Today on "how it's made"...

And...

Many industries require pumping a wide variety of liquids.

And there are many different kinds of pumps that can do that.

One type, the hollow rotary disk pump, uses a rotating disk to create sufficient suction to move thin or thick liquids in a forward or reverse direction.

When the pump in the blue runs, a hollow disk inside it oscillates.

This creates suction, drawing liquid into one side of the pump and pushing it out the other.

Some of the pump components are cast in sand molds like this one for casting the first part of the pump's two-part body.

The molten iron takes a few hours to cool and solidify inside the mold cavity.

Then, a vibrating machine breaks the sand mold to release the cast part.

A computer-guided milling machine then finishes the shape.

The cut-off pieces of iron go back into the furnace to be melted down for subsequent castings.

After it's cast, the second part of the pump's body is machined to its final shape on a computer-guided lathe.

The pump's hollow disk, which the lathe machines from a bar of steel, requires a complex cut that only this electric disk charge machine can perform.

Its cutting tool is a gold wire charged with a high-voltage current conducted by water.

Guided by a computer, the wire erodes the metal in its path, cutting a teardrop-shaped opening in the disk.

A laser printer engraves a part number and a batch number on the finished disk.

To assemble the pump, a worker begins with the first part of the two-part body.

The worker applies glue to the shaft sleeve and inserts it into a channel from the front.

Next, they insert a lantern ring into the same channel from the back.

The worker places a bearing on top of the lantern ring.

Then, from the other side, they insert one more bearing.

The worker inserts the pump shaft through all the bearings in the channel.

The bearings minimize friction, enabling the shaft to rotate smoothly.

Along with this retaining clip, the bearings also prevent the shaft from moving up and down or shifting side by side with the pump's movement.

Workers take the second part of the pump's body and glue a bronze plate, called a diaphragm, into a groove at the top.

Then they join the two parts of the body, placing a gasket in between to prevent leaks.

The gasket is made of special gasket paper like the type used in car engine piping.

The workers fasten the two parts of the body with 10 massive bolts and install a heavy-duty steel spring in a groove in the shaft.

A steel cap keeps the spring firmly in position.

The worker compresses the spring with a tool and inserts a bronze stem bushing.

This spring loading is critical because it enables the disk to adapt to thin or thick liquids without clogging or getting damaged.

Now, they mount the hollow disk onto the bushing and bolt on the front cover.

When the motor turns the pump's shaft, the hollow disk oscillates around the diaphragm, which acts as a barrier, separating the suction side of the pump from the discharge side.

This plate covers where the customer will later install a safety valve.

The oscillating hollow disk produces suction, which pulls liquid through the inlet port, then out the opposite side, through the outlet port.

Workers mask the inlet and outlet ports before spray-painting the pump.

Next, the worker installs a metal coupling joint, which is comprised of several parts, including rubber members, which make the joint flexible enough to withstand some vibration or slight misalignment of the connection between the pump and the gear reducer.

The gear reducer acts as the middleman between the motor and the pump, lowering the motor speed of 1,800 revolutions per minute to the disk oscillation speed of approximately 300 revolutions per minute.

Such slow rotation speed is critical, as it enables the pump to move even very thick fluids.

The disk can also rotate in reverse so that liquid can be loaded or unloaded using the same pump.

Palmyra palm sugar is derived from the palmyra palm tree and is considered a healthier form of sweetener than many others, just 41 on the glycemic index with only 1/10th ounce of fructose per 3 1/2 ounces.

It's also one of the few plant-based sources of vitamin b12.

Palmyra palm sugar doesn't come out of the palmyra palm tree looking like this.

From harvesting to processing, there are many steps between the tree and the ultimate product.

The tree produces the round fruit seen on the right and the cylindrical flower cluster on the left.

A palm sugar harvester prepares specialized containers for harvesting the sap by threading twine through a hole near the rim.

These tubes are made from bamboo.

And in thailand, they're called...

the harvester adds wood chips to the tubes.

The wood chips come from the shorea tree, which is called...

in thailand.

The chips well help prevent the sap from fermenting.

Some palmyra trees are more than 100 years old.

Here, the harvester climbs a ladder that reaches up around 66 feet.

At the top of the tree, the harvester uses a machete to cut the tip off the palmyra flowers.

Safely on the ground, he demonstrates what he does up in the tree.

He starts by binding together two of the cylindrical flowers and then carefully trimming off their tips.

Where they've been cut, the flowers exude drops of sap, which will collect in the bamboo tubes.

Up in the tree, the harvester secures the tubes in place.

Having swapped empty tubes for full ones, he brings the sap he's collected to an outdoor stove.

The harvester prepares a basket covered with several layers of gauze to filter the liquid.

He then slowly and carefully pours the sap through the filters, into the wok below.

The harvesting stage is complete.

Production now begins.

The filtered sap now boils away in the wok for approximately 45 minutes as it thickens into a sugar.

The worker takes advantage of the hot oven fire to sterilize his bamboo tubes.

He turns them upside-down, one by one, over small holes in the oven.

The worker must harvest twice a day.

If he doesn't, the cuts will heal over too much.

And he'll be forced to wait for a specific period of time before making additional cuts in order to prevent damage to the tree.

The boiling process thickens the sap.

And the worker must stir it frequently to keep it from sticking.

After roughly 30 minutes, the sap begins to turn white.

The tubes are now thoroughly sterilized.

And the worker can remove them and let them cool.

The bubbling sap has now been reduced to a thick substance.

The worker removes the pan from the heat source.

It's ready for the next phase on its path to becoming sugar.

Although it's often referred to as palm sugar, it's also known as jaggery.

The worker now uses a custom-made whisking tool to thoroughly mix the jaggery.

Shaped like a large spring, the whisk helps cool the sugar while mixing it.

He continues mixing the jaggery until it thickens and cools to a paste-like consistency.

At this point, the jaggery is too thick for the whisk.

So the worker continues mixing it with a simple stick.

Finally, the sugar cools and dries to a thick, flaky texture, ready to be packaged and shipped around the world.

It has taken nearly a gallon of palmyra palm sap to create roughly 2 1/4 pounds of this highly nutritious alternative sweetener.

The first yachts were simple, sturdy vessels used to take explorers on voyages of discovery.

Today's yachts are floating vacation homes.

Equipped with every convenience, the luxuries increase with the scale of the vessel.

Modern yachts are the ultimate way to explore the coastline.

If you can afford one of these, you're living the dream.

This motor yacht offers all the comforts of home on the water.

Making this mid-sized yacht starts with a mold for the hull.

The team sprays a gel-coat paint onto the entire inner surface of the mold.

This paint will transfer to the hull during molding.

They layer fiberglass strips around a p.v.c foam core and create a series of distribution channels for resin.

The crew now drapes an enormous sheet of clear plastic over the materials in the mold and seals the edges with tape.

The crew leaves a lot of slack in the plastic to conform to the mold's deep recesses.

A vacuum hose suctions out the air beneath the plastic.

The crew then connects plastic tubing to the ports in the distribution channels.

All this plastic tubing leads to one place-- the vacuum pump.

The vacuum pulls resin through the network of tubing, into the ports and through the distribution channels.

The resin saturates the fiberglass strips that surround the p.v.c. foam core.

The vacuum sucks the layers into a tight sandwich and pulls out more air and excess resin.

A worker pulls the plastic away from dry spots so the resin flows into these areas.

The resin cures, and the fiberglass layers harden.

The next day, the team removes the plastic sheet from the molded part.

They pull off the resin distribution channels and the ports.

A crane lifts the newly molded hull out of the mold.

The gel coat has adhered to it, giving it a glossy finish.

The crane transfers the hull to a wooden cradle.

Next, they create the yacht's deck.

The crew covers some areas of the mold in plastic to protect them from the first gel coat in a 2-toned paint job.

After the first color goes on, they gel-coat the areas that had been covered in plastic.

This two-toned paint job is done for aesthetic reasons.

But it also color-codes the areas that have a nonskid texture.

Like the hull, the crew makes the deck mainly from fiberglass.

A worker cuts out the strips in different sizes.

The fabrics have various thicknesses and weaves, all geared to the deck's structural requirements.

He numbers the pieces to designate their placement in the mold.

And the worker stacks them sequentially.

After arranging some of the fiberglass strips in the mold, the crew builds up the deck in certain areas using pieces of balsa wood.

Balsa wood is extremely lightweight.

But it will add strength when laminated into the fiberglass sandwich.

The strategic placement of the balsa wood in high-traffic areas creates a solid core that will hold up to heavy use.

A worker lays more fiberglass strips, encapsulating the balsa wood.

They'll laminate the layers with resin the way they did with the hull.

The crew also makes the roof structure the same way.

A boat builder applies putty to the fiberglass to even out any irregularities.

And after grinding the hardened putty smooth, they spread polishing compound on all the yacht's body parts.

The worker buffs the fiberglass until the glossy surface gleams even more.

Using a router, the crew cuts out holes for lights, portholes and other features.

An inspector taps the fiberglass to check for air voids that would compromise the yacht's structural integrity.

He confirms that everything is shipshape.

Production now moves to the yacht's interior.

We'll have the inside information coming up.

A motor yacht is a home away from home.

It's usually equipped with a full kitchen, one or more bathrooms, and luxurious common areas called salons.

Everything is designed to fit into the limited space below deck.

The waters may get rough.

But in the yacht's private quarters, the living is easy.

With the bulkheads now in place, the hull is ready for furnishings and fittings.

A computerized router cuts american cherry wood to a set of exact measurements.

This particular piece will be part of a storage locker.

At another station, a craftsman glues a dozen cherry strips together for a valence.

