It includes specific programmes to support skills gaps in the Engineering and Manufacturing Sector as well as the development of skills to help address Net Zero challenges such as hydrogen, amongst other areas. The Welsh Government’s Net Zero Skills Action Plan (2021)269 prioritises seven key areas of action for delivering the Welsh Government’s vision for a fairer, greener and • Gain an understanding of the current skills position for each emission sector • Build a shared understanding of net zero skills across Wales • Grow a skilled workforce to meet our net zero commitments • Strengthen the skills system • Promote opportunities for early years and young people to realise their • Cross-government and partnership approach to meet our skills commitment A Future Economy270 work programme has set out actions to develop a more resilient supply chain and increase skills on island. This includes the green skills necessary to decarbonise and ensure a just transition. 268 Eco-Schools programme 269 Net Zero Action Plan 270Jersey: Future Economy Work Programme

At COP26, the government pledged to put children first in our net zero transition. Improving climate education is vital to tackle the climate emergency. A full-time officer has been employed to improve climate education across the curriculum. As part of the Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 of education in Guernsey, raising awareness and learning about climate change, energy efficiency and sustainability are included in the Bailiwick of Guernsey Curriculum, published in 2017, used in Guernsey and Alderney government-maintained schools. This is achieved through subjects such as Geography and Science. Coverage is broad, focusing on, for teaching and understanding how the world’s climate is changing, there being various ways to address climate change, and of the potential impacts of climate change; how sustainability is doing things in a way that ensures resources needed are not damaged or wasted and are used wisely; and about the production of carbon dioxide by human activity, the impact on the climate and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere; as well as renewable and non-renewable energy. In 2019, the Isle of Man Programme for Achievement of Climate Targets (IMPACT) Report271 was produced. Appendix 9 relates to climate in the Manx curriculum. Legal requirements for new buildings to achieve a minimum SAP rating272 commenced in 2020. Between 1 January 2021 and 31 December 2023 the minimum requirement was equivalent to a ‘B’ Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) rating in the UK, rising to the equivalent of an ‘A’ rating in January 2024. The Phase 1 Action Plan Progress Report273 details progress made against the Council of Ministers’ Climate Action Plan Phase 1274 over the period 1 April 2021-31 March 2022, including actions relating to education and skills. The Isle of Man Retrofit and Low Carbon Skills Analysis275 was produced in 2022. Section 2 of the Isle of Man Climate Change Plan 2022-2027276 includes a commitment to upskill the construction industry in low carbon heating technologies. In schools, training with Eco Schools277 has led to 5 schools achieving Green Flag status along with the continued roll-out of Global Gibraltar has long had an environmental education programme, carried out collaboratively between the Department of Education and the Department of the Environment & Climate Change. This has evolved to meet the changing priorities of 271 Isle of Programme for Achievement of Climate Targets (IMPACT) Report 272 Isle of Building Control (Approved Documents) Order 2020 273 Isle of Phase One Action Plan Progress Report 274 Isle of Council of Ministers’ Climate Change Action Plan Phase 1 275 Isle of Retrofit and Low Carbon Skills Analysis 276 Isle of Climate Change Plan 2022-2027 278 Isle of Global Teacher Training

the education sector with a greater focus on outdoor and project based learning, with a strong environmental angle. In December 2022 Gibraltar published a Bill to amend its Education & Training Act279 to ensure a commitment to making learning about the environment and climate justice is a fundamental principle of education policy. This revision will also bring to bear a number of commitments which will support the prioritisation of climate emergency related workstreams including a bespoke climate change curriculum framework for sustainable schools, developing climate change INSET training for educational staff and revised career advice which includes a focus 2.11.12 Sustainability and Behaviour Change The UK is working to deliver the benefits of the net zero transition to our health, our homes and our overall prosperity. Our priority is making green choices easier, clearer and more affordable, and working with industry to remove barriers. There are numerous individual actions – some one-off and some frequent – that people can take to contribute to net zero. Choices and behaviours that impact on net zero broadly fall into three adopting new low carbon technologies; using energy, technologies, or services more efficiently; and everyday business and In England, there are the following strategies in place to tackle sustainability and • National Food Strategy280 (2022): The Strategy responded to Henry Dimbleby’s independent review of the food system and set out a set of objectives to deliver “a prosperous agri-food sector”. These led to, for example, the commissioning of a review into labour shortages, establishing the Food Data Transparency Partnership, and consulting on the government Buying Standards for Food and Catering Services. • Heat and Buildings Strategy (2021): The Strategy set out government’s overall approach to decarbonising heating, through increasing the roll out of clean heat technologies as well as the installation of energy efficiency measures. Heat pumps and heat networks were the major clean heat technologies, whilst also leaving flexibility for potential roll out of hydrogen. The strategy combined regulations to give industry certainty of technology transitions, as well as subsidies to support consumers to upgrade. These measures together built a credible path for the UK to meet its carbon budget sector effort shares for buildings.
279 Education & Training Act

2.11.12.2 Northern Ireland Executive The Department for the Economy (DfE) have worked in collaboration across both the public and private sector, working with a cross-departmental steering group and a Circular Economy Coalition (an advisory panel established in 2021) to drive forward progress on the Circular Economy strategy. The Circularity Gap Report Northern Ireland, commissioned by DfE, was published in June 2022 and provided a snapshot of how circular Northern Ireland currently is. The report281 informed much of the evidence base underpinning the development of the draft Circular Economy Strategy for Northern Ireland, which is due to be published in January 2023. In May 2022 we launched two linked consultations, on a Circular Economy Bill and on a Circular Economy & Waste Route Map. The Bill establishes the legislative framework to support Scotland’s transition to a zero waste and circular economy, significantly increase reuse and recycling rates, and modernise and improve waste and recycling services. It is complemented by the Circular Economy & Waste Route Map, which sets out clear actions we need to take to progress a circular economy in Scotland by 2030. Together, they will help us achieve our sustainable resource and Scotland was also the first nation of the UK to implement a ban on many of the most problematic single-use plastics, with legislation coming into force in June 2022. Climate Action Wales282 provides information and advice in relation to the following • Green Home Energy Reducing energy consumption, Home • Green Transport Driving less; taking up active travel and public transport, Electric vehicle adoption • Green Food Reducing food waste, Healthier eating and sustainable • Green Consumption Shopping sustainably, using less, reusing, The Welsh Government has updated building regulations to achieve a 37% reduction in carbon emissions for new dwellings.283 It intends to make further changes in 2025, raising the bar to require new homes to achieve at least a 75% reduction in 281 Northern Circularity Gap Report 282 Climate Action Wales 283 Building regulations guidance

The Welsh Housing Quality Standard exists to improve the quality of social homes.284 Social landlords are legally obliged to meet the Standard’s requirements, including those relating to energy performance and environmental impact. Jersey’s Carbon Neutral Roadmap285 makes a commitment to behavioural change campaigns to consider and reduce all emissions associated with Islanders’ lives. Jersey-specific carbon literacy training has been developed. Officers have worked with internal colleagues, external stakeholder through the eco active business network and Ministers. As an organisation the government of Jersey has the responsibility to set an example on decarbonisation and has set itself ambitious decarbonisation targets with a focus on the government estate and fleet. Guernsey’s governmental strategy for transport has a focus on behavioural change with encouraging active travel as an alternative to vehicles forming a key part of the strategy. The island has a walking and cycling app to help navigate around the islands' quiet lanes and Guernsey’s government has offered subsidies on electric The island’s energy policy outlines the importance of energy efficiency measures in reducing energy related emissions and the climate change policy reaffirmed the hierarchical approaches to waste management, energy use and transport. This requires behavioural change to preserve resources and reduce emissions. The Isle of Man became the world’s first entire island nation with Biosphere status in 2016.286 The Climate Change Act 2021287 includes duties for Manx public bodies, which create a statutory requirement to support sustainable development and the UN Sustainable Development goals. Each of the actions in the Isle of Man Climate Change Plan 2022-2027288 is linked to one or more UN Sustainable Development Goals, and the Act requires annual progress reports to include reporting on progress Section C of the Isle of Man Climate Change Plan 2022-2027 sets out how the Isle of Man Government intends to ‘lead by example’ in relation to climate action, this includes commitments for climate change training across the public sector and a government-wide policy review to ensure that existing practices do not restrict our ability to meet our climate goals. Section 2 of the Isle of Man Climate Change Plan 284 Housing Quality Standards 285Jersey: Carbon Neutral Roadmap 286 Isle of Information sheet UNESCO Biosphere Isle of Man 287 Isle of Climate Change Act 2021 288 Isle of Climate Change Plan 2022-2027

2022-2027 includes a commitment to a public engagement campaign promoting energy efficiency (completed in 2023289). Gibraltar has established a field centre in the Gibraltar Nature Reserve290 which is serving to foster a better understanding and appreciation of local biodiversity among our young people. Tovey Cottage welcomes over 600 young people each year. Gibraltar has embarked on a process of developing Carbon Literacy training for the public sector, in collaboration with the UK Carbon Literacy Project which will help individuals to understand the carbon cost of their everyday actions and ways in which they can reduce their carbon footprint. This will result in a public sector that is engaged with the climate crisis and empowered to deliver the changes needed. Gibraltar is also committed to organising citizen’s assemblies on climate and nature to help raise further awareness and understanding and drive the behavioural changes needed at a societal level. Air pollution is the biggest environmental threat to human health. Its impacts are disproportionately felt by low-income communities, exacerbating health and social inequalities. Sources that contribute to air pollution are varied; significant sources are transport, industrial processes, agriculture and home heating – specifically household burning of solid fuels. Some actions that reduce carbon also have benefits for air quality, but this is not the case for all measures, for example biomass combustion, which can have a negative impact on air quality. Government has taken action across a range of sectors. • The Environment Act (2021)291: required two targets for fine particulate matter (PM2.5) to be set in regulation. The regulations292 established targets for both a maximum annual mean concentration of 10 µg m-3 by 2040 and a population exposure reduction target of 35% by 2040 compared to 2018. The dual-target approach will improve public health by tackling the highest concentrations while ensuring all areas benefit from continuous improvement.
It also introduced changes to the Local Air Quality Management framework293 and improvements to the enforcement of smoke control areas294 which limit emissions from the burning of solid fuels in homes on appliances such as stoves and fireplaces. 289 Small Change Big Difference 290 Tovey Cottage Natural History Field Centre 292 The Environmental Targets (Fine Particulate Matter) Regulations 293 Local Air Quality Management framework 294 Smoke control area enforcement by local authorities in England

• The UK plan for tackling roadside nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations (2017)295: legally obliged local authorities to reduce their NO2 exceedances in the shortest possible time. Four cities, Bath, Birmingham, Bradford and Portsmouth implemented Clean Air Zones amongst other measures in • The Air Quality Information Systems Review (2021)296: established to undertake a comprehensive review of how Government communicates air quality information to ensure members of the public, and vulnerable groups in particular, have what they need protect themselves and understand their • Government’s response to the consultation on reducing ammonia emissions from solid urea fertilisers (2022)297: The response indicated support for an industry-led approach that was subsequently delivered through Red Tractor farm assurance standard298 and farm advisors. The UK Government, the Scottish Government, the Welsh Government, and the Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs in Northern Ireland put in place a new regime for the development of ‘Best Available Techniques’299 across the UK. The BAT approach ensures standards are enhanced over time by defining the techniques and technologies already in use which are the best for preventing or minimising emissions and impacts on the environment from industrial installations – this is then reflected in operator’s permits. 2.11.13.2 Northern Ireland Executive In November 2020, the Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA) launched a consultation on a Discussion Document on a Clean Air Strategy for Northern Ireland300’. In June 2022, the synopsis301 of that consultation was published by DAERA. Work is now ongoing to develop Northern Ireland’s first Clean Air Strategy taking into account the consultation responses. The Scottish Government published its Cleaner Air for Scotland strategy302 in 2015 setting out a series of actions for improving air quality across a wide range of policy areas. Following an independent review of the strategy in 2019303, which made recommendations for additional action on air pollution, a new strategy - Cleaner Air for Scotland 2: Towards a Better Place for Everyone - was published in July 295 The UK plan for tackling roadside nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations 296 The Air Quality Information Systems Review 297 Consultation on reducing ammonia emissions from solid urea fertilisers 298 Red Tractor farm assurance standard 299 Regime for the development of ‘Best Available Techniques’ 300 Northern consultation on a Discussion Document on a Clean Air Strategy 301 Northern Clean Air Strategy for Northern Ireland - A Public Discussion Document 302 Cleaner air for the road to a healthier future (2015) 303 Cleaner Air for Scotland independent review (2019)

2021304. This sets out Scotland’s air quality policy framework for the period 2021 to 2026 with a continued focus on delivery of co-benefits for air pollutant and The aim of the Clean Air Plan for Healthy Air, Healthy Wales (2020) is to improve air quality and reduce the impacts of air pollution on human health, biodiversity, the natural environment and the economy.305 The Plan sets out a 10- year pathway to achieving cleaner air is structured around four core • Protecting the health and well-being of current and future generations • Taking action to support our natural environment, ecosystems • Working with industry to reduce emissions, supporting a cleaner • Creating sustainable places through better planning, infrastructure and A long-term vision for Jersey was produced in 2017 through the ‘Island Outcome Indicators’306. This vision includes clean air within its statement. Jersey government are currently improving and relocating our air quality reference analysers (NOx, and Particulate Matter) to support our wider air quality monitoring programme and improve our ability to report data to Automatic Urban and Rural Network (AURN) standards. Jersey is developing sensor networks in partnership with external stakeholders with the aim of providing near real-time air quality data to inform the public, influence behaviour and support sustainability workstreams. In 2019, the Environmental Pollution (Air Pollution) Ordinance307 was enacted in Guernsey. This Ordinance sets local ambient air quality standards and allows greater environmental regulation of point source emitters including, but not limited to, through licensing prescribed operations, placing limits on the sulphur content of fuels and restricting burning in the open air. The limitations on burning in the open air has benefits form a climate perspective. 304 Cleaner Air for Scotland 2 - Towards a Better Place for Everyone 305 Clean Air Plan for Healthy Air, Healthy Wales 306 Island Outcome Indicators 307 Environmental Pollution (Air Pollution) Ordinance

Actions to reduce use of fossil fuels, such as the ban on fossil fuel heating systems in new buildings, created by the Climate Change Act 2021308 and commencing 1 January 2025, will help to improve air quality. Other health concerns related to climate change are primarily linked with adaptation. Section A of the Isle of Man Climate Change Plan 2022-2027309 sets out actions relating to adaptation and resilience, including commitment to a Climate Change Risks and Opportunities Report for the Island, which is currently being prepared and will include risks to Air quality monitoring has been increased to include NO2 and SO2 at over 60 sites around the Island, with data published monthly.310 Gibraltar has a well-established air quality monitoring network in place and results demonstrate a steady improvement in local air quality since the network started The switch from diesel to natural gas for the generation of electricity marked a significant improvement in levels of nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter. Efforts are now focused on reducing emissions from transport and construction.
2.12 Information on how actions, policies and measures are modifying longer-term trends in GHG emissions To avoid duplication, please refer to the information presented in the National Inventory Report, published on UNFCCC, under each sector for the estimated impact of actions, policies, and measures. 2.13 Information on the assessment of economic and social impacts of response measures The government regularly assesses the impact of existing and planned policies against its emission targets, including the NDC and Carbon Budgets. The annual Energy and Emissions Projections (EEP) take account of any policies that, as of June that year, have either been implemented or those that are planned where the level of funding has been agreed and the policy design is near final. 308 Isle of Climate Change Act 2021 309 Isle of Climate Change Plan 2022-2027 310 Isle of Air Quality Monitoring 311 Air Quality in Gibraltar

Under section 10 of the Climate Change Act 2008, the UK government must take account of economic and social circumstances when making decisions in relation to carbon budgets. In particular, section 10 of the Act requires an appraisal of the likely impact of policies on fuel poverty, the economy, and “the competitiveness of particular sectors of the economy.” This information is gathered by officials and presented to the DESNZ Secretary of State on a regular basis. A summary of the economic and social impact of the policy package is also published in reports following the setting of a carbon budgets. The most recent assessment was published in the previous UK government’s 2023 Carbon Budget Delivery Plan.312 2.14 Summary of greenhouse gas emissions and removals Please refer to the accompanying CTF tables submitted alongside the Biennial 2.15 Projections of greenhouse gas emissions and This section presents information from the most recent full update to the UK’s GHG Energy and Emissions Projections (EEP) 2023 -2050, published in December 2024313. It includes estimates of future energy demand and GHGs in the UK up to 2050, and within this section we focus on projections up to 2040. The UK’s national projections are based on a “With Additional Measures” (WAM) scenario. This takes into account policies that, as of June 2024 have either been implemented or are planned and the level of funding has been agreed and the design of the policy is near final. These projections do not present the UK’s full package of policies, as they do not include policies that have only been announced, or are in early development or being planned by the current government. They therefore are not an assessment of the UK’s delivery position against carbon budgets or the NDC. The projections are the baseline against which new early-stage policies and proposals are assessed to monitor progress towards carbon budget For international reporting, the projections presented in this Biennial Transparency Report used the “With Existing Measures” (WEM) policy scenario, which excludes policies that were classed as planned at the cut-off date of June 2024. Projections in this section are for the “With Existing Measures” (WEM) scenario, unless otherwise The projection models incorporate information from the UK’s 1990-2022 GHG Inventory publication (published in 2022), and the historic statistics presented earlier this chapter are on the same basis. 312 Carbon Budget Delivery Plan

