Hindu_philosophy

qas: question: What was the origin of Hindu philosophy?
answers: text: ancient India
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question: How many main systems of Hindu philosophy are there?
answers: text: six
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question: What are the main orthodox systems of Hindu philosophy called?
answers: text: Astika
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question: What is the accepted source of knowledge in the Astika system?
answers: text: Vedas
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question: What are the non-orthodox Indian philosophies that do not accept Vedas called?
answers: text: nāstika
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question: How many darsanas are there?
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question: What philosophy does Astika reject?
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question: Which philosophy do both nastika and Astika philosophies accept?
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question: What does Carvaka mean?
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question: Advaita says all things are a manifestation of what?
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question: Which type of guna is concened with passion and activity?
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question: How many major schools of Shaivism did Vidyaranya mention?
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context: Hindu philosophy refers to a group of darśanas (philosophies, world views, teachings) that emerged in ancient India. The mainstream Hindu philosophy includes six systems (ṣaḍdarśana) – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta. These are also called the Astika (orthodox) philosophical traditions and are those that accept the Vedas as authoritative, important source of knowledge.[note 1][note 2] Ancient and medieval India was also the source of philosophies that share philosophical concepts but rejected the Vedas, and these have been called nāstika (heterodox or non-orthodox) Indian philosophies. Nāstika Indian philosophies include Buddhism, Jainism, Cārvāka, Ājīvika, and others.

qas: question: What have scholars argued about with regards to nastika and astika philosophies?
answers: text: relationship and differences
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question: In what centuries the writings of scholars been used to debate the philosophies?
answers: text: 18th and 19th
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question: What are Buddhism and Jainism regarded as in relation to religion and philosophy?
answers: text: distinct
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question: What are other schools regarded as within Hindu philosophy?
answers: text: distinct schools
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question: How available are the sources of knowledge on Indian philosophy?
answers: text: limited
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question: When were the astika and nastika philosophies written?
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question: What are the two sibling traditions?
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question: What differentiates the various sibling traditions?
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question: What do scholars agree on within the astika and nastika philosophies?
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question: Which two named philosophies are considered to be the same?
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question: During what era did knowledge-centered understanding emerge?
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question: Of what does Dvaita Vedanta theorize the existence?
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question: What does Vaisesika teach is able to be destroyed?
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context: Scholars have debated the relationship and differences within āstika philosophies and with nāstika philosophies, starting with the writings of Indologists and Orientalists of the 18th and 19th centuries, which were themselves derived from limited availability of Indian literature and medieval doxographies. The various sibling traditions included in Hindu philosophies are diverse, and they are united by shared history and concepts, same textual resources, similar ontological and soteriological focus, and cosmology. While Buddhism and Jainism are considered distinct philosophies and religions, some heterodox traditions such as Cārvāka are often considered as distinct schools within Hindu philosophy.

qas: question: How many orthodox philosophies are in Hindu?
answers: text: six
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question: Which orthodox Hindu philosophy concerns realism?
answers: text: Nyāya
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question: What Hindu philosophy is about naturalism?
answers: text: Vaiśeṣika
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question: Which Hindu philosophy concerns dualism?
answers: text: Sāṅkhya
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question: What Hindu philosophy stresses self knowledge?
answers: text: Advaita
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question: How many subschools does Hindu philosophy have?
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question: Which school rejects naturalism?
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question: What tradition is Buddhism rooted in?
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question: What are Tantric ideas founded in?
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question: What is a combination of ideas from multiple heterodox philosophies called?
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question: What differentiates the various sibling traditions?
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question: Who discredited the idea of Vaisesika?
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question: In what time did the Vedanta school become active?
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context: Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies, such as the realism of the Nyāya, the naturalism of the Vaiśeṣika, the dualism of the Sāṅkhya, the monism and knowledge of Self as essential to liberation of Advaita, the self-discipline of yoga and the asceticism and elements of theistic ideas. Examples of such schools include Pāśupata Śaiva, Śaiva siddhānta, Pratyabhijña, Raseśvara and Vaiṣṇava. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions. The ideas of these sub-schools are found in the Puranas and Āgamas.