These laminated strips will be easier to bend to the desired shape than a thick board.

He wraps them in wax paper to prevent the glue from seeping out during bending.

The team places the laminated strips between the two parts of a bending jig.

They clamp the jig to close it tightly.

The adhesive sets overnight.

And the wood hardens to the curved shape of the bending jig.

The woodworker now clamps the valence to the workbench to steady it as he trims the edges.

He positions a template on the valence and follows it with a router to cut out a hole for an air-conditioning vent.

Yes.

The yacht will be equipped with air conditioning.

The woodworker inserts the custom wooden vent in the hole.

Turning now to the salon's coffee table, a router cuts holes in the cherry wood while bristles keep the dust down.

A worker applies glue and inserts pieces of maple into the cutouts.

He lightly hammers the pieces to drive them further into the holes.

Then, it's into an automated sander.

It sands the inlaid wood flush to the cherry tabletop.

A crew now brushes varnish onto all the wood pieces.

The varnish enhances the wood grain.

And it protects the surface.

After the varnish dries, another worker polishes the wood to a high sheen.

A worker then screws pedestal hardware into the back of each table to prepare them for installation in the yacht.

The hull has been equipped with the two diesel engines at the back.

A worker now assembles the clothing locker in the guest stateroom.

And in the master stateroom, construction on the en suite bathroom is underway.

The worker screws the toilet in place and connects the water and waste hoses.

They roughen a utility room for a washer and dryer at the back of the yacht, next to the mechanical systems.

The crew situates the propellers in the molded niches in the bottom of the hull.

And the technician connects them to swiveling mechanisms called pods.

He hooks up a pump that will replace the lubricating oil when needed, so there'll be no need to pull it into port for oil changes.

The technician installs intake systems that will suction lake or ocean water into the hull to cool the diesel engines.

The other mechanics include the air-conditioning system, water heater and a generator.

And now, the big moment.

Using a crane, the crew lowers the yacht's deck and pilothouse onto the hull.

This deck assembly weighs 3 tons.

Looks like it's a good fit.

Using crowbars, the team pulls the rim, also known as the flange of the deck, over the hull.

They drill threaded holes through the fiberglass flange and the hull and screw bolts into those holes to connect the two.

Special adhesive has been applied to these bolts to keep water from penetrating the vessel.

Here's the view inside.

The cherry paneling in the pilothouse seamlessly matches the paneling in the living quarters.

The builders complete the furnishings, giving the cabin the look and feel of luxury.

They install a high-end galley kitchen.

And this yacht is complete.

After 6 months of work, let the good times begin.


Lacrosse Sticks
Frozen Fish Products
Flashlights
Paintbrushes

Today on "how it's made"...

Lacrosse sticks...

Frozen fish products...

Flashlights...

And paintbrushes.

Lacrosse is north america's oldest sport.

It was back in the 1400s that native people got the ball rolling, playing with a distinctive netted stick.

French missionaries decided the stick resembled the stafflike crosier, or cross, carried by bishops.

And so the game became lacrosse.

Lacrosse has never been more popular than it is today.

To make a lacrosse stick, they split a hickory log down the middle.

This tree was cut in the fall when the sap is out, so it's easier to work with.

They continue subdividing the log into eight pieces.

Each piece then goes through a band saw, which trims it to a width of 2 1/2 inches.

Hickory is the wood of choice because it's tough and can withstand the high-impact game of lacrosse.

But to work with it, they need to soften it up, so they steam the sticks for 45 minutes.

Then a craftsman places the hickory stick in a jig.

In this steamy state, the wood is completely flexible.

He easily curls one end around a form by hand.

He loops wire around it so it will hold its crooklike shape while the wood dries for one month.

At the end of that month, he puts the other end of the stick in a steamy jig and bends it back just below the crook.

This is called the back bend.

He sets it on a rack to dry and harden.

This is the basic form, and as you can see, it resembles the bishop's crosier, the one that inspired the name of the game.

After two weeks of drying, the stick is ready to be carved.

Using a drawknife, he shaves the bark from the stick.

Then he sculpts it thinner, following the bends of the stick.

The carver is an artisan who has the experience and skill to do this job well, which is important because the stick must be approved by the toughest judge, the player.

Next they drill holes in the curve of the stick-- 21 in total.

Then they give it a heavy sanding.

The surface has to be absolutely smooth so the player won't get any splinters.

Then, using a rag, they rub linseed oil into the stick to keep the wood from getting too dry.

The brand name goes on.

And now it's time for the weaver to build the sidewall of the net.

In the old days, they used rawhide for this, but today they weave with nylon string.

He interlaces it with leather runners that have been threaded through the holes at the back bend.

He brushes polyurethane on the completed side web to stiffen it.

Next he attaches the other end of the leather runners to the top of the crook.

The player will be able to change the depth of the netted pocket to his or her preference.

He interlaces the leather runner weave with the nylon sidewall...

And then pulls the woven pocket over a post to give it some shape.

He loops the ends of the leather runners in a half hitch and snips off the excess.

Every detail of this lacrosse stick has been handcrafted.

It's a process that's taken three months.

And now let the games begin.

Since prehistoric times, the innuit have used quick-freezing to preserve fish.

They threw their catch onto the arctic ice to instantly freeze it.

It wasn't until the early 20th century that the rest of the world discovered that this was better than slow freezing.

It's a case of progress moving at a glacial pace.

Fish that's rapidly frozen right on the ship is more flavorful and retains its texture.

This is minced cod frozen solid.

It underwent quick-freezing in china and was shipped in this frozen state all the way to this nova scotia facility where it will be turned into fish sticks.

A worker loads the fish blocks into a machine.

A powerful ram forces the blocks through knives, which slice them into logs that are about 19 inches in length.

Workers load the logs vertically into slots.

Below, more knives slice the logs into sticks.

They get 85 fish sticks from one log.

They check for breaks as the sticks move to the next station.

At another production line, they dump quick-frozen haddock fillets into a big, steel hopper.

It funnels them to a flighted conveyor.

The conveyor meters the fillets and drops each bunch onto a vibrating table.

The vibrations separate the fillets as they move into lanes...

And shuffle down to an inspection station where flaws can be easily spotted.

Now it's time for a hot shower.

It lasts just a second.

The hot water melts the fillets' protective glaze but doesn't thaw the fish itself.

Deglazing allows the coating mixture to stick to the fish.

The fish sticks are now traveling through a curtain of batter made of flour, water, and spices.

The excess collects in a pan below and coats the bottoms of the fish sticks.

Back on the haddock production line, they're loading a toasted wheat blend into a machine called a breader.

It creates a thick shower of crumbs below that evenly coats the fillets as they journey through.

Then the breaded, frozen fillets head for the fryer.

The fish sticks go through a fryer, too, for 28 seconds, just long enough to cook the outside coating, but the fish remains frozen on the inside.

With the coating baked on, the fish sticks and fillets are now en route to the freezers.

Meanwhile, over on a third production line, they dump oil and red peppers into a high-speed mixer.

They add some parsley for seasoning, then hand-stir it while it steam-cooks.

The red-pepper sauce cascades from an applicator, saturating these frozen tilapia fillets.

This coating sticks without being fried, so the tilapia fillets head straight for the spiraling freezer.

The fish sticks and breaded haddock fillets are in similar freezers.

After 45 minutes, the haddock slides down a chute which weighs it to portion it out.

Heated jaws seal the bagged haddock fillets.

An oscillating feeder deposits the fish sticks into boxes.

One last inspection and they're ready for retail.

They vacuum-pack the tilapia fillets, and this meal is sealed.

And now there's plenty of fish to fry, depending on where your tastes lie.

The flashlight can illuminate any situation, but the first version, invented in the late 19th century, wasn't all that efficient.

It produced only flashes of light, so it was named "flashlight".

The flashlight shows us the way when things look dim.

To make a military flashlight, they place an aluminum bar in a computerized lathe.

Blades go to work and shape it into a flashlight body.

As a drill hollows out the bar, coolant flushes over it to prevent the metal from expanding as the tooling heats things up.

This blade cuts threads on the outside so they can screw on a flashlight lens cap later.

A gripper now pulls out the tube so tools can work on the back half.

A blade slims that section down and then carves the cross weave onto it.

This heavy texture will make the flashlight easier to grip.

Next they drill a hole in the flashlight's tail stud.

It's an attachment for the wrist strap.

After the flashlight body has taken shape, they give it a black, protective coating.

Next, using tons of force, a machine injects hot plastic into a mold, which forms the lens for the flashlight.

They place the lens in a jig and unscrew the mold core.

The core has formed threads in the lens so it can be screwed onto the flashlight body later.

They use another injection mold to make plastic flashlight bodies.

The plastic flashlights are for more general use than the aluminum ones.

For custom orders, they stamp a logo onto the flashlight using a hot-foil press.

Next they insert light-emitting diodes into a circuit board.

The diodes are electronic lamps that are very bright and can be used instead of traditional incandescent bulbs.

They solder the diodes' lead wires to a circuit board and then trim them with snippers.

The diodes are now secured and connected to the circuit board.

For bigger flashlights, they use a lot of diodes-- up to 60 of them for this flashlight that's being made for search-and-rescue work.

Next a stamping press shapes the bronze battery contacts.

An ultrasonic welder bonds them to a plastic plate.

Then they solder a wire from the diodes to the contacts.

The lamp part of the flashlight is now built.

Now they insert springs into the aluminum flashlight bodies.

They load the batteries, and the springs hold them in place.

They slide the lamp assembly into the flashlight cavity and screw the lens on.

This aluminum flashlight has just been put together in a flash.

They move on to the plastic flashlight.