• Based on the WEM scenario, the projections show that by 2030, UK emissions of the basket of the 7 greenhouse gases (GHGs) covered by the Paris Agreement would be expected to be 335 MtCO2e, approximately 479 MtCO2e below the 1990 level (59% lower); and by 2040, the projections show equivalent figures of 505 MtCO2e and 62% lower than 1990. These projections are not an assessment of the delivery position against carbon as policies and measures at an earlier stage of development are developed and implemented, the resulting emissions savings will be factored • The UK projects emissions of CO2, CH4 and N2O of 61%, 66% and 60% respectively below 1990 levels by 2040. • For the fluorinated GHGs, the UK projects that emissions of HFCs will be 74% lower than their 1990 levels by 2040. For PFCs, the UK projects emissions will be 90% lower, for SF6 95% lower; and for NF3 emissions will be 42% lower than their 1990 levels by 2040. The UK is committed to meeting its 2030 NDC target and will publish more detailed plans on delivery in due course, outlining the policies and proposals it has in place to meet the 2030 and 2035 NDCs and carbon budgets up to 2037. The plan will include consideration of delivery risks and mitigations. The publication will also provide indicative implementation dates for policies and proposals; however these dates may change as proposals and policies develop over the coming years. When developing policies and proposals, the government considers alternative pathways and policy levers to meet its carbon targets. 2.15.1 “with measures” projection of all GHG emissions and removals and “with additional measures” projection and The “with existing measures” (WEM) scenario includes policies that had been implemented or adopted by June 2024 but excludes planned measures. In addition, the UK provides selected data from the "with additional measures" (WAM) scenario, which includes planned measures as at the same policy cut-off date. Both projection scenarios exclude the use of credits from flexible mechanisms such as the Joint Implementation and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The UK does not produce a without measures (WOM) scenario. Many mitigation measures were already in place when emissions projections were first produced by the UK, and there are certain policies and measures (PaMs), such as Emissions Trading Schemes (ETS), for which no past counterfactual scenario can be reliably modelled. Currently, it is not feasible to remove all these effects to produce a robust WOM projection. However, we are exploring options that might allow us to produce a scenario that removes those policies where we can model a suitable WOM counterfactual. We will implement this and incorporate it into future submissions as soon as we have identified a suitable methodology.
The figures within this National Communication include British Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories. These territories are excluded from UK Carbon Budget’s

legislation and do not appear in the EEP report. According to the UK’s 1990-2022 GHG Inventory, these regions were responsible for 0.4% of total emissions in 2022. Throughout this section, the geographical scope of the presented figures includes the UK and its Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories as denoted by the label ‘(UNFCCC coverage)’ unless otherwise specified. Under the WEM scenario, the UK projects GHG emissions to be around 479 MtCO2e below the 1990 level (59% lower) by 2030, and roughly 505 MtCO2e lower by 2040. All projections include emissions from Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF), for consistency with Inventory Convention reporting, although the percentages are very similar if it is excluded314. Tables 5 and 6 show overall projections for each gas under WEM and WAM scenarios respectively. This shows that additional planned policies as of June 2024 are expected to mainly affect CO2 emissions, reducing them by 12 Mt more in the year 2040 than in the equivalent projection under the WEM scenario. Carbon dioxide 606 568 506 320 260 237 Nitrous oxide 44 26 20 19 18 18 Hydrofluorocarbons 12 6 11 8 4 3 Sulphur hexafluoride 1 2 1 0 0 0 Nitrogen trifluoride 0 0 0 0 0 0 Aviation bunkers 16 30 32 15 35 35 Carbon dioxide 606 568 506 320 253 225 Nitrous oxide 44 26 20 19 18 18 314 Reporting LULUCF emissions in full means the scope is wider than that under Articles 3.3 and 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol and includes estimates for all anthropogenic sources minus sinks. Hydrofluorocarbons 12 6 11 8 4 3 Sulphur hexafluoride 1 2 1 0 0 0 Nitrogen trifluoride 0 0 0 0 0 0 Aviation bunkers 16 30 32 15 35 35 2.15.2 Projected progress across territorial emissions With the existing policies and measures in place, emissions from the energy sector are projected to decrease by 26% between 2022 and 2040 and total emissions (excluding LULUCF) are projected to fall by 25% between 2022 and 2040. Tables 7 and 8 show the main impact of additional planned policies. There are some power sector interventions which are classed as Planned, and hence are included in

2.15.3 Projected showing WEM and WAM Total excl. LULUCF 613 405 333 304 Total excl. LULUCF 613 405 326 293 1. Energy 601 552 497 312 258 236 …Of A3. Transport 123 130 123 98 90 56 …Of Non-transport 478 422 374 214 169 179 2. Industrial Processes 80 53 40 31 17 12 3. Agriculture 50 48 43 42 40 40 This sector includes all emissions which fall under IPCC code 1. Within tables, we break this down into transport (1A3) and energy excluding 1A3. This sector includes emissions from electricity and heat production, manufacturing industries and construction (such as chemicals, iron and steel, non-ferrous metals), commercial and

residential sectors. The UK projects energy emissions (excluding transport) of 65% Carbon dioxide 436 400 362 207 162 174 levels by 2030 and 54% lower by 2040. This is mainly driven by the implementation of the Vehicle Emissions Trading Schemes (VETS) Order 2023, commonly known as the ZEV Mandate, which came into force in Great Britain in January 2024. Carbon dioxide 121 128 122 97 89 56 below 1990 levels by 2030 and 85% below 1990 levels by 2040. Carbon dioxide 43 39 27 21 11 8 Hydrofluorocarbons 12 6 11 8 4 3

Sulphur hexafluoride 1 2 1 0 0 0 Nitrogen trifluoride 0 0 0 0 0 0 These projections show emissions from the agriculture sector remaining constant Nitrous oxide 16 15 14 13 13 13 2.15.4.5 Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) below 1990 levels by 2030, 55% below by 2040. Carbon dioxide 3 -1 -6 -6 -5 -2 The UK’s WEM projections show that by 2030 annual GHG emissions from waste management are projected to fall 76% below 1990 levels and by 2040 they are

This section focuses on overall trends in the emissions of each GHG. Figures 18 and 19 show projections for overall emissions of GHG gases to 2050. 2020. By 2030, the UK projects CO2 emissions are 57% lower than 1990 emissions. By 2040 the UK projects CO2 emissions are 61% lower than 1990 emissions. 1. Energy 556 529 484 304 251 230 …Of A3. Transport 121 128 122 97 89 56 …Of Non-transport 436 400 362 207 162 174 2. Industrial Processes 43 39 27 21 11 8 The two biggest emitters of CH4 in 2020 were agriculture and waste management. The UK projects a decline in CH4 emissions between 2022 and 2030 of 4 MtCO2e. This means that by 2030, emissions of CH4 are projected to be 65% lower than 1990. By 2040, the WEM scenario projects that methane emissions will be 66%

…Of A3. Transport 1 1 0 0 0 0 …Of Non-transport 40 20 11 7 5 5 2. Industrial Processes 0 0 0 0 0 0 3. Agriculture 33 32 28 28 26 26 Most nitrous oxide emissions come from agriculture. The UK projects a slight decline in N2O emissions out to 2040, projecting emissions in 2030 that are 59% lower than in 1990, and 60% lower than 1990 in 2040. …Of A3. Transport 1 1 1 1 1 1 …Of Non-transport 2 1 1 1 1 1 2. Industrial Processes 22 5 2 1 1 1 3. Agriculture 16 15 14 13 13 13 Almost all HFCs are emitted by the Industrial Processes sector. In 2030, the UK projects HFC emissions of 3 MtCO2e less than in 2022. By 2030, HFC emissions are projected to fall by 63% compared to 1990 levels. In 2040, the UK projects a reduction in HFC emissions of 74% compared to 1990 levels. 2. Industrial Processes 12 6 11 8 4 3 PFC emissions remain at low levels over the projection period. 2.
Industrial Processes 1 1 0 0 0 0 SF6 emissions remain at low levels over the projection period. 2. Industrial Processes 1 2 1 0 0 0

2.16 Information describing the methodology used to 2.16.1 Projections methods by sector The UK projections of emissions of CO2 and combustion-related emissions of other GHGs (CH4 and N2O) are based on the UK’s Energy and Emissions Projections modelling suite used for its annual publication and internal analysis. We produce projections of energy demand and combustion-related GHG emissions outside the power sector by applying standard statistical techniques. These project forward energy demand and emissions based on trends and relationships in past data. We adjust these projections to take account of estimated reductions in energy consumption from policies which are modelled separately using more detailed sectoral models. We then project energy-related emissions by multiplying energy demand by the relevant emissions factors315. We produce projections of power sector generation and associated emissions by feeding our projections of electricity demand into a model of electricity supplier Uses bespoke econometric analysis of past energy demand by fuel and sector as published in the UK’s annual energy statistics publication – DUKES (Digest of UK Energy Statistics). The resulting projection equations are combined with projections for drivers such as UK GDP growth and separately modelled policy impacts to project forward energy demand by fuel and sector. Energy demand projections are converted to emissions projections through emissions factors and This model is used to project emissions from the power sector. It takes projected electricity demand from the Energy Demand Model and provides a modelled generation mix that meets that level of demand under current power sector policies. It is a market-based model that simulates the operation of the electricity market and the investment decision of market participants. It is a profit-maximisation model incorporating the effect of UK policies which incentivise 315 Emissions factors are available Government Conversion Factors for Company Reporting

low-carbon generation through market mechanisms. Includes combined heat and power plants. Use emissions from the 1990-2022 GHG Inventory (GHGI) as the baseline for these emissions projections. Sectoral models are used to project forward emissions The overall modelling approach has been consistent over time, although there have been incremental improvements to the projections which are described in the UK’s The principal source of past energy statistics is the Digest of UK Energy Statistics (DUKES). The UK’s model suite projects emissions using projections for fossil fuel prices, carbon prices, economic growth, temperature and demographics. Key The UK’s domestically published projections include variant scenarios for high and low fossil fuel price assumptions, high and low GDP growth rates. More detail on this is provided later in this section. The CO2 road transport model is an econometric response surface model integrated into the economy-wide Energy Demand Model (EDM) and calibrated against the Department for Transport’s (DfT’s) National Transport Model (NTM). The econometric model is multi-modal as it includes cars, light good vehicles (LGVs), heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), and public service vehicles (PSVs). Car demand has a link to population, and HGV demand is linked to projections for manufacturing Gross Value added (GVA). Other factors which affect transport demand are the oil price, motor spirit/diesel engine share, and fuel efficiency and biofuel substitution Most energy efficiency improvements are policy-driven, such as by new car emissions intensity targets and complementary measures such as lower rolling resistance tyres for HGVs. Unlike for other demand sectors, impacts of policies and measures on road transport fuel demand are modelled within the EEP modelling suite. Road vehicle efficiencies, motor spirit/diesel engine shares, and biofuel use under different policy scenarios are used to calculate mitigation impacts from differences in demand between scenarios. Electricity demand from electric cars and LGVs is passed to the Dynamic Dispatch Model (DDM) which takes this additional demand into account when calculating power sector generation. The activity data (vehicle distances travelled) is projected using the latest DfT traffic forecasts. 316 See

DfT’s projected traffic growth, the planned electrification of existing track, and the construction of new lines such as Crossrail and High Speed 2 underpin the rail Projections for UK commercial aviation involve estimates of future UK GDP, consumer expenditure, population, and oil prices. The Fleet Mix Model captures efficiency improvements, for example the model assumes increasing use of biofuels. DfT provides more detailed information about methodology and assumptions with its aviation forecast. The modelling has extrapolated trends in the GHG Inventory to extend aviation emissions projections to UNFCCC coverage. The UK projects that national navigation will remain largely static. The UK uses the DDM to project investment and generation in the electricity supply sector. The DDM is a market-based model that simulates the operation of the electricity market and the investment decision of the market participants in detail. It is a profit-maximisation model incorporating the effect of government policies such as Contracts for Difference which incentivise low-carbon generation through market The DDM also models investment in the supply of heat and electricity from Combined Heat and Power plants, mostly in industry. 2.16.1.3 Industrial and Commercial sector emissions For emissions projections, the UK breaks manufacturing down into sectors using the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC). The manufacturing sectors in the EDM • Non-metallic mineral products; • Manufacturing not elsewhere classified. The UK projects Gross Value Added (GVA) for each of these sectors using GDP, interest rates, and, in some cases, terms of trade (the relative prices of imports and exports). The UK projects total energy demand for each sector from GVA and energy prices. Except for iron and steel, the model splits total energy demand into different fuels using historical fuel demands and projections of relative fuel prices. In iron and steel, the UK estimates energy demand using sector GVA and the tonnages of steel produced using electricity or by the Basic Oxygen Steel (BOS) process.
Energy demand is projected by commercial services from sector GVA, and temperature based on econometric analysis of past consumption, GVA and The UK projects the residential emissions from gas, oil and solid fuels use separately. The estimates depend on assumptions about the percentage of households using each fuel as their main heating source. The primary drivers of residential energy demand are household numbers, fuel prices, temperature and Residential demand for electricity is projected using the same drivers and passed to UK agriculture uses a relatively small amount of energy. Therefore, projections of its combustion emissions come from simple trend models. The UK uses Food and Agricultural Policy Research Institute (FAPRI) methodology317 to provide projections of activity, such as livestock numbers, crop production, fertiliser nitrogen use, and non-CO2 emissions to 2030. Projections for later years are held constant. The FAPRI projections come from an economic model that assumes a specific set of international prices for agricultural commodities and a path for the sterling exchange rate. Together, these factors are important determinants of the returns to farmers and hence of total agricultural production. The UK converts these FAPRI activity projections to emissions using the latest agriculture model in the UK’s GHG Inventory. Projections of CH4 from landfill depend on UK projections of tonnages of municipal waste going to landfill and on figures for commercial and industrial waste. Waste composition is projected from knowledge of changes to BWT processes and from These projections of waste going to landfill are then run through MELMod, the landfill emissions calculation model. The MELMod model is based on the IPCC’s first-order decay methodology, which the 2014 GHG Inventory report summarises. UK population projections underpin predictions of emissions of CH4 and N2O from domestic wastewater and sewage/sludge decomposition. Industrial wastewater emissions are predicted to stay constant. BWT emissions from multiple sources are combined. Some are projected to be constant, and some are extrapolated from the latest year of historical data using sector experts’ estimates of future BWT capacity. 317 FAPRI-UK Greenhouse Gas Emission Modelling System for England, Wales, Scotland and

Manufacturing sub-sector GVA projections or energy demand projections are used to project CO2 emissions from industrial processes where there is evidence of correlation. Other CO2 emissions are projected to remain constant at the last actual value from the UK’s GHG Inventory (published 2022). Many methods are used for projections of non-CO2 emissions from industrial processes. Some sources use manufacturing sector GVAs while others use more detailed assumptions about future activity. Annex N of the UK’s domestic EEP publication318 provides more information on non-CO2 emissions projection methods. Sector employment levels are used as the main driver in modelling non-electricity energy demand from public services. The projections assume that the historical trend of improving energy efficiency per employee will continue. Temperature also affects public sector demand. The models break non-electricity energy demand into fuels using the same proportions as in latest historical data. 2.16.1.9 Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) The Centre for Ecology and Hydrology and Forest Research model LULUCF emissions using approaches that are consistent with the current inventory methodology. They produce four scenarios – Baseline, Central, High and Low – for future emissions. Each makes assumptions about afforestation, wildfires, peat extraction, land use change and deforestation. They developed these scenarios with a policy maker stakeholder group and updated them in 2016 following discussions with UK Devolved Governments. Broadly, their central scenario is a continuation of current policies and activity rates. This is the scenario used in generating emissions 2.16.2 Estimation of emissions in Crown Dependencies and The UK’s Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories are not included in the projections which the UK produces annually to monitor progress against its own carbon budgets. The projections in this report supplement the UK annual figures with forecasts for areas that are consistent with the UK’s 1990-2022 GHG Inventory. Emissions in these territories are only a small proportion of UK emissions, making up 0.4% of the UK’s UNFCCC coverage emissions in 2022. Two different approaches are used for projecting these • For most sectors (excluding 1. Energy and memo items), emissions for Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories are projected based on 318 Energy and Emissions Projections

simple linear trends of the emissions in each National Communication sector based on observations from the previous 9 years; • However due to the significant impact of Covid-19 on transport sectors (particularly 1. Energy, and memo item rows), we used a different methodology. For these sectors, we projected emissions for Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories with the same trajectory as the UK emissions for the equivalent sector. 2.16.3 Strengths of the projection methodology The UK’s modelling methodology has the following • The initial starting point for the UK’s Energy and Emissions Projections is the latest historical data from the GHG Inventory and DUKES. In the case of EEP 2023, this was based on the UK’s GHG Inventory 1990-2022 and 2022 energy statistics (both of these with latest actuals 2022).
These are well established sources of information; • The main Energy Demand Model (EDM) uses econometric methods that capture long-run relationships between economic activity, energy • The detailed model of electricity generation captures both short-run fuel switching and long-term investment strategies; • The UK updates its projections regularly as part of the monitoring of UK • Models use authoritative national and international sources for socio- • There is a rolling programme of review and update for the projection methodologies and econometric models, and modelling performance is tested by back-casting to see how well the model predicts what happened in the • The projections distinguish between business as usual emissions and the emission reductions due to mitigating policies and measures; and • The modelling estimates the mitigation impacts of policies using a common 2.16.4 Weaknesses of the projection methodology The UK’s modelling has the following • The modelling generally assumes that historical relationships will continue in the future, which can fail to capture structural changes and new technologies where these fall outside the scope of included policies and measures; • It hasn’t been possible to update uncertainty analysis, so uncertainty ranges quoted are still based on analysis from 2019. Similarly, analysis assumed that the drivers of uncertainty were similar to previous years; • There is considerable recognised uncertainty in economic and demographic projections from external sources; • The UK cannot provide separate quantified impacts for some types of policy due to modelling limitations. Policies which operate fully or partly through a

