, so it can cut virtually any design.

Expanded polystyrene is a low-cost alternative for making commercial signs that can be hung indoors or out.

A sign made of high-density expanded polystyrene and coated with a quality exterior paint has an outdoor life-span of a few years.

This moldable product has endless creative and commercial uses.

They come in different colors, different shapes and sizes, in flavors ranging from fruity to minty, from tart to tangy.

Pretty much everyone enjoys sucking on a hard candy from time to time.

For children and adults alike, these sweet treats are just irresistible.

Our love of sweets goes back to the caveman, who delighted in eating honey from beehives.

In ancient times, people indulged in treats made of honey-covered fruit and nuts.

In the middle ages, europeans made candy from boiled sugar.

But the high cost of imported cane sugar restricted this delicacy to the wealthy.

Candy finally became affordable for the masses in the 1800s, with the discovery of a new and domestic source of sugar, the sugar beet.

These hard candies aren't mass-produced confections.

They're gourmet candies, custom-made and crafted by hand.

The candymaker starts by bringing a pot of sugar and water to a boil.

Then he adds glucose, a thick syrup made from starch.

He heats the mixture to a specific temperature, depending on what type of candy he's making, and lets it cook for about a half-hour.

Then he stirs in liquid flavoring.

Once the mixture is evenly blended, he pours it onto a cooling table.

The candymaker has several flavorings at his disposal, from eucalyptus oil to fruit flavors.

He also chooses from a wide range of food colorings.

This candy will have a strawberry design in the middle, so he and his assistants are working with three colors-- green for the leaves, red for the berry, and yellow for the background.

To enhance the flavor, they add citric acid.

Then they keep blending until the candy has cooled down and hardened enough to be malleable.

They separate the pieces by color and put each piece on a heated table to slow the hardening process so that the candy will remain pliable.

Now they create the design.

They form various shapes and sizes and, like a puzzle, put the pieces together to make a jumbo version of the candy design.

Once they have assembled the red berry and green leaves and yellow background, they roll on more yellow background...

Then a layer of red for the outside trim.

All that's left is to reduce this giant wad of candy into a bite-sized version.

To do that, the candymaker pinches one end and stretches it out to form a long, uniform strand called a "rod".

He cuts the rod into pieces almost 2 feet long, but he has to keep rolling them until they cool and harden, or else they'll go flat.

When the rod is just the right diameter, the design is in perfect proportion.

All they have to do now is cut candy-size pieces.

They use the same technique to make kiwi candy, pink grapefruit candy, and banana candy, to name just a few varieties.

Want to order up some candy with a personalized message?

Here's an "l"...

An "o," a "v"...

An "e"...

A "y"...

"o"...

And "u".

Again, they create a yellow background and red trim.

Then it's more pinching, pulling, rolling, and cutting...

Until the rods are down to just the right size.

If you look at the back end of each rod, you'll see the lettering is in reverse.

That will be the underside of the candy.

When the raw candy comes off the cooling table, it's transparent.

To make it opaque or lighten the color, they'll pull it on a hook.

Here, they intertwine two colors and feed the rod through a special machine that forms bands of pillow-shaped candies.

After cooling, they simply break them apart by hand.

If you're no sucker for hard candies, no problem.

They can also twist rods into lollipops.


Today, on "how it's made"...

Mouth-blown window glass...

Water pumps...

Sake...

And tweezers.

Before machine-made plate glass became popular in the 1920s, window glass was blown by artisans.

Today, specialty companies still make window glass the traditional way.

While machine-made glass is uniformly clear and flat, mouth-blown window glass has subtle variations.

This german company produces a wide variety of mouth-blown sheet glass.

It's used to make contemporary wall light panels.

It can also be used to make clear or stained glass windows.

The company can make glass sheets in 5,000 different colors and textures.

This furnace melts silica sand and other natural materials into glass.

The starter begins by inserting the end of a blowpipe into a furnace.

He takes a small amount of colorless molten glass out of the furnace and rotates it in a wooden mold.

The mold is lined with heavy paper to soften the surface.

Then, he inserts a metal needle through the blowpipe to create a pathway for air.

He returns to the furnace for more molten glass.

The artisans make multiple trips to the furnace, shaping the molten glass in stages so it's easier to handle.

This time, the assistant shapes the glass with a large mold.

When the shape is set, the assistant prepares it for blowing.