The battery contact and spring assembly goes in, followed by the batteries.

The light-emitting diode lamp is next.

They screw the lens onto the lamp.

The plastic glare shield is the final touch.

And now these flashlights are ready to shine.

If you've got a paint job to do, the right type of brush can make all the difference.

When you opt for latex paint, it's best to use a paintbrush with synthetic bristles.

They're typically made of nylon or polyester.

If you're painting with oil-based paint, you can use either a synthetic brush or one with bristles made of natural animal hair.

For natural bristles, this factory uses pig hair imported from china that arrives in bundles sorted by length.

Each paintbrush contains up to five different lengths.

This bristle structure makes the brush sufficiently stiff.

All five lengths go into a specially designed mixing machine.

First it combs the bristles, straightening them out and removing any curved hairs.

Then it spreads the bristles flat and mixes the lengths together.

Now a worker takes a handful of bristles from the mixer and pats them on a vibrating table.

Like human hairs, animal hairs have a root and a tip.

The vibrations make all the butt ends line up flat.

Each handful goes into a storage box until it's time to install the bristles in the ferrule, the steel band that goes around the paintbrush.

This machine makes the ferrules.

It shapes a thin steel strip that's 1.1 to 1.6 inches wide.

Rollers imprint beads to make the strip more rigid and a herringbone pattern that is purely cosmetic.

Then a blade cuts the strip into pieces that are long enough to wrap around the brush.

The machine bends each piece around a forming horn, then joins the ends in a strong lock seam.

Hammers flatten the seam, and the ferrule is finished.

Back to the bristles now.

A brush-making machine will join them to the ferrules.

Workers load the mixed batches of bristles into one of the machine's feeders and the ferrules into the other.

The machine picks up the required amount of bristles.

Transfer jaws grab the tips and insert them in a ferrule.

A vibrating device called a patter pushes the bristles in straight.

A continuous strip of cardboard feeds the next part of the equipment.

The machine parts the bristles, cuts off, and slots in a piece of cardboard.

This centerpiece, as it's called, creates a well inside the brush head to help hold the paint.

The machine then pulls the bristles out to the proper length, leaving about a quarter inch inside the ferrule.

Once the brush heads come off the machine, workers pick out the loose bristles.

The lightweight paintbrush handles are made of plastic pellets.

A vacuum loader sucks the material up to a molding machine which melts the pellets at about 400 degrees fahrenheit.

The machine then injects the molten plastic into handle-shaped molds.

Five minutes later, the machine ejects the handles from the molds.

Workers attach 30 handles at a time to sticks and hang them across paint vats, then lower the handles into the paint slowly to avoid creating air bubbles.

The first coat is a primer.

After a half-hour, the handles are ready for the next coat.

This time, the vat contains colored paint.

It dries to a matte finish in 30 minutes.

The third vat contains clear lacquer.

This coat protects the paint and makes the surface glossy.

Now it's time to glue the bristles to the ferrules with strong epoxy glue.

It seeps down into the bristle base.

Workers now load the finished brush heads and handles into an assembly machine.

The machine inserts a handle into each brush head, shooting two or three nails into each side to secure it.

Finally, a printing machine stamps the company name onto one side of each handle.

Paintbrushes come in a wide range of widths and thicknesses, providing different strokes for different folks.


Slate Tiles
Hot Dog Carts
Garage Door Openers
Bicycle Seats

Today, on "how it's made"...

History suggests slate may have first been mined in the roman era, although the earliest confirmed records date back to the early 1700s.

Slate tiles were used for general building construction and are still used today for practical and aesthetic purposes.

These pieces of floor slate appear to be right from the quarry, but they're part of an 18-piece puzzle that's cut the same way every time.

These pieces of wall slate are much thinner and are used for paneling.

Uncut sheets of slate in a variety of thicknesses come straight from the quarry.

After the slate sheets are stacked on a forklift, a worker carefully drives them to another part of the storage yard.

He sets them down gently.

Another worker splits the sheets of slate using a pneumatic zip gun.

It's a delicate process.

Once he splits the slate sheets, the worker inspects the lines in the pieces of slate and looks for cracks.

Then, he carries the sheet to a gauging machine.

He checks the thickness of the sheet to make sure it won't cause jams on the cutting table.

This multiblade cutting table slices a sheet of slate into a series of strips.

It's covered with recycled water.

This lubricates the cutting process, cools the slate and cutting blades, and removes unwanted dust and particles.

A conveyor slowly moves the slate sheet forward.

A total of 18 diamond blades slice the sheet of slate into strips.

These strips of slate will be used for wall paneling.

This cutting table can cut several sheets of slate at the same time.

Once the cutting process is complete, a worker inspects the strips of slate and sorts them according to thickness and width.

Next, he piles some of them in preparation for splitting.

He cracks thicker strips of slate using a stone splitter with a hardened steel blade.

He makes sure they're thin enough to be used for wall paneling.

Once the pieces of slate reach their final thickness, a worker places them in boxes, ready for installation.

A worker inspects a sheet of slate that will be used for flooring.

The thickness of slate flooring must be constant.

He places a sheet on a conveyor.

It takes the slate through a gauging machine, where its surface will be made perfectly even.

Using two diamond grinding wheels, the gauging machine shaves off any pieces of stone that exceed a preset thickness.

After several minutes of shaving, the slate sheet emerges from the gauging machine.

An employee checks the sheet to make sure it's smooth.

First, he checks the underside of the eventual floor tiles.

Then, he checks the top side, the stone face that will be displayed.

The worker places the smooth, flat piece of slate on a cutting frame.

The computerized cutting machine cuts 18 pieces of slate according to a preset pattern.

A high-velocity water jet cuts the stone at three times the speed of sound.

The water is pure, filtered several times.

The first time the slabs move through the machine, it cuts pieces 1 to 9, and the second time through, it cuts pieces 10 to 18.

The worker snaps off excess trim and stacks the cut pieces of slate according to their numbers.

All the number ones are identical to each other, as are each of the other numbers in the 18-piece pattern.

Repeated on a floor, the 18-piece pattern appears natural.

This nonporous slate comes in different textures and colors, and can also be used in bathrooms or roofing.

The first hot dog carts were rolled out in new york city in the mid-19th century.

They were simple push carts with small charcoal stoves and served sausages on buns.

Those sandwiches became known as hot dogs.

A modern hot dog cart is a kitchen on wheels.

Equipped with a water tank and sink, a steamer and grill, and a cooler, it's made to serve the public.

And they're sometimes designed to stand out in a crowd.

To make this hot dog cart, they start with molds for the hot dog-shaped body.

A worker brushes a nonstick coating into the first mold.

It will allow the completed part to be easily removed.

He places fiberglass one sheet at time in the mold.

He brushes a generous amount of epoxy resin onto each piece.

The fiberglass starts to solidify very quickly, but he leaves it to set overnight for a complete cure.

They assemble the two halves of the hot dog-shaped body and apply bonding to the seams.

A colorful paint job completes the look.

Next, computerized tools cut holes in a sheet of food-grade steel.

These holes will accommodate the sink, faucets, and other parts.

Then, the cooler door takes shape.

Using a press, the worker bends up the edge of a piece of steel that's been cut to size.

He transfers the part to another break press.

This one is computerized.

It folds back the bend to give the door a strong, smooth edge.

He repeats this process on two other sides.

He then clamps a continuous hinge to the only unfolded edge, and he welds and rivets the hinge to it.

Work now begins on the chassis of the hot dog cart.

A worker welds heavy wall steel tubing to create a rugged framework.

After painting it, he bolts the wheel axle to brackets on the sides.

He tightens the bolts to an exact torque using a pneumatic wrench.

He screws taillights to the bumper.

The lights are surrounded by metal brackets to protect them from being damaged by customers waiting in line.

The brackets also serve as a mounting plate.

The team now transfers the fiberglass cart body to the chassis.

They drill large holes to vent gas fumes and smaller screw holes to secure the body to the chassis.

They line the cart with a molded fiberglass and styrofoam unit.

It has compartments for the water tank and food cooler, and it also serves as an insulating layer.

They install the steel food preparation surface, which has been equipped with a sink and faucets.

A member of the team tightens a crimp ring around the hoses to supply water to the sink faucets.

He runs a gas line to the steamer's burners and lowers the steamer into place on the cart.

He assembles a barbecue to the other side of the cart, and this gives customers a grilled option for their hot dogs.

They hinge the cooler door to the front of the cart.

Once closed, the door seals the insulated chamber to keep hot dogs, sausages, and sodas on ice.

The team presses bold graphics to the fiberglass shell and peels off the paper liner.

And with that, this hot dog cart is ready to hit the street, just in time for lunch.

Decades ago, people had to get out of the car when arriving home in order to open the garage door.

Today, it's routine to open and close your garage door at the push of a button, either on a wall-mounted pad or on a remote control.

A garage door opener's motor drives either a belt, a chain, or a screw rod, like these models.

In turn, they move a carriage connected to the garage door.

At this factory, the production line starts and ends at the same place.

They take one completed garage door opener off the line, then start a new one by attaching a power cord to the unit's steel chassis.

Then, they place the chassis onto a traveling assembly fixture and plug in the power cord to prep the unit for testing later.

They place the unit's plastic housing next to the chassis, then snap in the plastic safety cover.

This goes over the direct current motor, the equivalent of 1 1/4 horsepower.

They attach an optical encoder to the motor.

The encoder is a sensor which reads the door's position so that the motor knows when to stop moving the carriage.

They place the motor against the safety cover, then screw it in place.

In the housing, they install the motion sensor.

It turns on the opener's light as soon as you walk into the garage or when the garage door opens.