price impact such as the Climate Change Levy (an environmental tax on the energy that businesses use) cannot be quantified due to limitations with our modelling approach. These are taken into account in the modelling (through their impact on energy demand), but we do not have estimates of the individual • As with all econometric modelling, this is subject to estimation errors. A set of key assumptions about UK economic growth, demographic changes and future fuel price trajectories underpin the UK’s projections. The main sources of projected assumptions are the forecasts made by the UK’s Office for Budget Responsibility (OBR) and Office for National Statistics (ONS), and supplemented by International Monetary Fund projections of world growth. Fuel prices are produced documents key parameters and assumptions. The UK released EEP 2023 -2050 in December 2024. UK GDP forecasts to 2023 were from the March 2024 Economic and Fiscal Outlook publication. Beyond 2023, GDP growth projections came from the March 2024 Long-term economic determinants forecast. The UK’s Office for National Statistics (ONS) produced 2021- based population projections in January 2024. The household projections are also from ONS and are 2018-based (but including a projection update by the Welsh DESNZ updates the fossil fuel price and carbon prices projections annually, which 5.2.3 details exchange rate assumptions. US dollars 1.27 1.27 1.27 1.27 2.16.6 Quality assurance and quality controls Quality assurance of modelling is a high priority within UK government, and analysis for the EEP follows the DESNZ quality assurance guidelines. A small group of DESNZ analysts produces the energy and emission projections, and owns, maintains and updates the Energy Demand Model (known as the EDM) which underpins the projections. The EEP team liaises with other modelling teams, both inside and outside DESNZ, to quality assure and compile the data which go into Figures relating to electricity come from iteratively solving two specialised models with the EDM. These are the Dynamic Dispatch Model (DDM) and the Prices and Bills Model of retail electricity prices. This cycling ensures that electricity demand is in equilibrium with prices. The co-ordinators of these models also assure projections results. Projections for non-energy non-CO2 emissions are produced by the DESNZ The Centre for Ecology and Hydrology produces the UK’s LULUCF projections under contract; this is overseen by the DESNZ Science and Innovation for Climate and DESNZ bases transport sector modelling on, and calibrates it against, the detailed models for road, rail and air used by the Department for Transport (DfT). These latter are in turn subject to DfT’s quality assurance. Analytical teams in the relevant areas prepare estimates of the emissions or energy savings due to UK government policies. Analysts prepare these policy savings estimates according to central guidance, which ensures that energy use and GHG emissions are valued consistently across UK government. Analysts send the policy savings in a standard template and the EEP team checks them to look for any unaccounted overlaps and to ensure internal consistency between energy and emissions savings. The team confirms the model savings with the submitting analysts and departments. The UK updates its GHG projections to inform progress against national carbon budgets and publishes each set of projections. The EEP team improves and adapts the core Energy Demand Model incrementally, quality assuring each change to confirm validity and robustness. (The team responsible for the DDM quality assures any change relating to electricity generation). The EEP team presents interim and final results to a Steering Group which oversees the process, and stakeholders review draft EEP reports before publication. The UK’s independent Climate Change Committee reviews the projections after their release. In December 2024 the UK published annexes of data to accompany its domestic projections. These included low and high fossil fuel prices and low and high UK GDP rates as variant scenarios and sensitivities. Low FFP - crude oil 53 46 49 51 High FFP - crude oil 104 110 114 117 High FFP - Gas 113 111 110 108 High FFP - Coal 118 114 114 113 The EEP team produced these scenarios using published low and high ranges319.
To investigate the impact of different economic growth rates, the EEP includes scenarios where the economy performs at 25 basis points per annum above or High UK GDP Growth 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.2 Low UK GDP Growth 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.7 Using these high and low fossil fuel and GDP variants gives four different emissions 5.2.6 show just UK territorial emissions (excluding CDOTs), they do indicate the scale of uncertainty in the projections reported within this section, as CDOT emissions were only 0.4% of the overall total in 2022. For these projections, the effect of high/low fossil fuel prices was slightly larger than 319 Fossil Fuel Price Assumptions

Future values of key variables such as fossil fuel prices, the impacts of policy and demographic/economic growth cannot be known with certainty. However, these variables underpin the UK projections. Understanding the impact of this uncertainty is important in the context of the UK’s aim to reduce emissions through policy intervention, and so it is regularly investigated in EEP publications. Uncertainty analysis presented here is based on the most influential drivers of energy use and emissions, previously identified through sensitivity analysis. The EEP team carries out a Monte Carlo simulation to vary the values of these drivers, firstly obtaining historical distributions of input values then running the projections model on samples The uncertainty ranges presented in this section are still derived from the uncertainty analysis from the estimates published in EEP 2018, due to time constraints at the emissions corresponding to the lower 2.5% and upper 97.5% percentiles of the Monte Carlo simulations respectively. Although the high/low emissions projections in uncertainty in the projections reported in this section, as CDOT emissions were only 0.4% of the overall total in 2022. This analysis excludes the electricity supply industry and possible “structural breaks” in society or the economy which might significantly affect emissions. For example, societal and behavioural step changes or breakthrough technologies like improved storage could have profound impacts on the UK’s energy mix and emissions but are

MtCO2e (WAM scenario, UK coverage) WAM Scenario 368 327 304 296 The methodology only looks at future uncertainty and does not examine uncertainty in historical inputs or emission estimates, such as those before 2022. By 2030, the UK WAM scenario projects GHG emissions will be between 17% and 21% below 2022 levels. By 2039, the range is slightly wider with emissions projected between 23% and 29% below 2022 levels. The higher uncertainty for later years reflects the reduced confidence in modelled projections further into the future. 2.16.10 Projections for precursor gases Projections for emissions from precursor gases in the UK are not included within this analysis but are produced by the National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory

(NAEI)320. The projections are produced at 5-year intervals out to 2050 and contains the pollutants regulated under the UN Gothenburg protocol. 2.17 Projections of key indicators to determine progress The WEM scenario projections in this section include the impact of the UK’s implemented and adopted policies and measures at the policy cut-off point of June 2024. They are the baseline or counterfactual projection showing what the UK would expect to happen if no policies at an earlier stage of development were implemented. The name, sector, GHG(s) and activity affected, and descriptions of these policies does not include planned policies, but those are included within domestic reporting The UK has continued to update its analysis of policies and measures expected to help meet both Nationally Determined Contributions and the targets for Carbon Budgets set under the UK Climate Change Act (2008). Over time, the UK’s projections will include newer or more recently announced policies as they progress to the impact assessment stage. Within this section, we also include the total of territorial and international aviation and shipping (IAS) policy savings. Power supply markets are highly interconnected, meaning it is not possible to robustly disaggregate the impacts of individual supply-side policies. We are reviewing the method for calculating savings from overall power interventions, but for savings from power supply policies. Emissions from all policies 59 83 108 123 Implemented policies 52 77 102 117 320 Air Pollutant Emissions Data

Chapter 3: Information related to climate 3.1 National circumstances, institutional arrangements The devolved governments of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland contribute to the UK’s overall climate objectives and have their own adaptation targets; unless stated otherwise, the information below outlines England’s approach. The Devolved Government has provided information on their strategies in section 3.10. 3.2 Biogeophysical characteristics We are already seeing climate impacts across the globe, with observed increases in the frequency and intensity of heatwaves, flooding, drought and wildfires. According to the World Meteorological Organization321, long-term global warming is currently around 1.3°C compared to the 1850-1900 baseline, whilst in the UK, the 10 warmest years on record have all occurred since 2003322. Human-induced warming is increasing at around 0.25⁰C323 per decade, leading to further increases in global and UK climate hazards into the future. The latest State of the UK Climate report,324 highlighted a year of extremes. 2022 was shown to be the warmest year in the UK series from 1884, 0.9 °C above the 1991–2020 average, and for the first time 40 °C was recorded in the UK. The period January–August 2022 was also the driest across England and Wales since 1976, with drought status declared across parts of England and all of Wales. Rising sea levels have continued to be observed in the UK and have risen by 18.5cm since 1900’s. The rate of sea level rise has also accelerated, with over 60% of the observed sea level rise (11.4cm) occurring over the past 30 years. More recently, Met Office325 observations show that 2023 was the second warmest year for the UK according to mean temperature. Both Wales and Northern Ireland experienced their warmest years on record in 2023. Changes in rainfall extremes has also begun to be observed in the UK.
In 2023, the UK saw 11% more rain than The economic losses from flooding in England between November 2019 and March 2020 are estimated to be about £333 million and would have been significantly larger 322 2023 was second warmest year on record for UK 323 Independent Assessment of UK Climate Risk Advice to Govt for CCRA3 CCC 324 State of the UK Climate 2022 - Kendon - 2023 325 2023 was second warmest year on record for UK

in the absence of flood defences326. The ‘Monetary Valuation of Risks and Opportunities in the third Climate Change Risk Assessment(CCRA3)’327 report found that around a quarter of the 61 climate risks and opportunities it identified each have the potential to result in economic impacts higher than £1 billion per year by 2050. Disruption from climate change has the potential to reduce government revenues and increase government expenditure, reduce external performance (exports), damage infrastructure assets, increase social costs thereby increasing vulnerability for some population groups, and reduce economic growth (source: World Bank Group, 2020; Inclusive Futures, 2020). However, early adaptation action can help to reduce future costs and many adaptation actions represent good value for money. The ‘Monetary Valuation of Risks and Opportunities in CCRA3’328 report found that, for a range of early interventions, benefit-cost ratios typically range from 2:1 to 10:1. This means that every £1 invested in these adaptation actions could result in £2 to Recent events such as Storm Arwen in 2021 and the heatwaves of 2022 demonstrate the kinds of impacts climate risks can lead to, from power outages to buckling train tracks. The evidence suggests these impacts will get more intense and frequent under any emissions scenario to 2050. To help manage climate risks to infrastructure • Ensuring that the regulatory framework is delivering adaptation outcomes • Putting the necessary investment in place • Engaging with infrastructure operators and regulators to improve understanding of and approaches to identifying and managing climate risk The UK has a robust system to ensure that public investment in infrastructure appropriately considers climate risk, which the IMF’s Public Investment Management Assessment329 (PIMA) found to be relatively well-designed. The Green Book is guidance issued by HM Treasury on how to appraise policies, programmes and projects. It also provides guidance on the design and use of monitoring and evaluation before, during and after implementation. The following levers are used to manage climate risks in infrastructure. • National Infrastructure Strategy330 • UK government Resilience Framework331, 326 Environment Agency – National Flood and Coastal Erosion Risk Management Strategy for 327 Monetary Valuation of Risks and Opportunities in CCRA3 328 Monetary Valuation of Risks and Opportunities in CCRA3 329 United Technical Assistance Report-Public Investment Management Assessment 330 National Infrastructure Strategy 331 The UK government Resilience Framework

• Adaptation Reporting Power (ARP)332 • Critical National Infrastructure (CNI)333 policy • Institutional strengthening our understanding of climate risk to infrastructure, through the National Infrastructure Commission (NIC)335, the Infrastructure and Projects Authority’s (IPA) 336 and the National Wealth Fund (formerly the UK Infrastructure Bank) Major public investment in infrastructure is subject to an additional level of scrutiny through the UK government’s Infrastructure and Projects Authority, which provides an assurance function to support the successful delivery of projects within the UK government’s Major Projects Portfolio (GMPP). The Infrastructure and Projects Authority’s (IPA) Gate Review process is designed to provide a realistic view on a programme and project’s ability to deliver agreed outcomes against time, cost, benefits and quality, and these Gate Reviews include tests to ensure infrastructure projects have considered climate risk and adaptation. 3.4.1 Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) Thematic target 5 - Climate- Adaptation is embedded through the planning system for major infrastructure projects. National Policy Statements (NPSs) are a key part of the system for managing Nationally Significant Infrastructure Projects (NSIPs) and are important in ensuring that government policy is implemented effectively through the planning system. Infrastructure NPSs include requirements for planning applicants to demonstrate how they have considered the risks posed by the changing climate. Plans for reforms to the NSIP337 regime that will ensure the system can support our future infrastructure needs by making the system better, faster, greener, fairer and The UK government Resilience Framework338, sets out how the government will work with industry and regulators to improve the security and resilience of UK CNI for example by using common but flexible resilience standards across CNI, and by reviewing existing regulatory regimes on resilience to ensure they are fit for purpose. 332 Consultation on the Fourth Round of the Climate Adaptation Reporting Power - Defra - Citizen 333 Critical National Infrastructure (CNI) 334 National Planning Policy Framework 335 Infrastructure and Projects Authority 336 UK Infrastructure Bank | UK Infrastructure Bank 337 Nationally Significant Infrastructure Projects (NSIP) action plan 338 The UK government Resilience Framework

3.4.2 Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) Thematic target 1 - Water Private investment in national infrastructure is often also subject to sector-specific regulation ensuring appropriate consideration of climate risk. This includes Water Resources Management Plans (WRMPs), through which water companies have a duty to set out how they will continue to supply water in their supply area over at least the next 25 years in the context of population growth and climate change. This long-term planning framework is supported by specific requirements and standards (e.g. water companies must demonstrate resilience to a 1-in-500-year drought), and by regular monitoring against company-level performance commitments on metrics like supply interruptions, leakage, and per capita consumption. Most water companies have finalised their WRMPs with direction on how they plan to meet increasing water demands, which includes using £500 million investment to develop new infrastructure in the 2020-2025 period. The plans also include water efficiency measures such as providing water audits for businesses to consider how best to maximise their water efficiency. This will help in meeting targets to reduce leakage by 37% and non-household water use by 9% by 2038, safeguarding future water availability for businesses.
The Environment Agency's latest review of draft Regional Water Resource Plans found an additional 4,860 million litres of water a day (Ml/d) will be needed in England by 2050 to meet future supply this is around a third of the water currently supplied by water undertakers. Approximately half of the 4,860 Ml/d required will need to be delivered through demand management measures. We are implementing a Water Demand Target under the Environment Act 2021 to reduce use of public water supply by 20% by 2037/38. The Water Demand target is based on a trajectory for achieving household water use of 110 litres per person per day, a 50% leakage reduction from 2017/18 levels and a 15% reduction in non- Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) has also acknowledged recommendations made within the Baringa339 report and will continue working with Ofwat to understand the implementation of these actions. We recognise that smart metering can assist in reducing overall water consumption by enabling water companies to reduce leakage and incentivise more water efficient behaviours. Water companies have already committed to delivering a 50% reduction in leakage from 2017 to 2018 levels by 2050 and we expect Ofwat to challenge companies to deliver this and monitor progress. Around 13% of households in England now have a smart water meter and this number is set to rise to 73% by 2040. To help achieve our target of reducing the amount of water used per person in England per head by 20% by 2038, we have committed to working with regulators and industry on the rollout of smart meters, alongside mandatory water efficiency labelling, to enable consumers to make more water efficient choices. The climate crisis is a water crisis. Despite this, the water crisis has largely gone unaddressed internationally. Through the Water Tracker for National Climate Planning340, supported by the FCDO, the UK is providing partner countries with a clear pathway to design and implement coordinated and targeted climate action and meaningfully ensure the water-food-energy nexus is reflected in ambitious 1.5- aligned climate, resilience and nature plans. 3.5.1 Adaptation challenges and gaps, and barriers to adaptation As well as the barriers, gaps also exist in our ability to monitor our adaptation efforts. This is due to the complexity of adaptation and the associated challenges of identifying and developing appropriate indicators. Defra has held a series of sector- specific workshops focused on the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of adaptation in These challenges are consistent with the findings of the Climate Change Committee (CCC) in its 2021 progress report to Parliament341. Adaptation process indicators (such as the number of plans adopted, or buildings retrofitted) are relatively simple to measure and so more common. Indicators that measure adaptation outcomes (such as climate-sensitive sectors of the economy being better adapted) are rarer as they 3.6 Institutional arrangements and governance, legal and policy frameworks and regulations The UK was the first country in the world to enshrine government action on climate adaptation into law under the UK Climate Change Act (2008)342. The Act created a framework for strengthening UK preparedness to climate change risks. These include preparing, on a five yearly cycle, a UK Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA), followed by a National Adaptation Programme (NAP), setting out actions to address the risks identified in the CCRA. The Climate Change Act also provides Defra’s Secretary of State with the power, known as ‘Adaptation Reporting Power’343 (ARP) to direct infrastructure providers and public bodies to report on their preparedness for climate change; it also required Defra to publish a strategy for each round of the process. The Act established an independent Climate Change 340 Water Resilience Tracker for National Climate Planning — Alliance for Global Water Adaptation 341 2021 Progress Report to Parliament - Climate Change Committee 343 Climate change adaptation third round reports

Committee (CCC) to advise government and assess adaptation progress on a Responsibility for climate change adaptation is split between the four countries of the United Kingdom. National governments in Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland are responsible for respective adaptation programmes. His Majesty's government (HMG) is responsible for climate change adaptation in England and for embedding adaptation within policy areas for which it has UK-wide competence such as energy security and foreign affairs. Climate policy (both mitigation and adaptation) is devolved to the Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories, so they are responsible for setting their adaptation policies. The third National Adaptation Programme (NAP3) made governance a priority over the five-year implementation period. This included establishing a senior official Climate Resilience Steering Board to oversee strategic, cross-cutting climate adaptation and resilience issues and drive further government action to increase UK In addition to the Climate Resilience Steering Board driving further government action to increase UK resilience to climate change, the UK government will use its extensive network of overseas posts, researchers, and international relationships to identify emerging risks and escalating, where necessary, cascading risks through government’s existing risk management governance structures. Addressing climate risks, requires not only an improved understanding of those risks through government action to build capability and address evidence gaps, but also coordination across and between governments through strong governance 3.7 Impacts, risks and vulnerabilities, as appropriate 3.7.1 Current and projected climate trends and hazards; Observations from 2022 and 2023 have aligned with general climate change trends projected for the future in the UK Climate Projections (UKCP), produced by the Met Office. UKCP projections show an increased chance of warmer, wetter winters and hotter, drier summers, along with an increase in the frequency and intensity of extremes. These increases in extremes include increase in the frequency of and intensity of hot spells in summer. Hot summers and heatwaves will become more intense and longer lasting, particularly in the south-east of England. Northern Ireland and Scotland will begin to experience summers like those currently felt in the rest of the country. Summer drought conditions will occur more often in the south of the UK, like that seen in 2022.
Despite overall summer drying trends in the future, projections show increases in the intensity of heavy summer rainfall events in the future, as well as increased intensity of heavy rainfall events across all seasons. Sea levels are projected to rise through the 21st century and beyond for all emissions scenarios. Sea levels will rise across the UK, with greater rises in the

south and east of the UK due to land movement. By end of the 21st century, sea levels in the UK may have risen by up to 1 meter. 3.8 Observed and potential impacts of climate change, including sectoral, economic, social and/or environmental vulnerabilities; 3.8.1 Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) process target 1 - Impact, vulnerability and risk assessment The UK’s Third ‘Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA3)’344 published in 2022, has presented strong evidence that even under low warming scenarios the UK will be subject to a range of significant and costly impacts unless further action is taken. Informed by an independent assessment undertaken by the Climate Change Committee, CCRA3 identified 61 risks and opportunities to the UK from climate change, including risks to health and productivity, the built environment, businesses, the natural environment, and to public services. Impacts range from a deterioration in soil health and agricultural productivity to impacts on water availability and energy generation. For example, unless we take further action, under a 2°C by 2100 warming scenario, annual damages from flooding for non-residential properties across the UK is expected to increase by 27% by 2050 and 40% by 2080. At 4°C this increases to 44% and 75% respectively. Estimates represent impacts to the whole UK economy, but impacts are likely to vary significantly across localities, areas and groups. As an Island, sea level rise and associated flooding have been identified as a key There has also been a reduction is some local species, for example a 78% reduction in the brown crab since 2012 alongside an increase in some invasive species such as a 94% increase in the Asian Hornet. In 2012, a report (Guernsey Coastal Defences – Flood Risk Assessment Studies345) was published looking at the flood risk around the coastline of Guernsey. This identified that ta number of locations around the coast, particularly to the low lying lands in the north and along the west coast, are at risk from increased sea levels leading to overtopping and flooding. The States of Guernsey agreed to a prioritisation for addressing these defences, as well as additional defences to the 344 UK Climate Change Risk Assessment 2022 345 Coastal Defences – Flood Risk Assessment Studies