He uses a fork tool to push the glass to the top of the pipe.

The starter rotates the glass in a larger, paper-lined mold to round it further.

The molten glass cools rapidly once it comes out of the furnace.

If the temperature dips below 1,800 degrees, it's not longer workable.

So the team must work quickly and reheat the glass repeatedly.

Another assistant lubricates the blowpipe so it will rotate easily on the support stand.

The starter hands the glass over to the master glassblower.

First, he rotates the blowpipe to straighten and center the drooping glass.

Then, he begins turning and blowing into the pipe to gradually inflate the glass.

This requires great physical strength as well as tremendous artistic and technical skill.

The pipe and glass weigh over 30 pounds combined.

When the glass starts to cool, the assistant reheats it in a smaller oven.

He passes the pipe back to the glassblower, who then resumes inflating it.

This time, he swings it upside-down, using gravity to help elongate the shape.

Next, he will transform the glass balloon into a cylinder.

First, he reheats the tip of the glass and weakens it with a hot burner.

Then, he reheats the entire glass cylinder.

This expands the air inside and forces the weakened tip open.

The glassblower taps the opposite side of the hot glass with a cold metal stick.

The thermal shock causes a neat stress break.

This releases the glass from the blowpipe.

Then, the assistant slices it lengthwise with a glass cutter and hands it off to the flattening team.

Their job is to transform the cylinder into sheet glass.

The flattening master's assistant puts the cylinder into a furnace.

It's heated to over 1,500 degrees.

The glass softens in about 30 minutes.

Then, the flattening master reaches into the opposite end of the furnace with a stick and gently opens the cylinder.

Next, the flattening master irons the glass sheet with a special wooden tool.

The flat sheet goes into the annealing oven for a gradual controlled cooldown.

This relieves stress and prevents cracking.

The flatting master's assistant removes the glass from the annealing oven and performs a visual inspection.

The last step is to cut the edges straight.

To make multicolored and textured glass, they add additional ingredients during the melting process.

Mouth-blown window glass contains natural variations that play with the light and create a subtle glow, a glow that machine-made window glass can't replicate.

Water is essential for life.

But most of earth's fresh water is trapped underground.

To tap into these reservoirs, we need water pumps.

They've existed in many forms for thousands of years.

The designs have improved over time, and today's water pumps are truly an underground success.

For farmers and municipal water providers, the turbine water pump is a workhorse.

It can pump thousands of gallons of water out of the ground every minute.

They start by making diffuser bowls using urn-shaped castings.

One turbine pump could have up to 30 diffuser bowls.

The bowls hold the pump's spinning impellers.

Computerized tools refine their shape so the bowls fit neatly in the pump column.

Another set of tools carve the bronze impellers.

They fine-tune the casings so that the impellers will fit into the diffuser bowls.

Here's a look at both sides of the finished impellers.

An uneven impeller will vibrate when spinning.

A technician uses this machine to check for imbalances.

When sensors locate the problem, he sands down the metal in that area.

This balances the impeller.

Next, a machine carves the top attachment ring of the discharge head.

The discharge head shields the motor from water.

It also changes the water flow from vertical to horizontal.

Next, a machine carves the outflow flange and drills holes for attaching a gasket.

An employee paints the part blue.

The paint protects the metal against rust.

He also highlights the embossed company name with bright red paint.

Here are the machine parts before and after painting.

Next, they make the pump's shaft pipes.

Tools work on both ends of the pipes simultaneously to refine the inner diameter.

Then, they carve threads into them.

They clean the pipes, then roll them into the holding area.

Next, computerized tools cut threads into the bronze bearings.

These threads will interconnect with the ones on the shaft pipes.

A worker screws the completed bearings into the ends of the shaft pipes.

Then, he screws the pipes together in a loose preassembly.

He brushes lubricant onto the exposed section of the bearings.

He links four pipes to create one 20-foot pipe.

He sets the long pipe in a cradle-like device and activates the drive wheel.

As the pipes tighten, the bearing disappears inside.

The worker inserts a steel shaft into each 20-foot pipe.

He caps the ends to secure the shafts inside the pipes.

This wider pipe is called the column pipe.

An employee attaches an assembly flange to each end and secures it with bolts.

A worker connects a suction bell to one of the shafts.

The suction bell will draw the well water into the pump.

Then, he slides an impeller into place.

He secures the impeller to the shaft with a tapered clamp called a collet.