qas: question: What do ancient Hindu writings identify as the means to knowledge and truth?
answers: text: pramāṇas
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question: How many pramanas are there in Hindu philosophy?
answers: text: six
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question: What is the pramanas for perception?
answers: text: pratyakṣa
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question: What Hindu philosohy is concerned with inference?
answers: text: anumāṇa
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question: Which pramanas is understanding of experts?
answers: text: śabda
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question: What does pramanas mean?
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question: What do the various schools agree on?
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question: What does Carvaka nastika mean?
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question: What school believes none of the pramanas are correct?
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question: Which school believes only postulation is a valid form of knowledge?
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question: What is the word for inference in the Prabhakara subschool?
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question: What tradition is Buddhism rooted in?
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question: What form are atoms in Vaisesika?
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context: Ancient and medieval Hindu texts identify six pramāṇas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts) Each of these are further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by each school . The various schools vary on how many of these six are valid paths of knowledge. For example, the Cārvāka nāstika philosophy holds that only one (perception) is an epistemically reliable means of knowledge, the Samkhya school holds three are (perception, inference and testimony), while the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita schools hold all six are epistemically useful and reliable means to knowledge.

qas: question: Which Hindu school stresses dualism between consciousness and matter?
answers: text: Samkhya
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question: How does Samkhya view the universe?
answers: text: two realities
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question: What is the Samkhya name for consciousness?
answers: text: Puruṣa
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question: What is the Samkhya school word for matter?
answers: text: prakriti
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question: What does the joining of Purusa and Prakriti produce?
answers: text: buddhi
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question: What school rejects dualism?
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question: What is the state of prakriti splitting from purusa?
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question: What did the emergence of buddhi create?
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question: Who created the Purusa-Prakriti entities?
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question: What does Samkhya mean?
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question: Which pramana does Yoga reject?
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question: What does Vaisesika teach is able to be destroyed?
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question: What state in life does yoga believe is achievable?
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context: Samkhya school espouses dualism between consciousness and matter. It regards the universe as consisting of two realities; Puruṣa (consciousness) and prakriti (matter). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi (awareness, intellect) and ahankara (individualized ego consciousness, “I-maker”). The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.

qas: question: How many types of Guna exist in Hindu philosophy?
answers: text: three
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question: Which state of guna is that of compassion, positiveness, and goodness? 
answers: text: Sattva
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question: Which type of guna is concened with passion and activity?
answers: text: Rajas
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question: What is the focus of the guna for negativeness and destruction?
answers: text: Tamas
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question: What is the interpretation of classical  of Samkhya?
answers: text: atheist / non-theistic
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question: How many types of Sattva are there?
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question: What do all life forms have in equal proportion?
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question: Why is Samkhya considered theistic?
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question: The fact that Samkhya denies the existence of a soul makes it what?
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question: What does Ishvara determine in a person's life?
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question: What are the means of understanding maya according to Kashmir Shaivism?
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question: How many main systems of Hindu philosophy are there?
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question: When did Lakulish systematize the Pasupata Shaivism? 
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context: Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of gunas (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche). Guna, it states, are of three types: Sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; Rajas guna is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas, but in different proportions. The interplay of these gunas defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life. Samkhya theorises a pluralism of souls (Jeevatmas) who possess consciousness, but denies the existence of Ishvara (God). Classical Samkhya is considered an atheist / non-theistic Hindu philosophy.

qas: question: Of what is yoga a part  in Indian philosophy?
answers: text: philosophical schools
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question: To what school of Hindu philosophy is yoga aligned?
answers: text: Samkhya
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question: What concept does yoga accept the differentiates it from Samkhya?
answers: text: personal god
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question: How many of the six pramanas does yoga accept?
answers: text: three
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question: Unlike other schools of Samkhya, what attitude makes yoga different?
answers: text: theistic
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question: What philosophy is Yoga antithetical to?
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question: What does Samkhya accept that yoga does not?
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question: Which parts of Samkhya does Yoga reject?
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question: Which pramana does Yoga reject?
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question: What does Yoga mean?
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question: What were the effects responsible for?
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question: What state in life does yoga believe is achievable?
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question: Which school rejects naturalism?
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context: In Indian philosophy, Yoga is among other things, the name of one of the six āstika philosophical schools. The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the dualism premises of Samkhya school. The Yoga school accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts the concept of "personal god", unlike Samkhya. The epistemology of the Yoga school, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six prāmaṇas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and śabda (āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).