island’s capital – St Peter Port. Further recent work as part of the development of planning policies has updated the risk levels in line with UKCP18 climate change The island is susceptible to invasive species, with the Asian hornet having arrived over the past decade. Despite a proactive response there is an annual search for The Isle of Man commissioned a report in 2005 to identify the potential impacts of climate change for the Isle of Man – Climate Change Scoping Study – Executive Summary346. This identified problems and objectives, key receptors, vulnerability thresholds and decisions making criteria, as well as carrying out a risk assessment and presenting adaptation options. It covered a wide range of sectors and identified a range of potential impacts in all areas. This will be updated with another Climate Risks and Opportunities Assessment, as required by the Climate Change Plan 2022- 2027, to ensure our understanding of climate risks and vulnerabilities remains current and able to inform effective policies. Gibraltar conducted its first Climate Change Vulnerability & Risk Assessment347 in 2022.This identified a number of key risks and vulnerabilities including energy and water supply, food importation and impacts on public health as a result of extreme heat and increase in vector borne diseases. 3.9 Approaches, methodologies and tools, and associated A range of tools have been developed to help our partners assess climate risk and develop and deliver a policy response that affects real change. • The UK Climate Projections348, which provide up-to-date assessment of how the UK climate may change in the future, which are available at 2.2km resolution (UKCP18) for local risk assessment. • ‘The UK Climate Resilience Programme’349 which uses UKCP18 to build the evidence on climate risks, adaptation and services in the UK. It has delivered several high impact outputs to date, including climate risk indicators to support 346 Climate Change Scoping Study – Executive Summary 347 Climate Change Vulnerability & Risk Assessment 349 The UK Climate Resilience Programme

climate risk assessments and future-drainage350, providing estimates of changes in rainfall for use in drainage design. • The ‘Green Book supplementary guidance on Accounting for the Effects of Climate Change’351 provides guidance on how to account for climate impacts and environmental factors in policy appraisal. • Ten Principles for good Adaptation’ as set out in the Climate Change Committee’s advice. These overarching principles relate to having a clear vision for a well-adapted UK and can be found in the Climate Change Committee’s third independent assessment of the UK’s climate risks352 353. • An ambitious Fourth Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA4) Independent Assessment for 2027. Our aims for this o Spatial considerations which distinguish risk by area, including regional and localised mapping to understand how risk varies by location. o Systematic assessment of risk through sector-based, outcome- focussed groupings to better consider interdependencies. o More and integrated economic analysis woven through the risk o Stronger focus on adaptation action, with research driving towards resolving evidence gaps across societal and behavioural sciences. Since the publication of the Climate Change Committee’s Independent Assessment in 2021 we have been working at pace to mainstream adaptation to climate change in policy planning across UK government. As a small island, sea level rise and associated coastal flooding has been assessed as a high risk.
Future temperature changes and fallouts from increased instances of extreme weather including flooding are also highly likely to have an impact on The Shoreline Management Plan354 sets out how we'll maintain and enhance our coastal defences to protect our Island over the next 100 years. The plan is updated every 10 years. The next update is due in 2030. A Strategic Flood Risk Assessment355 was commissioned as part of the evidence base to inform the preparation of the bridging Island Plan. The new Island Plan now provides an appropriate planning framework to deal with both inland and coastal 350 Future Drainage - Guidance for Applying Rainfall Uplifts 351 Green Book Supplementary Climate Change and Environmental Valuation 352 independent assessment of the UK’s climate risks 353 Independent Assessment of UK Climate Risk Advice to Govt for CCRA3 354 Shoreline Management Plan 355 Strategic Flood Risk Assessment

Guernsey government’s recently consulted on a draft “Local Planning Brief”356 for the harbour areas which updated the flood projections from 2012 for the east coast using the latest UKPC18 climate change predictions. This highlighted that over the course of the next 100 year the existing harbours are likely to be inoperable due to sea levels for certain periods. This highlights the challenge facing the island as a result of In 2024 the Isle of Man government commissioned a technical climate change risk and opportunity assessment to provide evidence for the development of an Adaptation Strategy. The climate change risk and opportunity assessment followed the principals of International Organisation of Standardisation (ISO) 14091:2021, the international standard for adaptation to climate change. An Isle of Man risk register, identifying 119 risks and 14 opportunities, has been established across five natural environment, health and communities, infrastructure, economy, and international dimensions. For each risk likelihood and magnitude scoring was undertaken, the risks were prioritised by their risk rating for each of the five sectors. Urgency scores were assigned to each of the 119 risks to indicate the need for adaptation action in two, five, and 10-year intervals, as well as beyond 10 years. Gibraltar’s Vulnerability and Risk Assessment (VRA) was conducted using a combination of desk research and stakeholder consultations to extract key information. The desk research involved analysing over 40 sources of information, including targeted studies in Gibraltar, IPCC reports and studies undertaken in geographies that have a similar geographical and biophysical profile as Gibraltar (Mediterranean, urban and coastal). The consultations involved interviews and questionnaires with over 70 key stakeholders. The VRA is aligned with the latest definitions of terms from the IPCC’s Fifth and Sixth Assessment reports which enable the assessment of climate vulnerabilities independently from hazards, focusing on sectors’ ‘propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected’. This ensures that the assessment does not incorporate uncertainties associated with 3.10 Adaptation priorities and barriers 3.10.1 Domestic priorities and progress towards those priorities In 2021, Climate Change Committee published an Independent Assessment357 of UK Climate Risk in which they identified eight priority climate risk areas needing immediate attention over the following two years. These were based on the urgency 356 Local Planning Brief 357 Independent Assessment of UK Climate Risk Advice to Govt for CCRA3

of additional action, the gap in UK adaptation planning, the opportunity to integrate adaptation into forthcoming policy commitments and the need to avoid locking in The priority areas were identified 1. Risks to the viability and diversity of terrestrial and freshwater habitats and 2. Risks to soil health from increased flooding and drought 3. Risks to natural carbon stores and sequestration from multiple hazards, leading to increased emissions 4. Risks to crops, livestock and commercial trees from multiple climate hazards 5. Risks to supply of food, goods and vital services due to climate-related collapse of supply chains and distribution networks 6. Risks to people and the economy from climate-related failure of the power 7. Risks to human health, wellbeing and productivity from increased exposure to heat in homes and other buildings 8. Multiple risks to the UK from climate change impacts overseas The UK Climate Change Risk Assessment 2022358 highlights the government’s approach to the eight priority risk areas and outlines recent actions taken to limit these risks as well as priorities going forward. For NAP3 and the upcoming CCRA4 Independent Assessment, research and development of methods to monitor and evaluate adaptation actions have been prioritised. Defra is providing support to risk owning departments for monitoring and evaluating their NAP3 actions to better understand to what extent they are achieving their objectives and what could be done differently to inform the next NAP, NAP4. 3.11 Adaptation strategies, policies, plans, goals and actions to integrate adaptation into national policies 3.11.1Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) process target 2 – Planning The National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF)359 sets out the Government’s planning policies for England and how these should be applied, guiding locally prepared plans for housing and other development. The National Planning Policy Framework was revised in response to the Levelling-up and Regeneration reforms to national planning policy consultation360 on 19 December 2023 and sets 358 UK Climate Change Risk Assessment 2022 359 National Planning Policy Framework 360 Levelling-up and Regeneration Reforms to National Planning Policy Consultation

out the government’s planning policies for England and how these are expected to 3.11.2 Adaptation goals, actions, objectives, undertakings, efforts, plans, strategies, policies, priorities, programmes and efforts The government’s vision for adaptation is for a country that effectively plans for and is fully adapted to the changing climate, with resilience against each of the identified climate risks. The UK Climate Change Act provides a strong foundation to enhance resilience to climate impacts, with research and evidence informing policy and organisations publishing reports on their adaptation progress through the ARP. Overseas, UK government provides official development assistance funding to support communities in climate vulnerable and fragile countries to adapt and build resilience to the current and future impacts of climate change to reduce the risk of conflict.
As part of the COP28 outcome on the global goal on adaptation, we adopted the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience361, which has 7 thematic and 4 process-based targets and agreed to launch a two-year work programme on indicators related to those targets. 3.11.2.2 Northern Ireland Executive Northern Ireland’s legal framework for climate adaptation is set out in section 60 of the Climate Change Act 2008. In line with this legal requirement the Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA) leads on the development of the Northern Ireland Climate Change Adaptation Programme (NICCAP) which sets out all departments policies and proposals in response to the latest UK Climate Change The second Northern Ireland Climate Change Adaptation Programme (NICCAP2)362 was published by DAERA in September 2019 and covers the 5-year period to September 2024. The NICCAP2 is the cross-departmental response to the risks identified in the second CCRA which was laid in Parliament in January 2017. Work is continuing to implement the actions contained in NICCAP2. The UK Climate Change Committees ‘The UK Climate Change Risk Assessment 2017 Evidence Report – summary for Northern Ireland’363 which helped to inform the Second Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA2) highlighted risk areas which 361 Glasgow–Sharm El-Sheikh Work Programme on The Global Goal On Adaptation Referred To In 362 Northern Climate Change Adaptation Programme 363 Northern The UK Climate Change Risk Assessment 2017 Evidence Report

required more action to be taken including those associated with flood risk In 2022, the Department for Infrastructure (DfI) commenced construction of the Belfast Tidal Flood Alleviation Scheme364 which aims to provide a long-term approach to tidal flood risk management over the tidal reach of the River Lagan in Belfast. The scheme, through the construction of approximately 8.5 kms of flood defences over a 2-year period, will reduce the tidal flood risk to over 1500 properties identified as being at risk from a 1 in 200-year tidal event once completed. Under climate change projections, causing sea level rise, this number would be predicted to increase to over 3900 properties by 2080. As such the scheme has been designed to take account of the future impact of climate change as set out in the Department’s “Technical Flood Risk Guidance in Relation to Allowances for Climate Change in Northern Ireland”365. The scheme design has factored the projected sea level risk to 2080 as well as allowing for future adaptability of the structures. In response to risk to the coastal environment and communities DAERA, to support the work of the NI Coastal Forum, commissioned a 3-Dimensional Coastal Survey366 of the Northern Ireland coastline in 2020 to acquire high resolution data through the use of topographic LiDAR, high resolution satellite-derived bathymetry data and pilot In 2021 a complete airborne LiDAR and orthophotography survey of the Northern Ireland coastline was undertaken. This data provides a precise representation of the morphology of the coastal environment of Northern Ireland and it is intended that the surveys will be repeated to provide a robust dataset to help monitor for coastal change to be used as the evidence base to inform the future coastal policy The Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 sets the statutory framework for Scotland to adapt to climate change. The legislation requires Scottish Ministers to set out a programme of policies and proposals (a plan) for climate change adaptation every five years. These plans must address risks identified in the statutory UK Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA), which is also updated every five years, based on independent expert advice around the evidence on current and expected future In 2024, the Scottish Government published its third statutory adaptation Scottish National Adaptation Plan 2024-2029 (SNAP3). SNAP3 describes how we will support Scots to adapt and continue to live well in Scotland’s changing climate. SNAP3 sets out a long term vision and defines Scotland’s priorities for action over 364 Northern Belfast Tidal Flood Alleviation Scheme 365 Northern Technical Flood Risk Guidance in Relation to Allowances for Climate Change 366 Northern 3-Dimensional Coastal Survey

the next five years via its 23 objectives – all of which were informed by public To deliver on Scotland’s adaptation objectives, the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 creates a legal duty across the Scottish public sector (including local authorities) to help deliver the national adaptation plan. SNAP3 includes over 200 policies focused on actions that are effective and inclusive, as part of Scotland’s just transition to net zero and climate resilience. Climate change impacts people and places in multiple ways, and communities with less capacity to adapt because of existing inequalities will need support. Scotland’s inclusive and place-based approach to adaptation is supported by the national capacity-building Adaptation To monitor success, SNAP3 includes a monitoring framework. This framework includes 38 data-ready indicators to track progress of the five-year objectives and be reported to the Scottish Parliament annually; and 16 data-ready indicators to track higher level trends in resilience and longer term adaptation outcomes. The existing UK CCRA process provides a full and independent measure of Scotland’s overall climate resilience every five years; and progress of Scotland’s adaptation plans and the actions within them will continue to be independently evaluated twice within every five-year period by the CCC. The UK Climate Change Act 2008 requires Welsh Ministers to lay reports before the Senedd Cymru / Welsh Parliament on the objectives, actions and future priorities of Welsh Ministers around the impacts of climate change.367 This requirement is further strengthened by the Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015, which sets out a number of overarching Well-being Goals that apply to public sector organisations in Wales.368 Climate change is integral to all the Well-being Goals and there is specific reference to a ‘resilient Wales’, which includes resilience to the effects of climate change. Climate change is also a key element of the role of the Future Generations Commissioner for Wales and Public Service Boards (PSBs) created under the Act.
PSBs are required to produce collaborative local well-being assessments, which must take into account the latest UK Climate Change Risk Assessment evidence. The Environment (Wales) Act 2016 also sets out further provisions in relation to climate change, including requirements for the sustainable management of natural resources as well as setting out governance arrangements for coastal and flood management. Several strategic, interlinked policy developments have taken place in Wales that are helping to establish a robust strategic framework for climate change adaptation. These include publication of an updated National Development Framework, Flood and Coastal Erosion Risk Management Strategy, Water Resource Management Plans, National Peatland Action Programme, Area Statements for the management 367 Climate Change Act 2008 368 Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015

of natural resources, and development of a new Sustainable Farming Scheme which will include measures for delivering climate adaptation. The Shoreline Management Plan was agreed in January 2020. The plan aims to ensure that coastal defences continue to protect the island over the next 100 years. Sea level rise and rainfall patterns resulting from climate change were modelled to access their impacts on coastal flooding and erosion. The plan considers risks to the community, environment, and economy of Jersey. It considers the coastal defences that are in place around the Island. Policies were developed to manage the risk these present and the appropriate management policy for each unit of the coastline Climate change will increase the threat of Invasive Non-Native Species (INNS). The Jersey Biological Security Framework has been set up to ensure international obligations are met and Jersey is protected from negative impacts. Components of this project include a review of current measures, establishing funding to deal with Asian Hornet threat and development of long-term management plans for Japanese Government is working towards pulling together an overarching Adaptation Plan for the Island in the government Plan period 2025-2028. The Bridging Island Plan (2022) has been informed by the Shoreline Management Plan and, as a consequence has a policy regime that seeks to direct growth to areas which are least vulnerable to the long-term impacts of climate change, including flood risk; and to ensure that new development is more resilient to the potential impacts of flooding. Guernsey’s Climate Change Policy outlines the importance of adaptation for the island and the need for an overarching adaptation plan. The development of the adaptation plan is due to commence in the near future. Ahead of the development of the island adaptation plan, some decisions are already being taken with the threats of climate change in mind, • In 2013, Guernsey’s government agreed an approach to enhancing the coastal defences to adapt to the effect of climate change. With Guernsey being a small island, with around half the island being relatively low lying, the impacts of increased sea levels are potentially significant. The regions most at risk to climate-related flooding were identified and initial options for addressing at risk areas have been provided. Implementation has started on • From a water security perspective, Guernsey is relatively well supplied from several reservoirs, which were created by historic quarrying. There is an ongoing review of whether to continue to allocate disused quarry sites for water reserves. That review is taking into account the predicted future impacts

The Isle of Man identified three priority issues for adaptation actions in 2015: awareness raising; public, animal and plant health; and storms and flooding. In 2020, the Department of Infrastructure formed the Flood Management Division to be responsible for all matters relating to flood risk management. National strategy documents include the National Strategy on Sea Defences, Flood and Coastal Erosion369. An independent review following severe flooding in the east of the Island in 2019 has also informed major Independent Review Final Report370. More information on specific projects can be found on the IOM Flood Hub website371. The Isle of Man Climate Change Plan 2022-2027372 commits to the delivery of an Adaptation Strategy taking account of climate impacts across all areas of society, economy and the natural environment. This will be based on an independent Climate Risks and Opportunities Assessment (currently underway). In addition, the Isle of Man Climate Change Plan 2022-2027373 contains a commitment to add adaptation to the climate change duties for public bodies, the outcomes of which will be that adaptation becomes a statutory duty for all Manx public bodies and annual reporting on adaptation will be required. Gibraltar conducted its first Climate Change Vulnerability & Risk Assessment374 in 2022 and is now working on developing a comprehensive Adaptation Strategy. This will focus on the priorities identified • Gibraltar will increase energy diversification by accelerating investment in renewable energy and seek to identify alternative sources of energy imports. Government will also invest in energy efficiency programmes to reduce demand and promote passive approaches to cooling wherever • Gibraltar will work with its main water provider to ensure redundancy in back-up energy systems for desalination and investigate the use of non- brackish (but non-potable) water sources for street cleaning and irrigation. • Continue diversification of food import routes and assess the impact of volatility and higher food prices on vulnerable groups. • Public Assess impact of increases in extreme heat on vulnerable populations and determine ways in which these impacts could be addressed. Increase monitoring of vector borne diseases. 369 National Strategy on Sea Defences, Flood and Coastal Erosion 370 Independent Review Final Report 372 Isle of Man Climate Change Plan 2022-2027 373 Isle of Man Climate Change Plan 2022-2027 374 Climate Change Vulnerability & Risk Assessment