He encases the impeller in an iron diffuser bowl.

He bolts the diffuser bowl to the suction bell.

They add more impellers to increase the power of the water pump.

A more powerful pump will be able to extract water from deeper underground.

They apply protective paint to the pump, and then, it's ready to install.

On site, workers use special equipment to help guide the pump into the well.

They join the shaft pipe to the pump.

Then, they slide the column pipe around the shaft pipe and bolt it to the top of the pump.

The team adds more shaft pipe for a deeper reach.

Then, they install the discharge head.

This turbine pump is now ready to extract water from great depths underground.

Sake is japanese rice wine.

It's distinguished by two main factors-- how the rice is milled before fermentation, and whether there's any distilled alcohol added to the final blend.

Sake can be mass-produced or handcrafted the traditional way.

This canadian microbrewery only makes pure rice wine called junmai-shu.

The brewery doesn't add any extra alcohol to their sake.

The clear sake, known as seishu, have a subtle, fruitier, nutty flavor.

Cloudier sake is called nigori.

It contains rice sediment, which produces its creamier texture.

The rice is milled before it arrives at the brewery.

Milling removes the proteins and lipids on the outside layers of the rice grain.

This rice has 30 percent of its grain milled away.

The starch of the core will produce premium sake.

First, they wash the rice.

Then, the pour it in a porous bag and soak it in cold filtered water.

The brewmaster checks the rice with his hands.

Once it reaches the right consistency, they drain the bag overnight.

Then, they pour the rice into a steamer.

The steamer cooks the rice under pressure for about an hour.

They cover the steamer with cloth to contain the rice as it cooks.

The steamer softens the rice but doesn't overcook it.

To ferment at the right speed, the rice needs to be firm on the outside and soft in the center.

Workers separate the rice by hand, then use fans to cool the rice down to about 98 degrees.

Next, they transfer it to a heated room.

They spread out the rice and cover it with mold spores imported from japan.

When heated, the spores germinate and grow on the rice.

The spores secrete enzymes that will transform the starch into fermentable sugars.

Workers insert a thermometer into the rice then wrap it in cloth to hold in the heat.

48 hours later, the sweet rice, called koji, is ready.

Now, they begin the fermentation process.

They mix 3/4 of steamed rice with 1/4 of koji in a temperature-controlled fermentation tank.

Then, they add spring water and yeast.

The mold enzymes in the koji convert the starch in the steamed rice into sugars.

The yeast consumes those sugars and produces alcohol.

The process takes about three weeks.

The brewmaster checks the temperature, acidity, residual sugar, and alcohol levels every day.

When the brew is ready, they pour it into cloth bags.

They neatly stack the bags in a traditional japanese mechanical press.

Large sake breweries automate this entire process, but this smaller operation follows century-old traditions and does everything by hand.

As the press fills up, the weight of the bags kick-starts the pressing.

They seal the press with heavy steel plates and mount the pressing mechanism.

As they turn the crank, the press squeezes all the liquid out of the bags.

When they're done, only unfermented rice will be left behind.

The liquid sake drains out of a spout at the base of the press.

They age the sake in refrigerated tanks for up to 4 months.

As it ages, the sake develops deeper and more complex flavors.

Not only is this sake entirely handcrafted, it's also hand-bottled.

Workers use a gravity-fed filling machine to pour sake into these glass bottles.

The dark bottles protects the sake from uv rays, which would spoil its color and flavor.

Next, they add the aluminum twist cap.

A machine molds it to the shape of the bottleneck and crimps the bottom rim.

They apply a label to each bottle with a simple hand-crank machine.

Full-strength sake has an alcohol content of 18 percent.

Some sake is diluted with spring water to bring the alcohol content down before bottling.

The sake this brewery produces is unpasteurized.

This enhances the flavor but requires refrigeration.

Tweezers were first used in ancient egypt and rome.

These indispensable tools help us grip small objects.

We use tweezers to pull splinters and unwanted hair from our skin.

They can also handle the tiny parts found in mechanical devices, like watches.

When something small eludes our grasp, tweezers help us pick them up.

They act as an extension of our forefinger and thumb, allowing us to grab and hold on to the tiniest things.

First, a worker preps the tweezer mold by grinding and sanding around the tweezer-shaped cavity.

This smoothes the mold, making it easier to cut out the metal parts.