qas: question: What principle does yoga use from Samkhya?
answers: text: jñāna
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question: What is the meaning of jnana?
answers: text: knowledge
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question: To what does yoga say personal experimentation and knowledge lead?
answers: text: moksha
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question: To what school does yoga share central ideas?
answers: text: Advaita Vedanta
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question: What state in life does yoga believe is achievable?
answers: text: liberation/freedom
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question: What is moksha?
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question: What central idea do Yoga and Advaita Vendata share?
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question: What does Yoga state is unachievable?
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question: What is Brahaman?
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question: What school is Yoga most dissimilar to?
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question: What is the youngest major Shaiva school?
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question: What metaphysical concepts were included in the Vedanta school? 
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question: How is the Dvaita Vedanta Vishnu different from other religions?
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context: The Yoga school builds on the Samkhya school theory that jñāna (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha. Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monistic personalism. Like Advaita Vedanta, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy states that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and this occurs when an individual fully understands and realizes the equivalence of Atman (soul, self) and Brahman.

qas: question: What philosophy is a naturalist school?
answers: text: Vaiśeṣika
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question: What is the definition of paramanu in Hindu philosophy?
answers: text: atoms
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question: By understanding what does Vaisesika school believe one gains knowledge and liberation?
answers: text: world of experience
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question: Who is credited with the Vaisesika darsana?
answers: text: Kaṇāda Kaśyapa
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question: When was the Vaisesika darsana  produced?
answers: text: first millennium BCE
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question: What theory postulates that objects cannot be reduced?
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question: What does Vaisesika mean?
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question: Who coined the term paramanu?
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question: What does Vaisesika say prevents knowledge and liberation?
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question: Who discredited the idea of Vaisesika?
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question: What is the least developed Hindu school?
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question: What did Mimamsakas believe was the purpose of an orderly life?
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question: What is the pramanas for perception?
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context: The Vaiśeṣika philosophy is a naturalist school; it is a form of atomism in natural philosophy. It postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), and one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. Knowledge and liberation was achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to Vaiśeṣika school . The Vaiśeṣika darśana is credited to Kaṇāda Kaśyapa from the second half of the first millennium BCE. The foundational text, the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, opens as follows,

qas: question: According to Vaisesika philosophy, how many substances comprise reality?
answers: text: four
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question: What are the substances of Vaisesika reality?
answers: text: earth, water, air, fire
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question: Of what does Vaisesika philosophy say the things are made ?
answers: text: atoms
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question: According to Vaisesika what is divisible into atoms?
answers: text: composite
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question: What form are atoms in Vaisesika?
answers: text: invisible
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question: How many realities are there?
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question: What does Vaisesika teach is able to be destroyed?
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question: What is not a function of atoms?
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question: What is the name of a substance's special dimension?
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question: What are atoms divided into?
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question: How many ways did the Vedantins have of gaining knowledge?
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question: How many effects made up the sentient?
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question: What is the name of the author of the Vedantic scriptures?
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context: Vaiśeṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a form of atomism, that the reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, fire). Each of these four are of two types: atomic (paramāṇu) and composite. An atom is, according to Vaiśeṣika scholars, that which is indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu). A composite, in this philosophy, is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, while atoms are invisible. The Vaiśeṣikas stated that size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements, their guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (commonness), viśeṣa (particularity) and amavāya (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything).

qas: question: What school of thought is closest to Vaisesika school?
answers: text: Nyāya
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question: What does Nyaya say causes human suffering?
answers: text: mistakes/defects
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question: What state is achieved through knowledge?
answers: text: Moksha
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question: What is moksha in Hindu philosophy?
answers: text: liberation
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question: Besides ignorance, what does false knowledge include in Nyaya?
answers: text: delusion
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question: What school is Nyaya most dissimilar to?
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question: What is Nyaya uninterested in?
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question: What are practitioners of Vaisesika called?
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question: What is merely ignorance in Nyaya?
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question: What philosophy produces human suffering?
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question: What form are atoms in Vaisesika?
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question: What tradition is Buddhism rooted in?
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question: Into what parts did the Pasupatas divide the world?
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context: In its metaphysics, Nyāya school is closer to the Vaiśeṣika school than others. It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance). Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas, it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding true nature of soul, self and reality. The Nyāya Sūtras begin:

