CIVITAS gUIDE
for The urbAn TrAnSporT
profeSSIonAl
reSulTS And leSSonS of lonG TerM eVAluATIon
of The CIVITAS InITIATIVe
CIVITAS gUIDE
for The urbAn TrAnSporT
profeSSIonAl
reSulTS And leSSonS of lonG TerM eVAluATIon
of The CIVITAS InITIATIVe
2
CIVITAS GuI de for Th e urbAn TrA nSp orT p ro f eSS IonAl
Table of contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................... 4
1. hOw TO USE ThIS gUIDE .................................................................................................................
10
2. URBAN ChALLENgES AND ThEIR POLICIES ................................................................................. 12
2.1 Health How to create a healthy environment for citizens ....................................................................... 15
2.2 Congestion How to create an economically viable and accessible city ................................................. 19
2.3 Safety and security How to ensure a safe and secure urban environment and mobility ........................ 21
2.4 Participation How to involve citizens and other stakeholders ................................................................ 23
2.5 Strategic Planning How to achieve policy goals while ensuring
that mobility needs of society and its citizens are met .............................................................................. 28
3. CIVITAS SOLUTION .............................................................................................................................. 32
3.1 Clean fuels and vehicles ............................................................................................................................ 34
3.2 Urban freight .............................................................................................................................................. 40
3.3 Demand management strategies ............................................................................................................... 45
3.4 Mobility management ................................................................................................................................ 53
3.5 Collective passenger transport .................................................................................................................. 61
3.6 Transport telematics .................................................................................................................................. 66
3.7 Less car-dependent mobility options ........................................................................................................ 73
3.8 Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans SUMP ................................................................................................. 87
4. INgREDIENTS fOR SUCCESS ............................................................................................................. 96
4.1 Quality ........................................................................................................................................................ 97
4.2 Relevance .................................................................................................................................................. 98
4.3
Inclusive management ............................................................................................................................... 99
4.4
Integrated approach ................................................................................................................................ 100
4.5 Finance .................................................................................................................................................... 101
4.6 Public and political support ..................................................................................................................... 102
5. TAkE-UP Of CIVITAS MEASURES .................................................................................................. 103
5.1 Transferability concept ............................................................................................................................. 104
5.2 Real Cases of Transfer ............................................................................................................................. 109
6. LESSONS LEARNED ........................................................................................................................... 119
6.1 Health How to create a healthy environment for citizens ..................................................................... 122
6.2 Congestion How to create an economically viable and accessible city ............................................... 124
6.3 Safety and security How to ensure a safe and secure urban environment and mobility ...................... 125
6.4 Participation How to involve citizens and other urban mobility stakeholders ...................................... 126
6.5 Strategic Planning How to achieve policy goals while ensuring that
mobility needs of society and its citizens are met ................................................................................... 128
CIVITAS CATALIST CONSORTIUM PARTNERS ............................................................................. 129
CIVITAS GuId e f or T he urbA n TrA nSp o rT p ro f eSS IonA l
3
EXECU TIV E SUM MA RY
executive Summary
CIVITAS CLEANER AND BETTER TRANSPORT IN CITIES
Urban transport professionals face major challenges in
With the CIVITAS Initiative, the European Commission
the decade to come. They are expected to facilitate
aims to generate a decisive breakthrough towards sus-
the transition from a primarily car-based mobility to a
tainable urban mobility by supporting cities that adapt
mobility of at least the same quality level, but based
ambitious and innovative transport strategies. More
on walking, cycling and collective passenger transport. specifically, CIVITAS is helping cities be or become
They should offer more, better and more sustainable
key actors in the innovation process by providing them
mobility and transport services to users. They should
with support for testing integrated packages of new
find solutions to mitigate the negative impacts of trans-
urban transport technologies and services prior to their
port on citizens health and well-being, environment
broad deployment. and climate. Since 2002, CIVITAS has supported 59 cities across
Finally, urban mobility professionals need to balance
Europe in the implementation of more than 730 inno-
the desire for short-term improvements with the ambi-
vative urban mobility measures. Through the CIVITAS
tion to develop a strategic and sustainable planning
Initiative, the European Commission seeks
perspective for their cities. In many cases, these tre-
To promote and implement sustainable, clean and
mendous challenges need to be approached under se-
energy efficient urban transport experiments
vere financial constraints due to the present economic
To demonstrate integrated packages of technology
crisis and strained public budgets. and policy actions in the field of energy and trans-
port in eight categories of measures
To build up critical mass and markets for innovation
by transferring good practices to other European
cities
4
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
EXECUTIVE SU MMARY
ThIS hANDBOOk LESSONS fROM ThE CIVITAS INITIATIVE
During the ten years of the CIVITAS Initiative, more than
towards new urban sustainable mobility. For mobility
730 technical and policy-based urban transport meas-
professionals working for city authorities, CIVITAS has
ures have been developed and implemented. In several
much to offer in that respect numerous examples of
evaluations of their impacts and processes, valuable
successful measures that, embedded in urban mobil-
lessons for implementation in other cities were derived. ity policies, give substance to the transition towards
This handbook adds a more long term focus to
cleaner and better urban transport. This handbook pro-
those evaluations. It shows to what extent CIVITAS
vides access to those examples. functions as a catalyst for the intended paradigm shift
TRANSfER Of kNOwLEDgE ThE ADDED VALUE Of CIVITAS
CIVITAS is all about developing good practice exam-
The CIVITAS Initiative with its numerous projects has
ples for sustainable urban mobility solutions, with the
demonstrated that good personal contacts and inter-
ultimate goal to transfer knowledge and experience
actions facilitate knowledge transfer. A further lesson
generated to other cities in order to achieve similar
learned is that effective transfer requires appropriate
results there. This includes the transfer of knowledge
transfer conditions. In other words, if the setting is
on policies and practices as well as on administrative
right, a potential transfer of ideas and results can take
arrangements, institutions, and ideas.
place and a deeper understanding and learning experi-
ence can be achieved. ChALLENgES NEw INTEgRATED SUSTAINABLE
TRANSPORT POLICIES START AT ThE URBAN LEVEL
Transport is fundamental for a growing economy
tiated by the cities. The CIVITAS Initiative specifically
and an interconnected society. At the same time, the
supports cities experimenting with new sustainable
negative impacts of transport seriously affect citizens
transport policies. quality of life. Based on this awareness, the European
Almost 80 percent of the European population lives
Commission, national governments and city authori-
in urban areas. The city level is therefore crucial for the
ties have set a number of targets to reduce or mitigate
change towards sustainable mobility. Based on the ex-
the negative impacts on health, climate, safety, secu-
perience gained from the 730 urban mobility meas-
rity and accessibility. A tremendous effort is required
ures implemented, CIVITAS is able to provide solutions
to meet these targets. In addition to top-down actions
to the most pressing urban challenges a transport pro-
supporting new sustainable urban transport systems,
fessional faces. it is important to foster bottom-up developments ini-
CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
5
EXECU TIV E SUM MA RY
IN ThIS hANDBOOk, ThE fOLLOwINg
fIVE ChALLENgES ARE ADDRESSED
1. hOw TO CREATE A hEALThY
ENVIRONMENT fOR CITIzENS
killed and injured. This effect is easily forgotten when
sustainable transport policies are presented. The most
effective measures in this respect are better access to
Urban transport can have a profound negative effect
public transport for disabled passengers, freight con-
on health including premature death from air pollution,
solidation, stimulation of slow modes, carpooling and
obesity resulting from lack of activity and traffic noise
car-sharing. that causes sleep problems. Freight consolidation,
clean vehicles, carpooling, car-sharing, and stimulation
4. hOw TO INVOLVE CITIzENS AND OThER
of slow modes contribute to citizens health. URBAN MOBILITY STAkEhOLDERS
2. hOw TO CREATE AN ECONOMICALLY
The CIVITAS Initiative proved the importance of stake-
VIABLE AND ACCESSIBLE CITY
holder engagement. Many of the policies it experi-
mented with were aimed at this goal. The main chal-
Congestion and traffic standstills, especially during
lenge these activities tried to address is how to obtain
peak hours, are among the most visible problems in
legitimisation and wide support for innovative urban
European cities. Inaccessibility of urban areas comes
transport improvements. Policies are more successful
at a cost an estimated one percent of the GDP annual-
with the appropriate level of involvement from stake-
ly. The most obvious approach and that used through
holders, be it neighbouring public authorities, com-
much of the second half of the twentieth century is to
panies, lobby groups, representative organisations or
counter congestion by increasing road capacity. How-
individual citizens. In general, the aim within CIVITAS
ever, additional road space has been demonstrated to
was to increase the involvement of stakeholders and
induce travel demand and in turn generate more traffic. citizens. Each policy or individual mobility measure re-
It is also difficult and costly to expand road capacity
quires its own level of engagement and its own method
within urban areas. Instead, several integrated packag-
of involvement. es of local transport and traffic management projects
have been tested within CIVITAS. These packages
5. hOw TO AChIEVE POLICY gOALS whILE
turned out to be very cost effective. Most notable are
ENSURINg ThAT MOBILITY NEEDS Of
carpooling, congestion charging, traffic management,
SOCIETY AND ITS CITIzENS ARE MET
mobility management and better public transport. Many CIVITAS cities put considerable effort into the
3. hOw TO ENSURE A SAfE AND SECURE
strategic policy planning process. Based on these ex-
URBAN ENVIRONMENT AND MOBILITY
periences, both the Action Plan on Urban Mobility as
well as the Transport White Paper stimulate the wide
Road accidents are responsible for about 34,500 deaths
take-up of Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans. A number
and 1.6 million injuries annually more than 60 percent
of case studies show the experiences of the CIVITAS
within built-up area. Most policy measures within the
cities. CIVITAS Initiative have a positive effect on traffic safety. Or to be more specific, the CIVITAS measures not only
improve air quality but also lead to fewer people being
6
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
EXECUTIVE SU MMARY
wIThIN CIVITAS EIghT SOLUTIONS gROUPS Of
POLICY MEASURES ARE DISTINgUIShED
CIVITAS cities have been highly successful urban
2. NEw METhODS Of URBAN fREIghT
laboratories where new technologies and policy con-
DELIVERY
cepts were tested, where the value of innovative sys-
tems and services for citizens was demonstrated and
Freight transport accounts for a large share of urban
where new forms of cooperation between stakeholders
traffic on average 6 percent in the Netherlands and be-
have come to life. Many new technologies and policies
tween 9 and 15 percent in France but causes a much
were tested. The challenge for an urban transport pro-
larger share of air pollution and other environmental
fessional is to pick the combination that will be most
damage. The management of freight traffic should be
successful within hisher city. part of an overall transport master plan to be included
in urban transport policy. Good examples are freight
1. STIMULATINg ThE USE Of CLEAN fUELS
consolidation schemes. Instead of delivering goods
AND VEhICLES
to individual retailers, various wholesalers deliver their
goods to an out-of-town logistics centre from which
Both the vehicle and the fuel market are global, which
goods are loaded into a single sometimes green
means that inertia against a radical shift is extreme. truck and delivered to the retailers. It reduces truck
Major obstacles to the introduction of alternative fuels
movements as well as individual deliveries for retailers. and propulsion systems are technical immaturity, price
and lack of common standards for infrastructure.
Pub-
3. DEMAND MANAgEMENT STRATEgIES
lic authorities can help overcome these obstacles and
support market development by being early adopters
Liveability in cities is greatly influenced by the presence
of a substantial scale who are more forgiving regarding
of private cars, both moving and parked. Regulation of
the immaturity of some of the technology and price. private car use can be accomplished by access regula-
Cities can initiate market change by using their own
tion for cars. Instruments for selective access are
procurement power to green their own municipal ve-
Regulations based on characteristics of vehicles or
hicle fleets and by urging contractors and suppliers
vehicle users. For instance, it is very common that
to do the same. Within CIVITAS, there were 62 local
only residents are allowed to park for free in a given
initiatives introducing clean vehicles and fuel actions. area. Visitors must pay to park their car. Another
Evaluation shows that
promising example is a Low Emission Zone where
Buses and waste collecting vehicles are suitable
only vehicles which meet certain defined emission
sub-markets to start with as cities often have di-
standards are allowed in. rect influence over these and they often fuel up at
Pricing, either for access or for parking. Priced
a single geographical spot, reducing the need for
parking is the most common regulatory measure in
vast infrastructure development. These vehicles
European cities. The extent to which priced park-
are also responsible for a high proportion of local
ing can influence mobility decisions depends on
emissions thus changing to cleaner technology will
the citys control over parking space within the city. improve air quality with relatively small efforts. A newer form of pricing is priced access, with only
Only a few cities have tried to influence the car mar-
London and Stockholm as current examples. The
ket. Favourable national legislation and national
impact of this new form of pricing is quite impres-
incentives together with several active cities and
sive large decreases in numbers of cars up to 30
local incentives seem to be success factors in de-
percent are very effective in creating a cleaner
veloping a market for cleaner cars. environment.
CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
7
EXECU TIV E SUM MA RY
4. MOBILITY MANAgEMENT
CIVITAS demonstrated that experiments with non-tra-
ditional public transport systems such as the installa-
CIVITAS cities try to influence travel behaviour through
tion of separated bus lanes are particularly successful. mobility management, which includes marketing, com-
They both significantly raise the profile of public trans-
munication, education and information campaigns. Al-
port among citizens and optimise coverage and flow of
most all CIVITAS cities have opened mobility agencies
the network. Also the introduction of different types of
or developed an integrated website for the promotion
on-demand transport services proved to be success-
of their mobility services. In all cases, the goal was
ful as they allow for maintaining a reliable service in
to strengthen the integration of the different mobility
suburban areas and offer better access to transport for
services, e.g. with communication tools interactive trip
people with reduced mobility. calculators personalised mobility advice and dedicat-
Public transport in many CIVITAS cities also largely
ed campaigns. Mobility agencies have four principal
benefitted from complementary measures in the areas
components
of clean and energy-efficient vehicle fleets as well as
Personalised mobility advice
various service enhancing telematics solutions. Multimodal information and promotion of sustain-
able mobility
6. TRANSPORT TELEMATICS
Integrated tickets and related services public
transport in combination with car pooling, car-
Starting from individual junction traffic lights, every
sharing, cycle rental
larger European city nowadays has a centralised traffic
Mobility plans for target groups companies, com-
management system in order to manage traffic flows
muters, schools, and more strategically-oriented
and optimise the use of the available road network. In-
sustainable urban mobility plans
creasingly, these systems are now also used to steer
travellers mode choices by providing information and
5. COLLECTIVE PASSENgER TRANSPORT
priority to public transport and to influence modes of
travelling e.g. multimodal journeys and carpooling. A
Public transport improvements are at the core of
wide range of applications and improvements has been
CIVITAS. Changes to the modal share of public trans-
experimented with in CIVITAS. Except for the set-up
port in European cities occur relatively slowly unless
of new integrated traffic control centres and systems,
specific factors such as an economic crisis or the
for which the cost can amount to several millions, the
opening of a new metro line play a role. Consequently,
cost of these measures is mostly below EUR 100,000
the stimulation of public transport in CIVITAS cities fo-
with significant environmental and socio-economic
cussed primarily on the greening of transport and on
benefits. improving the quality of services rather than directly
influencing the modal share by implementing meas-
ures on
Non-traditional public transport systems
Security safety improvements
Improvements in access for people with reduced
mobility, and
Integration with walking, cycling and other modes
park ride
8
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
EXECUTIVE SU MMARY
7. LESS CAR DEPENDENT MOBILITY OPTIONS
2 Encouraging cycling as an alternative to private
car use for some journeys. Cars are an important mode of transport for many peo-
Almost half of all car journeys are shorter than five kilo-
ple. They are usually seen as offering flexibility and for
metres and, because of the time needed for the motor
some are even a symbol of freedom.
Private cars are,
to warm up, fuel consumption and emissions are very
however, also a transport mode which is costly for in-
high for these trips. Cycling is often the most suitable
dividuals and damaging to the quality of the urban en-
mode for short distances two to five kilometres. Thus
vironment as they consume valuable urban space and
promoting cycling as a replacement for short car trips
threaten the health and safety of individuals. is an excellent means to reduce fossil fuel consumption
In promoting more sustainable use of the car and
offering options to reduce car dependency, CIVITAS
focuses on the following less car-dependent mobility
options
and enhance climate protection in urban areas. Meas-
ures undertaken in CIVITAS showed that there are no
miracle solutions to achieve a higher modal share for
the bicycle. Weather and topography can play a role,
as can high fuel prices. 1 Breaking with current patterns for car owner-
ship and use
8. SUSTAINABLE URBAN MOBILITY PLANS
Car-sharing is a promising tool to regain street
space and to provide more options for individual
A Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan SUMP is a strate-
mobility. The pay-as-you-drive principle sup-
gic plan that builds on existing planning practices and
ports rational use of all transport modes, resulting
takes due consideration of integration, participation,
in a modal shift from the car towards sustainable
and evaluation principles to satisfy mobility needs and
modes including rail for long-distance travel. Car-
achieve a better quality of life. sharing plays an important role in creating a new
SUMP is a people-focussed planning approach
mobility culture. The potential is immense but far
which is widely promoted by the European Commis-
from fully exploited either on the European scale
sion.
Interest in the SUMP approach has been spurred
or at the national or local levels. At the end of 2009,
by the Transport White Paper 2011 proposal to ex-
almost 400,000 Europeans were car-sharing cus-
amine the possibility of a mandatory approach for cities
tomers. of a certain size, according to national standards based
Carpooling means that two or more people, whose
on EU guidelines and link regional development and
starting points and destinations are similar and who
cohesion funds to cities and regions that have submit-
travel at similar times, agree to travel together in
ted a current, and independently validated Urban Mo-
one car. Each city can stimulate carpooling through
bility Performance and Sustainability Audit certificate. information campaigns conveying the benefits,
CIVITAS demonstrates that the long-term benefits
namely shared costs and reduced congestion. Cit-
of an SUMP comprise a better quality of life, environ-
ies can support carpoolers by offering matching
mental and health benefits, improved mobility and
services. accessibility and an improved image of a city. Being
PR travel, nothing new, but still with great poten-
frontrunners in the field of sustainable urban mobil-
tial. A trip is partly carried out by car and partly by
ity, some CIVITAS cities show that it is wise to comply
public transport. Requires adequate parking facili-
with SUMP planning practices and develop an SUMP
ties near public transport hubs. in which their local projects and ambitious tangible
targets are integrated.
CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
9
1. how to use
this Guide
CIVITAS is the european initiative for cleaner and bet-
ter transport in cities. Since 2002, it is offering cities an
opportunity to jointly implement innovative measures ad-
dressing various kinds of urban transport- and mobility-
related issues. Cities all over europe have participated in
numerous projects and a large pool of knowledge and
experiences exists and is shared with other cities and their
stakeholders throughout europe and beyond. This Guide offers an overview of the knowledge and ex-
perience gained in CIVITAS from a long-term evaluation
perspective. 10
CIVITAS GuI de for Th e urbAn TrA nSp orT p ro f eSS IonAl
1. hOw TO USE Th IS g UIDE
ThIS gUIDE OffERS DIffERENT ENTRY POINTS
MOBILITY ChALLENgES
Chapter 2
page 12
First, the reader has the option to get information about specific urban mobility challenges and the related
policies. Chapter 2 therefore discusses six important urban challenges. In form of integrated packages of
CIVITAS measures, each challenge offers suggestions to questions an urban transport professional com-
monly faces
How to create a healthy environment for citizens? How to create an economically viable and accessible city? How to ensure a safe and secure urban environment and mobility? How to involve citizens and other stakeholders? How to achieve policy goals while ensuring that mobility needs of society and its citizens are met? SPECIfIC URBAN TRANSPORT ThEME
Chapter 3
page 32
Next, some readers may want to read about a specific urban transport theme. Chapter 3 reflects the the-
matic group structure used by CIVITAS and offers practical solutions from cities that have implemented
measures in the respective areas of clean fuels and vehicles, urban freight, demand management strate-
gies, mobility management, collective passenger transport, transport telematics, car-independent mobility
options and, as a rather new and encompassing theme, Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans in short SUMP. INgREDIENTS Of SUCCESS
Chapter 4
page 96
Third, the Guide responds to the awareness that the process of planning and implementing an innovative
urban transport measure or a package of measures is a challenging task. In many cases internal institu-
tional, organisational, but also external factors local political or global changes can significantly affect the
success of a measure. Based on the results of the CIVITAS process evaluation, chapter 4 provides details
on the ingredients of success such as quality, relevance, inclusive management, integrated approach,
finance, and public political support. TRANSfERABILITY
Chapter 5
page 103
One main intention of CIVTAS is to transfer specific measures, packages of measures, concepts and ideas
to other cities throughout Europe so that they can relate their own work to these good practices in order
to achieve similar results in sustainability. To those readers who are interested in learning more about
transferability, chapter 5 offers information concerning the transferability concept in a more scientific way
and illustrates practical transfer cases within CIVITAS. LESSONS LEARNED
Chapter 6
page 119
Last, for the users of this guide who would like to read more about important urban mobility challenges
health, congestion, safety security, participation, and planning see also chapter 2 the final chapter 6
offers lessons learned. This chapter is based on the wealth of knowledge and experience people involved
in the planning and implementation of packages of measures possess.
CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
11
2. urban challenges
and their policies
The Transport White paper 20111 p.8 recognises that
transport is an important urban concern Cities suffer most
from congestion, poor air quality and noise exposure,
and road accidents occur most in cities. Moreover, urban transport contributes significantly to the
supra-local problems of oil dependence and greenhouse
gas emissions. The Action plan on urban Mobility states that urban areas
face today the challenge of making transport sustainable in
environmental Co2, air pollution, noise and competitive-
ness congestion terms while at the same time addressing
social concerns. These range from the need to respond to
health problems and demographic trends, fostering eco-
nomic and social cohesion to taking into account the needs
of persons with reduced mobility, families and children. 1 European Commission, 2011 WHITE PAPER. Roadmap to a Single European Transport
Area Towards a competitive and resource effi cient transport system. COM2011 144
fi nal.
12
CIVITAS GuI de for Th e urbAn TrA nSp orT p ro f eSS IonAl
2. URBAN Ch ALL ENg ES AND Th EIR POL ICIES
The Transport White Paper clearly recognises that much of the transport challenge is an urban one
The gradual phasing out of conventionally-fuelled vehicles from the urban environment is a major contribu-
tion to significant reduction of oil dependence, greenhouse gas emissions and local air and noise pollution. Urban mobility policy must strive to increase the shares for collective transport and walking and cycling. Almost 80 percent of the population in Europe are liv-
As listed in the Action Plan and White Paper, negative
ing in urban areas which are and will remain to be the
impacts of transport indeed cause the local problems
driving forces of national economies. Transport vol-
of health air and noise pollution, economy compe-
umes and despite improvements in energy efficiency
tition for space and congestion, and safety. On the
also transport emissions are predicted to drastically
national and European level, transport is related to
increase in the future. Urban transport professionals
the problems of oil dependence and climate change
have an enormous responsibility in responding ade-
through greenhouse gas emissions. quately to the challenges mentioned in the Action Plan
on Urban Mobility. Their work has a great potential to
This chapter is presenting solutions as offered
shape urban areas and to positively influence the qual-
through the CIVITAS Initiative to some of the most
ity of life in urban areas. crucial challenges for the urban level How to create
a healthy and climate-responsible urban environment
The so-called last mile deliveries of freight into the cit-
chapter 2.1 how to create an economically viable and
ies must be organised more efficiently and less carbon-
accessible city chapter 2.2, how to ensure a safe and
intensive. Urban transport planning is currently under-
secure urban environment and mobility chapter 2.3,
going a transition if not a paradigm shift from the
and how to achieve this complex and difficult transi-
traditional approaches focusing on planning for cars
tion to a different mobility pattern, involving citizens
and motorised transport to innovative approaches fo-
and other stakeholders in decision-making chapter
cusing on people and their quality of life. The CIVITAS
2.4, ensuring to provide attractive mobility choices and
Initiative supports cities which are willing to innovate
accommodating the mobility needs from a strategic or
and experiment with new sustainable transport poli-
long-term perspective chapter 2.5. cies. With the vast majority of the European population
living in urban areas, this means that actual changes
and implementation of new policies start at the level
of a city. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
13
2.
UR BAN Ch ALLENg ES A ND Th EIR POL ICIES
The fight against climate change
The fight against climate change is one of the biggest challenges for societies worldwide. In order
to temper climate change to a level below 2C, the European Commission aims to reduce CO2
emissions by the year 2050 by 80 to 95 percent compared to the emission levels of the year 19902. Several economic sectors are on the right path of emission reduction, whereas the transport sector,
including urban transport, is still increasing its CO2 emissions.3
The transport sector accounts for 13 percent of greenhouse gas GHG emissions and 23 percent of
energy related CO2 emissions globally. It has been predicted that, by the year 2050, there will be a
120 percent growth in global transport emissions compared to levels from the year 2000.4
European climate reduction goals imply a reduction of transport-related greenhouse gas emissions
by 20 percent until the year 2030 compared to the year 2008. In practical terms, this would allow for
a level of one ton CO2 emissions per capita per year. The true relevance of this figure only becomes
obvious if it is compared to the current CO2 emissions of ten tons per capita per year. The climate change challenge is immense, and climate change is still to some extent a difficult to
grasp phenomenon which slowly but increasingly drastically reveals its effect on societies. How-
ever, efforts to reduce emissions relevant for climate change are closely related to the emission of
pollutants and the creation of noise which cause adverse health effects. These adverse effects on
peoples health and personal well-being are more obvious. This is a chance for planners to provide
emotional personal health-related arguments for the promotion of sustainable measures. 2 European Commission, 2011 WHITE PAPER. Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area Towards a competitive and resource
efficient transport system. COM2011 144 final. 3 European Environment Agency dataservice www.dataservice.eea.europe.eu. 4 EU Catch project, www.carbonaware.eu
14
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
2.1 hEALTh
2.1 health
how to create a healthy environment for citizens
Sustainable urban transport can have direct effects on the local environment and
health of our citizens. The Action plan on urban Mobility 2009 states that sustain-
able urban transport can play a role in creating healthy environments and contribute
to reducing non-communicable diseases such as respiratory diseases, cardiovascular
diseases and injury prevention. Transport plays a role in our health
in several ways
Air quality and cardiovascular health
Transport-related noise pollution and health
Lack of physical activity
AIR qUALITY, POLLUTANT EMISSIONS AND
CARDIOVASCULAR hEALTh
Transport is one of the main sources of air pollution, for
which evidence on direct effects on mortality as well
as on respiratory and cardiovascular diseases is firmly
established.5 Emissions from road traffic account for a
significant share of this burden. The health effects caused by air pollution may in-
clude difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and
aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac condi-
tions. These effects can result in increased medication
use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more
hospital admissions6 and premature death. Studies
suggest that annually more than 300,000 Europeans
die prematurely from air pollution.7
5 European Commission Environmental fact sheet moving towards clean air for Europe, 2000.
6 Research conducted by Friedman et al. 2001 The Journal of the American Medical Association httpjama.jamanetwork.com
article.aspx?articleid193572 gives evidence of the relationship between congestion and childhood asthma. Efforts to reduce
downtown traffic congestion in Atlanta during the Olympic Games resulted in decreased traffic density, especially during the critical
morning period. This was associated with a prolonged reduction in ozone pollution and significantly lower rates of childhood asthma
events.
