Oil Pressure Sensors
Large Format Printing
Heavy Equipment Simulators
Head & Neck Restraints

In motor vehicles, an oil pressure sensor is a critical part of the engine.

As oil lubricates, cools and cleans the motor, this sensor constantly measures the pressure and signals a problem before it causes serious damage to the engine.

Screwed to the engine block and connected to the car's computer, the sensor can detect the smallest change in oil pressure.

The computer relays the information to the gauge on the dashboard.

It allows the driver to tell at a glance if there's a pressure problem under the hood.

To manufacture motor oil sensors, a robot picks up a perforated ceramic board and transfers it to a carriage.

The carriage shuttles the board into a screen printing machine.

It squeegees palladium silver paste onto it, creating a pattern for a sensor around each of the holes.

The silver will serve as an electrical conductor.

A trip through a long oven bakes the silver paste onto the ceramic.

Then it's back to the screen printing machine.

This time, the squeegee applies a green glass glaze onto the silver.

The pattern leaves some of the silver exposed for the attachment of components like capacitors and diodes.

A robot then applies those components faster than you can blink an eye.

The next robot transfers terminals to the sensors.

To align the prongs of the terminal with exposed silver on the sensor, the robot takes a picture and sends it to the computer.

The computer then guides the positioning.

It all happens in a flash.

Once the terminal has been soldered to the sensor, another robot dispenses adhesive around the components.

This seals the circuitry from the oil that will flow through the center hole.

The next robot places a silicon chip on the sensor, covering and sealing the center hole.

This chip will react to changes in oil pressure.

Another robot bonds the silicon chip to the circuitry using aluminum wire that's thinner than a human hair.

This completes the electrical connection.

An employee now inserts the ends of the sensors in a fixture and breaks them along score lines.

This separates them into strips of five.

She transfers the strip to a machine that bends the terminals to a precise shape.

She snaps the ceramic along more score lines to separate the strips of five into single sensors.

Next, she connects the terminals to posts in plastic housing.

After soldering them in place, she folds the rest of the sensor over them.

She then places brass shells in a carrier.

She inserts two rubber o rings in the shells-- a large one and a smaller one around the center hole.

The robots take it from here.

The first one picks up the sensor assembly, and using a camera as a guide, transfers it to the brass shell.

Then it's over to a press and crimp station.

The top tool applies pressure to compress the o rings as forming tools crimp the shell around the sensor.

An applicator coats the threads of the brass shell with sealant.

When dry, this sealant will enhance the sensor's fit to the engine to prevent oil leakage.

A test hit probes each sensor, performing a full electrical evaluation.

It also applies air pressure to test for leaks.

After passing the test, the oil sensor is complete.

Businesses looking to advertise will often commission a printing company to produce a large poster or banner.

The quality of large format printing is better than ever thanks to digital technology.

Commercial equipment can typically print a banner up to 16 feet high by 150 feet wide.

If the required size is larger, it's printed in sections, then joined together.

A prepress technician preps the clients' design for printing-- adjusting colors, sectioning, and adding a bleed.

This is a blind border around the design because the machines can't print all the way to the edge.

Then it's time to load a roll-to-roll printing machine with weather resistant vinyl mesh.

They feed the leading edge of the roll into the machine and pull it through the output end.

This aligns the vinyl so that the printing won't come out crooked.

They slip a cardboard tube over the roller which will receive the printed vinyl and tape on the leading edge.

If this job required printing on a ridged material, they'd be using a flatbed printer rather than the roll-to-roll.

Both machines print with ink-jet technology, similar to a home computer printer.

However, rather than using dye-based inks, they're typically solvent-based.

They're designed to withstand outdoor conditions for three to five years.

The machine uses the standard ink-jet colors-- black, yellow, cyan, and magenta.

It also includes light cyan and light magenta to provide additional shade variations.

The machine has 12 print heads, 2 per color.

Each head has 256 nozzles.

Once daily, they're put through a full cleaning procedure to prevent clogging.

The print head moves back and forth across the vinyl.

The computer guides the individual nozzles to deposit dots of ink at specific spots.

All those colored dots together form the printed design.

The first 6 inches the machine prints are a color bar test to make sure that every nozzle is working properly.

The printing of the actual design follows.

The printed vinyl banner exits the machine and winds around the receiving roller.

Then they mount the roll onto another machine, which trims off the excess vinyl and the bleed with rotary blades.

When the banner is compromised of sections, workers connect them.

First they align the edges, then they bond the joint temporarily with masking tape.

They flick a switch to project laser lines, which indicate the width and center of the weld.

The weld will permanently connect the sections on the reverse side.

Turning the banner facedown, workers align the joint with the center line.

A magnetic strip secures the banner to the table to prevent it from shifting, and a vacuum pulls the banner taut.

At the same time, a hot air welder fuses the joint with heat-activated adhesive tape.

Then they flip the banner faceup again and remove the temporary tape.

The last step is to reinforce the perimeter with webbing-- the material used for seat belts.

This gives the banner a nice finished edge.

It also creates a strong border in which to secure grommets for hanging the banner.

Workers apply the grommets manually with a pneumatic press.

A banner typically has a grommet every 24 inches, plus 3 in each corner.

To hang the banner, you run bungee cords through the grommets, pull taut, then hook the ends to plates affixed to the building facade.

A few screws for reinforcement, and you're done.

Wind passes right through the tiny holes of the vinyl mesh so the banner doesn't billow.

When you're learning how to operate heavy equipment, one wrong move can cause damage or injuries.

That's why it's becoming more common to train on a simulator, which can replicate real-life scenarios from typical maneuvers to emergency situations.

Whether learning to operate a crane, backhoe, or excavator, it's safer for a trainee to make rookie mistakes at a virtual work site.

The instructor simply installs heavy equipment controls and loads the appropriate software.

Then the simulator is all set to replicate how the equipment maneuvers.

A heavy equipment simulator begins life as a series of 3-d technical drawings.

Mechanical engineering technicians plug in the details of the customer's order, including foot pedals and joysticks to control the equipment's various movements.

Then assembly can begin.

Following the plans, technicians build the steel motion platform which replicates the movement of the cab.

Its base has wheels for rolling the simulator from one location to another.

This drive controls the three actuators which raise, lower, and tilt the platform.

Once the technicians have installed and wired up all three actuators, they install the platform cover.

Next, they mount the height-adjustable seat.

At its base, enclosed in a bellow, is a pneumatic suspension system.

This enables the seat to realistically bounce or jerk in response to the action being simulated.

Meanwhile, another technician assembles the simulator's control box.

He mounts the joystick controller and connects its wiring to a cable inside.

The cable leads to a connector on the base of the box.

That connector simply plugs into the motion platform right next to the operator's seat.

The box attaches securely with large screw knobs, making it easy to disconnect and switch to different kinds of simulations.

The foot pedals are mounted to a separate platform.

Technicians attach it to the motion platform with two screws.

Like the control box, the idea is to be able to switch this pedal platform easily for a different one.

The simulator's cab is now fully assembled and it moves just like a real one.

The virtual view from the cab, spans five l.c.d. screens to give the trainee a realistic perspective of the work site.

After installing the screen supports, workers mount the screens.

The configuration mimics the window layout of the typical cab.

The simulation runs on software that's designed in-house.

However, the client can further customize the program for a specific make and model of heavy equipment or to simulate specific scenarios that might arise on a particular work site.

The simulator has five different computers.

Three of them run the seat movement, the screens, and a small touch screen to the trainee's right.

That screen displays the buttons, knobs, and levers of the heavy equipment's dashboard.

The fourth computer calculates the physics of the simulated environment such as the excavator's digging movement and the corresponding soil movement.

The fifth computer manages the training scenarios.

For instance, an instructor can program adverse weather conditions to make the exercise more difficult.

To simulate a different piece of equipment, the instructor simply switches the joystick and pedals if necessary and loads the appropriate software.

In the simulator, the trainee has the same perspective he or she would have in the real-life cab.

Three reflective markers on the helmet enable an infrared camera mounted above the screens to track the trainee's head movements.

This prompts the software to display the corresponding view.

Tragedy on the racetrack led to the development of the head and neck restraint in the 1980s.

Investigations had revealed a deadly trend in motor sports.

With the driver's body restrained, the head moved violently in a crash, causing fracture to the base of the skull.

Clearly, more restraint was needed.

Attached to a helmet, a head and neck restraint is designed to save the racer's skull.

It has become required equipment in many racing organizations.

To make these restraints, they mix plastic and carbon fiber pellets.

The carbon fiber fortifies the plastic, which is made from castor bean oil instead of petroleum products.

A machine melts the mixture and injects it into a mold under pressure to produce the base structure for the restraint.

The operator breaks off what's known as the sprue-- plastic that's solidified in the channels leading to the mold.

He trims the plastic and carbon fiber overflow from around the edges.

This overflow is known in the industry as "flash".

He hangs the parts to cure over a 24-hour period.

The next day, the employee clamps the part in a jig and activates computerized tools.

The first one drills holes for tethering restraint to the helmet.

Another trims it to its final size.

An automated hot knife now cuts nylon tether material to the correct length.

Then it's over to a computerized sewing machine to stitch the tether around a chrome fitting.

The stitching pattern has been designed by an engineer to withstand the force of impact.

The operator then stitches on a label, which says the tether's design has been sanctioned by both american and european racing organizations.

Next, using a dye powered by bursts of air, a worker punches out shoulder pads from cushion foam.

The next member of the team slides the shoulder pads into casings made of fire-resistant cotton.

It's a snug fit, and without a special installation tool, the job wouldn't go smoothly.

By folding the pad into the tool and then inserting it into the long case, there are no bunch ups.

Some head and neck restraints are adjustable so drivers can find a more comfortable fit.

They assemble those restraints in three pieces with the adjustable fittings in the joints.

The employee then paints adhesive primer onto the base structure of the head and neck restraint.