qas: question: How many ways does the Mimamsa separate into subschools?
answers: text: several
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question: How many ways does the Prabhakara subschool of Mimamsa say there are to gain knowledge?
answers: text: five
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question: How is pratyaksa defined in the Prabhakara subschool?
answers: text: perception
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question: What is the word for inference in the Prabhakara subschool?
answers: text: anumāṇa
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question: What is comparison and analogy in the Prabhakara school?
answers: text: upamāṇa
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question: Which school has no subschools?
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question: What means did the Kumarila Bhatta remove from its canon?
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question: What subschool only uses four reliable means?
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question: What does Mimamsa mean?
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question: How many Mimamsa subschools are not defined by epistemology?
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question: What did Mimamsakas and Vedantins agree on?
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question: What tradition is Buddhism rooted in?
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question: Who created the concepts of atman and Brahman?
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context: The Mīmāṃsā school has several subschools defined by epistemology. The Prābhākara subschool of Mīmāṃsā considered five epistemically reliable means to gaining knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). The Kumārila Bhaṭṭa sub-school of Mīmāṃsā added sixth to its canon of reliable epistemology - anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).

qas: question: What type of doctrines are contained in the Mimamsa  school?
answers: text: atheistic and theistic
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question: How did the Mimamsa school view the soul?
answers: text: eternal
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question: What was the focus of the Mimamsa school of philosophy?
answers: text: dharma
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question: How did the Mimamsa school consider dharma?
answers: text: rituals and duties
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question: What school disagreed with the principles of the Mimamsa school?
answers: text: Vedanta school
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question: What type of doctrine does Mimamsa not have?
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question: What school focuses on the existence of God?
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question: Mimamsa rejected the epistemology and metaphysics of what?
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question: What school agreed with the Mimamsa's understanding of Upanishads?
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question: What did Mimamsakas consider as of equal importance as the rituals?
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question: What is moksha?
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question: What is the oldest school of Shaivism?
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question: For the existence of what did the Visistadvaita philosophy argue?
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context: The metaphysics in Mīmāṃsā school consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the soul is eternal omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of dharma. To them, dharma meant rituals and duties, not devas (gods), because devas existed only in name. The Mīmāṃsākas held that the Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic vidhi (injunctions) and mantras in rituals are prescriptive karya (actions), and the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered the Upanishads and other self-knowledge, spirituality-related texts to be of secondary importance, a philosophical view that the Vedanta school disagreed with.

qas: question: To what study did Mimamsa give rise?
answers: text: philology
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question: What did the Mimamsa school think that language was meant to describe?
answers: text: proper, correct and right
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question: What school thought that language was supposed to be widened to describe and develop?
answers: text: Vedantins
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question: What parts of the Vedas did the Mimamsa school emphasize?
answers: text: early parts
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question: What sections of the Vedas did the Verdanta school favor?
answers: text: latter parts
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question: What study did Mimamsa thwart?
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question: What did Mimamsakas and Vedantins agree on?
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question: What did Mimamsakas believe was the purpose of an orderly life?
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question: What school was foundational to the Mimamsa school?
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question: Which part of the Vedas did both the Vedanta and the Mimamsa schools emphasize?
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question: What is the interpretation of classical  of Samkhya?
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question: Which group sees the world as illusion?
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question: Who created Pasupata Shaivism?
is_impossible: yes
context: Mīmāṃsā gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language. While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools, their views were not shared by others. Mīmāṃsākas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly prescribe the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins extended the scope and value of language as a tool to also describe, develop and derive. Mīmāṃsākas considered orderly, law-driven, procedural life as central purpose and noblest necessity of dharma and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that Mīmāṃsā school developed and emphasized karmakāṇḍa (that part of the śruti which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school developed and emphasized jñānakāṇḍa (that portion of the Vedas which relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas).