A worker buffs the mold to give the surface a glossy finish.

A computer-guided machine carves a die cutter out of a steel block.

It uses an electrified brass wire to slice through the steel.

The die cutter perfectly matches the tweezer mold.

After the tools are prepped, they're ready to make the tweezers.

A coil of thick stainless steel wire unwinds into the molding machine.

Rollers straighten out the kinks.

An automated device grabs the wire and pulls it between the die-cutter and the mold.

The die-cutter pushes the wire into the mold and cuts out the shape it needs.

The excess steel slides out, and a spool collects it for recycling.

The mold ejects the part into a bin.

They are a little thinner at the gripping end.

This design gives the tweezers more flexibility.

An employee places two of the parts in an induction welder.

He activates the welder to fuse it twice at the gripping end.

A double weld reinforces the joint, making it very difficult to pull the tweezers apart.

This welder assembles approximately 3,000 pairs of tweezers per shift.

Each pair of tweezers is thoroughly polished to make them smoother and easier to grip.

It's a multi-step process.

First, an employee sands the body of the tweezers using fine abrasive paper and polishing cream.

Next, the tweezers go into a vibrating polisher.

They bounce around with ceramic stones and various polishing solutions for 24 hours.

After that, they wash off the chemical residue.

Then, they filter and neutralize the water.

Using another device, they shoot fine glass particles at the tweezers.

This gives them a satin finish that's durable and resists scratching.

A worker levels a tweezers' tips using a sanding belt.

She makes sure the claw-like tips are exactly the same length and angle.

Another member of the team sands the inside of the tips using a very fine abrasive disc.

This will improve the tweezer's grip.

The factory also makes carbon steel tweezers.

They're a cheaper alternative to stainless steel.

They immerse the carbon steel tweezers in a chrome solution to protect them from rust.

The tweezers' electrical charge attracts the chrome.

The result is a shiny and protective chrome plating.

Next, an employee prepares the tweezers for laser lettering.

She places them in a fixture and selects the image on her computer.

She activates the laser, and it permanently etches the graphics onto the metal.

Next, she rubs special oil onto the surface of the metal and cleans the tweezers thoroughly.

She also inspects the tweezers for any cosmetic flaws and makes sure they function properly.

These tweezers are now ready for plucking, primping, and any other small jobs.


Train Rails
Desalinated Water
Racing Wheelchairs
Parquetry

In the early days of the railroad, train rails were made of either cast iron or wrought iron.

Cast iron was too brittle and would break easily.

Wrought iron was too soft and would wear out too quickly.

So steel eventually became and remained the train-rail metal of choice.

The train wheel's rim runs on the inside of the rail to keep the train on the track.

This plant makes train rails entirely out of recycled steel from scrapyards, food cans, and recycled pieces from the rail-making process itself.

Electromagnets pick up the scrap and dump it in a charging bucket.

A truck hauls the bucket inside, where a crane drops the contents into a furnace.

An intense electric current melts the scrap steel at 3,000 degrees fahrenheit.

It then flows into a large brick-lined ladle, where they add carbon, manganese, and other elements to make the steel more durable.

The alloy then runs down a ceramic tube that shields it from exposure to oxygen, which would ruin the metal.

From there, the molten metal flows into molds, which extrude it into continuous rectangular blocks called blooms.

Acetylene torches cut each bloom into 12-foot lengths.

A crane then transfers the blooms to a furnace, which, over the next five to seven hours, reheats them to 2,300 degrees fahrenheit.

This softens the steel for further shaping.

Then the reheated blooms enter a machine called a rolling mill, which elongates each bloom, more than quadrupling its length.

A shear then slices the longer, thinner blooms into four pieces.

The pieces now go into another furnace for reheating.

This preps them for the next set of rolling mills, which will gradually form them to the final rail shape.

Different railroads used to use different-shaped rails, which required changing the train's wheels when passing from one railway to another.

By the turn of the 20th century, the t-shaped rail became the industry standard and remains so today.

For the final shaping, each steel rail passes several times through three consecutive mills.

This is what a mill's rollers look like.

And here's the standard "t" shape to which they form the steel.

Next, a saw slices off about 12 inches to square off the ends.

The cut-off pieces go back to the scrapyard.

The rails, meanwhile, are laid out until they cool to about 930 degrees fahrenheit.

Then an electromagnet piles them in a holding box, where they sit for 10 hours until they cool off to about 190 degrees fahrenheit.