These data provide support for efforts to reduce air pollution and improve health via reductions in motor vehicle traffic. 7 According to the European Commissions environmental fact sheet moving towards clean air for Europe 2006, 370,000 premature
deaths were caused by diseases related to air pollution by particulate matter and ground-level ozone in the year 2000. With the
European Air Quality Strategy in place, this number was expected to decrease to fewer than 300,000 premature deaths annually by
the year 2020. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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2.1 h EALTh
The concentration of urban traffic pollution differs widely between different spots in the city, time of the day and
year, as indicated in the following table.8
Code
City
O3
NO2
CO
SO2
PM10
PM2,5
C6H6
1 hour
average
1 hour
average
running
8 hour
average
running
24 hour
average
running
24 hour
average
running
24 hour
average
running
24 hour
average
μgm3
μgm3
mgm3
μgm3
μgm3
μgm3
μgm3
1.1
0.5
0.7
1.1
1.1
0.7
0.8
Brussels Capital Region
41B003
Brussel Kunst-Wet
41B005
Brussel Belliard
41B006
Brussel EU Parlement
41B011
Sint-Agatha-Berchem
41MEU1
Neder-Over-Heembeek
41N043
Haren
41R001
Sint-Jans-Molenbeek
41R002
Elsene
41R012
Ukkel
41WOL1
Sint-Lambrechts-Woluwe
Flemish Region
40MN01 Menen
40OB01
Oostrozebeke
40RL01
Roeselare Brugsesteenweg
44M705
Roeselare Haven
44N002
Zeebrugge
44N012 Moerkerke
44N029
Houtem
44N052
Zwevegem
40ZL01
Zelzate
42R821
Beveren Waas
10
7
3
3
12
5
1
2
2
2
187
77
NA
NA
95
146
NA
111
74
85
99
36
52
68
99
14
10
10
11
14
14
17
6
8
5
4
11
9
87
94
102
106
87
81
117
126
131
126
100
105
103
129
115
171
122
133
146
4.0
2.8
3.3
Table 1 Air quality levels in Brussels Capital Region and parts of the surrounding Flemish Region
8 CITEAIR II, INTERREG IVC, CAQI Common Air Quality Index, May 2010. 16
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
Concept of primary pollutant emissions
2.1 hEALTh
Street Increment street canyons, urban motorway
Urban background
Rural background
Figure 1
Concept of primary
pollutant emissions
n
o
i
t
a
r
t
n
e
c
n
o
C
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
TRANSPORT-RELATED NOISE POLLUTION
LACk Of PhYSICAL ACTIVITY
AND hEALTh
The choices many people make to carry out most of
Road traffic is the main source of exposure to noise. Ac-
their journeys by car or infrastructure that doesnt al-
cording to European noise mapping, about 65 percent
low them a choice have a direct impact on their health. of the European population 325 million is exposed to
While there is a general trend in Europe over the past
levels over 55 Lden9 from road, rail, aircraft and indus-
decades towards more mental work and less physical
try, and nearly 20 percent to night-time levels that may
labour, this is not the only contributor to an increase in
harm their health 55 Lnight. Noise disturbs sleep and
obesity overweight levels. The trend towards obes-
heavily impacts on peoples quality of life. Research
ity parallels the increase in car use. Increased access
shows that noise can kill10. Epidemiological research
to cars, combined with deterioration in the physical
gives evidence that exposure to residential road traffic
conditions for active mobility, is associated with more
noise was associated with a higher risk of cardiovascu-
sedentary and inactive lifestyles. This is also related to
lar diseases11 and hypertension12. Children chronically
the likelihood of becoming obese.14 People who get the
exposed to loud noise show impairments in attention,
recommended daily amount of physical activity lower
memory, problem-solving ability and the acquisition of
their risk of becoming overweight. reading skills. Moreover, noise annoys people. About
two thirds of European citizens are substantially an-
noyed by noise caused by road and railway traffic.13
9 Lden Level day-evening-night is an expression for the noise level. This is a long-term averaged sound level, determined over all
the correspondent periods of a year.
Since 2004, the use of Lden is obligatory in all European countries the Environmental Noise
Directive. 10 httpwww.silence-ip.orgsite549
11 Sorensen et al 2011 European Heart Journal httpeurheartj.oxfordjournals.orgcontentearly20110108eurheartj.ehq466. abstract. Sorensen et al 2012 PLOS one httpwww.plosone.orgarticleinfodoi10.1371journal.pone.0039283. 12 Bodin et al. 2009 Environmental Health httpwww.ehjournal.netcontent8138. 13 Silence 2008 Annoyance of residents living in urban areas. httpwww.silence-ip.orgsitefileadminSP_AA-D6.pdf.
17 Figures of the European Cycle federation. 18 Steffen C. et al. 2004 Acute childhood leukemia and environmental exposure to potential sources of benzene and other hydrocarbons
a case-control study. Occup Environ Med. 2004 Sep619773-8. PubMed PMID 15317919 PubMed Central PMCID PMC1763669. 19 Brosselin P. et al. 2009 Acute childhood leukaemia and residence next to petrol stations and automotive repair garages the ESCALE
study SFCE.Occup Environ Med. 2009 Sep669598-606. Epub 2009 Feb 12. PubMed PMID 19213757. 18
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
2.2 CO Ng ESTION
2.2 Congestion
how to create an economically
viable and accessible city? Traffic congestion
Daily congestion
Traffic congestion, especially during peak hours, is
Daily congestion is a problem of uneven distribution
one of the most visible problems that almost every
of traffic volumes in time and space. In night hours,
European city has to deal with. Congestion occurs
infrastructure is normally at overcapacity while peak
when the traffic volume at certain points in the mobility
hours show undercapacity. It is the local, national
network requires more capacity than is available. governments task to plan infrastructure effectively
Congestion occurs in areas of high population density,
and efficiently. Infrastructure is effective when it fully
and is basically a matter of too many people wanting to
facilitates mobility it performs efficiently when its
be in the same place at the same time. It is therefore
capacity is utilised up to the maximum. The denser an
more likely to occur in dense urban areas where space
urban area, the more efficient the performance of the
is scarce. Congestion may occur on a daily basis, in
road network. Of course, the downside of this efficiency
peak hours when traffic demand is temporarily higher
is that every now and then traffic will come to a standstill. than infrastructure can facilitate, but it can also be
Avoiding congestion at all times can be very costly, so
incidental road works, accidents. brief periods of undercapacity may be acceptable. However, not all congestion can be regarded as una-
Tactical Infrastructure supply does not meet traffic
voidable. Approaches to do something about conges-
demand. This may be caused by rapid economic
tion can be found in the different causes of traffic jams
growth or population growth at a pace that infra-
Operational Roadworks can cause incidental situ-
structure development cannot cope with. This situ-
ations of congestion good planning and co-ordina-
ation is quite common, for infrastructure develop-
tion may reduce the problem. ment normally takes much time planning, decision
Operational Accidents can also cause incidental
making, building. Slow planning procedures are
congestion well co-ordinated emergency services
certainly not favourable in avoiding traffic conges-
may reduce the associated congestion problem. tion. Moreover, lack of sufficient infrastructure may
Operational and tactical An urban road network
also be caused by limited public financial means. can be regarded as a complex system, compara-
Tacticalstrategic Mobility choices of individuals
ble with a clockwork system. Without co-ordination
may cause an unfavourable modal split and cause
of the different elements in the system, temporary
congestion. Lack of adequate public transport and
imbalances in demand may occur, especially when
infrastructure for slow modes cycling, walking
capacity is used up to a high degree. ITS servic-
makes people car-dependent, for lack of adequate
es such as traffic information provision and other
alternatives. Obviously, reduction of car use will
forms of traffic demand management may deliver
have an influence on congestion. this necessary system co-ordination and reduce
the congestion problem. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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2.2 CONg ESTIO N
As there may be approaches available to solve or avoid
Design and implementation of demand manage-
congestion, something can be done against its nega-
ment strategies based upon the concept of con-
tive effects. The serious effects of congestion are
trolled access access restrictions
Increased air pollution, due to temporary concen-
Implementation of parking management schemes
tration of the emitted emissions, and associated
within city centres and at the outskirts park ride
health issues see chapter 2.1
schemes
Fuel waste inefficient energy consumption20 and
Promotion of planning concepts focussing on
extra greenhouse gas emissions
mixed-use concepts fostering a combination of dif-
Delays and time waste21 which result in economic
ferent use patterns such as shopping, working and
losses comparing to around one percent of GDP,
housing which helps to avoid traffic and depend-
annually22
Stress for road users
ence on the car from the beginning
The approach often used in the past, that is to counter
The cost of congestion waste of time and fuel only
congestion by measures on the supply side, for exam-
in Europe amounts to approximately EUR 115 billion
ple by increasing infrastructure capacity has proven
every year, or about one percent of the GDP.23 Added
not to be a permanent solution. Besides high invest-
to this is the cost of pollution. ment costs, experiences have shown that interactions
Policies that aim to avoid congestion and to en-
between supply and demand occur, and that additional
sure accessibility of vital economic urban activity zones
road space may induce travel demand and thus in turn
must address the imbalances in time and space, in
generate more traffic. modes, and in urban planning. This may lead to higher
efficiency and effectiveness of the available road space
Following the attempt to use the road space more ef-
and transport systems. Measures include
ficiently and in a more sustainable way, in CIVITAS, sev-
Provision of additional new high-quality public
eral measures have been implemented and analysed
transport systems offering alternative mobility
as integrated policy packages.
In chapter 3 selected
options to individual car traffic
examples are highlighted it will be shown in particular
Promotion and improvement of existing public
that implementation of an integrated package of restric-
transport systems
tions on the one hand and increased opportunities on
Promotion of alternative modes such as Car-shar-
the other will multiply the impacts of individual projects. ing, carpooling, cycling and walking as well as the
related infrastructure car-sharing stations, cycle
paths, bus lanes, interchanges
Fostering changes in the individual mobility be-
haviour seeking to avoid unsustainable traffic in the
first place or shifting this kind of traffic to more sus-
tainable modes
20 Americans waste 1.9 billion gallons 7.2 billion litres of gasoline annually in traffic on congested roads. Treasury Department, 2012
A new Economic Analysis of Infrastructure Investment. httpwww.treasury.govresource-centereconomic-policyDocuments2012
0323InfrastructureReport.pdf
21 Although the economic crisis caused a drop in time loss in traffic, still drivers in Belgium wasted 55 hours in traffic in 2011 and drivers
in The Netherlands, UK, Spain, France, Italy and Germany all at least 29 hours, as reported by INRIX, 2012. See httpwww.inrix.com
pressrelease.asp?ID159. 22 Appendix 5 of the Impact Assessment accompanying the White Paper Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area Towards a
competitive and resource efficient transport system, SEC2011 358. 23 Potočnik J. 2008. Making the European transport industry greener, safer and smarter to boost our industrial competitiveness. Transport Research Arena Opening Ceremony, Ljubljana, 21 April 2008. 20
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
2.3 SAf ETY AND SECU RITY
2.3 Safety and security
how to ensure a safe and secure
urban environment and mobility
The concepts of safety and security both come up often in the field of transport, but
their meanings are different and safety and security concerns arise in different con-
texts. Issues of safety often come into play when individuals are in control of a vehicle
and the threat is of an accident and physical injury, whereas security usually refers to
efforts to prevent an intrusion or attack that may or may not include physical harm. Both safety and security are closely related to mobility. The term perceived security is mainly related to in-
The term safety in the mobility discipline merely relates
frastructure to places and public transport vehicles. It
to traffic safety to accidents, or rather the prevention of
relates to the quality of these places, whether people
accidents. Safety is usually measured in hard figures,
feel secure being in these environments. More than to
in numbers of injured or fatalities. Obviously, infrastruc-
mobility, there is a direct link to the threat of crime, or
ture decisions and mode choices have an influence on
even terrorism. However, many decisions taken in the
traffic safety. Further, driving behaviour and road user
mobility discipline have a direct influence on this feeling
behaviour play a role in traffic safety. Examples of
of security. For instance, good lighting at public trans-
safety measures could include lowering speed limits
port stops in the evening is crucial for security or the
around schools, any other traffic calming measure, or
presence of attendants on public transport vehicles. creating separate cycling facilities to prevent collisions
between bicycles and cars. hOw TO ENSURE A SAfE URBAN ENVIRONMENT
AND SAfE MOBILITY? This question increasingly receives attention also by
Europe incl.