3.12 How best available science, gender perspectives and indigenous, traditional and local knowledge are The UK Climate Projections (UKCP), produced by the Met Office on behalf of government, is a set of tools and data that show how the UK climate may change in the future. UKCP underpins the independent assessment to support the UK Climate Change Risk Assessment. The CCRA then informs the relevant policies and plans set out in the National Adaptation Programme (NAP).
The UK is also committed to promoting equality and inclusion, including women’s empowerment and gender equality. Public authorities must fulfil responsibilities set out under the UK’s Equality Act (2010)375 in the exercise of their functions. Through programmes such as the Protection Fund376, the UK supports projects that use traditional knowledge, adaptation, and historical practices to address international heritage at risk from climate change and natural disasters. 3.12.1 Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) Thematic target 7 - Cultural Climate change impacts our cultural heritage including historic buildings, museums, heritage sites, and archives. Climate change will increase the risk of flooding to more properties and areas. Areas already prone to flooding may experience an increase in frequency and severity. Heritage assets on the coast are particularly vulnerable where severe weather and sea level rise can combine to exacerbate the impacts on already vulnerable coastlines. Likewise, intangible cultural heritage, such as knowledge, traditions, and folklore will also be affected by climate change. This derives from the risk of communities and groups of people being displaced and the associated impact on their traditions and customs. Resilience to climate change can therefore protect both UK’s tangible and intangible cultural heritage, which in turn has associated benefits, including benefits to the UK's economy through heritage-related tourism, and wider heritage-related socioeconomic benefits including contributing to wellbeing and enhancing To address climate risks to communities and the UK’s cultural heritage, the • Investing billions in projects to improve the UK’s climate resilience, including, £2.4 billion until March 2026 to improve flood resilience and better protect communities across England, including from coastal erosion, safeguarding 376 British Council | Cultural Protection Fund

• Providing support through the £200 million Flood and Coastal Resilience Innovation Programme (FCRIP)377, including helping 25 local areas between 2021 and 2027 to take forward wider innovative actions that improve their resilience to flooding and coastal erosion. • Refreshing Shoreline Management Plans378 by the end of 2024 so that they remain current and relevant, using the most up to date available information. • Helping UK households that are at risk of flooding to access affordable insurance through the Flood Re379 scheme. • The Department for Culture, Media and Sport and its Arm Length Bodies are working with partners to complete the actions as laid out in NAP 3 to understand the threats, impacts and adaptation actions needed to respond to the impact of climate change on cultural heritage. 3.13 Adaptation actions and/or economic diversification plans leading to mitigation co-benefits; Climate adaptation is essential in achieving other climate goals, including all sectors of the UK economy reaching net zero emissions by 2050. Climate change adaptation is considered a priority for the Farming and Countryside Programme, which will support the implementation of adaptation measures through Environmental Land Management Schemes (ELMs), as referenced in section 2.15.1. ELMs will support farmers to deliver ‘public goods’ such as healthy soils, clean water and biodiversity- rich habitats. These in turn support the foundations of sustainable and resilient food production in the long term. We have worked closely with farmers, food producers and environmental experts to develop new and improved agri-environmental schemes for farmers and land managers, which encourage greater participation and incentivise collaboration and landscape scale working. We will continue to work closely with key sectors to learn from and improve these schemes over time. 3.13.1 Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) Thematic target 2 – The government is building the UK’s resilience to overseas climate impacts on food, as well as helping capitalise on opportunities for the UK food industry to export new To ensure climate-resilient food and agricultural production and supply, DEFRA • Delivering a range of measures to improve resilience and adaptation to climate change across the food supply and farming sector as set out in NAP 3. These measures include land management practices, such as action to 377 Flood and Coastal Resilience Innovation Programme (FCRIP) 378 Shoreline Management Plans 379 Flood Re - A flood re-insurance scheme

improve soil health and water resources and to increase tree planting on farms, along with greater investment in innovation. • Developing future publicly funded research and innovation, including investments under the Farming Innovation Programme380, a £270m innovation programme which aims to drive up productivity and enhance environmental sustainability, enabling us to adapt to climate change more effectively, while improving levels of food security. Continuing to support research on food supply resilience in relation to climate change and adaptation measures through the work of the Met Office’s Climate Service and Hadley Centre, and the Group on Earth Observations Global Agricultural Monitoring Initiative (GEOGLAM) until 2025. • Our supply chains are built on supply from diverse sources, domestic production (producing 62% of the food we need, by value) and imports through stable trade routes. Increasing the long-term resilience of global supply chains will help to maintain the current resilience and security of 3.14 Nature-based solutions to climate change adaptation; The UK Prime Minister signed the Leaders’ Pledge for Nature381 at the UN General Assembly in 2020. This Pledge has been endorsed by over 75 countries. The UK works with other countries to take forward this agenda, strengthen resilience in national economies and ecosystems, taking an integrated approach to environmental challenges and scale up nature-based solutions. The National Highways Natural Flood Management Fund was established in 2020/21 to explore the benefits of using nature-based solutions to reduce flood risk as an alternative to conventional hard engineered solutions on motorway and trunk roads. Through the fund, National Highways identified a pilot project seeking to use nature- based solutions as a tool to reduce surface water flooding on motorways and trunk roads associated with the Little Don and Irwell catchments. The pilot was unique as it was a catchment partnership between National Highways, the local Rivers Trusts, and the owners of the land where the natural flood management measures would be implemented.
In addition, the fund used a novel bidding platform and a natural flood management modelling tool to rank bids from landowners with proposed measures during a live auction, supported by the Rivers Trust. In January 2023, Natural England launched the Green Infrastructure Framework382 which provides voluntary principles and standards for England to help local planning authorities and developers to create or improve green and blue infrastructure at a local level, particularly where provision is poorest. The national standards in the Framework provide a consistent way to set out what good green infrastructure provision looks like. The standards are supported by evidence based practical guidance on how to plan and design good green infrastructure, as well as England- 380 Boost For Farming Innovation 381 Home - Leaders Pledge for Nature 382 Green Infrastructure Framework

wide maps of green infrastructure overlain with socio-economic data. Well-managed green infrastructure has many advantages such as its contribution to biodiversity recovery, cleansing pollutants, absorbing noise and moderating temperatures. 3.14.1Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) Thematic target 4 - Using nature-based solutions will reduce society’s vulnerability to climate risk and contribute to species recovery by providing more high-quality habitat for wildlife. Measures being taken to support the adaptability and resilience of species, habitats and ecosystems to climate change impacts • Setting out plans to increase adaptive woodland management in the updated Tree Health Resilience Strategy383 and using use climate risk forecasts to inform net zero woodland creation policies, so that tree planting is spatially targeted to account for climate risk. This will be implemented in the post- Nature for Climate Fund forestry policies, including urban tree cover, by 2026. • Developing ‘adaptation of land management to wildfire risk’ guidance by 2026 and continue to support public and private sector land managers to develop • Restoring natural function and iconic water landscapes, through updated River Basin Management Plans up to 2027, to allow natural processes to re- establish and to produce the highest-quality habitats naturally, contributing to the achievement of Good Ecological Status at 75% of water bodies by 2027. Working with stakeholders to create and restore habitats and ecosystem functions, including those most at risk from climate change. This includes restoring and creating over 500,000 hectares of wildlife-rich habitat outside of Protected Sites by 2042, and restoring 75% of Protected Sites to favourable condition by 2042 – all in a manner that is suitable in the context of climate • Supporting stakeholders to use spatial prioritisation for habitat restoration and creation, informed by climate projections, such as projected hazard and land • Maintaining an adaptative management approach to reducing anthropogenic non-climate pressures on marine species and habitats. On Marine Protected Areas this includes delivering our new statutory target for 70% of the designated features to be in favourable condition by 2042, with the remainder • Restoring and creating new habitats, including through the Restoring Meadows Marsh and Reef initiative, which aims to restore at least 15% of 2 priority habitats – seagrass meadows, saltmarsh and native oyster reefs – by • Improving data gathering and monitoring to support the restoration, recovery and creation of marine habitats, where relevant using effective spatial 383 Tree health resilience strategy 2018

targeting, including through the marine Natural Capital and Ecosystem Assessment programme (2022-25). 3.15 Stakeholder involvement, including subnational, community-level and private sector plans, priorities, Defra, working with UKRI’s Sciencewise Programme and Ipsos, ran a Public Dialogue for Climate Adaptation to understand public perceptions and attitudes towards climate adaptation in England. The dialogue explored the public’s perspectives of climate adaptation and how they think the government businesses and civil society will address the challenges of climate change. Additional investment from the private sector will be required to support adaptation action over the coming decades. Indicative analysis estimates that, across all 61 risks and opportunities identified in the CCRA3, this could be as much as £10 billion The government has committed to support the flow of private finance into adaptation through the 2023 Green Finance Strategy384, it • Work with industry partners to improve the approach to climate resilience assessment and disclosure though developing adaptation metrics and • Support private and public collaboration over the next 5 years to address • Work with the Climate Change Committee to scope research requirements and identify adaptation investment needs and opportunities to inform the CCRA4 Independent Assessment in 2027. 3.15.3 Ownership, stakeholder engagement, alignment of adaptation actions and replicability The UK government has coordinated and facilitated the mainstreaming of adaptation activity through NAP3. This has included establishing ownership within government for each of the 61 CCRA3 risks and opportunities. Defra is responsible under the Climate Change Act 2008 for coordinating the UK government’s action on climate adaptation. Defra works closely with the Cabinet Office Resilience Directorate on the strategic cross-government coordination of 384 Mobilising Green Investment - 2023 Green Finance Strategy

climate adaptation, and with the Treasury to build climate resilience into cross- government spending decisions including through the Spending Review. 3.16 Progress on implementation of adaptation 3.16.1 Steps taken to formulate, implement, publish and update national and regional programmes, strategies and measures, policy frameworks (e.g. national adaptation plans) and other The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland submitted its first Adaptation Communication to the UNFCCC in December 2020, setting out its plans to prepare for the impacts of climate change in the UK and to support climate change adaptation overseas. The 2020 UK Adaptation Communication covers the • National adaptation goals including details of NAP2 and the government’s Third Strategy for the Adaptation Reporting Power (ARP). • Examples of implementation of adaptation actions and implementation • The importance of nature-based solutions, the Adaptation Communication stresses that adaptation actions will take place across a wide range of terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems, and there is an emphasis on projects that provide multiple benefits simultaneously.
An update to the UK’s Adaptation Communication in October 2021 also offered updates on progress, • The Climate Adaptation Summit in January 2021; under the UK G7 Presidency, the UK launched the ‘Adaptation Action Coalition (AAC)’385 with the aim of accelerating global action on adaptation. • The Foreign and Development Ministers’ welcoming of the Principles for Locally Led Adaptation; the principles aim to shift the dynamic so that adaptation interventions are informed by local priorities, knowledge, and • In July 2023, NAP3 was published by the UK government, setting out a vision for a country that effectively plans for, and is fully adapted to, the changing NAP3 contains actions to address the risks of climate change to the natural environment, infrastructure, people and the built environment, business and industry, and international risks to the UK, as well as a chapter outlining work with local government on climate change adaptation. The NAP sets out policies and measures to be implemented at several levels and identifies the actors responsible for their 385 Adaptation Action an overview

implementation. NAP3 is underpinned by a monitoring tool to track progress on adaptation actions, on a periodic basis. 3.16.2 Implementation of adaptation actions identified in current and past adaptation communications, including efforts towards meeting adaptation needs, as appropriate; Since publication of the 2020 Adaptation Communication, Defra has continued to progress domestic action on adaptation. As identified in our adaptation communications, the following actions have been • Updating the government’s Green Book Supplementary Guidance on Accounting for the Effects of Climate Change to encourage climate change risks to be embedded in policy and programme decisions, drawing on climate • Establishing new government-wide adaptation governance to provide senior- level oversight and strategic direction on the delivery of statutory duties on adaptation and resilience policy across the government. • Under the UK G7 Presidency, the Foreign and Development Ministers welcomed the Principles for Locally Led Adaptation, following the UK’s endorsement of the Principles at the Climate Adaptation Summit in January 2021. The Principles for Locally Led Adaptation aim to shift the dynamic so that adaptation interventions are developed and implemented in a way that is equitable and informed by local priorities, knowledge and expertise. • Investing in international disaster risk The UK contributed of £120 million to regional risk pools during the G7 Leaders’ Summit, to support an improved response to extreme weather and climate-linked disasters. • Making businesses more resilient, including implementing economy-wide, climate-related financial disclosures for businesses and investments products, which will support investment decisions to be aligned with our transition to a lower-carbon, climate resilient economy, globally. 3.17 How effective are implemented adaptation measures As set out in the UK Climate Change Act 2008, the Climate Change Committee has a duty to assess the progress in implementing the NAP, reporting to Parliament every two years. The government is working closely with the Climate Change Committee to identify how best to monitor adaptation activity and assign sectoral metrics and indicators for exposure and vulnerability to risk. England and Devolved Governments fully recognise the scale of the challenge of adapting to climate change, as set out in the CCRA3 and its underlying reports. 3.17.2 Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) process target 3 – Examples of recent achievements • Defra has set up new governance and an approach to actively manage the NAP programme through regular commissions to monitor delivery against NAP3 commitments. Risk owning departments are responsible for developing adaptation plans and policies and evaluating the effectiveness of these throughout the NAP3 implementation period (2023 to 2028). • Passing the landmark Environment Act 2021, which enshrines the 25 Year Environment Plan in law and includes an historic legally binding target for species • Working with over 120 businesses and public bodies to support them to report on activities to strengthen their resilience to climate change. Adaptation reporting focuses on a range of critical sectors, such as rail, road, energy, water, heritage, the natural environment, and finance, as well as a pilot of reporting by local • Ensuring homes are fit for the future. This includes introducing a new requirement through the Building Regulations386 to ensure that new residential buildings are built for a warmer climate. The new requirement includes prioritisation of passive measures to address overheating, including solar gains. • The UK has implemented mandatory reporting in line with recommendations of the Taskforce on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD) across the economy as the core basis of Sustainability Disclosure Requirements (SDR). TCFD-aligned reporting requires disclosure of climate related financial risk information structured around four thematic governance, strategy, risk management, and metrics and targets. 3.17.3 Coordination activities and changes in regulations, policies Over the 5-year NAP3 programme, UK government has committed to drive coordinated action on climate adaptation, • As part of the ‘UK government Resilience Framework’387 outlined in section 1.4, the UK government will deliver on a new strategic approach to resilience. • Work to strengthen governance arrangements overseeing the implementation of NAP3 which better take infrastructure sector interdependencies into account, ensuring these arrangements work alongside existing governance and collaboration forums on resilience. • Work with external stakeholders and member organisations to strengthen the role of the Infrastructure Operators Adaptation Forum in driving forward best 386 Approved Document Overheating 387 The UK government Resilience Framework

practice on managing sector interdependencies including the risk of • The government and its agencies will provide the governance structures, guidance, and plans to coordinate and align actions for nature recovery. It will explore options to establish appropriate governance arrangements so that the UK Environment Act 2021 biodiversity targets are delivered in a way that • ‘Local Nature Recovery Strategies’388 (LNRS) are measures set out in the Environment Act (2021) and will support public, private and voluntary sector organisations to work together on identifying collective priorities for restoring nature and improving climate resilience • The government and external partners will integrate water management by delivering catchment action plans backed up with new funding to improve all water bodies in England.
This will target actions where they will deliver the greatest impact for water quality, drought and flood management, and nature 3.18 Monitoring and evaluation of adaptation actions and 3.18.1 Achievements, impacts, resilience, review, effectiveness and Effective monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is important for informing future decision making on adaptation. The Climate Change Committee’s Technical Report for the CCRA3 Independent Assessment outlines that for many of the risks and opportunities, adaptation actions can often take a long time to take effect. In particular, the complexity of how systems respond to adaptation measures while also responding to other environmental and socio-economic pressures is not easily M&E can help assess the effectiveness of actions taken, inform resource allocation decisions and reassess goals based on their feasibility or relative importance. When developing policy responses for climate risks, policy officials will also identify accompanying process and outcome indicators. Such indicators will help us assess a) actions are being delivered b) actions are efficient 8 c) progress is being made on the declared outcomes. At present, gaps exist in our ability to monitor our adaptation efforts. This is due to the complexity of adaptation and the associated challenges of identifying and developing appropriate indicators. As outlined in the M&E annex389 to NAP3, some of the common challenges 388 Local Nature Recovery Strategies 389 Annexes 2 to 5: Further supporting information