Next are the switches for programming the remote control and for setting the travel limits.

These are the points to which the opener must move the door to fully open and close it.

They then install the circuit board, routing the antenna for the remote control receiver to the outside.

They plug in the motion sensor cable, then wire and plug in the connector for the light bulbs and fasten the board in place with screws.

They attach the electrical ground wire to the chassis, connect the power cable, and then, the optical encoder to the circuit board.

With all the internal components installed now, they affix the housing to the chassis.

This completes the brain of the garage door opener, called the operator unit.

An automated testing machine now checks all the functions, simulating the load of the garage door.

It also checks the light bulb sockets and the connection ports on the circuit board for the safety beams.

The beams stop and reverse the closing door if they detect any object in its path.

Once the operator unit passes inspect, it comes full circle to the end, which is also the start, of the production line.

A plastic lens to enclose the light bulbs, and the unit comes off the line.

The carriage rail is milled from galvanized steel.

It has slots for locking in plastic liners which hold the screw rod.

To produce the screw rod, the factory machines a solid bar of steel to the required dimensions and profile.

Then, with high-pressure rollers, it forms threads in it.

Workers insert the screw rod into the liners in the rail.

For the retail market, rather than produce one long rail and screw rod, the factory makes three shorter connecting sections that fit into a smaller package.

This machine lubricates the screw rod with grease.

It helps it rotate smoothly in the rail liner when the opener's motor is running.

When the screw rod turns, teeth on the base of the carriage interlock with the threads, moving the carriage along the rail.

Workers first install the carriage base at the factory.

Then, they pack all the garage door opener components for shipping, starting with the rail sections and the operator unit.

Last to go in are the wall-mounted control pad, the remote controls, and the safety beams, which you install on each side of the garage door opening.

When you install the garage door opener, you insert the screw rod into the motor's drive shaft.

Then, you assemble the rest of the carriage, connecting it to an arm which attaches to the garage door.

Motor runs, screw rod turns, carriage moves, and your garage door opens or closes.

The bicycle is the most efficient mode of transport ever invented.

Ninety-nine percent of the effort put into turning a pedal is transferred to movement, so the lighter the bike, the better.

Using cutting-edge materials, a high-performance seat can weigh as little as five ounces.

This company made a special seat for a past tour de france winner.

In fact, half the cyclists on the prestigious pro tour racing circuit use their seats.

The design process begins with the simplest tools-- pencils and paper.

Designers sketch out a few basic ideas.

Specialists then transform the sketched ideas into 3-d digital images.

The manufacturers machine-model those images into a prototype.

After testing, they begin the manufacturing process.

A worker places a base, or shell, on the upper segment of a mold.

This company makes their shells from a variety of carbon fiber materials.

Polyurethane pours into the other section of the mold.

This is the part of the mold that will give the seat its shape.

When the mold closes, it cooks at a mere 104 degrees fahrenheit.

A chemical reaction takes place inside the mold, which causes the polyurethane to expand.

Five minutes later, an operator removes the seats from the molds.

Here, we see what the shells look like before and after.

A worker removes excess polyurethane from the edges with a knife.

While the polyurethane cures, workers prepare the cover material.

The material is a proprietary microfiber specially made for this company.

Not only does this material need to be flexible, waterproof, and comfortable, it has to be incredibly durable.

Once they've cut the material into strips, the workers stack them on a stamping press.

A die has been custom made to match the design of the seat.

The stamping press descends with enough force to cut through multiple layers.

It's now time to join the three panels of material that make up the seat cover.

This facility has two different methods for attaching the pieces to each other.

In this case, a skilled worker carefully stitches the material together.

A different method of joining the panels involves a process called thermal welding.

An operator skives, or thins, the edges by shaving them so that there won't be a bump where they overlap.

Double-sided tape will hold the material together.

A special tape dispenser applies the tape to the skived edges.

A worker positions the panels, carefully overlapping the edges.

A vacuum system removes air from between the top and bottom sections of the press, holding the panels in position and ensuring there will be no bubbles at the seams.

The press then heats the material up to 280 degrees fahrenheit, ensuring that the adhesive bonds the panels together.

The design of the shell for this seat has several slots in it to help create the right combination of flexibility and rigidity.

A laser machine cuts stripes in the cover fabric to create a graphic element that reflects this design feature.

Workers glue silver material under the stripes to highlight them, then brush glue all over the underside of the cover.

Mounting the cover on the seat requires two operators.

They place the cover glue side down on the seat, ensuring that it's positioned perfectly and that there are no air pockets.

They work the cover into a small recess that runs around the perimeter of the base.

They will then trim off the excess material with a utility knife.

The amount of skilled manual craftsmanship required to build these seats is a key feature of their quality, but the company also relies on state-of-the-art technology.

Bicycle seats sit on a framework called a rail.

This facility makes rails from both carbon fiber and metal alloys, and it tests each one with a dynamometer.

Workers put glue in the attachment points on the bottom of the seat to ensure that it passes a stringent safety test.

A customized machine bends the seat to fit into the rail.

The seat will then be bent back in the other direction to return it to its original shape.

The seat is now finished.

Fusing state-of-the-art technology with skilled craftsmanship, this company makes 520,000 bicycle seats every year.


Straight Razors
Black Pudding
Steering Wheels
Inorganic Pigments

In a world dominated by high-tech gadgetry, the low-tech straight razor still gets a lot of face time.

It can be reused endlessly, and it has a traditional appeal, one that actually dates back to ancient egypt, when there were straight razors made of solid gold.

Shaving with an unguarded super-sharp knife has always been for the tough guys.

To use it, a man needs a steady hand and steely concentration.

Production begins with steel cylinders heated in a furnace until they're soft and malleable.

A forging hammer then pounds the cylinders into dies to shape them.

A punch cutter trims the edges and cuts the shape into two blades.

From a steel rod to a flat, razor shape in just a few steps.

The straight razors are then fed to another die one at a time.

A wade forces the razor into the die, a process which both improves the shape and condenses the metal to strengthen it.

Next, a worker dips a rack of about 50 blades in graphite powder, followed by molten lead.

The lead adds more strength to the steel.

He knocks off the lead, which slides off easily because of the graphite undercoat.

The razor blades catch fire as he immerses them in oil to cool them.

He transfers the blades to a sieve and tosses saw dust into it.

The saw dust soaks up the oil and graphite residue.

Then he shakes the sieve to sift it out.

After a hardening treatment, it's into an oven to bake slowly.

This gets rid of brittleness and relieves internal stresses.

A technician then scrutinizes the razor to confirm that it's straight.

If it's not, he hammers it straighter.

Another worker grinds the blade, angling it down to the cutting edge using a series of abrasive wheels.

He tests the edge against a thick metal band.

It needs to be as thin as aluminum foil and strong, yet flexible.

The next worker brushes asphalt lacquer onto the blade and upper part of the handle, or tang.

This coating prepares the surface for laser-etching.

It allows the computerized laser beam to cut cleanly into the metal with no bleeding around the edges...

So the trademark insignia and art look crisp.

She paints a little more lacquer around the etching to prepare the blade for the next step-- gold-plating.

She dips the blade in a mix of water and gold and runs a current of electricity through the mix.

This causes the gold to gravitate to the exposed, un-lacquered section of the blade and adhere to it.

The lacquer has served its purpose, and she now cleans it off in a chemical bath to reveal the now-glossy, two-toned blade.

Next, she sandwiches the tang of the razor blade between two plastic parts of the handle, using a long pin to hold everything together.

She then shortens the pin, caps it, and hammers the cap down to secure it.

She now tests the installation.

The next worker grinds the entire blade against a slightly concave abrasive wheel, further sharpening it while maintaining the slope profile.

She then hones the cutting edge against a wet stone, tests it against a cow horn, and then hones it again.

This last step makes the edge razor-sharp.

She immerses the blades in chalk, which absorbs moisture to prevent rusting.

She now strokes the cutting edge against a leather strap.

This is called stropping.

It gives the blade its final polish.

And now she removes a single artificial hair from a bundle and confirms that this straight razor is sharp enough to slice it in two.

It takes a total of 80 different steps to manufacture a straight razor.

We've just shown you the highlights.

Properly maintained, a straight razor should last for decades.

It's common to many european cultures.

The french call it "boudin noir".

The spanish call it "morcilla".

The italians call it "sanguinaccio".

And in the united kingdom, they call it "black pudding".

What is it?

A savory dish made from pigs' blood and other ingredients.

In england, ireland, scotland, and wales, black pudding is typically served sliced and fried as part of a traditional breakfast.

Its roots are in ancient times, when people wouldn't waste any part of a slaughtered animal, not even its blood.

Black pudding also contains several dry ingredients-- barley...

Allspice...

Dried onions...

Spices and other seasonings...

And wheat flour.

The pigs' blood is also in dried form.

They begin by filling cotton bags with barley and submerging them in boiling water overnight.

The bags are porous, so the barley absorbs the water, swelling and softening as it cooks.

Once the barley is ready, they drain the water out of the cook tank...

Then cut open the bags and empty the cooked barley into a tub.

The barley and other dry ingredients will make up about a third of the pudding mix.

Another third is the pigs' blood; and the last third, meat fat.

They boil pork fat in a cook tank for two hours.

Then they strain out the water and transfer the fat to a tub.

In another cook tank, they boil smoked-bacon fat for two hours.

Then they scoop out and strain that fat and drop it into a bin, as well.

The scraps of meat clinging to the pieces of fat will give the black pudding extra flavor.

Next, workers empty the two bins of fat into a mincer.

Then they take dried onions and hydrate them with stock from the smoked-bacon cook tank.

This produces gravy.