They are also more likely to
and young adults aged 5 to 29 years in the whole of
be more seriously injured. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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2.3 SAf ETY AN D SECURITY
Road safety is a highly complex issue and interlinked
Taking these developments into account, transport
with areas such as economy, energy and politics. For
policies that integrate road safety with environmental
example mortality rates for road traffic injuries differ
and health concerns are an important part of a solu-
widely between European countries, with rates being
tion to this situation. However, only one third of the
twice as high in low- and middle-income countries
European countries WHO region are currently imple-
compared with high-income countries. Also mortality
menting national policies on both public transport and
rates are up to four times lower in the Nordic countries
safe walking and cycling. Even fewer countries have
than in other parts of Europe. Over the past few years
introduced measures to better manage private car use.
trends have been falling in many high-income countries
but not in low- and middle income countries. hOw TO ENSURE A SECURE URBAN ENVIRONMENT
AND SECURE PUBLIC TRANSPORT? Urban transport systems move millions of passengers
and hybrid entities. This complexity inevitably raises
daily. They are by nature open environments as they are
additional security challenges, in terms of allocating
designed to move high volumes of passengers. Secur-
responsibility for prevention and response to threats or
ing these transport systems is complicated due to their
incidents and coordinating the use of resources. need to be easy to use and efficient in expediting the
The CIVITAS Initiative has been responding to
flow of commuters. Moreover, the different urban trans-
this situation and most measure packages within the
port modes such as buses, trains, light rail and metros
CIVITAS programme have had a positive effect on traf-
are increasingly integrated and linked up with other
fic safety and security. Or to be more specific the
transport modes such as long-distance rail or aviation
CIVITAS measures do not only improve air quality, but
and with other activities such as shopping and sport-
also lead to fewer people killed and injured, and safer
ing events. These various activities may be owned,
urban mobility. operated and protected by a variety of public, private
22
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
2.4 PARTIC IPATION
2.4 participation
how to involve citizens and other stakeholders
The CIVITAS Initiative is promoting the implementation of innovative and sustainable
mobility measures in european cities. In doing so, it aims to ultimately improve the
living conditions and the quality of life of the people who live or work in these cities
or who even just visit them. Innovative measures and ideas oftentimes question
It has furthermore been observed that citizens and
established processes or habits and try to introduce
other stakeholders are not necessarily opposed even
something new und yet unknown. Immediate and
to restrictive measures. Quite the contrary can be true. wide-based support for this can rarely be assumed. If they become part of the solution by adopting a pio-
In any measure implementation, individuals and often
neering role, then they can become the true drivers for
also organisations are somehow involved or affected. a particular measure. The views of these individuals and organisations
commonly referred to as stakeholders can be and
are quite often contrary. CIVITAS has proven that whenever stakeholders,
including citizens, were involved in the development
and decision-making processes, fewer problems arose
and the measures could be implemented more rapidly. And even if a measure may not have been implemented
as originally foreseen, it was repeatedly demonstrated
that an important benefit of a good involvement proc-
ess was that the different stakeholder groups over-
came their animosities towards each other and started
to build trust between them. Cities have the capability of
providing something for everybody,
only because, and only when, they
are created by everybody. Jane Jacobs, American-Canadian Writer
and Activist, 1916 2006
CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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2.4 PARTICIPATION
whO ARE ThE STAkEhOLDERS? A stakeholder is any individual, group or organisation
The CIVITAS Initiative proved the importance of stake-
affected by, or able to affect, a proposed project and
holder and citizen involvement. Many of its implement-
its implementation.24 This includes the general public,
ed measures had specific participatory elements to ob-
businesses, public authorities, decision-makers, local
tain legitimisation as well as wide and public support
institutions, experts, special interest groups and many
for innovative urban transport improvements. CIVITAS
others. See the table below for a comprehensive list of
has also shown that each policy or individual mobility
potential stakeholders. measure requires its own level of stakeholder involve-
ment. Government
Authorities
BusinessesOperators
Communities
Local Neighbourhoods
Others
European Union
National business associations
National environmental NGOs
Research institutions
Ministry of Transport
Major employers
Motorist associations
Universities
Other national ministries
Private financiers
Trade unions
Training institutions
Regional government
Internationalnational businesses
Media
Experts from other cities
Local authorities
Regionallocal businesses
Local authority forums
Foundations
Neighbouring cities
Local business associations
Local community organisations
Local transport authority
Small businessess
Local interest groups
Traffic police
Retailers
Cyclewalking groups
Other local transport bodies
Utility services
e. g. electricity, telecommunications
Public transport user groups
Other local authority bodies
Engineerscontractors
Transport users
Politicians
Transport operatorsproviders
Other decision makers
Transport consultants
Citizens
Visitors
Partnership bodies
Car-sharing companies
Citizens in neighbouring cities
Project managers
Bicycle rental operators
Disabled people
Professional staff
Other mobility providers
Emergency services
Health safety executives
-
-
-
-
Landowners
Transport staff
Parentschildren
Older people
Table 2 Typical stakeholder groups, broken down into four categories GUIDEMAPS 2004
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
24 GUIDEMAPS, 2004. Successful transport decision-making. A project management and stakeholder engagement handbook.
Volume I Concepts and Tools. 24
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
2.4 PARTIC IPATION
fORMS Of STAkEhOLDER INVOLVEMENT
Stakeholders can take part in the decision-making
ure and the types of stakeholders, various tools and
process during a particular stage or during all stages
techniques could be considered. The Internet, news-
of the planning and implementation process or even
letters, brochures, fact sheets, etc. are typical means
the evaluation of a measure. The actual involvement of
of information provision. Tools and techniques for the
stakeholders in a given process can vary from merely
gathering of information from stakeholders include
providing information via consultation to actual citizen
questionnaires surveys and personal interviews as
control, i.e. co-decision-making. Not surprisingly, the
well as interactive engagement tools such as stake-
list of involvement tools and techniques is also a long
holder conferences, information markets, thematic
one. Depending on the envisaged level of stakeholder
workshops, focus group meetings all of which can
involvement, but also depending on the type of meas-
be combined with site visits or study tours. IDENTIfICATION Of ThE RIghT STAkEhOLDERS
Out of the long list of potential stakeholder groups,
Other public administrations are often stakeholders. In
a specific list should be established for each local
most cases, part of the local measure touches their
project. A few basic rules should be considered. fields of competence and the project manager is often
legally obliged to consult them. Their respective com-
Stakeholders with political responsibilities will be in-
petences can also help to increase the impact of the
volved to different extents
local measure. For example, in the case of new urban
1.
Depending on their political position, they may just
public infrastructure the involvement of the regional
require to be provided with information. This infor-
authorities responsible for the inter-urban buses can
mation will allow them to assure their passive par-
help to increase the use of the respective infrastructure. ticipation for example, a favourable vote within the
Private companies or private citizens may be di-
city council. rectly affected by the locally implemented measure. 2. Politicians can also be actively involved. This is
Associations represent citizens and companies for
relevant when the respective politicians are respon-
which the project will change conditions, for better or
sible for the specific topic e.g. road safety related
worse. Associations may also be lobbying for a spe-
to the local project e.g. new cycle infrastructure. cific related cause. For example in case of a new cycle
In those cases, it is recommended to provide op-
policy, the bicycle associations are involved in gen-
portunities for comments and suggestions. eral.
Their involvement must be carefully managed, as
3. Politicians involvement is relevant when the active
their interests are often touching only part of the local
support of the politician is required to guarantee the
project objectives. creation of basic conditions. For example in case
A final group of stakeholders are the local citizens. of a restrictive parking policy, this politician plays a
Their involvement is discussed in the following para-
crucial role when other stakeholders must be con-
graph. vinced, such as shop owners and citizens. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
25
2.4 PARTICIPATION
CITIzENS ENgAgEMENT
Approaches to public involvement differ in individual
For very technical measures, such as traffic manage-
cities or countries according to the principles, stand-
ment support systems, a lower level of informing is con-
ards and the level of participatory democracy estab-
sidered sufficient. However for wider transport policy
lished. The most important factor in determining the
related initiatives, like the development of a new park-
intensity of public involvement is in general the nature
ing strategy, a higher level of involvement is required,
of the individual urban mobility improvement and the
especially from the local citizens. The development of
relevance of informing and public involvement for its
a Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan SUMP needs the
success and effectiveness. engagement of all relevant stakeholders and citizens
to ensure transparency and increase legitimisation and
As regards the intensity of communication and impact
acceptance of decisions and the SUMP itself. on decision-making, several levels of participation can
Local projects in which restrictive actions are taken
be distinguished
might better involve a more formal hearing of opinions,
1. Informingeducatingraising awareness lowest
while the decisions are made on a socio-economic cost-
level of participation, one-way, top down
benefit analysis of the different options.
This is for exam-
2. Consultinggathering informationdiscussing one
ple the case in measures that introduce paid parking. step up from informing, citizens are consulted, their
The evaluation in respect to public participation and
views are taken into account, but not necessarily
awareness confirms that a high level of user consulta-
considered and acted upon
tion is in general a prerequisite for proper success. 3. Deciding togetherengaging those affected by an
issue are invited to learn about the issue, discuss
and become part of the final decision-making proc-
ess clear boundaries are set on the level of influ-
ence to avoid unrealistic expectations
4. Acting togetherpartnership shared decision-
making process and shared responsibility for im-
plementing decisions and perhaps even evaluating
the outcome
ADVANTAgES
CIVITAS has proven that it is hard, but necessary to
ers into trust. Hence, stakeholder participation can be
properly involve stakeholders. In general terms, the in-
viewed as a means to develop a common ground for
volvement of stakeholders in the measure planning and
actions and for a durable cooperation between the city
implementation process offers the opportunity to more
administration and other stakeholders. In this sense,
clearly identify problems. It has been observed within
the legitimacy of the planning and implementation
CIVITAS that stakeholders turned scepticism or even
process is ensured. mistrust about decision-makers and other stakehold-
26
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
2.4 PARTIC IPATION
LIMITATIONS AND ChALLENgES
The involvement of a range of stakeholders in the deci-
The selection of the right stakeholders is another chal-
sion-making process may prove counterproductive un-
lenge, i.e. to involve those citizens who actually have a
der certain circumstances, for example in cases where
concrete stake in the specific issue. The stakeholder
decisions have already been made and are no longer
identification process is crucial in this regard. Here, it is
negotiable. In such cases, providing sufficient informa-
a challenge to involve those stakeholders that are per-
tion may be more appropriate. haps less articulate perhaps being somewhat shy, but
Depending on the specific city or measure con-
also in cases of language deficits or less involved in
texts, organising stakeholder events may be a big chal-
community affairs in order to offer all stakeholders the
lenge. For example, it may not be advisable to bring
possibility to adequately voice their opinions. However,
together stakeholders with very opposing opinions if
on the basis of a thorough stakeholder analysis and
there is a danger of creating a battleground rather than
accurate preparation and planning of the involvement
a discussion platform. A careful analysis of the stake-
process, these challenges can be overcome.
holders and their respective opinions may help to avoid
such friction. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
27
2.5 STRATEg IC PLAN N INg
2.5 Strategic planning
how to achieve policy goals while ensuring that
mobility needs of society and its citizens are met
Mobility is vital for the internal market and for the quality of life of citizens as they
enjoy their freedom to travel. Transport enables economic growth and job creation
it must be sustainable in the light of the new challenges we face.25
Health, quality of life and prosperity are all related to
In general, we see policy objectives such as the fol-
mobility, not just in terms of the negative effects de-
lowing
scribed in the paragraphs 2.1 to 2.4. Mobility is also
prerequisite for the economy and for the basic freedom
A sharp reduction in CO2 emissions to zero in trans-
port, to be reached between 2040 and 2050
of citizens. Also for cities, mobility is important to be an
A sharp reduction in air pollutant emissions
attractive place for people to live, work or visit. Other
Moving close to zero fatalities in road transport in,
adjectives for a desired city come to mind, such as
depending on the present situation, 20 to 40 years
liveable, competitive, sustainable, accessible, child-
Drastically reducing congestion in traffic
friendly. They all describe positive features, people and
Enhancing urban quality of life in general
businesses are looking for in such a city. It requires thoughtful planning to improve a city in
In general, there is broad consensus among national
the desired way and the key question is how to strate-
and urban governments to follow the following univer-
gically, i.e. with a long-term perspective of years and
sal approaches to reach those goals although there is
decades to come, plan for the mobility needs of cities
of course political disagreement on details
and their citizens and other stakeholders. Technology
The urban policy context is complex with mobil-
A more sustainable vehicle fleet in about 20 years
ity being closely related to other important challenges,
time the use of conventionally-fuelled cars in cities
such as climate change, availability of scarce resourc-
must at least be reduced to 50 , in about 40 years
es the dependency on resource suppliers, urban
growth, migration to cities, environmental quality,
to zero. CO2 emissions must be brought to zero in
about the same period. economic growth, the financial instabilities financial
Optimising the performance of multimodal logistic
crisis, public space development and social inclusion. chains, also by making greater use of more energy-
Not only the European Commission, but also national
efficient modes. policies and, indeed, many European cities have for-
New technologies for traffic management will be
mulated their own policies regarding mobility and sus-
key to lower emissions, and to better performance
tainability. of road networks and thus reduce congestion and
25 European Commission, 2011 WHITE PAPER. Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area Towards a competitive and resource
efficient transport system. COM2011 144 final, p.3. 28
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
2. 5 STRATEg IC P LANNINg
associated emissions. Information systems and
tive is promoting an integrated planning approach
market-based incentives including application of
which is also advocated by the European Union in
user pays and polluter pays principles may be ap-
the Action Plan on Urban Mobility and the Transport
plied. White Paper Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans
Investing in infrastructure for slower modes, in col-
SUMP. lective transport, in integrated mobility concepts. There is the chance to reduce the dependence on
To summarise, the great challenge is to get this all
the car by integrated mobility concepts. The in-
done the transition from the present unsustainable
novative principles of use it dont own it show
car-based urban mobility to the future, sustainable,
alternatives to private car-ownership. With fewer
cars we can reduce the infrastructural costs and
CO2 neutral, more efficient and safer mobility, while
ensuring mobility needs of society and its citizens. can make our cities more efficient and resilient. Behaviour increased flexibility in working hours,
modal shift towards more sustainable transport
modes public transport, bicycle, integrated con-
cepts, less car-dependent lifestyles. Urban planning, facilitating infrastructure invest-
ments, technological innovation and behavioural
measures. It seems clear that traditional urban
planning approaches are no longer sufficient to ad-
dress todays policy challenges.