• Proving cause and effect for adaptation actions in a complex system with • Tracking progress to a moving target in a system with interacting and cascading climate and socioeconomic risks. • The mismatch between short evaluation cycles and the time needed to effect change, especially for the natural environment. • Access to high quality, affordable and trustworthy data. These challenges are consistent with the findings of the Climate Change Committee in its 2021 progress report to Parliament. Adaptation process indicators (such as the number of plans adopted, or buildings retrofitted) are relatively simple to measure. Indicators that measure adaptation outcomes (such as climate-sensitive sectors of the economy being better adapted) are rarer as they are harder to measure. Work is ongoing to identify a suite of existing and potential indicators to evaluate the success of the NAP3 programme. In many cases, indicators will be researched or developed As committed to in NAP3, the UK government is developing an Monitoring Evaluation and Learning framework, expected in 2025. 3.18.2 Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) process target 4 - Monitoring, evaluation and learning (MEL) Adapting to a changing climate is a dynamic problem involving complex environmental and socioeconomic systems, such as our food or energy systems. Due to the complexity of this challenge, DEFRA is using a theory of change approach applying the logic of interventions from action to impact to developing adaptation policy. As described in the ‘Magenta Book’,390 which sets out guidance on evaluation in government, a theory of change captures the reasoning behind how an intervention is expected to work. The main steps involved in achieving the desired policymakers will clearly define any assumptions made, the quality and strength of the evidence supporting those assumptions, and wider contextual factors. Monitoring, evaluation and learning are fundamental components of this approach and will be used to challenge the assumptions made and support continuous Please see below schematic for the recommended process for developing plans to adapt to climate change. Initially, the impacts of climate change and the adaptation options available will be considered. The logical steps of the theory of change approach will then be followed to design an intervention. First, the impact desired will be clearly stated and then the necessary outcomes, outputs, activities and resources required to achieve it. Continuous feedback loops to monitor, evaluate, report and finally revise plans are needed throughout each stage. climate change through a theory of change approach Monitoring, evaluation and learning fosters a culture of sharing and learning from experiences and bringing risk owning teams from across departments together into outcome-based groupings, to more easily identify synergies and interdependencies and ensure we are working together efficiently. 3.18.3 Approaches and systems used, and their outputs; Throughout the NAP3 period, Defra will continue to support risk owning departments across UK Government to further develop and implement their adaptation plans. The Climate Change Committee’s latest progress report in 2023 introduced a new framework which assesses 13 sectors structured around social outcomes or systems impacted by climate change, known as ‘monitoring maps’. These most notably increase the focus on tangible changes in the economy, society and the environment by identifying a set of outcomes and actions necessary to deliver climate resilience within each sector (Climate Change Committee, 2023). It also expands on the enabling conditions required to achieve the outcomes, and the role of public policy in The Climate Change Committee (CCC) is looking to share learnings from the UK experience and to learn from others391 about theirs. The CCC developed a set of briefings detailing the approaches, reflections and lessons learned by the CCC in 12 391 Sharing the UK's approach - CCC

years of advising the UK on emissions reductions and adapting392 to climate England will continue to champion action to advance adaptation alongside mitigation internationally, helping to build global resilience, drive action to protect those who are most vulnerable to climate change, and learn from others as per the CCCs advice. ‘The 2030 Strategic Framework for International Climate and Nature Action393’ was the first strategy to integrate our approach to climate mitigation, adaptation, and other environmental policies, to maximise co-benefits and minimise trade-offs, seeking to advance global adaptation and resilience as an international priority, including through co-beneficial mitigation and nature actions 3.18.4 How support programmes meet specific vulnerabilities and Climate risks to the UK resulting from high temperatures, changes to air quality, and flooding can impact people’s health and wellbeing as well as on the delivery of health and social care services. These risks also impact on food safety, water quality and water supplies, and an increased likelihood of vector-borne disease in the UK.
Such risks are more likely to negatively impact on some members of the population, including people with disabilities and older people. Of the UK population, 38% of disabled people are 65 and older (source: UK Disability Survey research report, June 2021). In addition, overseas climate change impacts can increase the presence of 3.19 How adaptation actions influence other development Sustainable development has been considered and integrated into actions across all critical sectors identified in CCRA3, including education, health, the natural environment, and infrastructure. In addition to the actions, we are taking domestically, sustainable development is at the core of the UK’s Official Development Assistance, enabling adaptation and resilience overseas. This not only enhances the resilience of the UK to climate risk but helps support the sustainable development needs of other countries. The UK’s International Climate Finance considers gender equality, disability inclusion and other sustainable development goals, with key performance indicators evaluating the success of UK International Climate Finance, including measurements of sustainable development objectives. More on this in chapter 4. Adaptation and resilience of people and our natural environment contributes to many of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). For marine ecosystems, SDG13 and SGD14 on Climate Action and Life Below Water are the most relevant for ocean- climate policy, and adaptation actions contribute to the UK’s progress against the 392 CCC Insights Briefing 7 Assessing Progress Preparing for Climate Change 393 2030 Strategic Framework For International Climate And Nature Action

targets. The UK’s Voluntary National Review of Progress against the SDGs394 highlights strong progress against SDG14 targets. The North East Atlantic Ocean Acidification Hub has been established in the UK. The Hub will act as the European regional centre for conducting monitoring and research into ocean acidification, primarily within the Northeast Atlantic region, including the submission of data to the UN for SGD 14.3 on ocean acidity. 3.19.1Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) Thematic target 3 – Health Since 2022, the climate-heath nexus has gained increasing attention, as countries recognise the importance of strengthening comprehensive policies to prevent the health impacts of climate change, building resilient and sustainable health systems, improving their ability to anticipate and implement adaptation interventions against climate-sensitive disease and health risks, bolstering climate-health information services, surveillance, early warning and response systems and a climate-ready health workforce. Subsequently, at COP28 the UK announced the UK’s flagship Climate Resilient and Sustainable Health Systems Programme. The government set out its plans to support vulnerable communities • FCERM research and development projects395, providing a critical assessment of the links between flooding and social vulnerability, social deprivation and inequalities and in the UK. • Implementing the Approved document O396 of the Building Regulations, in June 2022, to limit excess heat and solar gains across all new residential buildings. It will use recommendations from the Housing Health and Safety Rating System review to support the effective enforcement of quality and safety standards in all tenures of residential accommodation, including standards related to excess heat by 2030. • Monitoring the occurrence of vector-borne diseases (VBDs); with the assistance of its specialised agencies, it will enhance surveillance and monitoring of overseas health risks as well as update the risk assessments of the Human Animal Infections Risk Surveillance (HAIRS) group, to provide a cross-government risk assessment defining the risk of VBDs in the UK. • Building the capacity and capability of those working in the sector and those travelling overseas to recognise cases of suspected VBDs to increase detection of cases, limit spread and improve patient outcomes. • In collaboration with its specialised agencies, making access to the Air Quality and Health Information and government Web Services available to the public 394 Voluntary National Review 2019 395 FCERM Research and Development Projects 396 Approved Document Overheating

3.20 Cooperation, good practices, experience and lessons 3.20.1 Efforts to share information, good practices, experience and lessons learned, including as they relate 3.20.1.1Science, planning and policies relevant to adaptation Defra is supporting teams to learn from each other by facilitating communities of practice, working groups and expert panels. These range across areas such as specific sector-based risks, monitoring and evaluation and economic appraisal. As part of the 2024-27 Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme (MOHCCP), government is working with the Met Office, academic partners and users of UKCP to develop further climate science capability to support adaptation. A Climate Adaptation Research and Innovation Board (CARIB) has been convened to ensure that adaptation research and innovation efforts are targeted to support NAP3 delivery over the plan period (2023-28). CARIB brings together senior representatives from government departments, non-departmental public bodies and non-ministerial departments with major climate adaptation research and innovation (R&I) budgets or responsibilities under NAP3. This will be achieved through the development of a Climate Adaptation Research and Innovation Framework (CARIF) to provide strategic direction and influence spending decisions on climate adaptation across departments and UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) programmes. 3.20.1.2 Integration of adaptation actions into planning at different levels; The government is improving its understanding of the distributional impacts of climate change and adaptation action through research programmes for the Independent Assessment of the fourth Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA4) and the UKRI-Defra funded ‘Maximising UK Adaptation to Climate Change’397 3.21 Helping developing countries to identify effective adaptation practices, needs, priorities, and challenges and gaps in a way that is consistent with encouraging Since 2011, the UK has supported over 110 million people adapt to the effects of climate change. To achieve this, the UK funds a range of bilateral, regional multilateral programmes to increase adaptation action in priority sectors and assist countries with their national adaptation plans and processes. 397 Maximising UK Adaptation to Climate Change Research Projects

This includes helping improve accessible early warning systems and preparations as well as developing the capacity to act on the risks identified and strengthening the delivery mechanisms that enable effective early action to reach those who need it most.
The UK is the sole funder of the Risk-informed Early Action Partnership (REAP)398, an initiative launched in 2019 that brings together relevant actors from the development, humanitarian and climate communities on the Early Warning Early Action (EWEA) agenda. REAP provides international analysis, evidence, learning, coordination, and debate, to integrate and expand a systemic shift towards acting earlier to reduce the impacts of disasters, with the target of making 1 billion people The UK recognises that SIDS are on the frontline of climate change and are uniquely climate and economically vulnerable. The UK’s Small Island Developing State Capacity and Resilience (SIDAR) programme, and the Sustainable Blue Economies programme, both launched in 2022, will support access to climate finance and the development of prosperous ocean-based economies. The UK supports Least Developed Countries (LDCs) • Chairing the Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems Initiative (CREWS), 399 • Supporting the Least Developed Countries Initiative for Effective Adaptation and Resilience (LIFE-AR)400 programme since 2020. The government is also assisting in building resilience locally, the Weather and Climate Information Services (WISER)401 programme enables communities and governments to better anticipate and prepare for climate shocks and stresses, reducing their impact and protecting lives, homes and livelihoods. To date, WISER has helped to avoid over £200 million worth of losses in East Africa through application of climate information and helped to improve the resilience of over 8 million people who use WISER services. Additionally, WISER in the Middle East and North Africa aims to deliver transformation in the generation and use of co-produced weather and climate services to support decision making at local, national, and 3.21.1 Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) Thematic target 6 - The UK has been a leading supporter and contributor to several climate finance programmes internationally that have embedded gender inclusion within their design and combine both gender mainstreaming and gender focussed programming. For 400 Supporting the LDC Initiative for Effective Adaptation and Resilience (LIFE-AR) 401 Weather and Climate Information Services (WISER)

The UK has been the leading supporter to date of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)’s Climate Finance Network (CFN), which has a dedicated workstream on Gender and Social Inclusion and Climate Change Finance and supports the network’s countries in integrating gender and social inclusion into climate change planning and budgeting processes. The UK has also worked to build women's and girl's climate resilience through investment in more inclusive core and shock-responsive social protection. Through the Better Assistance in Crisis (BASIC) and Gender-responsive Social Protection (GSP) programmes we are providing technical assistance and expertise to support partners on how to ensure social protection systems and interventions can respond to climate risks and the differential needs of women and girls, in the COVID-19 3.22 Strengthening scientific research and knowledge related (i) Climate, including research and systematic observation and early warning systems, to inform climate services and decision-making; (ii) Vulnerability and adaptation; (iii) Monitoring and Research and information sharing are integral to building capability. Increased awareness of climate risks will improve risk management plans and enable the public, businesses and other organisations to make more informed decisions. This is why the government is supporting and funding several innovative research Under the UK’s COP26 Presidency, we launched the Adaptation Research Alliance (ARA)402, a global coalition of over 180 organisations across the spectrum – from research to action – from 60 economies. The ARA supports action-oriented research that informs adaptation solutions and reduces risks from climate change at the scale and urgency demanded by the science. The Climate Adaptation and Resilience (CLARE) programme403 is a UK-Canada framework research programme on climate adaptation and resilience, aiming to enable socially inclusive and sustainable action to build resilience to climate change and natural hazards in Africa and Asia-Pacific. Bridging critical gaps between science and action, CLARE develops new tools and supports partner governments, communities, and the private sector to use evidence and innovation to drive effective solutions to the climate challenge, whilst building the capacity of both those carrying out the research and those using the resulting 402 403

3.22.1 Policy innovation and pilot projects. The government has committed to support world-leading science and evidence, such as the UK Climate Projections and jointly fund a £15 million UK Research and Innovation/Defra programme to support the research and innovation needed to As part of UK Research and Innovation's 'building a secure and resilient world’ and ‘building a green future’ strategic themes, the Maximising UK Adaptation to Climate Change (MACC) programme will identify the skills, standards and data provision needed to increase adaptation capability across government and wider society. The MACC programme will build capacity, knowledge, and skills that will offer practical and scalable solutions to meet the UK’s challenges in the face of a changing climate and put the UK at the forefront of climate adaptation strategies at both the local and national level. The programme will also fund transdisciplinary research to collaborate and facilitate two-way transfer of knowledge between research, policy and other end users to drive transformation, helping the UK to adapt to climate change, focusing on four • theme societies’ exposure and vulnerability to extreme climate hazards • theme adaptation solutions • theme future resilience and decision making • theme enablers of adaptation UK government investment in climate services helps to provide information for the public and businesses. Evidence from a range of studies suggests that weather and climate services, including early warning systems, can lead to economic benefit-cost ratios of around 9:1, arising from the information used to improve decision making.404 Supported by this investment, the Met Office Hadley Centre delivers world-leading evidence on climate variability to better inform decision-making, including the UK Climate Projections.
As part of the 2024-27 Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme (MOHCCP), the UK government is working with the Met Office, academic partners and users of UKCP to develop further climate science capability The UK is also the current chair and board member of the Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems Initiative (CREWS)405, a specialised financing mechanism launched in 2015 that responds to the urgent need to address climate related risks and their impacts on vulnerable communities – specifically LDCs and SIDS, whilst empowering the leadership of women. Chapter 4: Information on financial, technology development and transfer and capacity-building support provided and mobilised 4.1 Information on national circumstances 4.1.1 Description of the systems used to track and report on support provided and mobilised The UK has committed to spend £11.6 billion of International Climate Finance (ICF) between financial years 2021/22 to 2025/26. This is new and additional climate finance support from the UK’s previous ICF commitment of £5.8 billion between 2016/17 and 2020/21. The UK spent £5.98 billion within this previous commitment The UK aims to achieve a balance between mitigation and adaptation support through its £11.6 billion ICF commitment. We have made the following further key • £1.5bn adaptation spend in 2025; • At least £3bn on development solutions that protect and restore nature and biodiversity, including £1.5bn on forests, and • Up to £1bn on clean energy research and demonstration programmes through UK ICF targets strong outcomes for climate mitigation and adaptation, nature and biodiversity. We use our ICF to reduce poverty through supporting resilience and accelerating the global shift to net zero by giving developing countries access to more, better and faster finance and helping to mobilise finance from the private sector to meet climate and nature goals. The UK balances our ICF spend between support for mitigation and adaptation. We invest in mitigation where there are opportunities for green-growth, where emissions are growing rapidly and in nature-rich countries that play a role as major carbon sinks to reduce future climate impacts. Our ICF programmes support the most vulnerable, helping build the capacity of people and communities to adapt and become more resilient to the impacts of climate change, supporting transformation of systems, and helping countries and communities deal with impacts when they occur. There is more detail about our adaptation support for developing countries in chapter three. UK ICF supports accelerating the clean energy transition in both energy-producing and energy-consuming sectors to help countries provide access to affordable, reliable, and clean energy for all. This transition will reduce or avoid high emissions pathways, making use of innovation, different technologies, and carbon pricing and addressing social and gender barriers to clean energy access. In line with the recommendations from the Dasgupta Review407and the commitments set out in the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework408, we use ICF to protect, sustainably manage and restore nature, reviving natural and degraded terrestrial and marine ecosystems. We help the transition to nature positive economies by supporting governments, central banks, businesses, and financial institutions to integrate the value of nature into their decision-making. ICF is part of the UK’s Official Development Assistance (ODA) budget. The UK met our commitment to ensure that all new bilateral UK aligned with the Paris Agreement in 2023. In addition to ICF from the ODA budget, from 2021 onwards the UK has also reported climate eligible outflows from British International Investments (BII). The UK also puts ICF into BII; to avoid double counting, ICF inflow amounts are deducted from climate eligible outflows for reporting. The UK’s ICF is spent through these government the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO), the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero (DESNZ), the Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (Defra), and the Department for Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT). ICF is allocated to these departments via a wider process called a Spending Review, where budgets are allocated to departments over a set period. The most recent Spending Review completed at end of October 2024 allocated funding for UK financial years 2024/25 to 2025/26 (i.e. April 2025 to March 2026). For UK ICF, this means budgets have been allocated to cover the full £11.6bn commitment. Departments are responsible for their ICF expenditure but draw on shared guidance and methodologies where possible. An example of where methodologies are being improved is in DSIT. DSIT is developing a methodology to categorise, and attribute spend to ICF eligible projects with the view of providing a full project list with updated is identified as programmes are 407 Final Report - The Economics of The Dasgupta Review 408 Final text of Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework

To measure the quality and impact of the UK’s ICF, we aim to apply these four elements to all our ICF 1. Each programme has a Theory of Change and a logframe, with indicators and milestones for Outputs, Outcomes and Impacts. 2. Annual Each year, each programme is scored against how well it is delivering against the Theory of Change and logframe. 3. Across the portfolio of ICF programmes, we monitor and publish a core set of Key Performance Indicators410 measuring impact. 4. Evaluation and Many ICF programmes have independent evaluations and lessons learnt are collected and shared on a regular basis. ICF portfolio data is collected at departmental level and regularly collated at a cross- government level to support the overview of the portfolio and strategic decision 409 411International Climate Finance Programmes Synthesis of Learning