He coats most of the plastic and carbon fiber surface with it.

He applies neoprene padding to the primed surface.

The padding is adhesive backed and it bonds instantly.

He attaches the tether to the back of the restraint with plastic clips and screws.

Using hook and loop tape, he secures the shoulder pads to the other side of the restraint's yoke.

Another worker applies more certification labels.

They signify that the actual structure of the head and neck restraint meets standards.

They now test a randomly selected restraint.

A hydraulic arm pulls the tethers until the restraint snaps, mimicking the force of a violent impact.

The restraint withstands more than what's required and breaks in the right place.

Next, an employee attaches a head and neck restraint to the helmet using the tethers.

Two crash dummies put the restraints to the test.

The one on the left isn't wearing a restraint while the right one is.

Steady nerves and a steady head could save a racer's life, and a head and neck restraint definitely improves the odds.


Electrophoretic Displays
Dry Erase Boards
Air Rifles
Quartz Countertops

Electrophoretic technology mimics the effect of ink on paper.

The screens reflect light, unlike conventional back-lit displays that emit light.

Also known as e-paper, this technology has changed the way we see our screens.

Mobile devices, e-readers, smart watches, and credit cards all contain electrophoretic displays.

With its print-like readability and bluetooth capability, it's easy to see the attraction.

To make an electrophoretic screen, polyethylene film is placed on a sheet of glass, which holds the film as its processed.

Production takes place in a filtered room, to keep the area contaminant-free.

Inside the room, robots move the glass carrier through processes that transform the film into the backplane.

The backplane is the main structure of the screen.

It carries the organic transistors that drive the electrophoretic display.

Machinery builds up micro-thin layers of metal, organize solutions, semiconductors, and isolators.

This spin coder evenly spreads the material across the film.

Nozzles apply an organic solution that acts as a booster for the semiconductors.

The spin coder closes and rotates the glass carrier to spread the deposited material by centrifugal force.

The automated system adds layers of semiconductors, electrical isolators, and metal.

A rinse of de-ionized water cleans the coated film, and a blast of air blows off the water.

Rollers apply gentle pressure to ensure the film sticks to the glass even when positioned vertically.

Once the photoresist chemical has been applied, the film goes into an exposure chamber.

A patterned mass is placed in front of the film to block out lighting in some areas.

The exposure defines the structure of the metal layers so that, when combined with the other materials, they'll serve as transistors.

The backplane film is removed from the glass carrier.

Now the film is ready for the electronic-ink-sheet placement.

A technician places the backplane in a laminator.

He uses a camera to magnify and position the backplane.

A vacuum in the laminator chuck holds the backplane in place.

He places the electronic ink sheet on the chuck beside the backplane and peels off the liner, exposing the adhesive.

Then the ink sheet and the backplane are fused together.

A roller presses the assembly for full adhesion.

Once the lamination process is complete, a technician removes the screen from the chuck.

This is the backplane before and after the electronic ink lamination.

An automated system bonds the electronics to a circuit board that's attached to the display screen.

The system mechanically seals the circuit board.

Polymer resin is applied for stability.

U.v. light cures the resin.

This is the electrophoretic display before and after the electronics have been added.

This particular display screen will be an e-reader.

They load a graphic with black strips onto the screen.

The strips serve as reference points, as a printer applies a combination red, green, and blue filter.

The filter adds the option of colored text or pictures.

The primary colors can be combined to create other shades, expanding the visual possibilities of the electronic ink.

A machine bends a sample screen repeatedly to confirm that the sample is flexible enough to be formed into a bracelet or credit card.

Additional tests are conducted to confirm that the electrophoretic display has the desired clarity and color.

Display patterns can be sent from a phone to a bracelet that has an electrophoretic screen.

With electrophoretic technology, there are many different ways to enjoy screen time.

A dry-erase board is a non-permanent surface most commonly used in professional or classroom environments.

You simply write on the board with the dry-erase marker and use a specialized cloth to wipe away the markings.

These effective tools are an easy way to get your message across.

Dry-erase boards are also known as whiteboards.

The boards wipe perfectly clean due to its non-porous surface and the dry-erase ink.

Dry-erase ink contains release agents which prevent the pigments from permanently adhering to the surface.

Green and black dry-erase boards can also be used as chalkboards, while gray and low-gloss white double as projection boards.

The surface material is a porcelain-coated steel sheet-- flexible enough to be rolled up, but also pressure sensitive.

To start, the roll is mounted on a cutting machine.

A technician programs the machine to cut the roll to a specific length based on the board's dimensions.

Workers verify the length and check that the piece is square.

The surface material will be applied to one of seven types of substrate, ranging from cardboard to medium-density fiberboard known as mdf.

The next step is to cut the large sheet of substrate-- in this case, mdf--  into board-size pieces.

Another technician enters the length and width into the cutting machine.

Once complete, the machine ejects the substrate, which is now cut to the exact size of the board.

Next, the substrate is put through a hot-glue machine.

The machine applies polyurethane adhesive to what will be the back of the dry-erase board.

As the substrate exits, a sheet of foil is applied to the glued surface.

The foil prevents moisture from entering, which would warp the substrate.

The board moves through two steel rollers which flatten the foil and press out any trapped air.

Next, the surface material is applied to the other side of the substrate.

A craftswoman uses an air hose to clear away any dust from the side of the board.

Once cleaned, the board goes through the glue machine.

The porcelain steel sheet is placed on the glued surface.

Technicians work carefully to ensure they don't touch the pressure-sensitive surface with their fingers.

Then the board moves through the steel rollers to press the porcelain steel flat and remove any trapped air.

Once 50 boards are stacked, technicians put them in a press for half an hour, until the glue cures.

In another part of the factory, a machine cuts material to create the board's frame.

It punches "v"-shaped notches in a length of aluminum trim.

The trim bends at each notch to form a wraparound frame.

Some boards come with a marker tray that runs along the bottom.

To make these trays, a technician cuts board-length pieces from a piece of "l"-shaped metal trim.

Since the tray ends are sharp, a technician attaches plastic covers for protection.

He secures the plastic end covers with screws on both ends of the part.

Meanwhile, technicians peel off the protective film covering the writing surface.

Then they flip over the board to assemble the parts from the back.

This model doesn't have the traditional wraparound frame.

Instead, it has a frame comprised of four straight "c"-shaped pieces that fit over the board's edges.

To add stability, technicians attach screws through the trim into the substrate.

Once assembly is complete, the dry-erase board is placed into a box, ready to be shipped to a business or classroom near you.

Air rifles are not toys.

They're serious weapons.

Used primarily for hunting, air rifles should only be handled by trained, licensed professionals.

Chemically, air rifles use one of three types of power depending on their design, all of which utilize compressed air instead of an explosive charge.

Handling air rifles should always be treated in a serious manner.

It is very important to follow proper storage and operating safety guidelines to ensure it does not go off accidentally.

Air rifles are made out of pre-machined parts for the trigger assembly.

To build one half of the trigger housing, a craftswoman uses a jig to align the end pieces to the side plate.

Then she screws the parts together.

She attaches the release latch to the inside of the trigger housing and installs a base for the trigger shoe.

She hooks one end of a spring to the side plate, and the other end to the release latch.

A second spring links the first spring to the trigger-shoe base.

Next, a lever is installed which releases the firing pin.

Once the trigger shoe and the trigger are attached, the assembly is complete.

This part absorbs the recoil effect from firing.

A technician inserts the recoil spring in a cylinder and adjusts the tension.

He slides the recoil assembly into the bolt housing.

The bolt housing seals the end of the gun barrel.

He installs the recoil system and the housing, a lever for cocking the rifle, and inserts a lever pin.

This end screw will enable the user to adjust the cocking position.

He attaches the firing pin and the spring system...

And builds the air-pressure regulator by joining metal rings with rubber seals to create the housing.

He stacks washer springs on a shaft.

He inserts the assembly into the regulator housing and attaches an air-pressure adjustment mechanism to the end.

Using a special measuring device, he connects the regulator to an air cylinder.

The cylinder feeds compressed air to the pressure regulator.

The measuring tool indicates the regulator's performance.

If needed, he'll adjust the pressure setting.

A technician inserts the pressure regulator in the firing chamber housing and places a rubber seal in another opening, followed by a spring.

The spring will open and close the one-directional valve that supplies compressed air to the firing chamber.

Once the valve is installed, he joins the firing chamber to the recoil assembly.

The two units are held together with substantial screws.

Assembly of the air rifle's mechanics are now complete.

A metal cover is screwed on top of the trigger system.

Meanwhile, automated drills bore into steel cylinders to convert them into rifle barrels.

A technician aligns one of the barrels to the firing chamber.

Using a spacer tool, he tweaks the barrel's placement against the firing chamber and tightens the bolt to the barrel.

The trigger system is run through a test using a special machine that measures the force it takes to open the valve.

An inspector fires the air rifle to measure the pellet's velocity and the accuracy of the shot.

He adjusts the tension on the firing-pin spring.

He loads the rifle again and fires it once more to confirm the accuracy of his adjustments.

Another technician attaches the stock, also called the shoulder stock, to the rifle.

He screws the compressed-air cylinder to the pressure regulator, securing it in place.

Quartz is one of the most abundant minerals on earth.

It's no wonder artisans are crafting this plentiful crystal, mixed with polymer resin, into kitchen and bathroom countertops.

These engineered countertops have low porosity, are resilient, and can be enhanced by pigments, sparkles, or other minerals.

Quartz countertops offer more creative designs than other stone surfaces.

Some are fused with flecks of mother of pearl, metal for a more dramatic look...

Or speckled with materials like glass, porcelain, and granite for visual effect.

Quartz rock arrives at the factory broken up into small, sharp-edged crystals.

They're stored in outdoor bins until production.

The crystals tumble into a hopper that follows them into the factory.

The glittery quartz crystals cascade onto a conveyor, heading to a rinsing station.