The CIVITAS Initia-
We cannot solve our problems
with the same thinking we used
when we created them. Albert Einstein 1879 1955
SUMP Policy Background
In the Action Plan on Urban Mobility published in 2009, the European Commission proposed to accelerate the take-
up of Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans in Europe by providing guidance material, promoting best practice exchange,
identifying benchmarks, and supporting educational activities for urban mobility professionals. EU transport ministers
are supporting the development of Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans. The conclusions on the Action Plan on Urban
Mobility of 24 June 2010 state that the Council of the European Union supports the development of Sustainable Urban
Mobility Plans for cities and metropolitan areas ... and encourages the development of incentives, such as expert
assistance and information exchange, for the creation of such plans. In March 2011, the European Commission released its Transport White Paper Roadmap to a Single European Transport
Area Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system COM20110144 final. The Transport White
Paper proposes to examine the possibility of making Urban Mobility Plans a mandatory approach for cities of a certain
size, according to national standards based on EU Guidelines. It also suggests to explore linking regional development
and cohesion funds to cities and regions that have submitted a current, independently validated Urban Mobility
Performance and Sustainability Audit certificate. Finally, the Transport White Paper proposes to examine the possibility
of a European support framework for a progressive implementation of Urban Mobility Plans in European cities. For more information on the SUMP Guidelines mentioned in the Transport White Paper, refer to chapter 3.8 on
Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
29
2.5 STRATEg IC PLAN N INg
The main differences between traditional transport planning and sustainable urban mobility planning are illustrated
in the table below. Traditional Transport Planning
Sustainable Urban Mobility Planning
Focus on traffic
Focus on people
Primary objective
Traffic flow capacity and speed
Primary objectives
Accessibility and quality of life
Political mandates and planning by experts
Important stakeholders are actively involved
Domain of transport engineers
Interdisciplinary planning
Infrastructure as the main topic
Combination of infrastructure, market mechanisms,
information, and promotion
Investment-guided planning
Cost efficient achievement of goals
Focus on large and costly projects
Gradual efficiency increase and optimisation
Limited impact assessment
Intensive evaluation of impacts and shaping of a
learning process
If you plan cities for cars and traffic,
you get cars and traffic. If you plan for people and places,
you get people and places. Fred Kent, Project for Public Spaces
Table 3 Differences between traditional transport planning and sustainable urban mobility planning
A Sustainable urban Mobility plan
is a strategic plan that builds on
existing planning practices and takes
due consideration of integration,
participation, and evaluation
principles to satisfy the mobility needs
of people today and tomorrow for
a better quality of life in cities and
their surroundings. A Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan SUMP is follow-
ing a participatory approach. It is focussing on people
rather than cars or traffic. It means planning for peo-
ple. And it means planning with people, as the involve-
ment of stakeholders, including citizens, in planning,
decision-making and evaluation processes is generally
encouraged. Another SUMP characteristic is its integrated ap-
proach. Integration can have various aspects, such
as the geographic integration of a city with its sur-
rounding areas or the institutional integration of dif-
ferent sectors transport, health, urban development,
land use planning, etc., institutions or administrative
levels. The integrated approach of SUMP also implies
an interdisciplinary planning culture which is strikingly
different from the engineer-driven traditional transport
approach. 30
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
2. 5 STRATEg IC P LANNINg
Infrastructure often expressed in building new roads
Good examples of SUMPs in Europe have been identi-
has been the main focus of traditional transport plan-
fied.26 They include Gent in Belgium see case study
ning. The SUMP concept obviously also includes infra-
below, Lille in France, Freiburg in Germany, Bologna
structural measures, but intentionally questions them
and Reggio Emilia in Italy, Groningen in the Nether-
do we really need to build this?. SUMP aims to
lands, Trondheim in Norway as well as Nottingham and
achieve a good combination of infrastructure, market
York in the UK. mechanisms, information, and promotion. Traditional transport planning is often guided by
Some countries such as the United Kingdom Local
large investments into large projects while SUMP fo-
Transport Plans in England and Wales and France
cuses on less costly soft measures, cost efficiency
Plans de Déplacements Urbains which have an es-
and gradual efficiency improvements. tablished transport policy framework combined with
SUMP is emphasising the importance of evalua-
national guidance on urban mobility planning are
tion and the achievement of tangible targets. It thereby
considered forerunners in sustainable urban mobil-
stands in contrast to traditional transport planning
ity planning. In other countries, SUMPs are a new or
where the assessment of impacts usually plays a mi-
non-existing idea most notably in the New Member
nor role. States of Central and Eastern Europe. The European
SUMP is a planning concept able to achieve ben-
Commission is promoting SUMP through awareness
efits for cities in many respects, including an improved
raising events and technical training seminars all
image of a city, a better quality of life for its citizens,
across Europe www.mobilityplans.eu. In addition,
improved mobility and accessibility, environmental
the CIVITAS Initiative has established a complemen-
and health benefits, the potential to reach and involve
tary thematic network group on integrated planning
people, citizen and stakeholder supported decisions,
which is promoting the SUMP concept. an effective fulfilment of legal obligations, increased
competitiveness and better access to funding, an op-
portunity to create a new strategic vision for a city, and
improved institutional cooperation.
The benefits are
discussed in more detail in chapter 3.8. 26 Rupprecht Consult and Edinburgh Napier University, 2011 The State-of-the-Art of Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans in Europe. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
31
3. CIVITAS Solution
Within the ten years of its existence, the CIVITAS Initiative
supported the implementation of more than 730 innovative
urban mobility measures in 59 european cities. These 730 individual measures can be allocated to the
solution groups CIVITAS thematic groups clean fuels and
vehicles, urban freight, demand management strate-
gies, mobility management, collective passenger trans-
port, transport telematics, less car-dependent mobility
options, and Sustainable urban Mobility plans. As de-
picted in the table on the next page, the CIVITAS long-
term evaluation revealed to what extent these solutions are
connected to the urban mobility challenges described in
chapter 2. The unique strength of the CIVITAS Initiative goes well be-
yond this simplified illustration of the connection between
urban mobility challenges and solutions. CIVITAS supports
cities in the implementation of integrated packages of
measures, i.e. the implementation of measures in a city
which are complementary to each other. for example, the
introduction of clean vehicles and fuels is well supported
by 1 access restrictions for polluting vehicles and 2 the
promotion of alternative transport modes such as public
transport, cycling and walking. This chapter offers a variety of examples of measures and
integrated packages of measures which were successfully
implemented in CIVITAS cities across europe. 32
CIVITAS GuI de for Th e urbAn TrA nSp orT p ro f eSS IonAl
3. CIVITAS SOL UTION
s
e
g
n
e
l
l
a
h
C
How to
create a
healthy
environment
for citizens? How to
create an
economically
viable and
accessible
city? How to
ensure a
safe and
secure urban
environment
and mobility? How to
involve
citizens
and other
stake-
holders? How to
achieve policy
goals while
ensuring that
mobility
needs of
society and its
citizens are
met? How to
achieve
European
climate
reduction
goals? Solutions
health
challenge
congestion
challenge
safety security
challenge
participation
challenge
strategic
planning
challenge
global climate
change
challenge
Clean fuels
and vehicles
Urban freight
Demand
management
strategies
Mobility
management
Collective
passenger
transport
Transport
telematics
Less
car-dependent
mobility options
Sustainable
Urban Mobility
Plans
very strong connection
strong connection
moderate connection
weak indirect connection
Table 4 Connections between the solution groups and the urban mobility challenges
CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
33
3.1 CLEAN fUELS AN D VEh ICLES
3.1 Clean fuels and vehicles
whAT IS ThE SOLUTION? Cleaner fuels and vehicles decrease local air pollution
There is still a concern that biofuel production will com-
and greenhouse gas GHG emissions, both of which
pete with other land use and that the final result of this
help to improve the quality of life for citizens. CIVITAS
will either be competition with food, deforestation or
cities seek to explore innovations in these fields and
use of carbon-rich land which will increase GHG emis-
share best practice. Many cities try to stimulate the
sions. Research is still very uncertain of the magnitude
spread of clean and energy-efficient public and private
and even the direction of such an effect. While higher
vehicles for passenger and freight transport. At present
prices for agricultural land may provide incentives for
there are several options to replace fossil run vehicles
deforestation, biofuel production also generates by-
andor fuels with alternative energy sources, such as
products such as feed and electricity which reduce
Usage of biofuels biodiesel, vegetable oil, biogas,
GHG emissions. The net effect of this is uncertain and
bioethanol
varies between production methods and fuels. Differ-
Usage of alternative fossil fuels natural gas like
ent interest groups use this ambiguity to push their
CNG, LNG and propane LPG
special interests. Introduction of electric propulsion full electric ve-
There is currently an ongoing debate on whether
hicles, hybrid electric vehicles, fuel cell technology
to introduce a so-called indirect land use penalty on all
hydrogen, trolley buses
biofuels. EU policy is, however, not consistent as at
BIOfUELS
the same time they propose to make it compulsory to
set aside a minimum of seven percent of all agricultural
land in the EU where no production is allowed due to
Biofuels can if properly grown and processed reduce
the current over-production of agricultural commodi-
GHG emissions substantially, and biofuels like ethanol
ties.
At the local level, this debate gives a troubling im-
and biogas also significantly reduce local emissions. age of biofuels to the general public. There is, however, a worry that a strong demand for
The so-called second generation of biofuels is
biofuels and a rapid development of the biofuel market
mainly produced from food waste, agricultural waste or
could result in unsustainable production methods be-
forest products. Biogas, pine oil hydrogenated vegeta-
ing used. To this end, the EU has launched sustainabil-
ble oil and waste ethanol are examples of such fuels
ity criteria and introduced a minimum standard for CO2
reductions presently 35 percent compared to fossil
which are, however, still only available in rather small
quantities. There is big hope for the gasification of bio-
fuels, a figure that will be increased to 50 percent in
mass and possibly algae oil, but these fuels are still far
2017 and later even 60 percent. from being commercially available.