Frequency What is reported Source Monthly Primarily financial transactions. International Aid Transparency (Programme business cases will get published at this source once Reported via the devtracker414 ICF portfolio level results – these mobilised from both public and internationally climate finance Annually ICF spend data as part of overall published on gov.uk.416 Data is 4.1.2 Description of challenges and limitations Impact of external global events The previous UK government temporarily reduced the UK’s annual ODA target from 0.7% of Gross National Income (GNI) to 0.5%.
We will remain one of the most generous donors amongst the G7, and our ODA offer will continue to grow in line with GNI. We will restore ODA spending to 0.7% of GNI as soon as fiscal 412 413 414 415 International Climate Finance Results 416 Statistics on International Development 417 418 UK's 5th Biennial Report and 8th National Communication

circumstances allow. Despite these challenges we remain committed to meeting our commitments to climate finance. Our programme level data tables contain several hundred individual programmes. Each programme is likely to involve several delivery partners from the original recipient of UK funding right through to the recipient of support on the ground. Each stage in the delivery chain could be at a different geographical level and be mobilising other sources of finance. It is therefore challenging to track ICF at a granular level. It requires capacity and capability to manage this and overall internal resources to deliver the ICF are not unlimited. It also requires data and information from external sources. Finance mobilised from Technical Assistance As part of the set of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) developed to monitor and track outcomes and impacts from across UK ICF programmes, there are indicators for measuring private and public finance mobilised for climate action. However, these build on the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) methodologies for mobilised finance, so do not capture the widest extent of finance catalysed by ICF interventions, or mobilised through technical assistance The UK welcomes the scrutiny of other organisations on our ICF to provide external assurance and identify areas of improvement. An example of this is from the Independent Commission for Aid Impact’s (ICAI) rapid review of the ICF that was published in February 2024419. The government response to this report was published420 in December 2024. 4.1.3 Information on experience and good practices to incentivi se further private climate financing and investment Incentivising private climate financing A key focus of the UK’s ICF is mobilising private finance to support the transition to low-carbon and climate-resilient development pathways in developing countries. Our latest cumulative ICF results show that our ICF spend has mobilised £7.8bn in private finance to support climate change. The annual amounts reported for 2021 and 2022 in our CTF tables are £2.085bn and £1.28bn. The UK uses a variety of financial instruments, including grants, concessional loans, returnable loans, performance-based incentives, guarantees, and insurance, to mobilize private finance. These instruments are designed to reduce the perceived 419 UK Aid’s International Climate Finance Commitments 420 Independent Commission for Aid Impact's Review of UK Aid's International Climate Finance UK Government Response

risks associated with low-carbon investments, making them more attractive to private investors. An example is the Renewable Energy Performance Platform (REPP). REPP provided technical and financial support to private sector developers of small- scale renewable energy projects in sub-Saharan Africa. REPP provided tailored support and funding required in individual project finance deals to enable developers to overcome barriers to investment. These barriers include a lack of early-stage funding, costly risk mitigation instruments, underdeveloped capital markets and weak or immature policy and regulatory frameworks. To overcome these barriers, REPP provided project development capital to support work such as feasibility studies. It also provided viability gap finance using a range of financial instruments and Some examples of REPP results are a US$1m development loan to construction of Mpanda 10.2MW run-of-river hydropower plant in Burundi, US$1.2m mezzanine loan to Tanzania’s first ever wind farm, which began operations in July 2020, providing much-needed energy security to a growing rural population and US$2.9m to Bboxx data-driven platform that provides access to innovative products and services like plug-and-play solar home systems (SHS), solar-powered water pumps and e- mobility solutions to cash-loan funding. Bboxx is making good progress in transforming the utility sector through its increased presence in West Africa. The UK is also using its ICF to mobilise private finance by providing technical assistance to support regulatory reforms and build the capacity of key institutions in developing countries. This helps create a stable and predictable investment environment that encourages private sector participation in climate projects. The UK funds research, development, and demonstration projects to accelerate the commercialization of innovative clean energy technologies. This includes supporting early-stage testing and scaling of new technologies and business models. Some examples of this can be seen further on in this chapter. The third Portfolio Evaluation of UK ICF, Support for Policy Change421, found evidence that ICF had supported some aspects of policy change, and that the UK’s approach was valued by most policymakers and other donors. We welcomed the findings of this evaluation and published a Management Response422. Key findings • ICF works in a collaborative, non-prescriptive style in partner countries, to support the types of policy changes beneficial to climate and the environment. This collaborative approach creates a sense of ownership by partner 421 PE3 Support For Policy Change 422 Response To Portfolio Evaluation 3 (PE3) Support for Policy Change

governments which increases the likelihood of policy change occurring, and it being effective and sustainable. • ICF has been effective in supporting changes to forestry and land-use policy in Colombia and Indonesia, and renewable energy policy in Uganda. • Four types of intervention were successful in supporting policy change in national and sub-national 1. Generating and brokering evidence to convince people to change 2. Exploiting opportunities to convince a critical mass of decision makers 3. Empowering others to advocate for or deliver policy change through 4. Providing resources to deliver policy change. • Five types of intervention were successful in supporting policy change in 2. Creating momentum through coalitions of support 3. Building confidence through UK expertise 5. Building capability through experience. Case REDD+ Early Movers (REM) Programme DESNZ has supported the REM programme, which aims to reward countries or jurisdictions considered as pioneers in forest protection and climate mitigation. One of the areas the REM programme operates in is Mato Grosso in Brazil, where the programme has delivered a project called Muxirum Quilombola.
The main objectives of the Muxirum Quilombola project were to ensure communities could be empowered politically, socially, culturally and economically, with a focus on Quilombolo women and youth. Muxirum Quilombola has benefitted more than 500 Quilombola families, promoting sustainable management, environmental preservation and income Case Nationally Determined Contributions Partnership DESNZ has supported the NDCP (Nationally Determined Contributions Partnership), which is a partnership of over 120 countries and almost 100 institutions, formed after the signing of the Paris Agreement, to help countries effectively implement their commitments and access finance, supporting ambitious climate action whilst enhancing sustainable development. Through the NDCP, the UK supports developing countries to turn their NDCs and other relevant climate plans into specific strategies and measures, support their implementation, as well as coordinating major climate donors to more effectively An example of the impact of the NDCP is in Colombia. Here, the Colombian government requested the support of the NDCP to improve the quality and ambition of their NDC, and mobilise financial resources for NDC investment projects. The British Embassy in Colombia was able to support this process, using their strong

relationship with the Colombian government facilitated by the UK-Colombia Partnership for Sustainable Growth423. Five embedded advisor roles, including in- country facilitators and a climate finance advisor, were recruited by the NDCP Support Unit, utilising funds from the UK Country Engagement Fund. These roles were dispersed across the Colombian Ministries of Environment and Sustainable Development, National Planning, Finance, and Agriculture. The support from the NDCP helped the Colombian government to agree a revised NDC in 2020 that included a more ambitious mitigation target of not emitting more than 169.4 MtCO2eq by 2030, equivalent to a 51% reduction in emissions from a revised 2030 reference scenario, as compared to a 20% reduction in their first NDC. Thus far the Climate Finance Broker Facility (established via the NDCP facilitator in the Colombian Ministry of National Planning) has supported 7 projects with over US$1m of funding from institutional members such as the Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Coordination across these members would not be possible without NDC Partnership support. 4.1.4 Efforts taken to enhance comparability and accuracy of To ensure the UK’s ICF information is accurate and comparable to other sources of climate finance, we work through several mechanisms. We engage closely through the UNFCCC transparency process, not only in reports such as this, but in the Facilitative Multilateral Consideration of Progress and through the in-donor peer review process, where we participate both as an assessee and an assessor. We also work closely with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Development Assistance Committee (OECD-DAC) and member countries. For example, we attend regular meetings of OECD DAC’s Working Party on Development Finance Statistics (WP-STAT) to discuss technical issues related to ODA reporting. A significant amount of recent work has been on harmonising OECD and UNFCCC climate finance reporting practices and aligning key guidance such as the Rio Marker handbook with the Paris Agreement. The UK, through its COP26 presidency, led on the development of the $100bn climate finance delivery plan424 and has been closely involved in subsequent work with the OECD and donors to publish follow up reports on progress towards the $100bn goal. The most recent of these was published in May 2024425, reporting that 423 Colombia-UK Partnership for Sustainable Growth 424 UK COP26 Presidency publishes Climate Finance Delivery Plan led by German State Secretary Flasbarth and Canada’s Minister Wilkinson ahead of COP26 425 Climate Finance and the USD 100 billion goal

in 2022 a total of $115.9bn of climate finance was mobilised for developing countries, the first year that the $100bn goal has been exceeded. The UK government is committed to supporting the greater use of International Aid Transparency Initiative (IATI) data and other aid information across all recipient countries of ODA and works closely with other donors in country to support The UK government is actively engaged in efforts to fortify international aid transparency standards. This is achieved through collaboration with IATI, Civil Society Organisations, implementing partners, and other donor countries by advocating for higher aid transparency standards. The UK encourages our implementing partners to publish data on UK-funded activities in accordance with the IATI standard and provides them with the necessary guidance to do so. In line with this, information on ODA programming managed by UK government Departments is available on the IATI Datastore426 and the UK’s Development Tracker website (DevTracker)427. Our commitment to this cause remains steadfast as we continue to work towards enhancing transparency in international aid. We ensure the accuracy of our financial information by having all payments go through an internal approval process involving a programme team, a financial team and finally senior management. In the case of DESNZ, a third party provides finance services such as payment processing, meaning additional checks will be carried out. Once payments are made, they are recorded on the finance journal, which also goes through an internal checking process. ICF teams will use the journal data to record the payment in internal data systems, which in turn are used for external reporting. Data for external reporting will also be quality assured to check for accuracy. For example, the ICF programme level data was originally collated for the UK’s annual provisional ODA publication and then collated again for the UK’s final ODA publication. It has also been compiled and provided to the OECD-DAC to support their work on reporting on progress towards $100bn. For reporting mobilised finance, the UK developed a Key Performance Indicator (KPI 12)428 for applicable ICF programmes to report against. To ensure comparability, the methodology for this KPI is aligned with OECD DAC methodologies for measuring the amounts mobilised from the private sector by official development finance interventions.
Accuracy is ensured through a robust quality assurance each ICF programme reports results, these are quality assured by an analyst working closely with the programme lead. The results are then aggregated up by department and quality assured as a whole, then DESNZ results are signed off by the Head of ICF Portfolio and Strategy and the Head of International Climate and Energy Analysis. Results are then aggregated across FCDO, DESNZ and Defra and quality 426 427 428Volume of private finance mobilised for climate change purposes as a result of ICF

assured again, then assembled into an annual statistics publication and signed off again by Senior staff in each department before publication429. ICF will continue to place a strong focus on Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning (MEL) to improve the effectiveness of our investments and those of our partners. This will be achieved through strengthening the evidence base and facilitating learning about sustainable approaches to reduce poverty and tackle climate change and environmental degradation. The intended impact is to deliver transformational climate change programmes. We will build on our robust cross-government results framework and will continue to publish results annually, to allow the public to track progress against our Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). All ICF programmes are required to collect and report on relevant ICF KPIs, disaggregated by gender, age, and disability where possible, alongside other programme-specific indicators. Where the UK co-funds a programme with other donors, only ‘UK-attributed’ ICF results are included, in proportion to the UK’s donor For each key performance indicator, results are added together across all relevant programmes and over time, to give cumulative results across the whole ICF portfolio. We use ICF KPIs alongside a broad range of evidence to evaluate the success of our ICF programmes and inform funding decisions to maximise value for money and the successful delivery of our strategic climate, nature and sustainable development objectives. We will continue to review the ICF KPIs and the way we use them to inform our decision-making, to ensure that we are achieving climate, and nature impacts in line with our priorities and the needs of developing countries. 429 UK Climate Finance Results has links to methodologies and the most recent results publication

The Independent Committee for Aid Impact (ICAI) regularly undertakes external assessments of the ICF performance – two reviews focused on low-carbon and forestry ICF programmes have rated different aspects of operation as ‘Green- Amber’. ICAI recommendations as well as evidence generated through monitoring and evaluation are actively fed back into strategy, programme development and implementation. For the current phase of delivery, ICF analysts are working across government to update our approach to portfolio monitoring and evaluation, building on lessons learnt from ICF to date. 4.2 Information on institutional arrangements for the provision of technology development and transfer and The UK government departments responsible for delivering our ICF commitment work together in several ways for the provision of technology development and transfer and capacity building support. There is more detail on technology development and transfer later in this chapter. Drawing on each department’s expertise, FCDO, DESNZ and DSIT work together on the Ayrton Fund. DSIT have key research organisations such as UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) as some of their arms-lengths bodies and deliver many of their ODA projects through UK universities. FCDO draw on their overseas network and use this to ensure support can be country specific. Whilst DESNZ are responsible for much of the domestic policy on areas such as energy transition and draw on this expertise in a developing This complementary approach across departments is also used for the provision of capacity building support. We have used some case studies below to demonstrate Case FCDO overseas network engagement with UK-based

FCDO has a large network of individuals with significant skills and experience in international delivery of ODA programmes. FCDO’s people, presence, instruments and systems allow us to deliver catalytic global leadership, multilateral and private sector leverage, and significant direct, real-world, bilateral results and impact. The FCDO has a strong Climate and Environment Cadre based overseas and in the UK. Additional Cadres such as the Food and Agriculture and Urban and Infrastructure are deeply engaged in delivery of our international climate finance. Programme Managers are a key element of the strong expertise that exists across FCDO for ICF delivery, overseeing spend and tracking results and will work closely with advisors. Case Sustainable Cooling and Cold Chain Solutions Sustainable Cooling and Cold Chain Solutions (SCCCS) works with United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in partnership with the University of Birmingham to influence the uptake of cooling and cold-chains solutions across Africa and India. SCCCS uses a ‘hub and spoke’ model; setting up regional hubs and developing SPOKES (Specialised Outreach and Knowledge Establishments) to share research, innovation and knowledge on cooling and cold-chains for both food and vaccine supply chains. There are additional workstreams supporting the development of modelling, policies and tools that implement global best practice and provide technical assistance for policy makers. Since its establishment in 2019 the programme has influenced the uptake of cooling and cold-chains solutions in 51 developing countries and supported over 1,600 people to adapt to the effects of climate change by improving food and vaccine preservation. UK Partnering for Accelerated Climate Transitions (UK PACT) supports ODA- eligible countries with high mitigation potential to increase their climate ambitions and implement that ambition more rapidly, more effectively, and more equitably. UK PACT is jointly funded and governed by the FCDO and DESNZ. Key features of UK PACT are that it aims to respond explicitly to partner government demand for capacity building interventions, and that it shares UK expertise (for example in areas such as climate legislation, green finance, and smart energy).
UK PACT operates through a ‘hybrid’ model of dedicated programme funded teams of FCDO Officials based overseas providing local context to programme strategy and implementation in-country, and UK based officials providing global programme Between April 2021 and March 2022, UK PACT delivered 114 mitigation technical assistance projects across 16 partner countries. 30 skill-shares and seven secondments were delivered, with 6,265 people receiving training, with training beneficiaries rating the trainings as 4.5/5 in terms of

The programme delivered full scale country programmes in Colombia, Mexico, South Africa, China, and extensions were agreed to extend 44 projects from the first funding rounds to provide multi-year delivery. Case Small Island Developing States Capacity and Announced at COP26 in Glasgow, the SIDAR programme aims to raise £40m over 5 years to ODA-eligible Small Island Developing States (SIDS) to increase capacity and improve international funding and policy frameworks. This will enable SIDS governments to better access and utilise climate finance available to them. The SIDAR programme has delivered some important outcomes. These • Supporting the Resilient and Sustainable Islands initiative (RESI) to launch the Resilient monthly podcast series; • Hosting the first public engagement and high-level technical discussions on the UN’s Multidimensional Vulnerability Index (MVI); • Putting in place two regional agreements supporting the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre and Global Green Growth Institute in the • Supporting two events that considered how to address financing and economic issues facing SIDS, and; • Taking forward a new partnership for sustainability and resilience through OECD Development Assistance Committee and the Alliance of Small Island 4.3 Underlying assumptions, definitions and The UK’s climate finance reporting methodology is set out Calendar year. We have reported spend for 2021 and 2022 in our data tables referenced in section 3. The £11.6bn ICF commitment starts in the UK fiscal year 21/22, which runs from April to March. So, 2021 calendar year figures will include some spend from the previous ICF commitment. We report in pound sterling and convert to United States dollars using the OECD annual exchange rate431 for the relevant year. 430 Partnership for Action on SIDS

We use the ‘committed’ status for our reported spend. This reflects that the money has been accounted as spent from government budgets and the figures we report are the same as how we are tracking the budget internally. We do not report political pledges that have not yet been followed up with actual funding being provided. For some programmes, such as our contributions to multilateral funds, we use a funding instrument called a Promissory Note. This commits a level of funding to the named recipient of the note, who is then able to request cash drawdowns from the note, which the government (as the note issuer) provides. For accounting purposes (and therefore our reporting methodology) we report the spend at the point the Promissory Note is formally issued and not the subsequent cash drawdowns. We report the channel as multilateral for those funds and core contributions to organisations already pre-named on the multilateral tab432 In addition if we have reported the spend as multilateral for our wider ODA reporting to the OECD-DAC, we All other spend will be reported under the bilateral channel. We will use the multi- bilateral channel for specific programmes via multilateral organisations. We don’t use Most of our reported climate finance comes from the UK’s ODA budget. The only exception are climate eligible outflows from the British International Investments (see section 1.1 for further information). We report most of our spend as grant as this finance is provided with no requirement for return of funds back to us (except where funding is unused once a programme has finished or in cases where funding has been misused). We do report some spend as equity as this relates to programmes where we invest in vehicles that will purchase assets where we have a legal right to returns made on these assets. There is also a programme that uses a combination of grant and equity finance. As most of our climate finance comes from the UK’s ODA budget it must comply with the OECD-DAC rules on ODA eligibility as well as spending requirements set out in the UK’s International Development Act433. We use OECD-DAC PSI (Private Sector 432 Report of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement on its third session, held in Glasgow from 31 October to 13 November 2021. - page 27 433 International Development Act 2002

Instrument) rules for our equity spend which includes assessments both as the institutional level (the entity that receives our funding) and at the instrument level (the downstream investment made by that entity) to ensure the finance is concessional and the value reported reflects the development effort made. Returns from these instruments that come back to UK government count as negative ODA and will count against ODA targets unless re-spent. We assess whether our support is mitigation or adaptation as part of the overall report spend as cross-cutting where we are not able to split the amounts for example subscription payments to the UNFCCC. For the sector classification, we assess the programme to see which of the drop- down sectors is the best fit (Energy, Transport, Industry, Agriculture, Forestry, Water and Sanitation, Cross-Cutting or Other). We will use ‘Other’ where the other main sector choices don’t seem a good match and will include a more specific sector, typically this will be the sub-sector choice. For sub-sector classification we report the same OECD-DAC 5-digit sector code as used for the same programme when reporting the spend to the OECD-DAC. 4.3.10 Capacity building and/or technology development and Many of the programmes we support with our ICF will be contributing to these objectives. For example, capacity building and other types of technical assistance are often an essential element to ensuring the other objectives of the programme can be achieved.
In our reporting we select a set of examples that showcase how our ICF is supporting these objectives rather than attempting to report every programme that is contributing. We use our knowledge of the programme to identify which programmes to tag and will draw on other sources of information e.g. the summary description of the programme on DevTracker (see footnote 4) or if the programme (for tagging as capacity building) has been marked with the ‘Free-Standing Technical Co-operation’ marker under our OECD-DAC reporting. We’ve recently developed an additional four Key Performance Indicators to monitor ICF technical assistance programmes – covering countries supported, individuals and organisations supported, climate policies informed, and emissions reduced or avoided supported by ICF technical assistance434. 434 UK Climate Finance Results has the detailed methodologies