The crystals enter a revolving drum, known as the tumbler, and are tossed in the fire burning inside the drum.

The intense heat removes residual moisture and sanitizes the crystals.

Then the crystals are transferred to sifter machines.

The sifter machines shake the crystals through screens fitted with smaller mesh.

The particles flow into separate bins.

The ingredients for the quartz countertop formula are loaded into feeder bins.

The formula calls for a black countertop with shiny flecks and green undertones.

The ingredients include two different sizes of quartz crystals--  green glass and mirror chips.

A computer releases specific amounts of the ingredients into a hopper.

As the hopper opens, a conveyor takes the ingredients to a blender.

Black pigment is mixed into the blender, along with powdery filler quartz.

The mix is over 90% quartz.

A polymer resin will act as a binder and add strength.

Down the line, a large mold moves into position...

And an overhead mixer disperses the quartz blend into the mold.

The mixer repeats the process twice to build up the materials to the desired thickness.

Then the mold vibrates, shaking the mixture into a more level state.

This will be the back of the quartz countertop.

For additional strength and flexibility, nylon mesh is added to the countertop mixture.

A device pulls the mesh over the mix.

Once it's aligned with the mold contents, the machine drops the mesh into place.

An automated dispenser spreads granulated limestone, filling any voids in the countertop mixture.

Next, the ingredients are placed in a kiln for two hours.

A blade scrapes off the loose limestone from the slab backing.

Polishing heads studded with industrial diamonds will now give the top of the slab a serious shine.

Simultaneously, an operator adjusts the tension of the polishers.

The polishers spin as water flows across the countertop to produce the desired level of gloss.

This particular quartz slab is about 1/4 inch thick.

Its thin, flexible profile means the quartz can be shaped to different structures if needed.

A technician preparers the transfer of pattern onto a white quartz slab.

He drapes a long sheet of paper, pattern side down, onto the slab and tapes it to the work surface.

He activates a heat press, which turns the ink on the paper into a gas that penetrates the resin in the slab.

The pattern becomes intrinsic to the engineered stone.

With this process, any design can be part of a slab, including some that give the illusion of marble.

But unlike marble, engineered quartz won't stain.

With quartz countertops, the possibilities are almost endless.


Kitchen Accessories
Central Vacuums
Papier

When it comes to kitchen accessories, many cooks choose to forgo metal, plastic, and silicone in favor of a more classic material, wood.

Wood is not only elegant, it's lightweight and very durable.

And its look fits in with traditional, contemporary, or modern kitchen decor.

Rolling pins, meat mallets, cutting boards, trivets are some of the many items this czech company makes out of beech, a hard and durable type of wood.

The first step is to dry out the logs.

This prevents the wood from expanding and contracting with humidity changes and eventually cracking.

The factory air-dries the logs outdoors for about seven months, then heat-dries them in a kiln for three to four weeks.

When the moisture level is down to between 8% and 10%, the wood is ready.

Each log first goes through a large automated hacksaw.

It slices vertically, cutting the log into several pieces of the specific thickness required for the kitchen accessory in production.

Next, a dimensioning saw cuts the pieces to the required length.

The final saw cuts the pieces to the required width.

To make a cutting board, they run one edge of the cut piece through a gluing machine.

Then, they assemble the pieces edge-to-edge in a press.

The number of pieces they put together depends on the size of the cutting board they're making.

After an hour clamped under pressure, the pieces bond into a large panel.

Workers then cut the panel into the smaller pieces, each of which will become a cutting board.

A computer-guided milling machine cuts the shape of the cutting board, which, in this case, is a model with a recessed middle designed to catch crumbs.

They submerge the cutting boards in vegetable oil, then let them air dry for a day.

Oiling nourishes the wood, which prevents it from drying out.

The oil also enhances the color and brings out the beauty of the wood grain.

To make rolling pins, workers feed the cut wood through a planer.

It finalizes the dimensions to 2.8x2.8 inches wide by 10.2 inches long.

Then they mount several pieces at a time onto a machine which has multiple lathes.

As each lathe spins over the course of about 30 seconds, successive tools turn the wood to a cylindrical shape...

And sand the surface.

One cylinder at a time, workers drill a half-inch hole right through the middle.

Meanwhile, a small lathe turns 1.2x4.2-inch blocks of wood into rolling-pin handles.

Workers saw off excess wood at the outer end of the handle...

And sand the area flat.

The finished handle goes into a revolving barrel of varnish for about an hour.

All the parts are now ready and assembly can begin.

After giving the ends a quick sanding, they hammer a nylon ring into the hole on each side of the pin.

The ring diameter is slightly larger than that of the hole so it locks in.

Next, they insert a zinc-coated steel rod all the way through, position the rolling pin in a press, fit a handle on one protruding end of the rod, then a second handle onto the other end.

They activate the press, which forces the handles all the way onto the rod.

The pin rolls smoothly thanks to the nylon rings.

These kitchen accessories showcase the natural beauty of wood, wood that's fsc certified, meaning it comes from a forest that's managed according to standards of environmental protection.

A central vacuum doesn't have to be pulled or carried from room to room and up and down stairs.

Its power unit containing the motor and dirt receptacle is mounted on a wall, usually in the basement or garage.

This stationary unit connects to plastic ducts that run inside the walls to inlets in different parts of the home.

You plug the attachment hose into the nearest inlet and the central power unit suctions the debris through the wall ducts.

Being stationary, weight isn't an issue.

Therefore, central-vacuum motors are larger and more powerful than those in portable vacuum cleaners.

A factory makes the main body of the power unit out of a steel sheet about 4/10 of an inch thick.

A press punches out the openings required for the various components.

A forming roller rounds the sheet into the unit's circular shape.

They close the circle by tack-welding a few key spots.

Then, they weld the entire length.

This continuous seam makes the unit air tight for optimal suction and to prevent the collected dirt from escaping.

They use the same material and technique to form the sides of the power unit's large dirt receptacle.

Then a hydraulic press rolls a rim at the top, making the receptacle safe for the user to remove, empty, then put back in place.

They make a rim on the bottom edge as well, sealing it over the bottom plate of the dirt receptacle.

Then they put the power unit's main body on a hydraulic press and shape a rim that connects to the dirt receptacle.

Next, they make a support for the motor and tack-weld a mesh basket under it.

The basket supports the vacuum cleaner's filter.

The power unit's main body goes on top of the dirt receptacle.

The motor support and filtration basket fit inside.

And a cover goes on top.

Now the unit gets a coat of high-quality epoxy paint.

The application system is electrostatic, meaning it charges the unit with a negative current and the powder paint particles with a positive one.

This magnetically draws the particles onto the unit in an even layer.

Then 45 minutes in an oven bakes it on for extra durability.

They seal the connection between the dirt receptacle and the power unit main body.

This must be airtight for two reasons-- to prevent air from leaking through, which would lessen suction power, and to prevent collected dust from escaping.

Next, they line the main body's motor compartment with soundproofing foam.

An adhesive backing holds it against the compartments walls, and dabs of liquid adhesive secure the corners.

They install a filter on the outside to capture carbon dust.

Carbon dust is a fine black dust which electrical motors emit.

Now they apply decals bearing the series name and model number.

They use a laser level to position them perfectly straight in just the right spot.

Back to the motor compartment now.

The electric motor sits on this rubber-foam gasket and rubber legs, both of which absorb vibration.

They also prevent metal-to-metal contact between the motor and body, the secret to the vacuum's quiet operation.

Whereas portable vacuum cleaners have a lightweight motor with a single fan, this motor is a large, heavy-duty, long-life steel motor with three fans.

The electronic components go into the neighboring compartment.

Then workers use a variety of equipment to test suction, voltage, and other specifications.

They connect an lcd display on the outside, cap the compartments with a motor-cooling insulated disk, then the unit's cover.

The factory's lab selects a certain percentage of units at random for quality-control testing.

During operation, the lcd screens on both the power unit and hose handle display the power level.

They also indicate when the unit needs technical maintenance, when to empty the dirt receptacle, and when to remove and wash the filters.

They're a bold option for people looking to go a bit wild with their home decor.

Large, colorful animals made of paper-mache-- inanimate, exotic pets that make quite the conversation piece.

Sold in galleries or upscale design boutiques, each creature is a unique work painted by an artist.

These large-scale paper-mache animals are hand-crafted by artisans in tonala, mexico, a town renowned for colorful, decorative arts.

They cast the animal shape in plaster and fiberglass molds.

There's a two-part mold for each of the animals' main body parts.

The artisans dampen pieces of recycled cardboard...

Then glue them onto the walls of the mold cavity.

They continue until they've fully lined the cavity five layers thick, three layers if it's a small-sized animal.

Then, they close the mold and set it aside to dry.

Depending on the size, this takes from three to six days.

Then they open the mold and extract what is now a hollow cardboard shell of the body part.

They assemble the animal by adhering all the body-part shells, reinforcing the joints with strips of newspaper.

Then they paper over the entire surface to even it out.

The paper dries in 3 to 12 hours, depending on the size of the animal.

Next, they mix together talc, water...

Glue...

And wet cardboard.

This recipe produces a thick adhesive paste that they spread evenly over the entire animal.

The paste takes about 40 minutes to dry and harden.

Then they apply a second coat.

When that dries, they water down the paste to a thin, runny consistency and apply a third coat.

Once that dries, they send the animal to the detailing department.

There, using the thick paste, artists sculpt and apply raised body and facial features.

Once the paste detailing dries, they sand the entire animal to prep for painting.

In the art department, they first apply a primer coat, white or beige.

This seals the surface.

Once the primer is dry, they paint the animal's background color.

Now the true artistry begins.

Using water colors, artists make the animals come alive with expressive eyes and fanciful features.

No stencils or predetermined designs.

The artists follow their imagination and create a unique work of art.

The last step-- four coats of transparent lacquer in either a high-gloss or matte finish.