34
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
3. 1 CL EAN fUE LS AND VEh ICL ES
The use of biofuels could stimulate the creation of a
are currently four models of plug-in hybrid vehicles
biomass industry helping to create stronger agricul-
PHEV available on the European market. All types,
tural markets, develop new markets overall and subse-
however, use electricity that comes from the power
quently generate new jobs. This is of particular interest
grid. Although electricity production may contribute to
to European cities and regions with a local potential
air pollution if e.g. made from coal, EVs are legally
to produce biofuels. In particular for tropical and sub-
considered zero-emission vehicles because their mo-
tropical countries biofuel production can provide a new
tors do not produce local exhaust or emissions. cash-crop which is more profitable than the traditional
Hybrid cars use two distinct power sources to pow-
tobacco and cotton industry. This may lead to a re-
er or propel the vehicle. When the term hybrid vehicle
duction of oil dependency, trigger investment money
is used, it most often refers to a hybrid electric vehicle
for developing the economy and in most cases also
HEV. Hybrid electric vehicles are powered by an inter-
produce electricity as a by-product. nal combustion engine as well as by an electric motor. Within CIVITAS, most biofuels have been tested in
The engines can run in parallel or separately. The elec-
both light duty and heavy duty applications, with good
tric engine runs alone when reversing or accelerating in
results. stop-and-go traffic situations. The energy is taken from
a battery, which is charged by the electric engine every
ALTERNATIVE fOSSIL fUELS
time the vehicle brakes. Thus, the electric engine acts
natural gas like CnG, lnG and propane lpG
as a generator. At a high and consistent speed, only the
combustion engine runs. When starting, both engines
There are also a few alternative fossil fuels on the mar-
run and thus a better acceleration can be achieved. ket, namely natural gas CNG or liquefied petroleum
Every time the vehicle stops, the combustion engine
gas LPG. Though reducing local emissions and to
turns off. Once the brake is released, the electric en-
some extent also GHG emissions, these alternative
gine turns on the combustion engine again. fuels are not considered to be a long-term solution as
The main savings are made through using a smaller
they are fossil and also finite. combustion engine than otherwise would be needed,
The use of CNG buses could also lead to a strate-
keeping this engine close to its optimum efficiency
gic diversification of a sustainable fuel supply. If there
window and using the battery and the electric engine
is local production of biogas as in Lille France and
to handle extra torque needed or store surplus energy
Stockholm Sweden, or if the biogas can be injected
from the combustion energy together with storing the
into the general gas network, this renewable fuel can
energy generated in braking. The result is an efficiency
replace fossil CNG. Lille and Stockholm have contin-
improvement of up to 30 percent which means bet-
ued using and promoting biogas beyond their involve-
ter mileage and reduced emissions. The hybrid system
ment as CIVITAS demonstration cities between 2002
also runs in heavy vehicles such as buses, but at the
and 2006.
moment only Volvo sells hybrid buses on a large scale,
having sold about 650 buses to date. ELECTRIC PROPULSION
Fuel cell technology is still in an early stage of de-
full electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles,
velopment. Major research and development efforts
fuel cell technology hydrogen, trolley buses
are aimed at making hydrogen vehicles practical for
widespread use. This primarily includes the storage of
In an electric vehicle EV, a battery or other energy
hydrogen. It requires a large and heavy storage tank. storage device is used to store the electricity that
An additional constraint is that hydrogen is highly in-
powers the motor. EV batteries must be replenished by
flammable. plugging in the vehicle to a power source. Some elec-
Trolley buses are an energy efficient and local
tric vehicles have on-board chargers others plug into a
zero-emission transport mode. They are 100 percent
charger located outside the vehicle. Furthermore, there
environmentally friendly when using energy from re-
CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
35
3.1 CLEAN fUELS AN D VEh ICLES
newable sources. The initial start-up investment in infra-
Both the vehicle market and the fuel market are global
structure is costly, but due to lower energy cost and the
which means that there is strong resistance to radical
particularly long life cycle of trolley buses, they can be
shift. However, by focussing on vehicles which they
operated economically. Trolley buses are more flexible
own andor can influence directly and spreading the
nowadays because of new energy storage technolo-
example both via their transport procurement and by
gies and they can carry on even when the booms
influencing other large transport buyers, municipalities
poles on the roof of a trolley bus are not connected to
can, initiate such a change.27 Within CIVITAS there were
the electricity network. Finally, trolleybuses can reach
in total 62 local initiatives introducing clean vehicles
similar passenger capacity, compared to trams, at
and or fuel actions. Evaluation data is quite scattered,
much lower construction costs up to 80 percent less. but it can be seen that
Several CIVITAS cities have experimented with the
Buses and waste collecting vehicles are suitable
latest biofuel technologies, alternative fossil fuels, and
sub-markets to start with as cities often have di-
the latest generation of electric vehicles and uncovered
rect influence over these and they often fuel up at
the advantages and constraints of using clean vehicles
a single geographical spot reducing the need for
and alternative fuels in the local urban context. vast infrastructure development. These vehicles
A typical measure for municipalities is to start with vehi-
are also responsible for a high proportion of local
cles which they own andor can influence directly, such
emissions and changing to cleaner technology will
as public transport buses or waste collection trucks. improve air quality with rather small efforts. In most CIVITAS cities, experiments aimed at green-
Only a few cities have tried to influence the car mar-
ing public transport buses and other publicly owned
ket. Favourable national legislation and national
vehicles. incentives together with several active cities and
local incentives seem to be success factors in start-
ing a market development of clean cars. CIVITAS cities where clean fuelclean vehicle solutions have been implemented
Aalborg, Barcelona, Bath, Berlin, Bologna, Bremen, Brescia, Brighton Hove, Bristol, Brno, Bucharest, Burgos, Coimbra,
Cork, Craiova, Debrecen, Donostia-San Sebastián, Funchal, Gdansk, Genova, Gent, Gorna Oryahovitsa, Gothenburg,
Graz, Iasi, Kaunas, Krakow, La Rochelle, Lille, Ljubljana, Malmö, Monza, Nantes, Norwich, Perugia, Ploiesti, Porto,
Potenza, Preston, Rome, Rotterdam, Skopje, Stockholm, Suceava, Szczecinek, Tallinn, Toulouse, Venice, Vitoria-Gasteiz,
Winchester, Zagreb
27 See e.g. Osterlin. C., Biogasplanning in Stockholm A Systems Approach. To be published in 2012.
36
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
3. 1 CL EAN fUE LS AND VEh ICL ES
CASE STUDY
Clean fuels and vehicles in Stockholm, Sweden
Stockholm the capital of Sweden has a pop-
ulation of 870,000. It is located on 14 islands on
Swedens southeast coast. The public transport
buses and private fossil-fuelled vehicle fleet is be-
ing replaced with clean vehicles that run on biogas
and ethanol. Stockholm has the largest number
of clean vehicles per city in Europe As of 2012,
Stockholm is fully serviced by clean buses 800
bioethanol and 270 biogas buses are running on a
daily schedule. In addition, there are over 160,000
clean vehicles operating in Stockholm, including
1,400 clean taxis and approximately 100 clean
police vehicles the majority of them running on
biogas and bioethanol and over 60 biogas-fuelled
A local grid connecting the main biogas production
waste collection vehicles. Stockholm has a com-
plants with bus depots and filling stations was com-
prehensive infrastructure for alternative fuels, in
pleted in 2011. Stockholm taxis adopted a clean
accordance with the size of the growing clean ve-
vehicle policy where biomethane is the favoured
hicle fleet. Local biogas production facilities supply
fuel. In 2009 they ordered 350 gas fuelled cars. a portion of the alternative fuels. By 2006, the local measures had already proved
that the introduction of biogas led to reduced emis-
The expansion of the clean fuel fleet is fostered
sions of fossil carbon dioxide by 86 percent and
along three axes
emissions of nitrogen oxides, small particulates
1. Dedicated promotion of clean fuels
and carbon monoxide by 50 percent, although hy-
2. Increase in the number of clean vehicles in the
drocarbon emissions were 20 times higher. public fleets
Maintenance costs for gas-fuelled vehicles are in
3. Improving the filling and maintenance infra-
general higher than for diesel vehicles. In order to
structure for clean vehicles
give an indication maintenance costs rose from
EUR 0.033 per km to EUR 0.045 per km for the
The use of biogas took off starting in 2004 when
biogas petrol engines. Motor oil consumption was
the public transport company introduced its first
twice as high for biogas vehicles compared to die-
21 biogas buses. As a response to the increased
sel vehicles, and fuel consumption was 60 percent
demand, biogas was purchased from the nearby
higher, yet prices are in general set much lower for
cities of Linköping and Västeras. The number of
gas. Noise levels fell by 50 percent. More than 90
filling stations increased from four in 2004 to eleven
percent of drivers would recommend driving bi-
in 2007. The gas is transported by lorries to the gas
ogas heavy vehicles to others.
stations, as there is no grid. Within the Biogasmax
project another 105 vehicles were tested. As a result of continuing efforts beyond the CIVITAS
Four new production plants have started operation
TRENDSETTER project which ran from 2002 to
Himmerfjärdsverket, Käppala, Loudden and Scan-
2006, 130 biogas buses and 500 ethanol buses
dinavian Biogas, and several new public biogas
had been put into operation by Stockholm Trans-
fuelling stations have opened. port by 2010. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
37
3.1 CLEAN fUELS AN D VEh ICLES
CASE STUDY
Clean fuels and vehicles in bremen, Germany
A CNG promotion campaign was implemented in
a total of 160. Some buyers had to wait to pur-
Bremen in 2002. Prior to the launch of the cam-
chase their vehicle as several manufacturers were
paign, Bremen had two CNG fuelling stations. As
not able to deliver on time. Others decided to buy
an incentive to switch to CNG and to make up for
a different type of car. the lack of fuelling stations, the energy provider
Monitoring of the promotional work showed that
swb and the energy agency Bremer Energie-Kon-
after 2.5 years, more than 25 percent of Bremen
sens offered an incentive of EUR 1,000 per new
citizens knew about the campaign as well as the
CNG private car, and EUR 2,500 per company car. environmental and economic advantages of CNG. Commercial users received a higher incentive be-
Although they were advertised much earlier, the
cause they usually have higher inner-city mileage
planned purchase of four CNG freight vehicles
and tend to use conventional diesel cars, meaning
had to be postponed because they were not avail-
their emission reductions would be greater. able. 7-ton CNG trucks could not be delivered by
A public relations campaign with special events
the motor industry until February 2010. Also in
increased awareness of CNG. All partners along
2010, there were four CNG fuelling stations and
the clean vehicle supply chain car manufactur-
about 600 CNG cars in Bremen. ers, car dealers, energy providers, energy agen-
The fleet of CNG vehicles in Bremen achieved a
cies, motor clubs and local politicians were part
of a network supporting the policy. The campaign
target was to introduce 250 new CNG vehicles
23 percent reduction in CO2 emissions compared
to petrol, a 77 percent reduction in NOx emissions
compared to diesel and a 99 percent reduction in
within the project period 2002 2006. PM10 emissions compared to diesel. By the end of the project period about 70 percent
of approved applicants had purchased a CNG car
38
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
3. 1 CL EAN fUE LS AND VEh ICL ES
BARRIERS
The use of clean vehicles and alternative fuels is
Major challenges are
often one of the main themes for developing a more
High purchase costs. New technologies tend to be
sustainable urban mobility system. A higher share of
more expensive. Operating costs can be lower, but
clean vehicles has helped to achieve the EUs Kyoto
purchasing costs are in general higher than for con-
objective of a greenhouse gas GHG emission reduc-
ventional technologies. Special financial arrange-
tion of 8 percent by 2012. Todays driving forces are the
ments can overcome these barriers
European 20-20-20 climate and energy targets28 and
Fuel or charging infrastructure. Alternative fuels or
the 2011 Transport White Paper, together with ambi-
electric vehicles require a different energy distribu-
tious cities like Copenhagen and Stockholm, that are
tion structure. Public authorities can, and some-
spurring each other to set dates for being fossil free. times must, play an important role in creating a
Public authorities can lead by example and help
basic level of service
develop markets by cleaning their own fleets. In gen-
Lack of a market for second hand vehicles. Deter-
eral the first are public transport buses and garbage
mining the residual value of cleaner vehicles can
trucks. A second group of vehicles are taxis e.g. Stock-
be difficult.
Since they do not exist yet, there is no
holm and Amsterdam. The challenge is to persuade
market to determine the market price. Public au-
other fleet owners and private vehicle owners to follow
thorities can help by guaranteeing a certain residual
these good examples. This can be done by information
value for used vehicles. campaigns and bringing together companies who are
willing to do something extra for society. 28 The 20-20-20 targets aim for I a reduction in EU greenhouse gas emissions of at least 20 percent below 1990 levels, II 20 percent
of EU energy consumption to come from renewable resources, and III a 20 percent reduction in primary energy use compared with
projected levels, to be achieved by improving energy efficiency, by the year 2020. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
39
3.2 U RBAN fREIghT
3.2 urban freight
whAT IS ThE SOLUTION? Urban freight and its associated transport and logis-
ery solutions able to maintain the vitality of city centres
tics operations often referred to as city logistics
and their shops are also requested where the given in-
are concerned with delivering and collecting goods in
frastructure is incapable of handling increased freight
town and city centres as such, they are tackling traffic
volumes historical city centres, where reconstruction
flowscongestion, the competitiveness of shops and
sites are hindering truck and van movements or where
the quality of life for the citizens, and last but not least
large shopping centres or harbour areas are concen-
the image of the city. Often many of the related proc-
trating huge amounts of incoming and outgoing goods. esses and activities, or parts of them, are undertaken
outside urban areas but they still have impacts on ur-
In accordance with European transport policies, city
ban operations. logistics can be improved by three different types of
Therefore, city logistics cannot be viewed and stud-
interventions
ied in isolation but rather in the context of the entirety
1. Stimulating the usage of more environmentally
of supply chains that typically cross the geographical
sustainable transport vehicles. Key areas for
boundaries of urban areas and in relation to the eco-
consideration relate to the most appropriate size of
nomic and societal environment of a city. vehicles and the type of fuel they require. There is a
The growing significance of city logistics is asso-
problematic trade-off between the size and capac-
ciated with increased population and sustained eco-
ity of the vehicles and the number of vehicles that
nomic growth in urban areas. Goods transport in cities
will be required to fulfil logistical needs. The type
represents from 10 to 18 percent of road traffic. For
of fuel is important not only for fuel consumption
some aspects, the importance of freight transport is
and hence emissions of pollutants and greenhouse
even much higher. In fact, the transportation of goods
gases, but also urban noise levels are affected by
accounts for 40 percent of air pollution and noise emis-
the handling systems used as well as by the opera-
sions. And the share of freight transport in congestion
tion of the engine. cost is also higher than 20 percent. The importance of
2. Implementing new distribution systems the
urban freight transport can also be shown by the cost
actual city logistics. Perhaps the greatest poten-
distribution within the freight transport chain The share
tial for environmental improvement in city logistics
of pick-up and delivery operations, which often take
relates to the improved consolidation of the many
place in urban areas, on the total door-to-door cost is
small loads prior to delivery into the urban centre. about 40 percent in combined transport. These new city logistics systems can lead to less
Less or more efficient and cleaner city logistics are
freight transport movements within the inner city
therefore beneficial for the environment and the urban
i.e. less traffic congestion, and when special envi-
economy in case where they are generating tangible
ronmentally friendly vehicles are used for the deliv-
results for the private sector involved.