qas: question: On which sutras did the Vedanta school focus?
answers: text: Upanishads and Brahma
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question: In what time did the Vedanta school become active?
answers: text: first millennium BCE
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question: Which is the most developed and well known of the Hindu schools?
answers: text: Vedānta
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question: How many ways did the Vedantins have of gaining knowledge?
answers: text: five or six methods
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question: On what was dependent for the choice of methods in gaining knowledge?
answers: text: sub-school
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question: What is the least developed Hindu school?
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question: Which sutras did the Vedanta reject?
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question: When did the Vedanta school end?
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question: Which method of gaining knowledge is not included in the Vedanta school?
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question: What are sub-schools not allowed to do with the epistemologies?
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question: Advaita says all things are a manifestation of what?
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question: How many ways does the Prabhakara subschool of Mimamsa say there are to gain knowledge?
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question: Who opposed Visistadvaita?
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context: The Vedānta school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCE and is the most developed and well-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). Each of these have been further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by each sub-school of Vedanta.

qas: question: What did the Vedanta school represent in Hindu philosophy?
answers: text: knowledge-centered understanding
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question: On what aspects of Vedic did the Vedanta understanding focus?
answers: text: jnana
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question: On what did the Vedanta school lessen focus?
answers: text: ritualism
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question: Due to differences in text interpretations,into  what did the Vedanta school separate?
answers: text: many sub-schools
is_impossible: no

question: What metaphysical concepts were included in the Vedanta school? 
answers: text: ātman and Brahman
is_impossible: no

question: What represented the lack of knowledge-centered study?
is_impossible: yes

question: Which Vedic did Vedanta ignore?
is_impossible: yes

question: What does Vedic mean?
is_impossible: yes

question: During what era did knowledge-centered understanding emerge?
is_impossible: yes

question: Who created the concepts of atman and Brahman?
is_impossible: yes

question: What means 
is_impossible: yes

question: Which state of guna is that of compassion, positiveness, and goodness? 
is_impossible: yes

question: Which school has no subschools?
is_impossible: yes
context: The emergence of Vedanta school represented a period when a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge. These focussed on jnana (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads. This included metaphysical concepts such as ātman and Brahman, and emphasized meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient and medieval era Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries.

qas: question: What means 
answers: text: Advaita
is_impossible: no

question: What means two?
is_impossible: yes

question: What is the youngest Vedantic School?
is_impossible: yes

question: Who coined the term Advaita?
is_impossible: yes

question: Who was Gaudapada's teacher?
is_impossible: yes

question: What is the name of the author of the Vedantic scriptures?
is_impossible: yes

question: Which two categories are independent?
is_impossible: yes

question: Besides ignorance, what does false knowledge include in Nyaya?
is_impossible: yes

question: What does pramanas mean?
is_impossible: yes
context: Advaita literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism. Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism, that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness. This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE. Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara, who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.

qas: question: According to a school of Vedanta, what is all reality?
answers: text: Brahman
is_impossible: no

question: What concepts of metaphysics are included in Vedanta?
answers: text: māyā and ātman
is_impossible: no

question: How is the reality of maya viewed in Vedanta?
answers: text: always changing
is_impossible: no

question: To what does the concept of atman refer?
answers: text: soul
is_impossible: no

question: To what do Advaita Vedantins view atman as the same?
answers: text: Brahman
is_impossible: no

question: Which metaphysic concept is never changing?
is_impossible: yes

question: What is not within human beings?
is_impossible: yes

question: What is the opposite of Brahman?
is_impossible: yes

question: What do non-Advaita Vedantins say about atman and Brahman?
is_impossible: yes

question: What is unchanging and what it appears to be?
is_impossible: yes

question: What school is Yoga most dissimilar to?
is_impossible: yes

question: What type of doctrines are contained in the Mimamsa  school?
is_impossible: yes

question: How many main systems of Hindu philosophy are there?
is_impossible: yes
context: According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman. Its metaphysics includes the concept of māyā and ātman. Māyā connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal". The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be". The concept of ātman is of soul, self within each person, each living being. Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there is oneness in all of existence. They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of māyā as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. Jīvanmukti (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that ātman within is same as ātman in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality.

