THE LINGUISTIC AND READING SKILLS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS AT-RISK FOR POOR READING COMPREHENSION: PROFILES AND PREDICTORS
Keywords: dyslexia
English language learners
language
literacy
poor comprehenders
reading difficulties

This dissertation concerns the linguistic and reading profiles and predictors of English language learners (ELLs) classified as typically developing or at-risk for poor reading comprehension. The ELLs in the studies came from Chinese, Portuguese, and Spanish home language backgrounds, but had all begun formal schooling in English in kindergarten. An at-risk classification model based on performance on components of the simple view of reading (Gough Tunmer, 1986), and using cut-off scores at the 30th percentile or below and the 40th percentile or above, was employed for identification of poor and good readers, respectively. ELLs (n = 127) were subtyped in grade 4 as either typically developing or at-risk based on their decoding and language comprehension skills in relation to the ELL sample (and not to monolingual norms). Reader subtypes used in the final analyses were: poor decoders (difficulties with word reading; n = 17), poor language comprehenders (language impaired; n = 15), multi-deficit at-risker (problems in decoding and language comprehension; n = 20), and typical developers (no deficits in decoding or language comprehension; n = 57). Study 1 compared the grade 4 profiles of the ELL reader subtypes on the following skills: word reading, reading fluency at the word- and text-levels, vocabulary, inferencing strategy, and reading comprehension. To validate the at-risk classification model, multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) results indicated that all three at-risk reader subtypes were experiencing significant problems with their reading comprehension in grade 4 when compared to typically developing ELLs. Different skill profiles were observed across the three at-risk reader groups in grade 4: poor decoders demonstrated difficulties with various aspects of word reading (accuracy and fluency), and inferencing strategy; poor language comprehenders demonstrated difficulties in word reading fluency; and multi-deficit at-riskers demonstrated pervasive difficulties with all the reading and language skills under study, including fluency and inferencing strategy. Study 2 identified longitudinal (from grade 2) linguistic and reading predictors of later at-risk ELL reader subtype in grade 4. Multinomial logistic regression models indicated that there were different predictors of later at-risk status across the reading groups: word reading fluency for poor decoders; receptive vocabulary for poor language comprehenders; and fluency and oral expression for multi-deficit at-riskers. Similar to the findings of previous research with poor reading ELLs (e.g., Geva Herbert, 2012; Geva Massey-Garrison, 2013; Li Kirby, 2014), findings suggest that not all ELL readers with poor reading comprehension are the same; there are different sources of reading comprehension problems which point to different intervention foci. Furthermore, it appears that readers struggling with reading comprehension due to poor language can be successfully identified as early as grade 2, prior to the onset of their later difficulties in reading comprehension. Findings provide support for an enhanced simple view of reading that also includes fluency and inferencing strategy. Directions for future research and implications for practice are presented.