Improved deliv-
ery of goods the impact can be even higher. 40
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3.2 URBAN fREIghT
3. Using information and communication technol-
The complexity of city logistics requires close and
ogies as supporting or facilitating tools. The lo-
trustful co-operation between trade, commerce and
gistics industry has already embraced a wide range
industry, freight companies and local authorities. Good
of technologies and applications and reaped major
examples are freight consolidation schemes, where
efficiency gains as a result. This is almost certainly
wholesalers and retailers have changed their delivery
an area with great win-win potential, i.e. where ef-
patterns. Instead of delivering goods to individual re-
ficiency gains go hand in hand with environmental
tailers, various wholesalers deliver their goods to an
benefit through reduced travel distances, fewer
out-of-town logistic centre, from where goods are
vehicle movements, better matching of vehicles to
loaded into a single truck and delivered to the retailers. work and improved levels of load consolidation.
It saves a lot of truck movements, but also delivery mo-
ments for the retailers. It requires the organisation of all
stakeholders including citizens representatives, and
initial funding from a third party e.g. the local authority. CIVITAS cities where urban freight solutions have been implemented
Most attention is given to more environmental vehicles, for instance by implementing Low Emission Zones e.g. Berlin, Bremen, Gothenburg, Malmö, Rotterdam, and different measures with new ways to organise the urban freight
transport flows e.g. Bristol, La Rochelle, Usti nad Labem, Bologna, Bath, Krakow, Graz, Berlin, Utrecht, sometimes in
combination with ITS e.g. Norwich, Preston, Malmö. BENEfITS
Freight transport accounts for a large share of
If implemented properly see challenges below,
urban traffic for example in the Netherlands29 on
new city logistics will be beneficiary for shopkeep-
average 6 percent and in France30 between 9 and
ers and local businesses in the areas concerned,
15 percent, but causes a much larger share of air
the freight delivery servicescarriers, the population
pollution and other environmental damage. The ob-
and the public sector. jective of interventions to overcome current issues
Citizens and the public will gain most from better
of freight transport in an urban context is a more
and cleaner city logistics Fewer heavy transport
efficient distribution of goods, thereby reducing the
vehicles lead to less congestion, fewer accidents,
freight vehicle kilometres reducing emissions, and
less noise, healthier air quality and better acces-
thus increasing at the same time air quality, traf-
sibility of shopping areas.
fic safety, accessibility and general attractiveness
of city centres. 29 Goudappel Coffeng, Traffic Intensities for air quality and noise calculations in Dutch VI Lucht Geluid, June 2007 see also
httpwww.infomil.nlonderwerpenklimaat-luchtluchtkwaliteitrekenen-metenvi-lucht-geluid. 30 Bestufs II, Quantification of Urban Freight Transport Effects I, October 2006 see also httpwww.bestufs.net. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
41
3.2 U RBAN fREIghT
Bremen set up an environmental scheme which
Wholesalers and retailers profit likewise from con-
privileges clean delivery vehicles with extended
solidation and distribution centres. The number of
access hours. individual deliveries between wholesalers and re-
Rotterdam supported and organised a range of
tailers can be reduced due to higher load rates of
sustainable urban freight actions, e.g. bundling
delivery vehicles. Consequently, the costs per good
of goods and night distribution. Night distribution
delivered decrease. As a by-product, the access
aims at reduction of vehicles during peak hours.
to inner city shops is alleviated for the citizens, i.e. The logistic firms use certified silent freight vehi-
the attractiveness of a single shop increases, and
cles. The project reduces general negative effects,
in cases where the majority of shops subscribes to
e.g. congestion, unsafe traffic or emissions and in-
such a new delivery approach, the whole city centre
creases the efficiency of the businesses. and the image of the city gain sustainably. Malmö replaced diesel lorries with vehicles running
The old inner city of Gothenburg has limited space
on natural gas, trained truck drivers in eco-driving
for loading and unloading, resulting in trucks driv-
techniques and monitored tightly the delivery ve-
ing around to find appropriate spaces. The new
hicle maintenance programs. Thanks to this broad
distribution scheme involved minimum load rate
approach of a more sustainable urban freight de-
demands 65 percent load factor and other criteria
livery, emissions in Malmö could considerably be
emissions for entering a restricted zone, plus the
reduced by 13 percent. implementation of unloading areas for companies
Businesses benefit in a twofold regard. Using freight
that meet these criteria. For companies and drivers,
consolidation and distribution centres, logistic firms
there were clear benefits, and these acted as posi-
accomplish their delivery tasks more efficiently, i.e. tive incentives to improve the load factor. In other
they save costs due to reduced trip mileage, better
words access is given to those trucks that meet
loading rates, shorter trips, increased driver pro-
the load factor criteria, and access is much better
ductivity and potentially less need for personnel,
than before. all leading to reduced service prices or extension
A different approach has been chosen in goods
of service offer. distribution in Genoa based on a scheme of mobil-
The Bristol freight consolidation scheme was set
ity credits for shopkeepers and delivery services. up to minimise the impact of freight deliveries to
They all have only a limited number of credits to
the citys core retail area Broadmead. At the start
enter the restricted zone of the historical centre. To
in 2004, the trial involved 20 retailers and was later
avoid further payments for purchasing more credits
on extended to 53 retailers now. Goods deliverers
for accessing the city centre, they have to organise
for these shops deliver their goods to a centre out-
the deliveries efficiently among themselves while
side the area, and from there goods are delivered
pooling their deliveries. on a regular basis to the individual shops, by one
In the case of Malmö, the regional food industry
truck operated by one company. The scheme has
took advantage of a web-based marketplace which
resulted in reduction of vehicle movements and
interconnected many small food producers with a
kilometres travelled and in reduced vehicle emis-
few purchasers. sions.
Vehicles are utilised better now. 42
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3.2 URBAN fREIghT
BARRIERS
Experience shows that it is important to create a long-
is well accepted by stakeholders. One should bear in
term coordination with the different stakeholders, es-
mind in this context that many retailers are embedded
pecially shop owners and local freight deliverers. Im-
in larger wholesaler distribution chains which cannot
portant changes, such as the founding of an integrated
be opened easily. However, many benefits have long-
urban freight distribution centre are more difficult to
term and indirect societal and environmental effects
implement, if there is not already a history of coopera-
rather than monetary ones. In these situations, regula-
tion and trust. Good and trustful cooperation with the
tions have to be set which are sufficiently constraining
private sector will be helpful, too, to get through slow
and which have to be enforced strictly to be respected. bureaucratic procedures. It might be advisable to start
Often, mobility management focuses only on pas-
building such relationships with the design of simpler
senger related issues. The management of freight traffic
measures, for example, an environmental freight de-
should therefore be part of an overall transport master
livery charter to agree on concerted and harmonised
plan, to be included in urban transport policy, for which
activities for clean goods delivery in the city. It is also
a strong political commitment is required. The commit-
possible to start a distribution centre with just some
ment may include initial funding for the establishment
e.g. two partners. If the service proves efficient and
and starting phase of a consolidation and distribution
successful, other potential participants may also show
centre or of a zone with restricted access rules.
It has
interest in the concept. to be noted that the operation of consolidation centres
City logistic measures can normally be imple-
represents an additional handling of the goods. The
mented within the given legal framework conditions by
subsequent costs and time efforts may overcompen-
using different legal premises, such as ordinary traffic
sate the advantages of bundled delivery. regulations on parking and loadingunloading as well
Any development, discussion and implementation
as specific transport regulations such as weight limits
of more sustainable city logistics schemes as well as
on specific routes. However, in the case of fundamental
the undertaking to deal with the challenges mentioned
changes like the use of environmental zones within a
above require a sound and transparent communication
city, new traffic regulation orders may be needed which
and involvement strategy in order to obtain a positive
should be based on the limit values on air quality set by
atmosphere in the public and with the stakeholders.
the European directives Directive 199930EC. Private companies are likely to subscribe to a new
goods distribution policy and scheme if short-term
economic benefits are expected or if they are person-
ally convinced of the right approach and the business
efficiency of the measures. To make the delivery of
freight more sustainable, it is important that the scheme
CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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3.2 U RBAN fREIghT
CASE STUDY
City logistics in la rochelle, france
The operational tasks of the platform were del-
egated tendered out to a private company. The
main activities of the public-private cooperation
were the following
Consult with carriers, to convince them that a
different system of not delivering goods to the
final destination could be beneficial
Find appropriate electrichybrid utility vans for
the required loads
Implement a supervision system to localise ve-
hicles and communicate
Set up specific pre-retail activities to be carried
out in the hub to make the whole chain more
efficient such as sorting products, labelling,
tuning
La Rochelle set up a logistics platform and a sys-
Promote the platform to shopkeepers
tematic approach to urban goods transportation. Set up fleet sharing for customers
The objective was to optimise goods distribution in
Enforce freight traffic regulations
the citys historical centre with an environmentally
friendly approach. The platform engages in two
As a result, the efficiency of goods distribution in
types of activities delivery of parcels and auxiliary
the city increased significantly, leading to a reduc-
services with electric vehicles. tion in truck and van traffic. Emissions were thus
This involved the identification of locations for re-
reduced, also due to the non-emission electric ve-
stricted access to distribution vehicles and the set-
hicles used. up of specific urban delivery zones. Retailers go to
these zones to collect their packages in a system
of optimised goods distribution. Specific electric
vehicles are used for distribution. 44
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ISBN 0-935403-45-0. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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3.3 DEMA ND MAN Ag EMEN T STRATEg IES
CIVITAS cities where demand management strategy solutions have been implemented
Aalborg, Barcelona, Bath, Berlin, Bologna, Bremen, Brescia, Brighton Hove, Bristol, Bucharest, Burgos, Cork,
Craiova, Debrecen, Donostia-San Sebastián, Gdynia, Genova, Gent, Gorna Oryahovitsa, Gothenburg, Graz, Iasi,
Kaunas, Krakow, La Rochelle, Lille, Ljubljana, Malmö, Monza, Nantes, Norwich, Odense, Pécs, Perugia, Ploiesti,
Prague, Preston, Rome, Rotterdam, Stockholm, Stuttgart, Suceava, Szczecinek, Toulouse, Usti nad Labem, Utrecht,
Venice, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Winchester, Zagreb
BENEfITS
Demand management strategies can have several ben-
older city centres they increase the touristic at-
efits, namely
tractiveness. For some cities, this economic reason
Improvement of liveability in terms of air quality,
is the main driver for implementing demand man-
noise, traffic safety. Demand management strate-
agement strategies. gies lead to lower car traffic volumes and therefore
Reduced car traffic means reduced congestion for
have a direct positive effect on the environment. cars and public transport. Preservation of cultural heritage and urban attrac-
Revenues from parking permits, rates and access
tiveness and thus commercial opportunities.
Low-
charges allow for public investment in soft modes
er car traffic volumes create more space for slow
and public transport. modes walking and bicycling and especially for
CASE STUDY
enforcement of access restrictions in Krakow, poland
An electronic system of vehicle identification is used
electronic system started in 2007. The effective-
to control access to a restricted area. The area,
ness of recognition is 80 90 percent. Revenues
called the B-zone, is a restricted traffic zone, with
from fines have covered the cost of the system. The
access only for inhabitants, disabled persons and
system is going to be extended in the near future. goods deliverers in time windows. Testing of the
46
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3.
3 DEMAND MANAg EMENT STRATEg IES
CASE STUDY
limited Traffic Zone lTZ in rome, Italy
In October 2001, Rome started running the LTZ
have been equipped with Visual Message Sign Pan-
system in the central area of the old town with 22
els to improve communication on the traffic limita-
electronic gates restricting the access to traffic
tions. The main result is a traffic decrease by 18 20
from 6.30 a.m. to 6.00 p.m. some vehicle catego-
percent. In addition, the technology used cameras
ries are exempted taxis, buses, residents, disabled
with ANPR Automatic Number Plate Recognition
etc.. The project was supported and sponsored
has further been used for delivering new services. by the Ministries for Environment and for Public
The cameras have been implemented to safeguard
Works. During the CIVITAS MIRACLES project, the
the reserved bus lanes from improper use by pri-
area controlled by the LTZ cameras was extended
vate vehicles and the same kind of cameras have
from 5 km2 to 10.5 km2. The number of electronic
also been used by the Urban Travel Times system
gates was increased from 22 to 50, and the actual
that calculates and predicts travel times on 100
LTZ areas from one to five. The time band banning
kilometres of roads in Rome. Still today, in Rome a
traffic now also includes the eveningnight hours
process is on-going to install new poles with cam-
9.00 p.m. to 3.00 a.m., and all the electronic gates
eras in an area now guarded by the local police. CASE STUDY
environmental zone in Gothenburg, Sweden
The environmental zone was established in 1996
of the trucks in the area comply with the restriction
and extended in 2007. Only Euro IV trucks are al-
lowed in. Statistics 2008 show that over 96 percent
rules.
