Development of non-precious metal catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction
Keywords: Chemical Engineering.

Eliminating greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate the effects of climate change is a global imperative. To achieve this goal, the world's dependence on fossil fuels must be ended and renewable energy technologies must be developed and deployed on a massive scale. The electrocatalytic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is an important limiting step in several promising technologies, including fuel cells, metal-air batteries, and the sustainable synthesis of hydrogen peroxide. Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are a clean and efficient technology for converting chemical energy, e.g. in the form of hydrogen fuel, into electrical energy for transportation and backup power generation. The majority of the efficiency losses in a PEMFC are due to the sluggish kinetics of the ORR, requiring significant loadings of platinum-based catalysts at the cathode. The scarcity and high cost of platinum is therefore a limiting factor for the widespread development of PEMFC technologies. In this dissertation, we develop several low-cost, non-precious metal ORR catalysts for acidic and alkaline media, as well as techniques for understanding the relationship between performance and material properties. First, we investigate the performance of a thin film, carbon-free nickel nitride catalyst, finding substantial ORR activity in acidic and alkaline media. We identify significant surface oxidation with testing and air exposure. Utilizing electrochemical cycling and stability testing informed by Pourbaix diagrams, the role of surface oxidation in determining catalyst activity and stability is explored. This work demonstrates the importance of understanding material surface properties and stability. We next use a molybdenum (oxy)nitride thin film system to probe the role of structure and composition in ORR performance in acidic conditions. Using extensive materials characterization, the depth-dependent structure and composition of the films are determined, discovering the high O content in the bulk of films with a highly-defected structure. This bulk O content is found to be the strongest predictor of ORR activity. We use in situ characterization techniques to understand the material changes that occur during reaction, particularly those associated with potential-dependent catalytic behavior, finding that the catalyst surface undergoes distortion, amorphization, and O incorporation. We identify a potential window in which the intrinsic catalytic activity can be enhanced without the roughening or dissolution that lead to instability. This work demonstrates how ex situ and in situ techniques can be used to develop a rigorous understanding of a catalyst material, which can then be leveraged to optimize catalyst performance. Finally, we explore corrosion-resistant, conductive antimonates as a framework for enhancing the activity and stability of transition metal active sites. The antimonates are found to have superior intrinsic activity on a TM mass basis relative to the comparable oxides in alkaline electrolyte. Strategies for improving catalyst performance including electrode engineering and doping are investigated. Validating a theoretical prediction, a Mn-Cr antimonate solid solution is found to have enhanced mass activity compared to the pure Mn antimonate (on a TM basis). Further modifications of the antimonate framework are discussed, as well as strategies for materials discovery and development. In summary, this thesis addresses the challenge of PEMFC catalyst cost and performance through the discovery and development of non-precious metal ORR catalysts. Utilizing thorough materials and electrochemical characterization, we aim to develop fundamental understanding of these catalysts and strategies for improving their performance. For the ORR and beyond, this work demonstrates approaches to materials discovery and development that will be needed to advance and commercialize a wide variety of renewable energy technologies