Some aspects of archaic East Greek art and their influence

The thesis is concerned with the position of East Greek art in the later 7th and the 6th centuries B.C.
Its aim is two-fold. First and foremost, to try to establish by detailed examination and analysis, as factually and objectively as possible, what characteristics in the topics investigated are genuinely East Greek. Second, to use the conclusions gained to test the validity of some current views on the status of East Greek art, and to see whether any influence from East Greece in the fields studied, on other Greek, and to some extent on Etruscan art, may fairly be claimed.
The Introduction refers briefly to the decline in prestige suffered by East Greek art from the period of 'Pan-Ionism' in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to the present day, so that from being considered the artistic leader of Greece in the archaic period, East Greece is now most frequently thought of as largely under the influence of mainland art. The writer's belief is stated, that this reversal of fortune is due almost as much to partisanship and mistaken or incomplete assessment of evidence as was its former exalted reputation. The topics to be studied are outlined, together with the writer's reasons for thinking them important. They are: I, Gorgons and Gorgoneia, which because of their popularity in all schools of archaic art offer much material for study and comparison, and therefore the hope of reaching definite conclusions, and II, Representations of scenes from the Trojan Cycle and from the exploits of Herakles, which also offer considerable scope for comparison, in a broader area, with material from the rest of Greece.
Chapter II, Gorgons and Gorgoneia, begins with a 'catalogue raisonne' of all the East Greek examples known to the writer. These include examples found in East Greece itself and in Ionian colonies, and also any examples found elsewhere in Greece or in Etruria which seem, because of their direct connections with examples from East Greece, to be themselves East Greek (this applies, for example, to some of the 'gorgoneion' plastic vases). The catalogue is divided into categories according to materials; within each category, gorgons are listed first, then gorgoneia. The categories are: plastic vases; pottery; architectural terracottas; sculpture; bronzes; ivories; gems; miscellaneous; and finally a category containing examples found outside East Greece which, though without direct connection with similar examples from East Greece itself, seem overwhelmingly likely to be East Greek, or are generally considered so. The items on the last category are not included in the analysis of characteristics which follows. The total number of examples, excluding the last group, is ninety-three. A catalogue of Cycladic gorgons and gorgoneia is appended at the end of the East Greek catalogue; these were treated in detail in the hope of establishing their position vis-a-vis East Greece and the mainland, and it was found that, though they showed characteristics derived from both areas, they remained in many ways a law unto themselves; there was certainly no ground for incorporating them with the East Greek examples.
The catalogue is followed by a brief analysis of the gorgons and gorgoneia from each of the main artistic regions of Greece. This was considered necessary to provide an adequate background for the discussion of the East Greek examples. The schools discussed are: Corinthian; the 'Argive-Corinthian' shield-bands; Boeotian; Laconian; 'Chalcidian'; Sicilian and South Italian; Campanian; Etruscan; Cycladic; Attic. The date and type of the earliest examples is noted, together with the development throughout the archaic period; where possible, general characteristics are outlined, but important individual examples are also mentioned. Possible outside influence, including any from East Greece, are also noted.
In the final section, the East Greek examples are discussed in detail. It is noted that only one example has the strongly-stylized facial features typical of Corinthian and Corinthian-influenced gorgoneia. The salient characteristics of the East Greek type, in order of importance, are found to be (i) Looped hair-snakes, (ii) Fangs close to, or touching the tongue, (iii) Disc ear-rings. It is found that, though most examples show one of these characteristics, the majority of those with looped snakes and one or both of the other features are from Ionia and S.Aeolis, with an 'appendix' formed by the 'Rhodian' plastic vases. There are two 'fringe' groups, neither showing strong mainland features. The southern group, composed of gems, though lacking the specific 'central group' characteristic of looped snakes, is clearly related in general type. The 'pear-shaped' face is noted as a subsidiary characteristic. It is established that, though the main body of the examples is later than 550, the 'East Greek' type with all three characteristics appears before this, and the looped snakes are already evident in the late 7th century. By means of these conclusions, the opinion of Åkerström, that it is impossible to distinguish mainland and Ionian types, is refuted. Payne's belief, widely followed by later scholars, that East Greece took its gorgoneion-type from the mainland, and especially from Athens after the mid-6th century, is argued to be wrong, for the following reasons: First, the 'East Greek' type appears well before the mid-6th century, while no similar type is found in Attica before the late 6th century; Second, this 'East Greek' type is the only one of any importance in East Greece, and East Greek examples show a very marked homogeneity; in Attica, however, the basic gorgon- and gorgoneion-type is the Corinthian, and where hair-snakes appear, as often among the gorgons, these vary greatly in type. Only at the end of the 6th century, and notably in early Rf, do some examples appear with all three of the characteristics outlined for the East Greek group, and even then other types remain. From this it is argued that, so far from being influenced by Attica in this respect, East Greece evolved its own characteristic type, which was adopted in Athens towards the end of the 6th century. These conclusions ace also taken to indicate that the gorgoneia of 'East Greek' type which appear in the West after the mid-6th century, are genuine signs of East Greek influence.
At the end of this chapter are six appendices dealing with matters which have arisen out of the study of the gorgons, but which are not directly connected:
Appendix I discusses the sandalled-goot aryballos from Samos (A.lla), whose gorgoneion emerged as the only example from East Greece of the 'Corinthian-Attic' type. The shape of mouth of the aryballos, and the types of decorative motifs used on it, are found also to have their closest parallels in Corinthian and Attic vases of the second quarter of the 6th century. An Attic origin therefore seems likely.