When they come out of the box, they run through two sets of rollers.

The first set flexes the rail vertically.

The second, horizontally.

This flexing process straightens out the rails, which curve slightly due to all that heating, shaping, and cooling.

Next, each rail passes over a mirror, enabling inspectors to examine the bottom, as well as the top.

Finally, a saw cuts the rails to whatever size the railway ordered-- most often the standard length of 82 feet.

The quality-control department measures random samples to make sure all the dimensions are precise.

Every rail bears a number identifying the batch of steel from which it came.

In the event of a problem, that number lets them trace all the rails made from the same batch.

It's a system that ensures a safe, smooth ride.

In regions where fresh drinking water is limited, desalination plants remove salt from seawater, converting it into freshwater suitable for human consumption.

There are more than 13,000 desalination plants worldwide, producing 12 billion gallons of water a day.

The desalination plant that produced this drinkable water is located right next to an electrical power plant which uses seawater to cool down its condensers.

Post-cooling, the water travels via underground pipes to the desalination plant.

Before salt extraction, the water is pretreated in a multiphase cleaning process.

First, the water flows through screens that filter out large debris.

From there, it flows into basins for the first pretreatment stage.

As large paddles agitate the water, the plant adds two chemicals-- sodium hypochlorite, a disinfectant, and ferric chloride, a coagulant.

The coagulant binds together sand and other tiny particles of debris, forming heavier clumps that sink to the bottom.

This removes a significant portion of dirt from the water, but it's still far from being crystal clear.

The water now moves into another set of basins for the second pretreatment phase-- sand filtering.

Inside each sand filter, regulated by various pressure and flow gauges, a steady stream of air continually moves sand in a circular motion.

The seawater enters at the bottom of each filter and flows to the top.

As the sand moves downward against the rising water, the dirt particles attach to the sand.

The seawater now looks clean but still contains microscopic particles.

So it enters the final pretreatment phase.

This time, the filtering medium is diatomaceous earth, a powdered rock that contains algae fossils.

Finer than sand, it filters out those microscopic particles.

The seawater is now perfectly clean and ready for salt extraction.

They do that using membranes-- cylinders containing layers of plastic sheets that have pores .

001 the diameter of a human hair, small enough to trap microscopic salt crystals.

The plant pumps the clean saltwater under extremely high pressure through long tubes, each of which contains eight membranes.

By the time the water passes through all the membranes and reaches the center of the tube, it's completely salt-free.

Plant personnel and a slew of sophisticated instruments continually monitor every one of the system's 10,000 membranes.

Meanwhile, the plant sends the debris removed earlier to large waste basins for another round of chemical treatment.

After the solids settle to the bottom, the dirty water goes back to the front of the plant to be cleaned and recycled.

Pressure rollers squeeze the remaining water out of the solids.

Trucks then transport the dry solids to a landfill.

The extracted salt, meanwhile, goes to the power plant, which dilutes it, then returns it to the sea in a way that doesn't upset the water's natural salinity level.

Processing saltwater into freshwater strips away the water's natural minerals.

Not replacing them would create two problems.

First, the water wouldn't taste right.

Second, it would damage metal pipes by aggressively trying to replace the missing minerals.

Therefore, the plant adds liquid lime and carbon dioxide to the water.

These two elements adjust the ph level and raise the alkalinity, restoring the minerals and natural taste.

World war ii veterans disabled in combat were the first to race in wheelchairs.

But those chairs were clunky, steel models.

Fast-forward to today and wheelchair racing is a serious sport with aerodynamic chairs.

These chairs have elongated mainframes and three wheels instead of four.

This modern racing chair is tailored to the athlete's physique, specific disability, and skill level.

They begin by taking detailed measurements of the athlete as she sits in a demo chair.

They measure the width and height of her knees to determine the best seating position.

They check the balance point to decide how the rear-wheel axle should be positioned, and they measure her arms so push rims can be sized for her.

They then produce a digital drawing of the racing wheelchair, complete with any extras requested by the athlete.

The fabricator selects the appropriate aluminum tubing and cuts it to the desired length.

This one will be the main tube for the racing chair's frame.

Rollers curve the tube slightly at one end so the framework will accommodate the seat.

A press then flattens the tube quite a bit.

This stiffens the metal and will make the racing-chair frame more aerodynamic.