They pour this gravy, along with the cooked barley, into the mincer.

Next, they add the flour and mince some more.

And then the dried pigs' blood.

Besides turning the ingredients a rich color, the blood makes black pudding a rich source of iron and protein.

They mince the ingredients until the mixture is smooth.

Then they transfer it to the stuffing line.

A worker pumps a specific quantity into a nylon casing, then staples each end of the casing closed.

This is the 7 1/2 pound retail size.

The factory also packages larger formats for restaurants, delicatessens, and caterers.

From the stuffing line, the black puddings go into a steam cooker.

Once their internal temperature reaches 185 degrees fahrenheit, which takes about two hours, they come out of the oven.

They're textured now like a dense chocolate pudding.

After cooling overnight, each black pudding goes into a printed plastic bag.

A vacuum machine sucks out all the air, and heat seals the package.

This improves the product's shelf life.

From there, the puddings drop into a tank of hot water.

This shrinks the plastic package tightly around the casing.

Even within the same country, black pudding recipes vary by region.

This smooth-textured pudding is typical of eastern scotland.

In western scotland, they use oatmeal instead of barley, and, in northern england, they use big, usually visible, chunks of fat, both producing a black pudding that's coarser in texture but equally delicious.

The earliest automobiles used a tiller for steering.

That's a lever attached to a rudder.

The first steering wheel appeared in 1894, in a car built by the panhard company of france.

Today, the steering wheel is a multitasking component, integrating control switches and the driver's-side air bag.

A car steering wheel looks simple enough-- a stylish ring with a horn in the middle and switches to operate the cruise control and other functions.

Yet despite this simplicity, a steering-wheel design undergoes years of development and testing for safety, durability, appearance, and function.

The manufacturing process begins with the armature, the internal support structure.

It's made of either aluminum or magnesium-- strong yet lightweight metals.

The factory's die-casting system injects the hot, molten metal into an armature-shaped mold.

Once the metal solidifies, the machine ejects the casting from the mold.

The metal is still hot.

So a robot arm moves the cast armature to a cooling area, where cold air blows on it.

They remove the excess metal left over from the casting process in one strike with a trimming die.

And with that, the armature is finished, and the steering-wheel assembly can begin.

First, a robot installs four rivets, the contact points for the horn system.

When you press to honk the horn, the rivets complete an electrical circuit, enabling the horn to sound.

Next, a computer-guided engraver marks a lot number for quality-control tracking.

This demonstration shows the basis of the next step.

When mixed together, these two polyurethane chemicals react to each other and produce an expanding foam.

By guiding this expansion within the confines of a mold, one can make this dense foam assume a specific shape, such as that of a steering wheel.

The process is called reaction injection molding.

They coat the mold cavity with a release agent to prevent sticking, place the armature inside, then inject the polyurethane chemicals.

The chemicals react, and the foam instantly expands within the mold cavity, encasing the armature.

Prior to injection, they also sprayed the mold cavity with protective paint.

It tints the foam the required color-- in this case, black.

It also protects the foam against wear and u.v. damage.

The injection-molding process leaves excess polyurethane on the steering wheel.

So the next step is to trim it off.

With the steering-wheel structure complete, it's now time to install the components.

These switches control the features operable from the steering wheel.

Workers assemble them into housings called finishers.

The finishers are molded out of plastic resin, then coated with metallic paint for a high-end look.

The switch wiring has already been assembled into a unit called a wire harness.

They connect the harness to the switches and install it onto the steering wheel.

Then they check that everything functions properly.

And if it does, they mark the assembly to show that it passes this stage of quality control.

After applying a bar-code sticker, they route the wiring through the steering wheel to prepare it for final assembly on the automaker's assembly line.

Next, they install spring mechanisms.

These support the air-bag module, enabling it to move in and out when you sound the horn.

Then they attach the horn plate, to which the carmaker will later attach the driver's-side air-bag module.

They take the ground wire and the wire harness and position it...

Then flip the steering wheel and secure the switch finishers to the exposed back of the armature.

Then they install a back cover made of plastic resin, the color matching the rest of the steering wheel.

A robot arm equipped with a camera performs a thorough quality-control inspection.

While the basics are the same, features vary from model to model.

Higher-end steering wheels are wrapped in leather and often have extra switch controls for the audio system and for hands-free use of a cellphone.

People have always used color as a means of expression.

Prehistoric man created paint from a mix of dirt and animal fat or spit.

Over the centuries, pigment production has become a lot more sophisticated.

Chemical manufacturing produces synthetic mineral pigments to add color to the products in our world.

From pavers to paint to plastic and cosmetics, this is where the color comes from-- synthetic mineral pigments.

They start with a salt recycled from the steel industry.

In this case, it's iron sulfate, which has a bluish-green hue.

They add warm water, and they're ready for the next ingredient-- high-quality scrap.

It's another source of iron, and it's about to be recycled into pigment.

Crane claws transfer it to the mix.

Chemicals are added.

Every so often, a technician scrutinizes a sample of the yellow slurry.

If he decides the color or thickness aren't quite right, adjustments will be made.

The slurry now flows over a perforated metal drum with a filter cloth stretched across it.

As a spray of water rinses off the salt, the fluid in the yellow slurry is sucked through the filter cloth and into the drum, leaving a more concentrated pigment on the surface, called filter cake.

The filter cake falls in chunks onto a screw conveyor and ends up at the top of a towering spray dryer.

Inside, machinery presses the highly concentrated pigment through the holes of a rotating disk.

This causes a spray of droplets that, when exposed to hot air, dries into pigment particles.

This yellow pigment is now ready to be mixed into an emulsion paint for coloring wallpaper.

A generous amount can produce a bolder shade.

A little less, and it's more mellow yellow.

To make black pigment, they start with cast-iron filings, another form of automotive scrap.

This magnetic crane transfers the filings for production, and, again, it will take a chemical reaction to produce the pigment slurry.

The chemical reaction also generates energy that's recovered and used in the manufacturing process.

They wash and thicken the black slurry on a revolving drum, just like they did for the yellow pigment, but this thick paste won't just be used to make black pigment.

It will also be used to make red.

For the dramatic conversion to red, the paste flows directly into a kiln, where it's baked until dry.

They introduce air and increase the temperature to more than 1,500 degrees fahrenheit, making the black particle turn red.

They transfer the red pigment to a drum, where they mix the pigment and adjust the color properties.

They then grind it to a finer consistency.

Once the pigment is packaged in paper bags, it's ready for transport or warehousing.

Like sugar, pigment comes in both a powdered and granulated form.

This demonstration shows the difference between the two.

The powdered pigment is more clumpy and doesn't flow from the open end of the beaker.

By contrast, the granular pigments are tiny micro beads that flow freely, which makes it desirable for users who want to mix and meter pigments more easily.

To test how the pigment would color brick, they mix red pigment with a concrete substitute and compared the result to the standard to confirm that they match up.

But sometimes they need a real concrete example of a pigment's color tone.

So they add a small amount to a mixer full of aggregate-- water and cement.

The mixer rotates, and once the ingredients are thoroughly blended, they open the lid to reveal the red brick paste.

They scoop it up for transfer to a brick-forming machine...

And then fill brick forms with the paste.

They activate a plunger that tamps it down to compact it into the forms, producing bricks.

Red, black, or yellow, these pigments are sure to make things more colorful.


Electric Vehicle Charging Stations
Grappa
Lunar Rover Replicas

Today on "how it's made"...

Cars powered by electricity were being developed as early as the 1820s.

In recent years, legislative initiatives improved batteries, and accessible methods of recharging have made electric vehicles more popular.

Charging stations provide electricity to customers with electric vehicles.

It's simply a matter of swiping an access card across the reader, verifying the customer's account, and then plugging the charging station connector into the vehicle.

The charging station provides electricity to the charger in the vehicle.

It can take one to six hours before it's fully recharged.

The blinking light stops, charging is under way.

A laser cutter automatically slices through oxidized aluminum sheets.

In a matter of minutes, the pre-programmed cuts are complete.

A worker carefully removes the cut pieces of aluminum.

Unused pieces will be recycled.

Another worker bends the aluminum on a bending post.

He places the aluminum piece in a bending machine.

Then, he positions the bent piece in a pre-programmed robotic welding machine.

It automatically and quickly welds the pieces of aluminum together.

The worker polishes the welded joints using a soft cloth to make certain they're smooth to the touch.

Polishing away rough edges makes the finished face plate safe for use by customers.

A worker assembles the painted face plate and the head of the charging station.

He screws the face plate to the head and attaches the user interface protection, which is made of tempered glass.

He places a flexible strip of light-emitting diodes around the perimeter of the light diffuser.

Different colored lights tell the customer whether the station is available and whether vehicle charging is under way.

He then places the protector cap containing the light strip and the antenna on the head of the charging station.

Next, he connects the various components housed in the head of the charging station.

These include circuit boards, the antenna connection, digital display, and card reader.

He inserts the control circuit board, which has the central processing unit, the antenna interface, digital display, and card reader on the other side.

He uses a flat cable to connect the 40 small connectors of the control-printed circuit board to the power-printed circuit board.

He inserts it into the head of the charging station, on top of the control-printed circuit board.

He finishes attaching the quick connecters.

A worker seals the edges of the charging station head with rubber stripping to protect the components inside from the elements outside.

He positions the aluminum back plate on the charging station head, and once that's in place, he attaches the charging cable assembly to the connector module.

The worker slips the charging cable wires into the frame of the connector module and securely tightens them.

Then, he positions the connector module door against the frame that holds it in place.

He attaches them securely to each other, using quick-connect connecters, he attaches part of the plug that links the charging station to the vehicle.