The lacquer dries hard as a rock, forming an impenetrable, protective layer over the paint.

The paper-mache surface is now durable and moisture-resistant.

These hand-crafted animals are sought after by collectors around the world, which might explain why it's a jungle out there.

When the pressure is on, that's when a lot of machines really perform.

We're talking about the kind of pressure that comes from hydraulic fluid as it's pumped through cylinders.

From crane claws to snowplows to a lot of manufacturing equipment, hydraulic cylinders are truly a driving force in the world.

This is fluid power in action.

Pressurized fluid pumped into cylinders does all the heavy work, making this forklift actually lift.

Production begins with the cylinder barrel.

A band saw cuts steel tubing to the correct length.

Then computerized tools carve a solid cylinder to transform it into the piston rod.

It's this rod that will be moved by hydraulic pressure to transfer force to a machine like the forklift.

The tools cut threads in one end and also carve various diameters.

This will have a cushioning effect as the machine the cylinders powers cycles down.

The other end of the rod will be attached to the piston which is now taking shape as a special tool bores through the center to create a threaded hole.

Using a special gauge, a worker measures the hole's dimensions to confirm the piston rod will fit into it exactly.

Another computerized cutter then carves grooves on the outside wall of the piston.

With the piston now complete, they install a web of sealer rings on both it and the cylinder head, which has been machined in a similar fashion.

These sealers will prevent leaking of the pressurized fluids as the piston rod moves through the center holes of these parts.

This blue sealer will also act as a wiper, removing dirt from the piston rod and keeping contaminants out of the cylinder.

This "o" ring installed on the outside of the cylinder head will stop fluid leakage between it and the cylinder barrel.

With the sealers installed, a worker now lubricates the mouth of the cylinder head.

This allows for the a smooth installation of the part to one end of the piston rod.

He then slides the piston onto the other end of the rod and secures it with a nut.

He tightens the nut to the rod using an impact gun.

Production now returns to the cylinder barrel as a robot welds a cap onto it.

The opening fitting adjacent to it was installed earlier to attach the hose that delivers the fluids.

The worker now clamps the cylinder barrel in a device to stabilize it.

He lubricates the threaded open end so he can easily slide a metal sleeve into it.

This sleeve prevents snags so those critical sealer rings remain intact as he now inserts the piston-rod assembly into the barrel.

Once the piston is safely in the barrel, he removes the sleeve.

He then shoves the rod further into the barrel and screws the cylinder head to the threaded lip.

Using a spanner wrench, he tightens the assembly to the required torque.

He dabs adhesive onto a screw.

He inserts the screw in the cylinder head.

The adhesive dries and expands to lock the screw tightly in place.

They now etch the client name, part number and other information onto the assembled cylinder using a computerized engraving tool.

This cylinder is now ready for fluid-- hydraulic-grade oil specifically formulated to operate under pressure.

The technician attaches hoses to the cylinder to fill it with pressurized oil.

As the pressure builds at one end, the piston rod extends.

He then supplies fluid to the other end and the rod retracts.

He runs a finger around the fittings and sealers to check for leaks.

He gives this hydraulic cylinder the all-clear.

After a good wash, a worker spray-paints the hydraulic cylinders to protect the metal against rust.

Now complete, these hydraulic cylinders are ready to leave the factory.

They'll soon be under a lot of pressure to keep machines and mechanisms operating.

But it's the kind of pressure they've been made for.


Grapples
Flavorings
Dog Sleds
Athletic Shoes

At many work sites, grapples do all the heavy lifting.

Dangling from crane booms, these huge mechanized claws move mountains of material one load at a time.

Some are equipped with powerful electromagnets for gathering small bits of metal along with the large ones.

Not much can escape the grasp of the mighty grapple.

A magnet at the center pulls metal from the scrap heap, while four fingers dig into the pile.

It then transfers the load of steel for recycling.

It actually takes some of that recycled steel to make a grapple in the form of steel plate.

A computer-guided flame burns through the steel to cut out the various part shapes.

It will take approximately 50 pieces in a range of shapes and thicknesses to make one grapple.

A press brake repeatedly rams one of the parts while an operator adjusts it forward between thrusts.

The process curls the part to give it a claw-like profile.

It's the basic shape of a grapple finger.

Using a template, he checks the curvature to confirm it's on target.

He'll curl four fingers per grapple.

Meanwhile, a welder pieces together the grapple's core, working within a special fixture that allows him to assemble it precisely.

After he tack-welds them together, it's over to the robot.

It does the permanent welds as the core slowly rotates in a special device.

They hoist the welded grapple core over to the magnet and feed its main wire up through the core.

They lower the core, and it fits onto metal dowels protruding from the magnet.

This allows them to align the two precisely.

They thread high-strength bolts into the dowels to secure the assembly.

Next, they place a turntable bearing on the grapple's top flange.

This bearing is an important part of the claw-rotator mechanism.

They fasten the bearing's outer ring to the flange with numerous bolts, torqueing each one tightly to withstand the spinning action of the bearing's inner ring.

As demonstrated here, the bearing turns in both directions to give the grapple's claw movements a lot of flexibility.

A worker now lowers the upper rotator assembly onto the turntable bearing.

This assembly holds the rotator's motor and the manifold that feeds hydraulic fluid to the cylinders that power the claw.

They now slide the hydraulic cylinders into their slots and lock them in place with pivot pins.

They install a total of four cylinders.

Each one will power one grapple finger, and together, they'll open and close the grapple claw.

They connect the hydraulic feed lines to the cylinders and reinforce the connection with a four-bolt flange that can handle the pressure of the hydraulic fluid.

They guide each steel finger into slots in the grapple core and align them correctly.

They slide a pivot pin into the attachment holes to link the two.

This pin will also act as a kind of hinge as the finger opens and closes.

They fasten the pivot pin to the grapple with a nut that's split in one spot.

This split enables it to be squeezed tightly around the large pin with a small bolt.

They attach the hydraulic cylinders to the claw fingers with more large steel pins.

And they're now ready to power the grapple claw and test the gripping action.

The four tines, or fingers, open and close in unison.

The tips mate correctly.

There's no overlap.

They roll paint onto the company emblem, and this grapple claw is now ready for the jobsite.

It weighs 4.5 tons, and just dropping it on a car will crumple it like a piece of tissue paper.

It takes about 150 hours to manufacture a grapple claw that can get a grip on the really big jobs in a matter of seconds.

Whether it's boysenberry in your muffin, hazelnut in your coffee, blue cheese in your salad dressing, or spearmint in your chewing gum, the source is usually a prepared flavoring.

Food and drink makers typically approach a flavorings company to custom-design and produce whatever flavor they need.

Not only do flavoring companies produce ingredients for commercial use, they also manufacture stand-alone flavoring products for retail sale, such as those syrups you squirt into coffee, fountain drinks, and other beverages.

In the company's research and development laboratory, flavor chemists create each recipe, drawing from an elaborate arsenal of ingredients.

If they're designing an orange flavoring, for example, they might combine orange essence and orange peel with extracts from other citrus fruits, tweaking the proportions until they achieve exactly the taste they're after.

This chemist is designing flavoring for a soft drink.

He pours a specific amount of his trial recipe into water, then carbonates the mix by adding pressurized carbon dioxide.

Then he bottles the drink and sends it to the client for approval.

Once the client gives the okay, plant technicians mix a production formula, following very precise weights and measures set out in the recipe.

Once they combine the formula's key ingredients, they add them to the liquid fillers-- such as fruit juice and water-- and solvents such as ethanol.

The solvents trigger molecular changes that transform the oil-soluble key ingredients into a water-soluble state.

Without this conversion, the finished flavoring would simply float on top of any liquid to which it's added.

At several points throughout the process, the company's quality-control lab performs an array of tests to assess color, flavor, viscosity, and other characteristics.

The last ingredients to go into the production formula, when the recipe calls for them, are colorings.

Sometimes a client wants a powdered flavoring rather than a liquid one.

So chemists develop a liquid recipe that a machine called a spray dryer can process into a powder.

In the production plant, workers pour the required quantity of production formula into a large processing kettle.

They add whatever additional ingredients the recipe may call for, and if required, heat the mix.

If they're making a powdered flavoring, then from the kettle, they pour the liquid into a mixer containing water, gums, and starches.

These keep all the ingredients evenly blended.

Then they open a hatch and drop the mix directly into the spray dryer.

The machine uses high pressure to transform the liquid into a fine mist, then heat to dry the mist particles into powder particles.

They put the powder into a machine called a ribbon blender and add whatever dry ingredients the flavoring recipe calls for.

Then mixing blades slowly blend all the powders together.

The plant sends a sample from the blender to the quality-control lab.

Among other tests, lab technicians put the sample under a microscope to analyze the particle size, which indicates how thoroughly the ingredients are blended.

Exiting the ribbon blender, the finished flavoring passes through a vibrating screen, a magnet, and a metal detector.

The packaging equipment weighs a specific quantity and dispenses it into cartons lined with polyethylene.

A suction hose vacuums what dusts up in the process, because airborne powder is an explosion hazard.

The plant sends a sample from every batch it produces back to the lab.

Trained testers smell and taste the sample and compare it to the model lab batch.

The testers flag any production sample that's even the slightest bit off the mark, in which case they alert the flavor chemists, who then diagnose and fix the problem.

This procedure, along with the various quality-control measures throughout the production process, ensures taste consistency, which is absolutely critical, whether the prepared flavoring is an ingredient in a commercially produced food or beverage or a retail flavoring that you squirt into or sprinkle onto a drink or snack.

For centuries, dog-driven sleds were a lifeline across the frozen north, delivering medicine and other supplies to far-flung communities.

Today, aircraft and snowmobiles have mostly taken over that work, and dog-sledding has become a sport.

And a well-made sled is behind every winning team.

A dog-sled race is an endurance test for the dogs, the driver, and the sled itself.