This small tube, which they weld to the main tube, will hold the racing chair's steering fork.

He now tapes a steering mechanism for the front wheel onto the framework and confirms that its placement is exact before welding.

This device will keep the front wheel on autopilot, freeing the racer's hands to push the rear wheels.

The welder now positions the other end of the main tube perpendicular to the wheel axle.

He inches the tube towards the center of the axle until it's right on the mark.

He welds the axle to the main tube, giving the framework a "t" profile.

Temporary wheels lift the axle so he can install the seat frame.

Then a hydraulic machine bends an aluminum tube into a "u" shape to make the racing chair's seat frame.

He positions the seat frame on the rear axle and does a few more welds.

Finally, he installs fenders on the wheels.

The main framework of this racing wheelchair is complete.

But to make it look flashy, they spray-paint it red.

This is a powder coating.

It's a thermoplastic paint that's tougher than the conventional kind.

Next, this machine rolls the push rims, which the athlete uses to propel the wheelchair.

They weld on pegs for attaching the rims to the wheels, then glue a rubber sleeve onto each rim.

They wrap it in tape to clamp the two as the glue dries.

The tape stays on until the chair is delivered to the customer.

They install the rear wheels at an angle to make the racing chair more stable when cornering.

They add padding for the athlete's knees, then assemble the nylon seat to the chair.

Next comes the front-wheel steering fork and handle.

They complete the assembly with a spring-loaded cylinder.

That's part of the steering autopilot system.

After testing the steering fork, they install the front wheel, which is smaller than the rear two.

Once it's been equipped with brakes, this custom racing chair is ready to take on the competition.

An elite athlete will buy a new racing chair every year.

Some choose rear wheels made of lightweight carbon fiber because any advantage is welcome in the push to win.

Parquetry was invented in france in the 1600s as an alternative to high-maintenance marble flooring.

It's made from small pieces of wood bonded together in a geometric pattern.

The most common motif is squares.

But it also comes in other patterns, such as herringbone, lozenges, and triangles.

Parquetry can be made of laminate or plywood.

However, the best-quality flooring is made from genuine wood, such as oak, maple, or yellow birch.

The factory first cuts the wood into planks, measuring 2 to 5 inches wide by about a yard long.

A drum saw then cuts each plank into 6 blocks about 6 inches long while an inspector discards any misshapen ones.

The blocks then move through a planer that shaves a fine layer off both sides.

This reduces the blocks to a thickness of just under an inch and smoothes the top and bottom surfaces.

Next, the blocks run through a saw with 10 blades that slice them into strips measuring .

3 inches wide by 6.2 inches long.

Quality controllers remove any strips with inconsistent thickness, which are usually the ones cut from the block's extremities.

The good strips continue on to another area, where they undergo a more thorough quality-control inspection.

A worker checks the tops and bottoms, then lines them up on a conveyor belt good-side up.

She also discards any substandard strips that may have slipped past the first inspection.

The conveyor belt then flips the strips over.

This positions the strips underside facing upward.

Saws then cut two parallel grooves through them.

These grooves are set .

9 inches in from the edge...

And are just deep enough to hold a thin aluminum wire that'll connect strips together to form tiles.

The next machine dispenses the parallel wires.

A wheel pushes the wires deep inside their respective grooves.

After every seven strips, the machine cuts the wires and starts new ones.

The 7-length strips form a 6-inch-square tile.

An end-matching machine now squares each tile so that the four corners are precisely 90 degrees.

Then it carves tongues on two of the tile's edges and grooves into the other two.

Four tile feeders then drop tiles into an assembly machine that inserts the tongues into the grooves.

The machine then applies hot glue which bonds the four tiles into one larger tile measuring 12x12 inches.

The tiles are now ready for varnishing.

Feeders drop them onto the automated varnishing line.

The tile surface gets a sanding.

Rollers then apply an even coat of varnish.

From there, the tiles immediately pass under ultraviolet light.

This dries the varnish within a second.

Then the process repeats three more times for a total of four coats of varnish.

Workers then stack them in 10s, at the same time doing a final inspection and discarding any tile that has a less-than-perfect finish.

On the packaging line, each stack gets a label and clear plastic wrapping.

An oven shrinks the plastic tightly around the tiles.

Those four coats of varnish made this parquetry superdurable, and because it's real wood, when the many years of wear do begin to show, you can simply refinish the floor to its original splendor.