To make sure everything is working properly, the worker tests the door sensor and the door locking system.

His test confirms the sensor is functioning, and the door locks correctly.

He now attaches the connector module to the head of the charging station.

Then, he places the head of the charging station onto its pedestal base.

Whether it's being removed or attached to a vehicle, one safety feature is that the connector is never energized when being handled by a customer.

Once the charge is complete, the vehicle is ready to roll.

Grappa is an italian brandy, traditionally an after dinner drink.

It's made from pomace, what's left of grapes after they've been pressed to make wine.

Distilleries ferment the pomace to convert the sugars into alcohol, then distill it to transform the alcohol and other compounds into grappa.

Traditional grappa is colorless.

It can also be aged in wooden barrels to produce different varieties, with a specific color, taste, and aroma.

You can't make grappa without someone first making wine, because wine-making leftovers are the sole ingredient.

In italy, the wine harvest begins in late summer or early fall, depending on the weather and region of the country.

The harvested grapes go directly from the vineyard to the winery.

There, the first machine pulls them off the stocks, which are later composted into fertilizer for farms and nurseries.

The destocked grapes enter a cylindrical press.

They're crushed against the walls with an airbag-like device to extract the juice and pulp for making wine.

What's left behind in the press, once the juice and pulp drain out, are the skins, seeds, some residual juice, and pulp.

This is called pomace.

The winery sells it to distilleries that produce grappa.

This small artisanal distillery produces premium quality grappa by using only pomace from grapes pressed that very same day.

The pomace goes into temperature controlled fermentation tanks as soon as it arrives.

Large industrial distilleries operate differently, typically warehousing pomace prior to processing, sometimes for months.

This delay produces high levels of potentially toxic methanol, which the distillery then has to remove using an additional procedure.

The distillers monitor ph and alcohol levels to determine when the conversion of sugars to alcohol is complete.

The process takes from three days to a week, depending on the variety of grape and other factors, such as the outdoor temperature.

When the pomace is ready, they transfer it to wood-clad copper stills.

They heat the stills with steam, bringing the pomace to the boiling point, which transforms the alcohol and other compounds into steam.

This alcohol steam inside the still rises to the top and exits through a side hole.

It travels through copper pipes and other equipment, ultimately to a condensation system, which cools the steam back to liquid.

This liquid is grappa.

As it exits distillation, the master distiller meticulously monitors the temperature and alcohol level.

She discards the initial and final flows, capturing only the perfectly pure mid flow, referred to as the heart of the grappa.

Its alcohol level at this point is 70% to 77%.

Certain varieties now go to the cellar, into small wooden barrels to age.

Over time, both the grappa and the wooden barrels exchange compounds, which influence taste, aroma, and color.

For example, a barrel made of cherry wood will produce different characteristics than one made of oak.

The distilleries' experts analyze and taste samples following distillation and throughout the aging period.

Depending on the variety, this can range from just one year to more than 20 years.

Whether the grappa is aged or not, prior to bottling, they filter and dilute it with the mineralized water.

This lowers the alcohol content from an average of 77% after distillation to the target level of 41% to 50%.

They seal the bottles with stoppers made of food-safe synthetic materials rather than traditional corks.

Natural cork contains certain organic compounds, which can alter the flavor, aroma, and color of the grappa.

They seal the stopper with shrink wrap plastic.

An unbroken seal assures the buyer that the bottle has not been previously opened.

Then the bottles pass through a labeling station.

The grappa is ready to be poured as an after-dinner drink or enjoyed on its own.

As the italians say, "salut"!

On july 26, 1971, the apollo 15 space module touched down on the moon, and astronauts emerged with a new vehicle, the lunar rover.

They took it for a test drive.

It handled well on the rough surface of the moon, so they could venture further from the landing sight and really explore.

The lunar rover was no ordinary four wheeler.

Millions of dollars of research went into this one-horsepower wonder, which became known as the moon buggy.

Today, craftsmen build replicas for space museums and to use as movie props.

The team starts with a substantial suspension system, designed to smooth the ride over the moon's rocky terrain.

They then install a steering plate at the front.

They attach actuators, which are mechanisms that assist in steering.

They connect the actuator drive bars to the steering plate.

Together, the steering plate and actuators give the lunar rover an incredibly tight turning radius of 10 feet.

They screw support brackets for the actuators to the corners of the chassis.

They then connect the actuators to them.

They use steel and aluminum bolts and parts.

However, on the original moon buggy, many parts were made of titanium, because it lightened the load carried into space.

Titanium is expensive and unnecessary for this replica.

The fenders are next.

They are extra large to protect astronauts from lunar dust kicked up by the rover.

They insert a locking mechanism in a slit at the end of the drive shaft and slide the wheel hub onto the shaft.

They turn the hub to lock it in place.

They're now ready for the wheels.

In the atmospheric vacuum of the moon, air-filled rubber tires were out of the question, so the original rover had wire-mesh tires.

To mimic the look, they've wrapped a wire lattice around rubber tires.

The team secures the wheel to the hub with a plastic and aluminum cap that's equipped with locking pins.

They give it a spin and install the other three wheels.

Next, a technician assembles the instrument panel.

He inserts various switches and gauges into their slots...

Including this system reset switch.

It's used to bring the displays back to zero prior to an expedition.

He closes a two piece collar around the bottom of the switch.

He locks it in place with a top cap.

He then flips the panel around and tightens the nut on the back part of the switch.

With the system reset switch now attached, the instrument panel is complete.

He places it in the housing.

He installs metal bars around the switches to keep them from being accidentally tripped.

He assembles the steering handle, which is a t-shaped joystick, next to the instrument panel.

They now transfer the steering and instrument panel assembly to the vehicle.

They fasten the actuator switches to the steering housing, and then clip the wiring harness to the floor of the lunar rover.

They cover the bottom of the rover with flame-resistant material.

They lower the electrical control panel and battery into the chassis and connect them.

The original rover had two small batteries, but the mechanics of this replica have had an update.

Stay tuned for more, as this lunar rover replication mission continues.

The original lunar rover weighed just 460 pounds, or 77 pounds in moon weight.

It could carry a load of over twice that.

At minimal gravity and an atmospheric vacuum, it was the only way to travel on the surface of the moon in 1971.

The production of this lunar rover replica continues with the fabrication of a brake disk.

The technician carefully measures the dimensions and draws them onto a sheet of plastic-covered aluminum.

He drills a large hole for the main drive shaft and four screw holes.

He then cuts out the disk, following the penciled lines.

He smoothes the rough edges using a fine grit abrasive belt.

He sands off the plastic liner, and abrades the aluminum surface to a satiny sheen.

The brake disk is now ready for assembly to the lunar rover.

He attaches it to the main drive shaft, and lowers the assembly into the vehicle.

He bolts the disk to the chassis, where it will serve as a friction surface for the brake pads.

He installs those next.

He connects it to a spring mechanism for engaging the disk brake.

He tests the drive shaft and disk brake and confirms that they're both in working order.

He loops the roller chain around the sprocket gear for the rear wheel drive, and the teeth intermesh.

He drives pins through the links to join the ends, closing the loop.

This drive chain is powered by an electric motor.

It's another mechanical modification.

On the original rover, there was a small motor for every wheel and no drive chain.

The lawn-chair-like seats are next.

They cover the shocks and battery at the front with an aluminum hood.

They also install a cover over the mechanics at the back.

It doubles as a rack for geological excavation tools.

They attach the umbrella antenna to the rover.

It was used to beam pictures and data to earth.

Next, an aluminum cylinder spins in a lathe, as cutting tools transform it into a camera mount.

They also create a bracket for a communications antenna.

It's quite a transformation.

Using the bracket, a member of the crew now erects the communications antenna.

He then installs the mount for the film camera.

Next, using a sheer press, he lops off a piece of an aluminum sheet.

He switches to a hand tool and cuts out a geometric shape with flaps.

He folds up the flaps using a brake press, creating a box to cover the main battery.

After the seams have been welded, he wraps the cover in mylar, which is a strong plastic film.

The wrap is an extra layer of protection against wind-borne particles, known as mircrometeoroids.

They also wrap the camera and other parts of the rover with mylar.

This replica of the apollo lunar rover is complete and ready for display.


Firefighter Boots
Garden Tools
Automated Machines
Gypsum Board

Today on "how it's made," firefighter boots...

Garden tools...

Automated machines...

And gypsum board.

Firefighters need boots they can pull on lightning fast to get to the blaze as quickly as possible.

Those boots have to be fire-resistant and waterproof.

They have to provide good grip for climbing ladders and be sturdy enough not to puncture when stepping through sharp debris.

Firefighter boots start out as a chunky block of rubber.

The first step is to put the block through a mill.

It passes through the rollers over and over again until it gradually flattens and thins out.

Workers then add chemicals-- anywhere from 15 to 35 different types-- depending on the model of boot they're making.

The rubber formulation is what makes the boot fire-resistant.

Once the rubber is smooth and malleable, about the consistency of modeling dough, they form it into sheets from which they'll cut the various pieces that make up the boot.

They feed this sheet through rollers that imprint vertical lines on the rubber.

They'll cut the sheet along these lines to make the strips that run down the back of the boot.

From another sheet of rubber, using a handheld die, they cut one layer of the multilayered sole.

They run an extra-thick sheet of rubber through rollers that imprint a tread pattern.

Then workers cut out the bottom soles.

They mark the boot size on the bottom.

Using yellow rubber, they cut out the boot's toe-cap covers.

The boot's leg has a stiff lining to prevent it from wobbling.

Workers cut it from a rubber-backed cotton fabric following a pattern.

Once all the pieces are cut, workers can assemble the boot on a form.