A good sled is both flexible and sturdy enough to go the distance.

At this factory, they make sleds from white ash.

A worker angles the ends of vertical bars so they can be fitted to the sled's top rail and handlebar.

These bars are called stanchions.

He shapes the other end of them so they'll fit into grooves in the sled's runner.

All the parts of this sled are designed to fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.

A worker now screws aluminum rails onto the bottom of the two runners.

He slides plastic strips into those aluminum rails, which gives the runners a smooth base for gliding over ice or snow.

He secures the plastic strips at each end with screws.

The crew is now ready to assemble all the pieces of the dog sled.

They attach metal screw eyes to the runners.

They'll thread rope through them when they're ready to tie the parts of the sled together.

All the parts of the framework fit into notches made specifically for them.

The location of those notches has been precisely mapped out.

If one is even a fraction of an inch off, the sled would collapse like a house of cards.

They measure the space between the runners to confirm they're perfectly aligned, and now tie the joints together with nylon rope.

These ties are called lashings, and there are 22 of them on this dog sled.

Historically, lashings were made of moose hide, but nylon is tougher.

They cut the rope with a hot blade, which seals the fibers so that they won't unravel.

They tie the midpoint joints together...

And the focus then moves to the dog-sled handlebar.

A worker glues strips of ash together.

The strips are thin so they can be easily bent, allowing him to curl the glued layer around a u-form.

He clamps the wood to the form, and the glue cures for three hours.

It hardens into the u-shape, creating the dog-sled handlebar.

He secures the handlebar to the dog sled with the nylon lashings.

The team then assembles the bed of the sled.

They clamp the slats into place, and then screw them to the framework.

They install the sled's front bumper, called the brushbrow.

Next, a worker cuts off the metal bead of a bicycle tire and discards it.

He uses the remaining tire tread to create foot pads by wrapping it around pieces of thick plastic and screwing it into place.

He installs a treaded pad on each runner to keep the driver's feet from slipping off.

Then they install an aluminum bar brake.

These pivot bolts will allow this bar brake to be raised when not needed, and lowered to engage the metal talons.

He loops a bungee cord on each side of a cross bar and burns off an end.

He hooks the other end of the cord to the brake.

This simple bungee-cord mechanism will enable the dog-sled musher to activate the brake.

He heat-shrinks rubber tubing around the base of the cord to protect it.

They now weave the back of the sled, using nylon cord to create a basket for carrying things.

It's big enough to hold a tired animal.

The worker then loops and ties the bridle to front stanchions beneath the sled.

He forms a "v" as he threads it from the back of the sled to the front.

He paints urethane onto the wood, and even over the lashings.

This will protect them against wear.

It's taken about three days to make this traditional basket dog sled, and now it's ready to mush.

Athletic footwear dates back to ancient times, but the concept gained traction with the development of treaded rubber soles in the early part of the 20th century.

These rubber-soled shoes were lightweight, comfortable, and hit the ground quietly, earning them the name "sneakers".

Design improvements have broadened the appeal of athletic shoes.

People wear them everywhere.

The athletic shoe has definitely gone main street.

Using a hydraulic press, this employee forces a die through synthetic fabric to cut out patterns for the upper part of the shoe.

At the next station, he punches out leather toe tips.

The toe tip is one of numerous cut-outs that add shape and structure to the synthetic upper.

After arranging the tip parts on a nonstick tray, this worker places strips of thermal resin onto them.

She drapes a nonstick sheet over the tray, then slides it into a hot metal press.

The resin melts into the leather to stiffen and strengthen it.

Another worker stamps the model number onto the heel cutout.

Then it's over to the sewing department, where a worker stitches a reflector onto the athletic shoe upper.

Other accent pieces call for more intricate stitching, so she arranges the parts on a computerized platform.

The platform moves back and forth, allowing the needle to do a perfect job of stitching the accent pieces to the upper.

This stitching would be difficult to execute manually.

Once some of the more substantial pieces have been applied to the shoe, it's time to sew on a reflective logo, and the needle is once again guided by computer software.

This athletic-shoe upper is now ready for its resin-fortified leather toe tip.

She stitches it in place, and then pieces together the collar and sews it to the back of the shoe.

She installs thick foam padding on the inside of the collar, and then turns it right-side-out to tuck the padding neatly inside and hide the seam.

Putting on the collar has obscured the top lace holes, so she clears them with a compressed-air punch.

Down the line, more computerized needles embroider brand information onto the tongue panels.

The next worker sews a liner and padding to the panel, again working inside-out to hide the seam.

Another worker then stitches a fabric base onto the athletic shoe.

She applies a rigid plastic to the heel.

That adds structure and support to the back part of the shoe.

Further down the production line, a worker tugs the shoe onto a foot form called a last.

They heat it to make it malleable enough for this machine to pull it to the shape of the last.

At the same time, nozzles apply cement to glue the overlap to the fabric base.

Then a machine heats both the upper and the rubber sole.

The heat activates glue applied to the sole earlier and also prepares the upper for bonding to that sole.

They initially use manual force to press the two together, and then the shoe is subjected to mechanized pressure.

Inside this machine, a rubber bladder expands to force the two together for a complete seal.

The shoe then gets a foam insole with an arch support.

The worker laces it partially and then pairs it up with the other shoe.

An inspector examines the pair for defects.

It has taken about 21 minutes to make this pair of athletic shoes.

And they should be able to take a real workout.


Custom Shoe Trees
Clay Targets
Squeeze Chutes
Composite Boat Propellers

Today on "how it's made"...

Custom shoe trees...

Clay targets...

Squeeze chutes...

And composite boat propellers.

Shoe trees are a device placed inside leather shoes to preserve their shape.

They also absorb foot perspiration by wicking away leather-damaging moisture from the inside of the shoe.

Shoe trees are a worthwhile investment because they extend the life of footwear.

Shoe trees can be purchased at any price.

Some are mass produced and inexpensive, while others can be handcrafted and custom ordered like these from a small workshop in france.

The customer can select their preference of tree style as well as the type of wood and color.

A craftsman uses a model in the customer's size and marks its length on a piece of wood.

Using a band saw, the craftsman cuts the wood to the marked length.

He saws one side flat to be able to lie the piece on its side.

Then he traces the general shape of the model and saws along his previously marked lines to remove excess wood.

Once complete, the block is roughly shaped like the model.

Next, the block is mounted on one side of a pantograph, a milling machine that copies the form of one object to shape another.

He mounts the model on the other side of the pantograph.

Once the machine is turned on, both model and block begin rotating.

The machine's tools, a tracer and a cutter, are linked.

As the tracer runs across the model, the cutter moves in identical carving motions across the block.

By the time the tracer finishes, the block is an exact copy except for those extra inches on the ends for mounting the block to the machine.

The craftsman takes the copy off the pantograph and uses the sanding belt to remove any excess wood.

He repeats the process to make a second copy.

The craftsman measures and marks where he'll drill a hole on each piece of wood.

For this style, he drills a hole right through the wood.

Next, he measures the front of the customer's shoe and measures the length of each shoe tree.

He does this to ensure that he has the correct dimensions.

If the shoe tree is longer, he marks how much wood he needs to remove.

Then he uses a template to create the top opening and traces the design on to the wood.

With the band saw, the craftsman cuts along the marked line.

The top opening is now complete.

He drills holes in the bottom of each shoe tree to hollow it out.

The drill bit is replaced with a different tool, to carve out the remaining wood in the cavity.

With another tool, he smoothes the the surface of the bottom and top openings.

With a band saw, he slices the shoe tree in half to create a hinged style.

On each piece, he makes markings for the hinge, which will connect the two parts and cuts out a notch.

After drilling holes for the hinge screws, he files the notch smooth and attaches the polished brass hinge.

To ensure there are no rough edges, the craftsman sands the shoe tree.

Depending on the style, the craftsman may apply a stained wood finish or a coating of liquid wax.

Finally, the shoes are ready to be shipped back to the customer with the custom shoe trees rooted firmly inside.

Clay targets are made to be destroyed the very first time they're used.

Manufactured in multiple colors, these inverted saucers are used as practice targets and can be launched by hand or through automated machines.

Also referred to as clay pigeons, these targets are not actually made of clay.

They're made with pitch, a ceramic-type material, or resin.

Since the 1920s, this french company has been producing clay saucers for both target practice and competitions, including the olympics.

The founder invented the first automated target molding machine in 1947.

Pitch targets are made from petroleum pitch, a substance derived from crude oil, and calcium carbonate, commonly known as talc.

Talc is the filler while petroleum pitch is the binding agent, which solidifies into a hard, brittle material.

The talc arrives at the factory heated at 176 degrees fahrenheit.

A technician transfers the talc from the truck to a heated storage silo.

A screw conveyor moves the talc from the silo to the blender tank, mixing it with the pitch.

The petroleum pitch arrives to the factory heated to 392 degrees.

The pitch is transferred to a heated storage silo and pumped into a blender.

Every 10 seconds, 22 pounds of petroleum pitch and 64 pounds of talc are released into the blender.

The materials cool as soon as they leave the heated silos.

A gas boiler reheats the ingredients in 509-degree oil.

The hot oil circulates in pipes around the blender, heating the pitch talc mixture to about 390 degrees.

This process changes the consistency to a paste.

The paste flows from the blender to the automatic molding machine.

This valve cuts the flow at regular intervals to time the injections into the target-shaped molds.

The machine compresses the paste while cooling it with water so that it solidifies.

A transfer distance moves the targets on to a conveyer belt one at a time.

As they move to the next conveyer belt, the molds are flipped right-side up.

Even though the molds are still hot, they've remained soft and pliable.

As the targets continue to cool and harden, a separating device lines them up for the conveyer belts that go to the paint chambers.

The paint is made primarily of carbonate and biodegradable powdered pigment.

A technician pours a pre-measured amount of water...