qas: question: What is the philosophy of dualism?
answers: text: Viśiṣṭādvaita
is_impossible: no

question: Who was the leader in pushing the philosophy of Visistadvaita?
answers: text: Ramanuja
is_impossible: no

question: When did Ramanuja live?
answers: text: c. 1037–1137
is_impossible: no

question: For the existence of what did the Visistadvaita philosophy argue?
answers: text: Supreme Being
is_impossible: no

question: What being did Ramanuja believe was the personification of Brahman
answers: text: Vishnu
is_impossible: no

question: Who opposed Visistadvaita?
is_impossible: yes

question: When was Visistadvaita first proposed?
is_impossible: yes

question: What did Visistadvaitins and Advaitins agree on?
is_impossible: yes

question: What was the philosophy of qualified dualism?
is_impossible: yes

question: Who did Advaitins believe was a personification of Brahman?
is_impossible: yes

question: Into what parts did the Pasupatas divide the world?
is_impossible: yes

question: How is the Dvaita Vedanta Vishnu different from other religions?
is_impossible: yes

question: Which method of gaining knowledge is not included in the Vedanta school?
is_impossible: yes
context: Ramanuja (c. 1037–1137) was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman. Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman.

qas: question: Of what does Dvaita Vedanta theorize the existence?
answers: text: two separate realities
is_impossible: no

question: To what entity is the Vedanta Vishnu similar in other religions?
answers: text: monotheistic God
is_impossible: no

question: How is the God of Dvaita different from that of Advaita in actions?
answers: text: takes on a personal role
is_impossible: no

question: As what did the Dvaita school view dualism?
answers: text: permanent
is_impossible: no

question: Who did the Dvaita school identify as the Supreme Being?
answers: text: Vishnu
is_impossible: no

question: What theory claims there is one reality?
is_impossible: yes

question: How is the Dvaita Vedanta Vishnu different from other religions?
is_impossible: yes

question: Who has an impersonal role according to Dvaita?
is_impossible: yes

question: What in Dvaita is only temporary? 
is_impossible: yes

question: What distinguishes Advaita Vedanta from Dvaita?
is_impossible: yes

question: Which group sees the world as illusion?
is_impossible: yes

question: What was the philosophy of qualified dualism?
is_impossible: yes

question: What school believes none of the pramanas are correct?
is_impossible: yes
context: Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas, espouses dualism by theorizing the existence of two separate realities. The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is the supreme Self, in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions. The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe. Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta subschool, Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism, with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only Supreme Being. However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism, the dualism of Dvaita was permanent.

qas: question: What early philosopher proposed Dvaitadvaita?
answers: text: Nimbarka
is_impossible: no

question: In what century did Nimbarka live?
answers: text: 13th-century
is_impossible: no

question: How many categories of existence are there in Dvaitadvaita?
answers: text: three
is_impossible: no

question: What are the categories of existence in Dvaitadvaita?
answers: text: Brahman, soul, and matter
is_impossible: no

question: Who is named as the highest entity worshiped in Dvaitadvaita?
answers: text: Krishna
is_impossible: no

question: Which two categories are independent?
is_impossible: yes

question: Who is Radha's consort?
is_impossible: yes

question: How many gopis attended Nimbarka?
is_impossible: yes

question: Who is not worshiped in Dvaitadvaita?
is_impossible: yes

question: What controls Brahman?
is_impossible: yes

question: Which method of gaining knowledge is not included in the Vedanta school?
is_impossible: yes

question: What school was foundational to the Mimamsa school?
is_impossible: yes

question: Which Hindu philosophy concerns dualism?
is_impossible: yes
context: Dvaitādvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th-century Vaishnava Philosopher from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, soul, and matter. Soul and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent. Thus soul and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the soul is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopis; of the Vrindavan; and devotion consists in self-surrender.

qas: question: In what text is Shaivism recounted?
answers: text: Śvetāśvatara Upanishad
is_impossible: no

question: When was the text on Shaivism written?
answers: text: 400 – 200 BCE
is_impossible: no

question: Who reported the major schools of Shaivism?
answers: text: Vidyaranya
is_impossible: no

question: How many major schools of Shaivism did Vidyaranya mention?
answers: text: three
is_impossible: no

question: What is the Kashmir Shaivism mentioned by Vidyaranya?
answers: text: Pratyabhijña
is_impossible: no

question: What is easy to determine of Shaivism?
is_impossible: yes

question: When did Shaivism first begin?
is_impossible: yes

question: Who created Shaivism?
is_impossible: yes

question: What philosophical school is Shaivism not represented by?
is_impossible: yes

question: Who wrote the Svetasvatara Upanishad?
is_impossible: yes

question: What is moksha?
is_impossible: yes

question: How many ways did the Vedantins have of gaining knowledge?
is_impossible: yes

question: What is Brahaman?
is_impossible: yes
context: Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine. However, the Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400 – 200 BCE) is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism. Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dualist-with-dualist (bhedābheda) perspectives. Vidyaranya in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought— Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism).