They start with the lining, wrapping it around the front and gluing it closed at the back.

Then they glue on the insole.

For this model, it's made of rubber-backed felt.

They secure the lining seam and seal it with one of those rubber strips we saw earlier.

Now the van-- a piece of felt reinforced with a thin layer of rubber.

This gives the boot strength.

Next, a toe-cap sponge made of rubber compounds.

When they cure the boot, the sponge will inflate and hold the steel toe cap in place.

To protect the firefighter's feet when walking through sharp debris, they add a steel arch and a steel sole.

Next, an adhesive-backed toe-cap cover.

Then a felt sole to protect the firefighter's foot against heat.

It has a steel arch for stability, useful when the firefighter needs to climb a ladder.

After applying a rubber heel-reinforcement, they cover the lower part of the boot with yellow foam for insulation.

They secure it using a strip of rubber.

Now they finish the bottom of the boot in black rubber.

They reinforce the back and sides in yellow rubber...

And finish them off in black rubber.

Next comes the yellow toe cap...

Then a rubber pad to protect the front of the boot when it rubs against the rungs of the ladder.

Now the bottom sole.

They use a press to seal it in place.

Rubber bonds to rubber under pressure.

They apply a rubber trim around the bottom using a small roller to press it in place.

Workers then press all the seams to ensure they're well-adhered.

Then it's into a vacuum machine for about four seconds to create an airtight bond.

Finally, the boots go into a giant oven that heats them to 280-degrees fahrenheit.

An hour and 45 minutes later, the rubber is cured and hardened and all the pieces have fused together.

These boots are ready to take the heat.

Anyone with a green thumb knows that it takes both skill and patience to make a garden flourish.

It also helps to have the proper tools on hand.

An avid gardener's arsenal can contain everything from shears, trimmers, and pruners to rakes, hoes, and spades.

The handles of these garden tools are made of white ash, a sturdy wood that can withstand the force of shoveling, digging, or raking.

These dried-ash dowels measure two to seven feet long, depending on the tool being made.

They first enter what's called the chucking line, where specially designed, automated machines shape them into handles.

The first operation rounds the dowels to the required diameter-- about two inches, depending on the tool.

The next operation cuts the dowels to the required length and profiles their ends.

Two chucking heads, one on each side, carve the ends simultaneously.

One shapes the bottom of the handle to fit the tool's blade.

Certain blades go over the wooden handle, while others go into it.

For inserted blades, another chucking head hollows out the handle.

Meanwhile, the chucking head on the other side rounds off the top of the handle.

The finished handles spin against a sanding belt as they exit the chucking line.

This smoothes the surface of the wood, preparing the handles for a coat of protective varnish.

High-end shovels and spades have what's called a steel d-grip-- a steel handle grip with a wooden insert.

An automated lathe first shapes a piece of ash to the right length and profile.

Then an automated drill pierces a hole.

To make the sides of the grip, workers begin with two precut pieces of steel called blanks.

They place them in a manually operated press that shapes them in a two-step process.

They use the heat of a strong electrical current to melt the steel and fuse the pieces together.

This is called resistance welding.

Next, they feed a steel rivet through the sides and wooden insert...

And fasten everything together.

Elsewhere in the factory, a heated forming machine stamps out the steel blanks the workers will shape into blades.

A robotic arm loads the blanks into an oven.

In just four minutes, the oven heats the steel to over 1,800-degrees fahrenheit.

This intense heat makes the metal malleable.

Workers then take out and shape one blank at a time.

They only have a few seconds to form the steel before it cools off.

The first press forms the blade-- in this case a shovel and a partial socket.

Then the second press closes the socket.

They quickly submerge the blade in lukewarm water to cool the metal down.

By now, the steel is extremely brittle, so the blades go into what's called a tempering furnace for 15 minutes.

This alters the metal's internal structure, restoring its strength.

The steel d-grip has been cleaned and painted.

Workers insert the wooden handle and nail the parts together.

On the other end, they attach the blade, which, by now, has been varnished to prevent corrosion.

After drilling a hole through both the metal and the wood, they fasten the blade using a rivet if it's a high-end tool, a nail if it's a budget model.

These hot-off-the-press garden tools are finally ready to put in a hard day's work.

A couple of centuries after the industrial revolution, mass production met automation-- a match made not in heaven but in high technology.

In this special segment, "how it's made" honors the automated machine with this "moving" tribute.

It's called "gypsum board" or "drywall," and chances are your walls and ceilings are made of it.

Years ago, it replaced plaster as the wall material of choice.

Workers just mount the sheets onto wood framing, plaster the joints, then sand and paint.

Gypsum is a natural mineral.

Since ancient times, it has been mined to produce gypsum plaster.

In fact, there's gypsum plaster in egypt's pyramids.

In 1894, a man by the name of augustine sackett patented a board made of gypsum, which he called "plasterboard".

But it didn't become the norm in construction until the building boom that followed world war ii, when busy contractors abandoned plaster in favor of this faster and cheaper way to build walls.

The process of making gypsum board begins at the quarry, where crews mine the gypsum, a soft rock.

The loaders dump their haul into what's called an apron.

The apron channels the gypsum onto a conveyor, breaking up the big chunks along the way.

From there, it's sent to a giant rotating drum.

Within 8 minutes, this hot-air rock dryer removes 5% to 10% of the moisture, turning the gypsum white.

Next stop, a gas-fired silo, called a kettle.

It cooks the gypsum at 300 degrees fahrenheit, until most of the remaining moisture evaporates.

The kettle is fed by a mill that grinds the lumpy rock into what's called "stucco," a fine powder the consistency of wheat flour.

In a mixing tank, workers combine water with several powdered chemicals and minerals and a chemical soap.

The dry additives give the board the required structure, while the soap creates air bubbles to make the board lighter.

In a separate machine, they mix the stucco with an accelerator to make the gypsum set faster.

Now they combine the two separate batches, creating a mixture called a slurry.

It looks like thick, white soup.

Now they'll form it into gypsum board, which is basically a slurry sandwich.

The bread is this thick, heavyweight paper.

As the roll unwinds, "creaser wheels," as they're called, score a line about one inch toward the middle from both edges.

Then a machine evenly spreads the slurry, like a sandwich filling, between the top and bottom sheets of paper.

Then the paper-folding operation begins, most of which is a company secret and off-limits to our cameras.

They fold the edges along the scorelines, the bottom edges upward and the top ones downward, gluing them over the bottom ones to trap the slurry inside.

Drops of water smooth out any ridges, ensuring a smooth and even fold.

Forming plates then shape the folded edges into straight sides.

An optical sensor checks the depth of the board's recess.

The recess is where you put the joint tape to connect one board to the next when you're building a wall.

The forming station spews out 1,000 continuous feet of gypsum board.

A cutter now chops that megaboard into whatever size they're producing in this run.

As the boards exit the cutter, automated prongs flip them recess-side up.

The recess side will be the wall surface, and they don't want to risk damaging it on the rollers that lead to the drying station.

This gas-fired hot-air dryer is kind of like a multilevel parking garage.

It's almost 500 feet long and has 8 decks.

The factory can cure hundreds of boards at a time.

It takes 40 minutes to move through the dryer's 4 temperature zones, which start at 660 degrees fahrenheit and get progressively cooler, to 300 degrees.

The boards are sold in pairs, so the machinery stacks them in twos, then tapes them together.

The tape bears the brand name, as well as the size and thickness of the board.

Standard lengths range from 8 to 14 feet, and the most common thicknesses are 1/2 inch and 5/8 inch.

The tape also tells the consumer what type of gypsum board it is.

There's a standard drywall for building walls in homes.

There's a moisture-resistant version for humid areas, such as bathrooms, and there's fire-resistant gypsum board, usually required by law for commercial buildings.


Artist Brushes
DEF Tank Heaters
Game Tables
Art Glass Wall Sconces

An artist's paint brush can have synthetic bristles or natural ones made of animal hair.

Which type to use is really a matter of the artist's preference.

However, painters often tend to use a natural brush for watercolors, a synthetic brush for acrylics, and either type for oils.

These natural-hair paintbrushes are made of red sable, which is tail hair from a species of weasel.

Red sable is renowned for its softness and for spreading paint thinly and evenly.

An experienced head-maker performs the initial steps of making the head of the paintbrush.

She unrolls and straightens out a bundle of red sable, then separates enough hairs for one brush of this size.

She inserts the hairs into a metal band, called a ferrule, made of nickel-plated brass.

She feels how they fit in the ferrule.

If the fit's too tight, she removes some hairs.

If it's too loose, she adds some.

Brushes of different shapes require different tensions.

The head-maker takes the correct brass mold for the brush shape she's making and inserts the hairs all the way down into the mold cavity.

She ties the roots of the hairs together with a string...

Then removes them from the mold.

She inserts the brush head back into the ferrule...

Then removes the string.

Next, using a template, she adjusts what's called the length-out of the brush head.

Length-out is how far the hairs protrude from the end of the ferrule.

After removing stray hairs, she aligns the end of the ferrule with the edge of the nearly 1-inch-long template and pulls out or pushes in the hairs until their tips align with the opposite edge of the template.

She completes her specialized work by suspending the assembled brush head from a rack.

Another worker now fills a syringe with epoxy glue, then, with the syringe, fills the ferrule with enough glue to submerge the hairs.

Once the glue has dried overnight, another worker taps the brush head against a strip of adhesive tape to remove any short hairs that didn't adhere.

She dips the hairs into a solution of starch and water and works the solution into all the hairs by massaging the head on a towel.

The starch allows the hairs to be trained to a permanent shape.

She makes this particular pointed shape by spinning the head, then smoothing the hairs with her fingers.