And a bag of pigment into a mixer.

The mixer combines the ingredients together.

Once the water and pigment have blended together, a pre-measured amount of carbonate is added to the mixer, along with a binding and thickening agent.

After additional blending, the paint is ready.

The targets move from the conveyer belt onto spinning holders, which carry the targets through the paint chamber.

Inside, a sprayer coats the spinning targets with paint.

The targets exit the chamber wet and cooled.

Another separator divides the targets on to two conveyer belts, which carry them through a hot-air tunnel for 30 seconds to dry the paint.

The conveyer belt feeds the targets to a machine, which piles them in stacks.

Clay pigeons can be manufactured in several sizes.

Olympic regulation size is the largest, containing a width of four inches.

A smaller target is used for training purposes and contains a width under four inches.

Regardless of their size, all targets are engineered to remain stable in flight while following the intended trajectory.

And, finally, shatter when shot.

The average cow weighs up to 2,000 pounds.

During medical procedures, due to its size, a device called the squeeze chute is used to hold a cow steady.

The walls of this stall immobilize the animal, allowing a veterinarian access to administer treatment.

A squeeze chute holds an animal still for medical and other procedures so that no one gets hurt.

The key to the design is a front gate that closes around the animal's head and a cage-like structure with a squeeze wall that contains the rest of the body.

Production starts with a big coil of steel.

As it unwinds, rollers straighten the steel and the blade cuts it into sheets.

The sheets move to a laser-cutting station.

The laser cuts out the same part multiple times, producing many parts from one sheet.

The part that's produced is a component of the side exit gate.

The steel is formed into tubing.

An operator loads the tubing into a bending machine.

The machine wraps the tubing around dies, shaping it into one of the chute's access hoops.

The machine cuts the ends of the hoop and ejects it.

An automated system transfers the hoops to a rack.

A technician arranges the hoops on the upper half of one of the chute's side frames.

The jig serves as a template for the placement of the hoops.

The bottom of the hoops are welded to hinges on the frame.

These clips are for opening or locking the hoops.

He welds one to the top of each access hoop.

The operator can reach through the hoops to gain access to the animal.

The hoops can also be opened if needed.

Another technician assembles a panel to the bottom of the second side frame.

He welds clips to the top so the panel can be opened for access to the lower part of the animal.

He hinges the panel to the base of the frame.

Next, an operator uses a machine to bend steel tubing against a circular form.

After the first bend, the operator repositions the tubing so the machine can make the second bend in the specified location.

The tailgate frame has taken shape.

With the frame and a jig, a technician installs vertical bars and diagonal linkages and welds a metal shield to the lower half.

This part keeps the cow's hooves safely inside.

Meanwhile, holes have been drilled in both ends of the chute floor.

They'll be used to move one wall inward to tightly contain the animal.

Then the chute's skeleton is constructed.

Using a hoist, a technician transfers the tailgate to the structure.

The technician guides the top on to the squeeze chute framework and welds the structure together.

Next, he attaches the squeeze wall to the structure.

He opens the tailgate to test the clearance and assembles a steel panel to the lower half of the squeeze wall.

He mounts the other side panel with the exit gate to the structure.

He places hinges into the tailgate frame and welds the panel to the frame at the top.

To verify the side gate is operating smoothly, the technician pulls the lever.

Then he opens the tail gate to check its clearance.

He moves the squeeze side to various settings, making adjustments if needed to ensure that the squeeze wall is properly aligned at each notch.

Next, the entire structure is dipped in a paint vat, providing the structure with even coverage.

The head gate has been especially contoured to hold the animal's head in position.

Then a worker slides rubber grippers on to the operating handles.

This squeeze chute is now ready to assist veterinarians and ranchers with a safe way to lock an animal into position.

Until nearly 30 years ago, boat propellers were normally made of steel or aluminum.

Today, developers have since tested the waters with composite propellers.

Made from nylon resin and fiberglass, composite propellers are light weight and don't corrode.

And, in certain models, broken blades can even be replaced.

Composite propellers provide boaters with another way to move on the water.

These props are the latest way to convert rotational motion into thrust.

Production starts with a computer design.

This one is for a houseboat propeller.

The design will drive the machinery that manufactures the molds.

Pellets that are half fiberglass, half resin are placed in a dryer to remove moisture.

An operator takes a sample of the dried pellets.

First, he weighs the pellets.

Then he heats them to evaporate any additional moisture.

The change in weight indicates how much moisture has been removed.

These two-part metal molds form the pellets into propeller blades.

This process takes just a minute and a half to complete.

A technician starts a molding machine that melts the pellets.

A large feed screw forces the molten material into the mold.

The composite material solidifies, and the operator removes the newly formed propeller blade.

The process leaves a piece of unwanted material known as the sprue.

The sprue is composite material that hardened as it flowed into the mold.

Once cut, it falls into a bin to be recycled into the next composite propeller.

The trim propeller is now a functional part.

Next, composite material is molded around an aluminum core to create the hub.

A band saw cuts an extruded bar of aluminum to size.

Each piece will serve as one core.

Using a tool with a sharp-curved blade, the technician trims the rough bits left behind by the saw.

These rough bits are known as burrs, so this process is known as deburring.

Once the edges are smooth, the technician attaches clips to the three wings.

These clips will be used to center the core in the mold.

The technician slides the core into the mold.

The clips hold it in a precise position.

Then the machine is activated.

The machine allows molten fiberglass and resin material to flow into the mold cavity and encapsulate the aluminum core.

It also forms channels for the insertion of the propeller blades.

A computerized milling machine moves the hub into position for trimming.

A drill cuts into the center to widen the hole.

The next operation called broaching will carve teeth into the hole, which will help connect the hub to the motor shaft.

A machine pulls a spiraling tool called a broach through the center hole of the hub.

The tool carves through the composite layer and into the aluminum core to cut the teeth.

Here's a close-up look at those teeth.

Now it's time for all the parts to come together.

An assembler slides the blades into grooves in the hub.

The grooves help hold the blades in place.

Using a hammer, the assembler makes sure the blades are connected accordingly.

Finally, a part called a rear cap is attached.

For an inside look, the propeller has been cut open.

The cut-out reveals how the composite material has become one with the aluminum core.

And now a test.

The technician attaches a chain to a blade.

Using a hydraulic ram, he applies pressure.

He measures the breaking point.

At 1 1/2 tons of force, it's significant.

This composite boat propeller has taken about 20 minutes to produce.

Once attached to the motor shaft, it should last for years.

Now this boat is ready to provide boaters with a ton of fun while out on the water.


Railway Bridge Ties
Membrane Filters
Hydraulic Post Drivers
Bi

The deck of a railway bridge is typically built of wood-timbers called bridge ties.

They're bolted to steel support beams located on concrete piers over the water or gully below.

The rails on which the train travels are bolted to the wooden ties.

Wood absorbs the noise and vibration of the passing train.

The load the railway bridge will carry determines the size of its ties.

To calculate the load, engineers factor in the number of tracks, volume of traffic, weight of the transported cargo, and whether the bridge is straight or curved.

A curve will put additional stress on the structure.

The wood of choice is oak because it's hard and strong.

When the logs arrive at the sawmill, they come face-to-face with a menacing-looking device called a debarker.

A conveyor moves the shipment toward the debarker, then drops a single log in front of it onto spinning rollers.

The rollers rotate the log, while the debarker makes its way from one end to the other.

It chews off the bark with its sharp-toothed blades.

What the debarker shaves off is put to good use.

The bark gets processed into gardening mulch and they burn the sawdust in the wood-fired boiler that runs another part of the plant.

Next, one log at a time drops into a mobile carriage that runs it through a circular saw.

The carriage has sensors which detect the log's extremities and report its dimensions to a console located in the operator's cab.

The operator interprets the data.

Using a joystick controller, he flips the log into whichever position maximizes the yield.

The first few runs trim off the rough surface and square the shape.

The next runs cut boards, which the sawmill sells to flooring plants.

This continues until the log is the exact dimensions of the bridge tie.

Again, nothing is wasted.

The sawmill processes the cutoffs into wood chips, which it then sells to companies that make particle board, strand board, and similar construction materials.

The sawmill stacks the ties for transfer to the bridge mill next door.

The role of the bridge mill is to frame the bridge, also known as dapping.

That's the process of making the specific holes and notches in each tie for attaching it to the steel beam on which it will sit.

At the bridge mill, the bridge layout supervisor processes one tie at a time.

He carefully reviews the engineer's blueprints, which assign a number to each and every tie.

These numbers specify precisely where the saw has to cut notches and where the drill has to bore holes.

The locations of these notches and holes vary, depending on the tie's position on the bridge.

So, he must follow the blueprints meticulously.

After measuring and marking it all out, he sends the tie to the dap saw.

The operator sets up each cut, lining up the mark with laser-lights, which indicate the location and the cutting depth of the blade.

The notches are just the right size to fit over the steel beam on which the tie will lie.

Next, a worker using a drill press bores holes for hook bolts, which go through the tie to secure it onto the steel beams.

Each tie receives a metal identification tag, which includes the bridge and tie numbers.

On each end, workers nail on a mesh plate, made of rust-proof galvanized steel.

The plate has teeth designed to grasp and hold together the wood fiber to prevent the end from splitting.

After nailing the id tag to one of the end plates, workers force in both plates with a press.

The tie's last stop is the adjacent treatment plant.

They spend 24 hours inside a high-temperature, high-pressure chamber which penetrates them with a creosote-borate solution.

This protects the wood from rot and insect damage and extends the tie's life-span from about a decade to at least 25 years.

When filtering liquids, it's all about thinking small.

Membrane filters can separate the tiniest solids from fluids, which purifies the liquids and recovers the solids.

Once separated, the two substances may then be reused so that nothing goes to waste.

Membrane filters can turn murky water clear, almost magically.