4.3.11 Climate specific support are climate specific and the level of climate finance we should report. Again, the Rio Marker guidance is used to support this assessment. 4.3.12 Avoiding double counting We report our climate finance spend at the point the money leaves government; this means we do not double count contributions made by other donors. For example, our contribution to a multi-donor trust fund such as the Green Climate Fund (GCF) is done when we make contributions to the GCF itself rather than when the GCF makes downstream payments into specific projects, at which point all the donor contributions will be mixed increasing the risk of double-counting. For private finance reporting, where possible we use project level information to make sure that there is no double-counting. The data we report to the OECD is also used in their climate finance provided and mobilised report, after the OECD has done additional checks to make sure there’s no double-counting across donors. By using the OECD DAC methodologies for measuring the amounts mobilised from the private sector by official development finance interventions we are minimising the likelihood of double counting occurring. We don’t use ODA to purchase carbon credits for compliance with our own domestic climate targets, so we avoid double-counting in this type of support under Article 6 of Unless we are the sole funder or there is clear country specific agreement associated with our funding, we don’t attribute our spend to specific individual countries. If a programme is benefitting multiple countries (and the selection is specific enough to mean that a less granular geographic level e.g. global or regional is not more appropriate) then we will list those countries for that programme reporting line in our data tables under section 3. But we won’t report a specific spend As covered under section 1.1 we avoid double counting the climate finance spend through BII by deducting the ICF inflow amount from the climate eligible outflows we Funding is only classified as ‘mobilised private climate finance’ if it meets three Private finance Is the finance provided by a private organisation? Finance is classified as public or private based on the type of organisation providing the finance. In general, organisations are defined as public if they are government agencies, or if governments own more than 50% of equity/shares in an organisation with multiple shareholders (for example, a bank with both public and private shareholders). In all other cases, they are classified as private organisations. In some cases, this ownership-based approach may not accurately reflect the character of financial transactions made by organisations that are publicly owned but operate according to market-oriented commercial or private principles. In these cases, programmes may classify reporting based on who exercises control of investment decisions or based on the principles used to make investment decisions. Climate finance Is the finance intended for climate change adaptation or Finance is categorised as climate finance if the purpose of the project/programme includes support to meet climate change mitigation and/or adaptation goals, based on OECD Statistical Reporting Directives. Climate financing is not determined based on whether the source of the finance is nominally drawn from a climate change If finance also provides support to other (non-climate) goals, only the portion of the funding directed towards climate goals is counted as climate finance. Mobilised finance Has the finance been mobilised by the ICF, i.e. is it additional and causally linked to ICF funding or support? Mobilised finance is funding from another actor that has been directed to an objective, project or programme that would otherwise not have benefitted from these funds and is a direct result of the original mobilising actor’s efforts. This doesn’t include finance that would have occurred anyway without the initial ICF. This definition requires funds to be additional, in that they would not otherwise have been allocated to a climate objective or activity, and that the ICF programme can identify a causal link between its funding or actions and the mobilised finance. Mobilised resources need to be estimated based on boundaries to define the scope and account for the total private finance that could be associated with different public interventions. We aim to establish these boundaries at project-level, according to • Project-level boundaries for grants, loans and syndicated loans. In these cases, mobilised financing might include upfront project level financing (i.e. resources committed to the project from the private sector at the time of project approval) or subsequent financing following UK investment (i.e. resources mobilised after the project has been operating, such as when commercial banks or venture capital funds finance a project part-designed or financed by the UK government). • For other types of financial instruments, such as guarantees and Collective Investment Vehicles, the precise boundaries will vary according to the level and quality of available data, as well as causality considerations based on • We follow the guidance in the OECD DAC methodologies on reporting for specific instruments, including on setting appropriate boundaries at the

Mobilised private finance is reported based on the year in which the finance is legally committed by the organisation/actor.
To note in our private finance mobilised data set submitted as part of this BTR - The amount mobilised reported by the UK represents the private finance mobilised that can be attributed to the UK within the given year only (i.e. 2022 only) whilst the amount of resources used to mobilise the support represents the total UK commitment to the programme and not the amount committed in the given year.
This means the two figures cannot be directly compared across programmes as the amount mobilised is an in-year value whilst the amount of 4.3.14 Ensuring support addresses needs and priorities of The UK uses a variety of approaches to ensure that its climate finance support is addressing the needs and priorities of developing countries. The UK’s work on aligning all ODA with the Paris Agreement includes a requirement that the spend must be aligned, and where possible elevate, to countries NDC’s and adaptation plans. Individual programme business cases (which are publicly available via the DevTracker website) will set out in more detail how this requirement is being met. The UK provides support for programmes that developing countries can bid into, where the application and assessment process will require that the funding proposals are aligned with a country’s climate action plans. For example, the Mitigation Action Facility435 or the Green Climate Fund436 where a funding proposal must be supported by a letter from the recipient country government. The UK also supports programmes that facilitate wider access to climate finance for countries climate action plans. These include the UK setting up the Taskforce on Access to Climate Finance and supporting programmes such as the NDC Partnership437 and the Climate Finance Accelerator438. 4.3.15 How support is in line with the long-term goals of the Paris As referenced elsewhere in this chapter, the UK has committed to align its bilateral ODA spend with the Paris Agreement and delivered on this from 2023. The UK will continue to engage with our multilateral partners to ensure our multilateral ODA can also be aligned. The UK is implementing this commitment • Undertaking climate risk assessments for ODA programming • Using carbon pricing in ODA programme appraisals 435 436 437 438 Climate Finance Accelerator

• Ensuring ODA programming is line with the UK government’s fossil fuel • Ensuring that ODA programming is aligned to, and where possible elevate, countries NDCs and adaptation plans. 4.3.16 New and additional finance The UK determines that its climate finance is new and additional as our £11.6bn commitment is completely new climate finance from our previous £5.8bn commitment. Also, the finance reported under section 3 has not been reported in previous UNFCCC biennial reports. 4.3.17 How the information provided represents a progression from previous levels of finance under the Paris Agreement The UK’s current five year £11.6bn ICF commitment is a doubling of its previous five- year commitment of £5.8bn. Within the £11.6bn, the UK has a target to spend £1.5bn on adaptation in 2025, which is a doubling of the adaptation the UK spent in There will be annual fluctuations in the UK’s level of climate finance based on the budget allocations made in the Spending Review process and these in turn can be impacted by in-year pressures (see section 4.2 for examples of these). But the overall volumes of climate finance the UK is providing are increasing. The UK uses a combination of in-flow and outflow approaches to determine the level of multilateral finance reported. Where the UK has deemed that a multilateral is providing 100% climate finance e.g. Climate Investment Funds, then our full in-flow contribution is reported as climate specific. Where a multilateral fund or programme is deemed as providing less than 100% climate finance e.g. Global Environment Facility, then the UK splits the level of its inflow contribution as general and climate specific. The assessment on the level of climate finance is estimated by the scope of the fund/programmes activities to determine what amount is climate specific. For the years covered under this BTR report (2021 and 2022) the UK is not reporting as climate finance its core contributions to multilateral banks e.g. World Bank. However as set out in the UK’s Written Ministerial Statement (see footnote 7) in future years, the methodology will change and climate specific shares from multilateral bank core contributions will be reported. 439 Support For the Fossil Fuel Energy Sector Overseas

4.4 Information on financial support provided and mobilized under Article 9 of the Paris Agreement The UK has included the relevant information and data in the climate finance Jersey Overseas Aid (JOA) is the Island’s independent, publicly funded relief and development agency. Its annual budget is distributed through development and humanitarian funding streams. JOA allocates its funding through bilateral partnerships with pre-approved international non-governmental organisations (NGOs), multilateral organisations and UN Agencies. Between 2018-2022, JOA streamlined its development programme – operating in six countries across three thematic Dairy for Development, Financial Inclusion and Conservation Livelihoods. Each of the themes contain cross-cutting components that indirectly contribute to Article 9 of the Paris Agreement. In particular, the Conservation, Lives and Livelihoods portfolio contributes to climate resilience and conservation efforts with a strategic focus on ‘the link between human development In addition, JOA’s humanitarian funding stream includes direct response to the effects of climate change globally. The Guernsey Overseas Aid & Development Commission (GOA&DC) is part of the Guernsey government and is mandated to distribute funds for aid and development overseas by making contributions to charity programmes and to disaster and emergency relief. The GOA&DC does not provide bilateral funding. Its overall budget for 2022 was £3.225 million. This increased to £4.397million by 2024. The majority of its budget is spent on four workstreams. The Single Year Project Grant Aid Awards are grants of up to £55,000 (£50,000 in 2022) each for projects being undertaken by charities registered in the United Kingdom, Guernsey or Jersey. Many of these projects, but not all, relate to or include elements that help to mitigate the impact of climate change. The 2022 Budget for this workstream was £2.354 million. The Multi Year Project Grant Aid Awards are similar to the above except they are grants of up to £165,000 (£150,000 in 2022) each for projects over a three year period. In addition, the GOA&DC considers Multi Year Awards which demonstrate a particular focus on mitigating the impact of climate change or ‘reaching the further first’ (e.g.
on the grounds of disability, ethnicity, displacement, etc.). The 2022 Budget for this workstream was £300,000. The third main workstream is Disaster and Emergency Relied Awards. Applications are welcomed from Charities already known to the Commission, or donations are made to the Disasters Emergency Committee (DEC) Live Appeals. These often are for climate related emergencies. The 2022 Budget for this workstream was £360,000. The final main workstream is Community Partnerships which encourages Guernsey community groups to raise funds for

international development through this match funding scheme. The 2022 Budget for The Isle of Man International Development annual budget is distributed via five funding streams, which in 2018 – 2019 included an increase of £100,000, raising the budget from £2.4 million to £2.5 million. Emergency funding is reserved for the Disasters Emergency Committee (DEC) Live Appeals, which is allocated where necessary and focused on specific disaster situations, including climate related emergencies such as flooding and cyclones. The largest funding stream, International Development Partnerships, is a 2-year funding cycle worth £1.2 million per year and which is open to application by charities registered in the UK or Isle of Man. Since 2020 and remaining for 2024-2026, Climate Change is one of two designated themes for this funding stream, inviting applications for projects specifically tackling the causes and impacts of climate change globally. More locally, the Small Grants funding stream is open only to Isle of Man registered charities for up to £100,000 each per funding round, to carry out an International Development project of their design. This stream similarly welcomes applications which address the effects of climate change. All Isle of Man government funding streams are open to application by registered organisations except for Disaster and Emergency Relief, which is allocated to be mobilised at short notice. *Exchange rate calculated using historical exchange rates on the given payment date from Exchange Rates website440 Please see annex 1: Support provided by Crown Dependencies. 440 British Pound to US Dollar Spot Exchange Rates for 2018

4.5 Information on support for technology development and transfer provided under Article 10 of the Paris 4.5.1 Strategies employed to support technology development and transfer, including case studies UK development assistance is actively supporting the development of new and improved technologies and business models which help tackle climate change, while also reaching the poorest; providing life changing services, creating green jobs, building resilience and boosting local and national economies. • The UK uses international climate finance (ODA) and other levers to support technology-driven innovation that will help developing countries decarbonise high-emission sectors and move towards clean energy systems. • The UK is committed to a comprehensive, long-term and co-ordinated UK capability-building offer on clean energy access and transition for emerging and developing countries, enhancing their implementation of nationally determined contributions (NDCs). • This includes accelerating and scaling up the transition to clean and affordable technology in sectors such as energy and mobility, working through programmes and partnerships, such as the COP26 Breakthrough Agenda, the Energy Transition Council, and others, as well as investing and working with partners to increase global funding for decarbonisation through multilateral initiatives such as the international Climate Investment Funds, Mitigation Action Facility, ESMAP, and the global NDC Partnership. • The Ayrton Fund441 is a UK International Climate Finance (ICF) commitment of up to £1 billion on clean energy innovation. It is part of the wider £11.6 billion of ICF and provides Official Development Assistance (ODA) for the Research, Development, and Demonstration (RD&D) of innovative, clean energy technologies and business models for developing countries over the five-year period between April 2021 and March 2026. • The Ayrton Fund focuses on a series of high priority Ayrton Challenge technology areas, which are critical but off-track for delivery of UN Sustainable Development Goals 7 and 13, and where the UK is well-placed to support. These include areas such as energy storage, next generation solar, sustainable cooling, clean hydrogen, smart energy systems and more. • By the end of Year 3 of the Ayrton Fund (FY 23/24), UK innovation-focused ICF reached 27m people in developing countries with improved access to clean energy, leveraged over £1.8 billion in private and public finance,

reduced 4.1m tonnes of CO2 (equivalent to the annual carbon footprint of over 700,000 people in the UK442), and created and supported 169,000 green jobs. • Under the Breakthrough Agenda443 launched by World Leaders at COP26, we are building coalitions, partnerships and platforms with the ambition that developing countries have ready access to aggregated, coordinated and impactful assistance in each sector of the economy. • UK support to the Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme (ESMAP) assists low and middle-income countries to reduce poverty and boost growth through environmentally sustainable energy solutions. They work to accelerate the energy transition required to achieve UN Sustainable Development Goal 7 to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and • The ESMAP-IFC Offshore Wind Development Program supported by the UK enables sharing of expertise for countries developing their own offshore wind roadmaps. It received the Collaboration Award at the Global Offshore Wind Awards 2023, recognising the Program’s efforts to accelerate deployment of offshore wind in emerging markets. • A further example is , SunCulture, a Nairobi-based solar irrigation start-up supported by the FCDO and partners since 2018, has recently raised investment from British International Investments and also $27m 444 in Series B funding including from the Private Infrastructure Development Group (PIDG) to expand delivery of its “pay-as-you-pump” solar water pumping equipment which has already reached more than 40,000 farmers in East Africa, tripling typical yields and actually reducing overall water use with more efficient irrigation approaches – boosting livelihoods and helping people adapt to more 4.5.2 Support provided at different stages of the technology cycle The UK provides support at different stages of the technology cycle and across different technology readiness levels.
For example, the Ayrton Fund covers a range of UK ODA-funded clean energy Research, Development & Demonstration (RD&D) support, focused on delivering real change across three interconnected themes which describe the whole energy system and its applications, and link with the three pillars of supply, demand, and delivery, while supporting the Global Net Zero agenda. The diagram below illustrates the key types of intervention made by programmes across the Ayrton portfolio. 442 2023 UK carbon dioxide net emissions were estimated at 384.2 million tonnes (Mt) / or an estimated 5.7 per capita - DESNZ, 2023 UK greenhouse gas emissions. 443 World Leaders Summit – Statement on the Breakthrough Agenda 444 SunCulture Raises $27M in Series B Funding

Further information on these interventions can be found within this section of chapter Ayrton Demonstration Wider ICF Energy and Training Demonstration Projects Policy Technical Open Calls Investments at scale 4.5.3 Foundational Research and Training The UK’s Ayrton Fund, has been developing targeted research, knowledge, and information products on a range of topics (e.g. clean energy access445, energy system models446, low carbon development447, modern cooking448, efficient appliances449, etc. ); targeted training, job placements and internships450 in clean energy businesses; new clean energy master’s courses and modules451 in developing country universities; UK Chevening clean energy access scholarships452 for southern scholars; and research partnerships with local clean energy access institutions and organisations in the South. Ayrton Fund activities under this intervention have benefited 67 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and the For example, the UK’s Clean Climate Growth (CCG) programme’s tools and training supported the development of Uganda’s Energy Transition Plan453 (ETP). The ETP sets Uganda’s pathway to achieve universal access to modern energy and sustainably power the country’s economic transformation. The ETP was developed 445 Transforming Energy Access (TEA) - supporting renewable energy projects, energy access and green technologies in Africa and Asia. 446 Climate Compatible Growth – Providing research and global public goods to help countries develop strategies, plans, and policies to attract investment into low-carbon growth opportunities. 447 Climate Compatible Growth – Providing research and global public goods to help countries develop strategies, plans, and policies to attract investment into low-carbon growth opportunities. 448 Home - Modern Energy Cooking Services 449 Low Energy Inclusive Appliances - Efficiency for Access 450 Job Placements and Internships 451 Transforming Energy Access – Learning Partnership 452 Transforming Energy Access (TEA) | Chevening 453 Uganda Energy Transition Plan – Analysis - IEA

by Uganda’s Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, with support from the International Energy Agency (IEA) in partnership with CCG. CCG provided training to Ugandan government officials in the use of CCG open-source modelling tools and supported them in the creation of energy systems models. The resulting analysis provided an input in the development of the ETP. The UK is stimulating a pipeline of new ideas and innovations in clean energy technologies and business models that have the potential to be commercialised and scaled-up in developing countries, particularly through UK-international joint ventures. The UK is achieving this by supporting open funding competitions through Energy Catalyst, which is funded through the Transforming Energy Access (TEA)454 platform and the Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF)455 and has provided financial and technical support to over 90 UK-led R&D projects in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and the Indo-Pacific, across the full spectrum of Ayrton thematic challenges. There have also been a series of Open Calls focused on the R&D of productive use appliances (PREO)456, efficient appliances suited to off-grid contexts (LEIA)457, mobile-based technologies (GSMA Fund)458, and energy innovations in humanitarian contexts (Humanitarian Grand Challenge Fund)459. 4.5.5 Technology Accelerators The UK has conducted a series of funding calls by the Modern Energy Cooking Services (MECS)460 programme focused on solving modern cooking challenges (including around supply chains, integration with mini-grids, alternative cooking fuels etc.) and via the Cross Boundary Mini-Grids Innovation Lab461 which convenes mini- grid developers around priority prototypes testing new business model innovations for mini-grids. This intervention type should see significant growth with the start of new projects funded through the flagship Zero Emissions Generator462 (ZE-Gen) initiative, and Next Generation Solar projects funded through a new partnership between the TEA463 platform and the Sunrise Network464. 454 Transforming Energy Access (TEA) - supporting renewable energy projects, energy access and green technologies in Africa and Asia. 455 Global Challenges Research Fund – UKRI 456 Home - PREO Powering Renewable Energy Opportunities 457 Low Energy Inclusive Appliances - Efficiency for Access 458 GSMA Innovation Fund | Mobile for Development 459 Home - Humanitarian Grand Challenge 460 Challenge fund - Modern Energy Cooking Services 461 - CrossBoundary Group 463 Transforming Energy Access (TEA) - supporting renewable energy projects, energy access and green technologies in Africa and Asia. We are providing financial and technical support to innovative start-ups, and small and medium sized businesses (SMEs) to scale-up their clean energy offers in developing countries, mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, through stategic partnerships with organisations like the Shell Foundation465, Acumen466, GSMA467, the Global Innovation Fund468, and the World Bank469. The UK has supported a range of market-enabling intitutions, market-supporting digital platforms, and specialist funds working mainly in Sub-Saharan Africa. Developments in the last year include the Shell Foundation-led Market Institutions Facility470, Mirova’s Gigaton Fund471, Odyssey’s Results Based Finance platform472, the Carbon Value Exchange473 (CaVex), the ongoing work of the Global Distributors Collective474, and action across several Crowfunding Platforms475. At COP28, the UK announced its intention to develop a Climate Innovation Pull Facility (CIPF) providing up to £185 million to pull-up innovative climate mitigation solutions in developing countries, to the point at which they help shape local markets and are ready for large scale deployment in those contexts.