qas: question: What is the oldest school of Shaivism?
answers: text: Pāśupata Shaivism
is_impossible: no

question: Who organized the Pasupata philosophy?
answers: text: Lakulish
is_impossible: no

question: When did Lakulish systematize the Pasupata Shaivism? 
answers: text: 2nd century CE
is_impossible: no

question: What school of philosophy did the Pasupatas dislike?
answers: text: Vaishnava theology
is_impossible: no

question: What aspect of Vaishnava was unpalatable for the Pasupatas?
answers: text: servitude of souls
is_impossible: no

question: What is the youngest major Shaiva school?
is_impossible: yes

question: Who created Pasupata Shaivism?
is_impossible: yes

question: Which theology did Pashupatas prefer?
is_impossible: yes

question: When was the Pasupata Shaivism school started?
is_impossible: yes

question: Why did Pashupatas believe servitude of souls was necessary?
is_impossible: yes

question: What was the origin of Hindu philosophy?
is_impossible: yes

question: What school is Yoga most dissimilar to?
is_impossible: yes

question: Who discredited the idea of Vaisesika?
is_impossible: yes
context: Pāśupata Shaivism (Pāśupata, "of Paśupati") is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools. The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized by Lakulish in the 2nd century CE. Paśu in Paśupati refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or principium), the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the pati, or the ruler. Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of souls to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pāśupatas, soul possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.

qas: question: What group divided the world into two parts?
answers: text: Pāśupatas
is_impossible: no

question: Into what parts did the Pasupatas divide the world?
answers: text: insentient and the sentient
is_impossible: no

question: In what staet was the insentient considered to be?
answers: text: unconscious
is_impossible: no

question: How was the sentient seen as being?
answers: text: conscious
is_impossible: no

question: For the Pasupatas, how was the union of the soul with God achieved?
answers: text: through the intellect
is_impossible: no

question: What was the sentient dependent on?
is_impossible: yes

question: Salvation required the soul separating from what?
is_impossible: yes

question: What was the sentient broken up into?
is_impossible: yes

question: How many effects made up the sentient?
is_impossible: yes

question: What were the effects responsible for?
is_impossible: yes

question: To what does yoga say personal experimentation and knowledge lead?
is_impossible: yes

question: What is merely ignorance in Nyaya?
is_impossible: yes

question: What does Vaisesika say prevents knowledge and liberation?
is_impossible: yes
context: Pāśupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. Salvation in Pāśupata involved the union of the soul with God through the intellect.

qas: question: What type of philosophy does both Kasmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta share?
answers: text: non-dual
is_impossible: no

question: What aspect do non-dual philosophies give to the highest order of worship?
answers: text: Universal Consciousness
is_impossible: no

question: As what does Kashmir Shaivism view the conscious world?
answers: text: real
is_impossible: no

question: Which group sees the world as illusion?
answers: text: Advaita
is_impossible: no

question: According to Kashmir Shaivism, what is the goal in belief?
answers: text: merge in Shiva
is_impossible: no

question: What are dual philosophies?
is_impossible: yes

question: What is the opposite of Shiva?
is_impossible: yes

question: What are the means of understanding maya according to Kashmir Shaivism?
is_impossible: yes

question: Advaita says all things are a manifestation of what?
is_impossible: yes

question: What do believers of Advaita believe is the point of human life?
is_impossible: yes

question: What did Visistadvaitins and Advaitins agree on?
is_impossible: yes

question: What is Brahaman?
is_impossible: yes

question: On what did the Vedanta school lessen focus?
is_impossible: yes
context: Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness (Chit or Brahman), in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness. This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world (Śakti) is real, and it exists and has its being in Consciousness (Chit). Whereas, Advaita holds that Brahman is inactive (niṣkriya) and the phenomenal world is an illusion (māyā). The objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realize one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.