Appendix 2 deals with 'eye-cups'. It is argued that the 'partfaces' of 'Rhodian' plates and of East Greek, 'Chalcidian' and Attic eye-cups, were regarded as forms of gorgoneia.
In Appendix 3, it is argued that the Didyma marble gorgons (B.i) belong, not to the NW and SE corners, as generally assumed, but to the NW and ME corners, of the archaic temple. Some comments are made on the objects held by the gorgons.
Appendix 4 consists of a discussion of the character and origin of the Carchemish and Olympia shields, and a comparison of their animals with each other and with examples in Near Eastern art. This is intended to establish, (a) that the Olympia shield cannot be mainland or Cycladic work, and (b) that the Carchemish shield cannot be a non- Greek (Near Eastern) imitation of East Greek work.
Appendix 5 discusses a bronze shield-device in the form of a horsehead, from Olympia, which seems stylistically related to the gorgoneion shield-device, J.l. It is argued that the type of bit worn by the horse is distinctively East Greek, and a list of examples is given. A lion-head shield-device is associated with the group.
Appendix 6 discussed disc and stud ear-rings in the archaic period, with special reference to the East Greek examples, the problem of representations on Chiot pottery, and whether East Greek men wore earrings. The conclusions reached are, (i) that almost all known representations of disc ear-rings outside East Greece (and Cyprus) could be due to East Greek influence; (ii) that stud ear-rings, used occasionally on the mainland for gorgons and sphinxes, may also be eastern importations, and (iii) that some East Greek men probably did wear disc and stud ear-rings.
In Part Two, Chapter III examines Trojan Cycle scenes, Chapter IV, some Herakles scenes. The method is the same for all. A description of the East Greek scenes in question heads each section. There follows an analysis of the characteristics of the scene in archaic art generally (including Etruscan art); apparent regional peculiarities are noted. Finally, an attempt is made to decide whether the East Greek version has any original features (apart from specifically East Greek details, which are also noted), and whether or not it can be proved to be dependent on the mainland versions.
Chapter III. The earliest vase-representations are on Chiot chalices: Sections A,C,D,F, and G2. The interpretation of D and F (Ambush of Troilos, Achilles and Memnon), is certain. They are approximately contemporary with the earliest mainland versions, and, although not strikingly different in composition, are not obviously derivative (this latter observation applies to most of the later scenes also). The Ambush of Troilos particularly shows original features; however, the late representation of this subject, on a Clazomenian sarcophagus, seems clearly related to the Leagros Group.
In Section A, the interpretation of a Naukratis sherd as Aphrodite protecting Aeneas is supported. The presence of an arm holding a spear, indicative of a warlike setting, is noted.
In Section C, it is argued that the fragmentary scene on Side B of the Troilos chalice represents the Ransom of Hector. Achilles is considered to be seated, as in Homer, and not reclining, as in Attic versions.
The last Clazomenian scene, Odysseus and Circe, is treated briefly in Section H.
Section G deals with a fragmentary bronze relief of the late 7th century, from Samos, with part of the Blinding of Polyphemus. The group of reliefs, mostly from Olympia, to which the Samos bronze belongs, is discussed in some detail, with comparisons between the different members of the group, and with East Greek art in general. Several reliefs are rejected from the group, and others, with representations of animals, are proposed as members, or at any rate as East Greek.
Chapter IV follows the same procedure. None of the East Greek Herakles-scenes discussed is very early, and most resemble mainland examples closely in composition, though no direct links can be traced.
Section A, Herakles and Pholos, lists examples in stone sculpture (Assoe), and terracotta revetments (Larisa, Akalan), and the subject is identified on a Fikellura fragment from Istros. Possible examples of the scene are also listed, including one from Thasos with signs of East Greek influence.
The examples in Section B (Herakles and Nessos) are a panel of one of the bronse reliefs discussed in Ch.III G, and an Ionian Little Master cup.
In Section C, Herakles and Nereus/Triton, it is argued that the merman1 on the Assos frieze may be Nereus. It is suggested that the schema with Herakles astride the merman may be an invention of Attic bf vase-painters.
Section D, Herakles and Lion, deals with a late bf amphora from Rhodes. The composition has no exact parallel on the mainland, and is shown to be close to Near Eastern models. The arrival of the East Greek lion-type in Attic bf and rf towards the end of the 6th century is discussed.
In the final chapter, a brief survey is made of the conclusions of Parts One and Two, and the implications for archaic East Greek art as a whole are outlined. The general impression gained from both the gorgons and gorgoneia and the mythological scenes of before 550, was of independent development, though the mythological scenes clearly drew on a common Greek stock of 'patterns'. There was no definite evidence of influence from the mainland, nor, on the other hand, from East Greece to the mainland, in this period. After 550, the mythological scenes, with the probable exception of that on a Clazomenian sarcophagus, still show no clear evidence of mainland domination; this applies to the vase scenes too, despite the adoption of the Bf technique. The importance of the clearly-demonstrated spread of the gorgon- and gorgoneion-type to Attica and the West in the second half of the century, for the study of apparent 'East Greek elements' in later Attic vase-painting is stressed. The significance of the groups of bronze-reliefs, which have hitherto been rather neglected, is emphasized. Finally, it is noted that the evidence from the gorgoneia and other individual motifs such as the lion-type, and the development and influence of East Greek art, agrees with what is already known from sculpture and architecture; the evidence from the mythological scenes does not contradict this. Further, Ionia is indicated as the artistic centre of East Greece, at least for the topics studied.