The starch dries overnight, locking in the shape.

To make the paintbrush handle, a worker inserts birch dowels in a pegboard, then mounts the board upside-down on a dipping machine.

This machine submerges the dowels in black lacquer paint.

After one day of drying time, there is a second dip, partway this time, in silver paint.

The machine has markings to indicate how deep to dip the dowels for each color.

After another day of drying time, there is a third dip, this time partway in black paint.

This creates a black handle with a silver stripe.

Once the last coat of black paint dries, a worker uses a pad printer to stamp lettering on the handle with quick-dry silver ink.

One stamp simultaneously applies the manufacturer's name, the brush-hair material, the size of the brush, and the series number.

A worker glues the brush head onto the handle.

Then the worker sets the brush aside for a couple of hours until the glue partially dries to a tacky state because the next step, crimping, would crack the fully dried, hardened glue.

The worker inserts the ferrule into a crimping machine, which has been loaded with the dye that's the correct diameter for this brush handle.

The machine crimps the ferrule tightly to the handle, attaching it permanently.

Once that glue hardens, the paintbrush is finally ready.

From this point onward, it's in the artist's hands.

A diesel exhaust fluid, or d.e.f., tank heater, is a device which prevents diesel exhaust fluid from freezing.

Diesel exhaust fluid is a solution sprayed into the exhaust system of a vehicle with a diesel engine to break down dangerous polluting chemicals the tailpipe would otherwise emit.

Once the outdoor temperature dips to the diesel exhaust fluid's freezing point, the vehicle's computer automatically starts up this heater installed inside the d.e.f. holding tank.

The heater warms the tank by cycling hot radiator fluid though its tubing.

At the factory, workers form the heater tube out of lengths of stainless-steel tube.

A computer-guided saw cuts a tube to the length required for the heater size they're producing.

Cars have smaller d.e.f. heaters.

Trucks and construction equipment have larger ones.

A worker programs a robotic bender to bend the cut tube to the required shape.

These bends are so complex that no traditional manually operated bending machine would be able to do them this accurately.

The heater sits right inside the d.e.f. holding tank.

That's why manufacturers use stainless steel rather than ordinary steel for this tubing.

Stainless steel better resists the corrosiveness of the d.e.f. fluid.

At the next station, a worker inserts the bent tube into the tank heater sensor unit.

The tube fits through openings in the sensor unit's header.

When connected by a cable to the vehicle's computer, the sensor unit detects the level, temperature, and quality of the d.e.f. next, the worker puts the tubing in a punch press, which shapes the ends.

He puts those shaped ends in a bender, which curves them.

Another tube made the same way siphons d.e.f. from the holding tank to a device that sprays the fluid on the exhaust stream.

He installs a rubber o-ring onto this siphon tube and applies lubricant.

He installs the tube into the header, and the o-ring fits into a notch.

The worker then installs a bracket at the base of the heater, riveting it to the tubing.

The bracket holds a rubber grommet that secures the heater in place inside the d.e.f. tank.

Further up, he rivets on a second bracket to stabilize the sensor tube that runs down the center of the sensor unit.

This prevents the tube from rattling.

Then he installs the return tube, which feeds any excess unsprayed d.e.f. back to the holding tank.

Retaining brackets apply pressure to all the o-rings, sealing the tube connections against leaks.

He flips the heater over to attach the drain tube, which is the bottom half of the return tube.

He caps all the tubes to keep them clean until the heater is installed in the vehicle.

He attaches a nylon filter to the siphon tube, securing it in place with the retaining clip.

As the siphon tube draws the d.e.f. from the holding tank toward the sprayer, the filter removes contaminants such as sand.

Finally, this rubber grommet snaps into the bracket at the base of the heater.

The grommet fits over a raised bump on the tank floor, holding the unit securely in place.

Once connected to the vehicle's computer, the heater keeps the diesel exhaust fluid from freezing, no matter how cold the weather.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, most wealthy people in europe and america had at least one finely crafted game table in the drawing room for cards and conversation after dinner.

Today, game tables aren't just for the wealthy but for anyone who enjoys this fun and functional furniture.

This modern game table does double duty.

Flip the game top over, and it becomes a dining table.

When it comes to space-saving, this table's a game changer.

A saw carves kiln-dried maple boards into thick strips, helped by a laser scanner so the saw can make clean and judicious cuts.

An equipment operator scrutinizes the strips for knots and other defects and marks them with orange chalk.

Another scanner detects the orange marks, enabling a saw to cut around the defects as it chops the strips into shorter lengths.

The next worker dips one side of the strips in polyvinyl acetate, a super strong glue.

The next worker arranges the strips in a specific order, alternating the grain to balance the wood's expansion and contraction forces.

He clamps them tightly together and allows the glue to set.

Workers sand the top and bottom and trim the sides to produce one of the rim segments.

A computerized router now moves from one segment to the next as it carves slots for poker chips and drinks.

It then drills holes in the sides for the wooden dowels that will be used to join the eight table segments.

The segments are now ready for assembly.

A worker pipes high-strength adhesive in grooves along the edges and into the dowel holes.

He inserts the dowels in the holes in one side of each segment.

He arranges the segments in a circular pattern and inserts the dowels in the corresponding holes.

He pulls the eight rim segments tightly together with a strap clamp and leaves the glued configuration to cure overnight.

This permanently bonds the table rim segments.

The next day, a computerized router rounds the outside of the rim.

It also trims the inside of the rim and forms a channel for the insertion of the center of the game table.

The game table rim is now complete.

With the rim now game side down, the next member of the team pipes more of the super adhesive into the inner channel.

He inserts the dining-table surface.

This maple center has been precision-cut to fit into the groove in the rim.

Using a rubber mallet, he taps the tabletop to entrench it more firmly in the groove.

He flips the tabletop back to the game side and installs 16 screws on an angle to tighten the top to the rim.

The screws serve as a clamp system to hold the table center in place as the glue cures.

With the center now bonded to the rim, a worker sprays a base color and then a wood stain onto both sides.

This highlights the character of the wood and gives it a warm tone.

A worker then applies two coats of a urethane varnish and sands the finish between the coats.

Then, workers assemble a pedestal base...

And install a piece of laminate in a stained maple frame.

This creates a storage compartment under the tabletop, as well as providing a foundation for the tabletop to sit on.

The team transfers the pedestal base to the table foundation.

They bolt them together, which creates the support structure for the tabletop.

Back to the game tabletop, a worker installs a cloth-covered padded insert.

This will serve as a smooth and cushy surface for card playing.

And with that, workers finally transfer the game tabletop to the base.

The games can now begin.

The first sconces were candleholders attached to the wall by extending brackets to keep the flame a safe distance away.

With the invention of electricity, sconces could be mounted flush to walls.

This opened up new design possibilities, among them, art glass wall sconces.

Art glass wall sconces can be used to both decorate and illuminate.

Turning on these lights makes a design statement.

At this factory, workers craft every sconce by hand.

The process starts with scrap glass from a window manufacturer.

The craftsperson measures the glass and scores it with a cutting wheel.

Using special pliers, she applies pressure to fracture the glass along the score line.

She manually completes the break.

She cuts a large pane and a smaller one.

She sets the large one aside and tapes the small one over a detailed sketch of artwork.

She traces the lines of the sketch onto the clear glass using liquefied dark enamel, creating thick lines to mimic the look of lead veins in stained glass.

Once the lines dry and harden a bit, she paints the designated colors within them.

Each area of the sketch has a letter that corresponds to a particular color of enamel.

She centers the painted pane on the clear larger one to feature the artwork more prominently.

Then she transfers the two panes to an electrically-fired kiln.

It will gradually heat the glass to over 1,400 degrees fahrenheit and then cool it over a period of 10 hours.

This prevents fracturing as the heat fuses the two panes together and bakes the artwork into the glass.

The baking also deepens the enamel colors.

Next, a mixer blends clay to a pudding-like consistency.

An employee pours the clay into plaster molds for the sconce's casing.

The clay begins to firm up along the inside walls of the mold.

He pours out the clay that's still liquefied.

Now a putty-like consistency, he trims the excess at the top.

He sets the mold on its side and opens it to reveal the newly shaped sconce casing.

It cures overnight.

The next day, the part is still soft but can withstand sanding.

The worker thins the rim and smooths the outside.

With a sharp knife, he cuts an opening for the art glass pane, first scoring the still-fragile clay and then making deeper cuts.

He removes the clay cutout.

Using a different knife, he now sculpts a chiseled profile along the edges that will eventually frame the art glass pane.

He cuts a hole for the light socket and another one to mount the fixture to an electrical junction box.

The clay casing now spends eight hours in a kiln, exposed to a temperature of over 1,800 degrees fahrenheit.

This transforms the clay into a durable glass-like ceramic.

He brushes a colored glaze on the outside of the ceramic, leaving the inside white to reflect the light forward.

He bakes the ceramic in another kiln for six hours, and this fuses the glaze to it.

The final finish is glossy, and the color is intrinsic to the ceramic.

The worker now installs the light socket in one of the holes in the sconce casing and pulls the wiring through the back.

He slides a brass washer over the wires at the back, followed by a second washer that's connected to a ground wire.

He secures the washers and the wires to the back of the sconce with a nut.

He screws a bulb into the socket.

It's now ready for the art glass pane.

He pipes adhesive onto the sides of the pane.

Picking it up from the unglued ends, he moves the pane into place in the ceramic frame of the sconce window.

He clips the pane to the ceramics around using clothespins and leaves the sconce overnight for the adhesive to cure.

The next day, the art glass sconce is ready to shine, and after installation, the lighting is on the wall.