To demonstrate, a technician installs a spiral-wound membrane in the housing of a pumping system, which is a small-scale version of what you would see in a factory.

She turns on the tap, and water flows into a tank.

She adds latex paint to purposely sully the water.

The system pumps the contaminated water through a strainer and then the membrane filter while meters measure the flow.

Within minutes, the paint has been filtered out, and the water is clear.

The making of a membrane filter begins with polypropylene mesh.

An automated system unwinds the mesh and cuts it to length.

These mesh sheets will be used as spacers.

They'll create gaps for the liquid to flow through the filter and over the membrane.

Next, the system cuts sheets of polyester fabric.

These will form channels through which the filtered material will travel.

These sheets are known as permeate spacers.

An employee stacks the polyester fabric sheets.

Using high-frequency sound waves, she welds one sheet to the next at just one end.

She layers and welds a total of 15 sheets, and then applies double-sided tape.

The tape is for attaching the packet to a central tube, and it will also serve as a guide to correctly align it.

Next, the membrane soup flows into a long trough.

It's a mix of melted plastics and solvents.

Paper backing unwinds into the trough and is coated with the soup on one side.

The coated paper then travels through two quench tanks, and the plastic components solidify as the solvents are drawn out.

The exiting solvents create a unique core structure in the remaining white plastic membrane.

The membrane now travels by a light box, which illuminates any visual defects.

An applicator also drips a preservative onto the membrane.

A team unrolls the membrane onto a work table.

They lay a sheet of the polypropylene mesh, which we saw cut to size earlier, on the membrane.

The employee then cuts the membrane to twice the length of the mesh.

They fold the membrane over the mesh, creating a membrane envelope.

The mesh serves as a pathway for fluid to flow between the membranes.

Meanwhile, another worker applies epoxy to perforated plastic tube.

He attaches the permeate spacers to it with the double-sided tape, giving the epoxy time to cure for a permanent seal.

He and a colleague apply more epoxy to the perimeter of the bottom sheet.

They transfer the membrane envelope to it and continue to layer, making a permeate fabric and membrane sandwich.

The worker then winds the glued layers snuggly to a perforated plastic core, forming the spiral membrane filter.

He tapes the multi-layered wad from one end to the other.

The tape holds everything tightly in place as the epoxy cures overnight.

They leave the tape on after the cure, and a machine winds epoxy-drenched fiberglass rope around the entire filter.

As the epoxy cures, the rope will form a hard shell around the membrane filter.

Partway through, they apply the label with a company name.

The operator captures the glue runoff during the wind.

And it's a wrap, so he cuts the rope.

From the side, you can see the flow channels between the layers.

Concentrated contaminants will travel through them and out.

The filtered liquid will seep into the core and exit, clearly improved.

The invention of the hydraulic post driver in the 1960s allowed workers to drop their shovels and sledgehammers and let a machine do the job of pounding fence and sign posts into the ground.

When it comes to labor-saving inventions, this one is definitely a striking example.

The post driver raises hefty fence or sign posts into position, and then slams them into the ground.

Inside a vertical case, a hydraulic system drops a 300-pound weight to drive the post, and then lifts it for another hit.

This machine does the work of two or more brawny humans with just one person at the controls.

To make it, they start with a vertical case for the weight.

A high-precision plasma torch cuts steel into a rectangular shape and makes holes for components.

They insert the rectangle into a break-press repeatedly to bend it into a three-sided part.

The profile includes flanges for welding it to the back wall of the case.

He fits the part to the back wall and welds them together, completing the post driver case.

An employee builds the post driver weight working within a weld fixture.

It's a box-shaped weight, and he welds it at the seams.

He taps the corners between the welds to maintain a tight configuration.

This 300-pound weight can later be filled with steel shot to make it even heavier for greater impact.

The next worker assembles yellow steel jaws to a hub to produce the grapple.

This is the part that grips the fence post and raises it into position.

He sticks a danger label onto the hub to warn people to stay clear of these powerful jaws.

He attaches a hydraulic cylinder, which will make the jaws open and close.

He connects the cylinder to the grapple jaw.

Next, they move on to the metal plate that will be used to mount the post driver to a vehicle, like a skid-steer loader.

It includes a hydraulic mechanism for tilting the fence post left or right.

The employee installs a control valve next to the cylinder and links the two with hoses.

He'll also connect the grapple and weight hydraulics to this valve.

Back to the post driver case now-- it's been painted, and they're ready to install the hydraulic motor.

The worker connects it to the sprockets and chains that will lift the weight.

He pins the sprockets into place and installs tensioning rods on either side.

Next, a cover plate protects the sprockets.

The tensioning rods protrude through it.

He slides springs onto those tensioning rods and compresses the springs to maintain the tension.

He now attaches the grapple to the post driver case.

He locks it into place with a long pin.

He links the grapple hydraulics to the control valve.

And it's ready to grab big fence posts and hold on tight.

They attach the metal mounting plate to the post driver case.

The work table tilts back to move the post driver into an upright position.

With the help of a crane, the next worker moves the weight into position and lowers it into the case.

He slides a pin into the top end to keep the weight from falling out when the post driver is on an angle.

One day in the making, this hydraulic post driver is ready for years of heavy labor, taking over for humans so they don't have to move a muscle.

A biplane is a vintage-style aircraft with two pairs of wings sitting one above the other.

The top wings are typically raised above the fuselage with vertical struts bracing them to the bottom wings.

Dating back to the earliest days of aviation, they're still popular for performing aerobatics.

A biplane's lower wings have ailerons, which bank the airplane to the right or left.

On the plane's tail, elevators pitch the plane's nose up or down while a rudder steers it left or right.

A propeller provides the propulsion.

The plane has four wings.

Each wing has two spars, wooden beams at the front and rear, which form the perimeter structure.

A craftsman skillfully fashions these spars out of sitka spruce.

This wood is exceedingly light, yet exceptionally strong, making it one of only a few woods approved for structural use in airplanes.

After sawing the wood to the spar's shape, he mounts attachment plates made of sitka spruce and mahogany plywood.

These are the end struts, steel vertical bars which will connect the upper and lower wings.

He finishes the spar by refining its contour, first with a hand plane, then an electric plane.

Using strips of sitka spruce, he constructs 15 structural ribs for each wing.

He begins with long strips, which have been soaking in water for a week to make them pliable.

He inserts one end into a curved fixture and leaves the strips to dry.

When he removes them a couple of days later, they have a permanent aerodynamic curve.

He glues two curved strips together to form the perimeter of one rib.

In between, he glues short diagonal strips called trusses.

He reinforces both sides of each intersection with a rectangular piece called a gusset.

An assembler mounts the 15 ribs crosswise on the front and rear wing spars, then installs three aluminum tubes called compression ribs.

These absorb air load hitting the spars, keeping the wooden ribs from flexing under pressure.

The craftsman connects the compression ribs with criss-crossing metal rods.

After applying more glue to critical areas, he nails an aluminum trim over the front spar and nose of the ribs.

This is called the leading edge.

It's the first part of the wing to hit the wind, so it takes the brunt of the air load.

Finally, he laces reinforcement tape through the ribs in an x pattern.

The completed structure now moves to the covering department where technicians drape it in heat shrinkable polyester fabric.

They cut the fabric to size, glue it to the wing perimeter, and heat the surface with an iron to shrink the fabric until it's taut.

Then, they stitch over the glued areas with polyester cord.

They brush on a chemical which seals the pores of the fabric.

This primes the surface to receive a spray coat of polyurethane paint, which is a special formulation designed for aircraft bodies.

Technicians construct the fuselage frame out of high-strength steel alloy tubes.

They use an electric torch to slightly melt adjoining pieces so they fuse to each other.

Because there's no filler metal bonding the pieces, the welds don't add any weight to the structure.

After painting the frame, technicians install aluminum floor panels and bulkheads.

In the tail, they add lighter weight bulkheads made of mahogany plywood and sitka spruce.

Then it's time to bolt the engine to the front of the fuselage frame.

The engine drives a propeller made of either wood, aluminum, or a composite material.

Painted aluminum body panels cover the frame.

Technicians install the fuel tank between the front cockpit and the engine.

Then they bolt the wings to the fuselage.

Vertical steel struts connect and reinforce the two levels of wings bolting to those attachment plates on the wing spars.

Next, technicians mount the painted aluminum ailerons, the tail, with its elevators and rudder made of painted fabric over welded steel, and then the engine cover.

They install a windscreen and instrument panel for each cockpit.

The front screen can be replaced with a cockpit cover to keep the pilots warm when flying in cold weather.


Zip Line Brakes
Silk Fibre Lamps
Round Balers
Comfort Shoes

Many thrill-seekers find zip lines exhilarating.

But without the proper braking system, they can quickly become terrifying.

Magnetic brakes are hands-free and engage automatically.

So there's no need to panic.

Just hang on, enjoy the ride, and let the brake take care of the landing.

In early human history, zip lines were used to transfer supplies across dangerous terrain.

Today, zip lines are popular with tourists and adrenaline junkies all over the world.

As the rider approaches the landing, the brake engages using magnets that induce eddy currents instead of friction.

This creates enough drag to stop the ride.

To make a zip line brake, they start with a drum.

It's made of zinc-coated steel to prevent rust.

A worker sends off the zinc so they can add the magnets.

He hammers locating pins into the metal.

He applies adhesive to the sanded areas, then places magnets onto the adhesive.

He uses steel pins as a guide.

As the adhesive cures, the magnets bond to the metal.

Next, he applies a bonding agent to a shaft bearing and inserts it into the hole in the center.

Using a hydraulic press, he drives the bearing further into the hole.

These rotor arms will spin in the magnetic field to create the braking force.

A worker fits gears into two plates and bolts the plates to each side of the rotor assembly.

He tests the rotor arms and slides the rotor gears onto the shaft already installed in the brake drum.

He opens the rotors and spins them.

He adds a ring of magnets to surround the rotors in a magnetic field.

Satisfied with the fit, he removes the rotor assembly from the drum temporarily and clips springs to the rotor.

These reaction springs will cushion the braking action.

Now a worker reinstalls the rotor device in the brake drum.

He places the magnetic ring back on top.

The strong magnetic attraction secures it to the assembly.

The next part is a large ring with more gears inside it.

He hammers and then screws it in place.

He spins the assembly again to confirm it's functional.

He installs the final two gears on the end of the shaft.

This completes the core of the zip line brake.

Another employee stitches a nylon hand grip to tough, synthetic webbing.

When this webbing is pulled out of the brake, it will set the rotor arms in motion to create the eddy currents that are the braking force.

After protecting the brake core with a metal plate, a worker puts the unit in a plastic case.

He installs a plate on the shaft for the webbing to sit on, then loops the webbing around it.

He also places a drum on top for the retraction spring.

He applies silicone adhesive around the drum.

This secures the aluminum base plate.

He now inserts the retraction spring.

He caps the spring with a metal plate and reinforces the clips with metallic tape.

Using a crank, he winds more of the webbing into the brake.

He tightens the metal shackle that holds the two sections of webbing together and winds the rest of it into the device.

He inserts a guide roller for the webbing and adds a two-part retaining clip.

He secures the clip with a rounded metal pin.

This next part is a plastic insert for the top of the case.

He screws a nut onto the shaft to lock down the insert.

He places the top half of the case onto the brake assembly and secures it to the lower half.

He snaps a dust cover onto the case.

They're now ready to test this zip line brake system.

A motor pulls out the webbing to simulate different body weights and different zip lining speeds, while a computer analyzes the brake's performance.

With magnetic zip line brakes, riders can come down at a wide range of speeds but still slow down at the same rate, ensuring that everyone has a fun but safe ride.

Silk fibres can be creatively crafted into a variety of artistic objects, from paper to fabric or even items like lamps.

The fibres are translucent, so they can take bright, white light and diffuse it into warm, beautiful mood lighting.

This lamp doesn't have shades.

Instead, it has natural-looking silk flowers which conceal its lights.

The lamp base is made of branches.

To create this functional artwork, the artisan begins with a roving.

A roving is a bundle of fibres harvested from a silk moth caterpillar's cocoon.

They've been cleaned and straightened.

She places the roving in a nylon mesh bag, then submerges it in a specially formulated dye.

She heats the dye to 185 degrees, then sprinkles in more powdered dye to produces splashes of bolder colors.

After a couple of minutes, she removes the roving...

And rinses off the excess dye.

She hangs the roving on a rack until it's completely dry.

Roving is typically spun into thread to make silk fabric, but this artisan has a different technique.

She spreads a sheet of tulle on her work table.

Then she gently separates the fine, hair-like fibres and lays them out on the tulle.

Each pile will be turned into a flower for the lamp.

She folds over the tulle to create a barrier that keeps the fibers from sticking to her hands.

She prepares the fibres for the textile medium she'll apply next, a polymer adhesive.

She saturates each pile with water containing a few drops of dishwashing detergent to open up the fibres.

Then she sponges up the excess water and soaks up any other remaining moisture with a towel so the medium does not become diluted.

Now she's ready to apply the polymer adhesive.

As the fibres absorb the medium, they fuse together, forming a sheet of silk fibre paper.

After folding back the tulle, she begins molding each paper into a flower.

She spreads the paper over a balloon and lets it dry overnight.

With a few simple steps, she has transformed a colorless roving into colorful sheets of moldable silk fibre paper.

The next day, she pops the balloon.

The silk fibre paper holds its round shape.

Using the textile medium again, she glues her silk fibre flowers to juniper branches.

She secures them with a needle and thread, matching the thread color to the silk so that it blends in.

She further sculpts the flowers with a stitch or two in select spots.

And dabs textile medium on the thread to secure it.

Then she glues in a second, slightly smaller flower, creating two layers of petals.

She takes some fibres she dyed green and glues them under the blooms to form wispy leaves.

Finally, to turn this sculpture into a functioning lamp, she places a battery powered l.e.d. push light in the center of each flower.

The lamp needs no inner wiring and doesn't need to be plugged into an outlet.

You simply press the middle of each flower to turn its hidden push light on or off.

A simple sculpture by day, and a gentle light by night.

Round hay balers automatically roll hay into large bundles.

They can also wrap the rolled hay in twine or plastic.

This american invention allows farmers to put down their pitchforks and leave the work to the machines.

The invention of the round baler was a farming breakthrough.

Round bales of hay stayed drier than square ones.

Making a round hay baler starts with a computerized fiber-optic laser.

It cuts steel sheaths into the shape of the side panels and makes holes for hardware and machine components.

Once the cuts have been made, workers remove the leftover materials.

They'll be recycled into new steel sheets.

Next, the baler side panel goes to a computerized hydraulic folder.

It bends the edges of the panel to prepare it for assembly.

With the side panel clamped in a fixture, a worker slides bolts into a part called the doubler plate.

This plate will be used to reinforce the panel.

He welds the heads of the bolts to the doubler plate.

The bolts protrude up so bearings and other parts can be attached later.

He adds other reinforcing parts, supports for rollers, and a box for twine.

Then it's over to the paint department.

They prime and paint both sides of the panel with an epoxy finish in order to protect the steel from corrosion.

After the paint dries, cranes lift two panels over to a fixture that holds several baler rollers.

Workers insert the ends of the rollers into holes in the side panels.

They add an auger for moving the hay away from the sides of the baler.

They secure all of these components with bolts.

Next, they install a belt-tightening assembly.

The bars will hold the hay-shaping belts at the correct tension.

After adding a bearing to the bottom feed roller, a worker installs sprockets.

He also loops chains around them.

The sprockets and chains will drive the 14 rollers in the baler.

The next part is known as the hay pickup, because its steel teeth lift hay from the field and into the baler.

It fits on the front of the machine.

Now a worker installs the wheels.

He brushes a lubricant onto spindles and inserts them in the wheel axles.

Bolts secure the spindles to the axles.

Then he mounts the wheels to the spindles and locks them in place with nuts.

Once the two wheels are installed, a crane lifts the machine into an upright position in order to install the rear chamber.

A crane lowers the rear chamber onto the baler assembly.

As the hay is shaped with a round bale by the machine, it will gradually expand in this chamber.

These rubber belts will roll the hay into round bales.

The team loops them around tensioning rollers, arranging them closely together.

A worker joins the ends of each belt by pushing steel pins through riveted lacing.

An employee applies vinyl decals to the outside of the baler.

The decals display the company name and the machine model in bold graphics.

The machine is equipped with hydraulic cylinders so the rear chamber can be raised and lowered.

A technician syncs the tractor cab monitor to sensors added to the baler during the assembly.

The sensors indicate the position of the back gate, the status of the bale wrapping equipment, and the moisture level in the hay.

After a complete operational check, this baler is ready to give farmers or ranchers a break by automatically creating round bales of hay.

With footwear, extremely comfortable used to mean extremely ugly.

Not anymore.

Today's comfort shoes don't look anything like they used to.

They can be just as stylish as any other shoe, but also provide sturdy, cushioning foot support.

These comfort shoes come with two interchangeable insoles.

One is an anatomically shaped footbed with good arch support.

The other is a reflexology footbed that massages your feet while you walk.

The top of the shoe is made of leather.

An operator spreads the cowhide on a cutting table and positions a part-shaped steel die over it.

With a press, he forces the die through the leather.

The die has blades on both sides, so after cutting a part for the right shoe, he flips it over and cuts the same part for the left shoe.

They stencil on guide marks for stitching and stamp on a production number.

Due to the natural variations between hides, they cut parts for a pair of shoes from the same piece of leather.

A production number keeps the parts from being inadvertently used on a different pair of shoes.

They place the part under a template and run it through a lateral knife.

This thins the leather where it will overlap adjoining parts so the thickness of the upper shoe is uniform throughout.

They apply reinforcement fabric to the most wear-prone areas of the shoe.

This machine bonds these adhesive factory enforcements with pressure and heat.

Now sewers begin assembling the upper.

They glue the parts for the lining together because stitches that are on the inside of the shoe can sometimes irritate the foot.

The lining is made of soft calf leather, except for a small piece of rougher goat leather at the back to grip the heel.

They sew in the lining one section at a time.

This is the rear section of the upper, called the heel cap.

After sewing one side, they insert a foam padding to cushion the back of the foot.

Then they fold the lining over to encase the padding.

This machine punches holes and embeds eyelets into the upper.

Then a sewer attaches two more parts of the upper, the tongue and the vamp.

Another sewer finishes the upper by stitching on the vamp ring.

They put the upper into a mold on a forming machine.

The machine works like an iron, applying both heat and pressure to form the heel cap into the perfect shape.

The next forming machine uses the same process to round the toe cap.

Now a sewer stitches a hole to the upper.

Then they steam the upper and insert a last.

A last is a foot-shaped plastic form that matches the specific shape and size of the shoe.

They place the upper into a heat setter.

The heat forms the upper to the shape of the last.

They roll out wrinkles and flatten any bulges with heat and pressure.

They place the upper in a template of the shoe's outer sole and trace the top.

They grind the leather below that line.

This roughens the surface to help with adhesion.

They apply heat-activated glue to the roughened area and the sole, which is made of molded polyurethane.

They let the glue dry.

Then they activate the glue with a heater and join the upper and sole.

They place the shoe in a vacuum press.

The press sucks out the air while drawing the upper and sole tightly together.

Next, they add an anatomically shaped footbed insole.

It's made of a moisture absorbing combination of cork and latex with leather on top.

Then they lace the shoes and insert cardboard to support the shape during transport.

They spray the upper with a chemical solution that makes the leather water-resistant.

The second set of insoles goes in the shoe box.

These shoes are designed with enough room to insert a custom orthotic device, if needed.