The extended zone reduced NOx emissions
by 40 tons annually, and particles by 1 ton per year. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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3.3 DEMA ND MAN Ag EMEN T STRATEg IES
CASE STUDY
restricting vehicle access along the ramblas
in barcelona, Spain
A section of the Ramblas has been set under con-
with pedestrians. Now, cameras record cars, using
trol using an electronic system to ensure the en-
automatic number plate recognition to identify the
forcement of restricted access during the pedes-
vehicles passing.
Any car not white listed or speed-
trian peak hours from 11.00 a.m. to 8.00 p.m.,
ing over 30 kmh is fined. Habitual offenders are
when only authorised vehicles are allowed in. Dur-
blacklisted and subsequently prosecuted. The sys-
ing these hours, the pedestrian is the dominant
tem has proved to reduce traffic by 40 percent dur-
mode it can exceed 7,000 persons per hour. The
ing the controlled hours. This gives a considerable
Ramblas experienced a high number of accidents
improvement in pedestrian well-being and safety. CASE STUDY
lower parking tariff for low emission cars
in Graz, Austria
Owners of low emission cars can get tokens and
EUR 1.20, but reduced to EUR 0.80 for low emis-
park at lower rates. This raises awareness about
sion cars. Owners of these cars register and get
emissions and motivates people to buy low emis-
a token that is recognised by the parking ticket
sion cars. Other objectives were to reduce emis-
sion and noise levels in the city centre. The general
machines. The thresholds were 140 gkm CO2
emission for petrol and gas cars, and 130 gkm
parking rate of EUR 1.00 per hour was raised to
particle filter for diesel cars.
48
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3. 3 DEMAND MANAg EMENT STRATEg IES
Example of measure
Goal
Restriction
for
Exceptions
Rome LTZ
Reduce traffic in
old centre
Private cars
Nights
9.00 p.m. 3.00 a.m. taxis, buses,
residents,
disabled,
fee payers
Gothenburg environmental zone
Clean air
within zone
Trucks and
buses
Euro IV vehicles
Technique
and
enforcement
Electronic gates
and automatic
number plate
recognition
Traffic signs
regular checks
by the traffic
police
Cost and
revenues
Results
Revenues from
fees and fines
are used to fund
new invest-
ment in public
transport
no information
Krakow enforcement of access
restrictions
Reduced private
car traffic in zone
Private cars,
trucks
Inhabitants,
disabled per-
sons and goods
deliverers
Electronic
system, vehicle
identification
Revenues from
fines have
covered the cost
of the system. Barcelona restricting vehicle access
along La Rambla
Less car traffic
during pedestrian
peak hours
11.00 a.m. 8.00 p.m.
reduce accidents
Only authorised
vehicles
Private cars,
mopeds,
motorcycles and
trucks
All vehicles
below Euro IV
standard and
with high CO2
emission pay
higher parking
fee
Cars, trucks and
buses
None
Through traffic. Emergency,
military, clean
vehicles, motor-
cycles and taxis
Graz lower parking tariff for low
emission cars
Stimulate buying
low emission
cars, cleaner air
Stockholm
congestion charge
Reduce severe
congestion,
emission of CO2,
air pollution and
noise, cut fuel
consumption
and make the
city centre more
attractive
Table 5 Technical characteristics of case studies
no information
no information
Revenues from
fees go to road
investments in
the region. No
negative impact
on inner-city
economy
Electronic gates
and automatic
number plate
recognition
fines and
prosecution for
offenders
Specific sticker
on the car and
token to be
used in parking
machines
Electronic
system did not
function well
and was taken
out of service.
Now, vehicles
are monitored
by cameras at
various check-
points. 18 20
reduction in
traffic greater
use of public
transport 10
increase in
2-wheel transport
NOx emissions
reduced by
40 tons per
year, particles
by 1 ton
Technology is
80 89 effec-
tive volume of
traffic has been
reduced
Traffic is
reduced by 40
during controlled
hours overall
by 10 15
higher levels of
traffic before
11.00 a.m. Inner city car
traffic reduced,
public transport
increased lower
emission
20 reduction
of car traffic
positive impacts
on road safety,
increased use of
park ride,
increased
share of public
transport and
cycling
CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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3.3 DEMA ND MAN Ag EMEN T STRATEg IES
CASE STUDY
Integrated package of measures Clean vehicles
and congestion charge in Stockholm, Sweden
The City of Stockholm has an urban area of around
TRENDSETTER 2002 2006. Clean vehicles are
187 km2 and a population of 870,000. The city has a
exempted from paying the congestion charge
very well-functioning, handicapped-adapted and
together with emergency vehicles, taxis and mo-
safe public transport system producing around
torcycles, they comprise about 18 percent of all
4.3 million person kilometres annually. Stockholm
vehicles. was experiencing air quality problems in inner city
Following the scheme implementation, decreas-
areas high concentrations of NOx, particulate mat-
ter and high noise levels. es in traffic by 22 percent and queuing times by
30 50 percent during rush hours as well as an in-
Stockholm managed to establish a pilot infra-
crease of 3 percent in public transport travel were
structure for alternative fuels, dimensioned for the
observed. These improvements were maintained
present fleet. A large part of the municipal vehicle
in the following years see figure 2 below. The
fleet was replaced, including public transport with
clean vehicle share increased to about 8 percent. clean vehicles driven by electricity, biogas and
There is political support for making the transport
ethanol. Biogas production facilities deliver locally
system even more environmentally friendly by
produced fuel. 1 substituting conventional vehicles with clean
Stockholm is also known for its city wide congestion
ones, 2 making logistic services more effective
charging scheme. Wide areas of the city centre are
and 3 making public transport more effective and
pedestrian zones, access to the centre is restricted
attractive with ICT. Following a trial period from
for heavy vehicles and parking is expensive. January to July 2006, Stockholms citizens recog-
The Stockholm congestion charging scheme
nised the benefits of the congestion charge and,
combined with its clean vehicle and fuel strat-
in a referendum in September 2006, 52 percent
egy was facilitated through work within CIVITAS
voted for a continuation. Car passengers under congestion charge,
average 2005 to 2011
500,000
450,000
400,000
350,000
300,000
250,000
2005
2006
with congestion charge
2006
without congestion charge
2007
with congestion charge
2007
without congestion charge
2008
2009
2010
2011
jan
feb mar
apr may
jun
jul
aug
sept
oct
nov
dec
Figure 2 Car passengers under congestion charge, average 2005 to 2011
50
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3. 3 DEMAND MANAg EMENT STRATEg IES
CASE STUDY
Integrated package of measures
parking management and new public transport
infrastructure in Toulouse, france
Greater Toulouse has just over 700,000 inhabit-
centre and reported conflicts of use between shop-
ants. Tisséo-SMTC is the authority responsible for
keepers, residents, commuters and visitors to the
public transport in Toulouse and 83 communities
city centre. To improve this situation and to reduce
of the Toulouse agglomeration, all situated in the
car traffic in and towards the city centre, Toulouse
so-called public transport area Périmètre des
City Council decided to introduce a parking pay-
Transports Urbains, PTU. Linked to the CIVITAS
ment scheme.
Residents pay a smaller fee than
MOBILIS project, the local authorities restructured
commuters and visitors, which was finally widely
the public transport network completely, integrat-
accepted by the residents in view of an improved
ing a second metro line Line B, 18 km and 20 sta-
parking situation. tions, which was opened in 2007. The main result of the integrated package of paid
This large intervention proved to be the ideal mo-
parking and new public transport infrastructure
ment to radically change the mobility behaviour
was that about 200,000 persons travel daily with
of a large part of the residents in the city centre,
the new line B. While maintaining over 11,000 on-
and also of commuters and visitors. The metro line
street parking sites, yet of which 60 percent most in
introduction was accompanied by the opening of
the centre became paid parking, occupancy rates
high quality bus corridors and PR facilities at the
fell from 92 to 75 percent, but sectors outside the
outskirts to enlarge the catchment area of the met-
zone now suffer occupancy rates as high as 125
ro. In the city centre, a pedestrian area was created
percent reflecting a high level of illegal parking,
and a new parking payment scheme was intro-
double parking, etc.. Residents in those sectors
duced. Before the introduction of this local parking
are now claiming for themselves the introduction
policy, Toulouse city centre offered a wide range
of a parking payment scheme in their neighbour-
of free parking facilities with over 12,000 parking
hoods. Short-stay rose from 40 to 60 percent in the
places.
This led to high congestion within the city
paid parking zone. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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3.3 DEMA ND MAN Ag EMEN T STRATEg IES
BARRIERS
Demand management introduces scarcity by introduc-
the implementation of demand management schemes,
ing price signals users are confronted with higher costs
mainly motivated by a fear of losing patronage. Alterna-
andor by regulation users can no longer use a certain
tively, acceptability concerns may create a situation in
road or parking space every moment of the day. This
which for instance a constraint on the maximum level of
will affect the demand for the good or service and for its
charges is pre-specified. substitutes. Increasing costs in private road transport
Finally, there is a clear correspondence between
may for instance induce people to use public transport
public and political acceptability in a democracy where
instead. However, to implement demand management,
the chances of being re-elected depend on the extent
some challenges have to be overcome. to which voters appreciate the implemented policies. 1. Technological challenges
demand management strategies in particular for their
New pricing systems ideally involve charges that vary
specific voter population may of course affect the posi-
Politicians perceptions of the public acceptability of
continuously over time, place, route chosen, driving
tion they take in these issues. style, type of vehicle and its technical state, driving
style, etc.
It is clear that the resulting pricing or regulation
3. Institutional barriers
scheme may be too complex to be understood by car
Various types of institutional barriers can be distin-
drivers and may require more sophisticated monitoring
guished. One category of institutional barriers arises
technologies than currently available. For instance, for
when the organisation of government bodies is such
realistic road pricing schemes, one would expect dif-
that there is no single regulator that can set all transport
ferentiation over user classes to be possible only for a
related prices and regulations. An example is where a
crude distinction into passenger cars, vans and trucks
local or regional government can either not affect some
over time up to the level of a few steps during the peak
transport charges that are set by a higher level govern-
and one level outside it, at a maximum and tolls to be
ment e.g. fuel taxes, or has to accept lower andor
charged on a few key-roads e.g. main highways in the
upper limits on charges allowed, set by a higher level
network, only. Different studies show that all kinds of
government. Another example is when the government
technologies are available however, it may take some
in one jurisdiction cannot affect the policies of a neigh-
additional time to test the reliability even of a relatively
bouring jurisdiction, while trans-boundary traffic andor
simple system that only determines the time and loca-
externalities are relatively important. The two govern-
tion of the vehicle. ments may then end up in some form of policy com-
In some sense, technological barriers as sketched
petition. above can of course be interpreted as financial barri-
ers the required technologies may exist, but may as yet
Comparable problems may arise when public transport
be too expensive to offer attractive possibilities. is operated by a private party which is relatively free in
choosing prices and service levels, but does so in a so-
2. Acceptability issues
cially non-optimal way, or when private toll roads exist in
It is broadly believed that probably the greatest barrier
an otherwise publicly controlled road network. to implementation of demand management strategies
One may finally distinguish legal barriers as a spe-
is public, and linked to this political acceptability. In
cific type of institutional barriers. It may not always be
brief, public attitude surveys have identified a wide range
possible to implement the best demand management
of concerns about proposals to implement demand
strategy. For instance, suppose that the law implies that
management strategies instead of the current system. the level of taxes should be predictable to the tax pay-
Drivers find it for instance difficult to accept that they
er. A flexible pricing system based on the actual traffic
should pay for congestion. Furthermore, the public often
situation is then not possible, and differentiating parking
thinks that these strategies are not needed, unfair and
schemes based on the environmental burden of a vehi-
not effective.
Local businesses may also be opposed to
cle can be hindered by all kinds of vehicle regulations. 52
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3.4 MOB IL ITY MANAg EMENT
3.4 Mobility management
whAT IS ThE SOLUTION? CIVITAS cities try to influence travel behaviour through
promotion and information are the means to foster an
mobility management, which includes marketing, com-
integrated use of this package of so-called alternative
munication, education and information campaigns. mobility options i.e. public transport, car-sharing, car-
The aim of mobility management is to change attitudes
pooling, cycling, walking in certain cases in combina-
and travel behaviour with the ultimate goal to create
tion with private car use co-modality. a new mobility culture. Initiatives include for instance
Several types of mobility agencies exist from a
mobility management or travel plans for companies32
simple commercial desk where the main task is ticket
to get employees to travel to work using sustainable
sales to at the other end of the spectrum the so-
modes of transport, and awareness-raising campaigns
called eco-mobility agencies or agencies of time
and educational programmes at schools. management. Almost all CIVITAS cities opened new mobility
A mobility agency is a service where different us-
agencies, or developed an integrated website for the
ers are encouraged to rationalise their mobility practice
promotion of their mobility services. Where a sustain-
and modal choice in accordance with a set of socio-
able mobility plan can be considered as the integrating
economic criteria health, budget, time management,
tool at the level of planning, the mobility agency fosters
etc. and environmental criteria impacts on air quality,
the integration at the service level. In all cases the drive
noise, energy and space consumption, etc..
For ex-
was to strengthen the integration of the different mobil-
ample, on short distances and major urban transport
ity services. Truly new mobility agencies were created,
itineraries, the mobility agent will preferably direct the
or existing agencies were reinforced with a new set of
client towards alternatives to the car which are less
communication tools for the mobility agents i.e. inter-
costly and less polluting, such as walking, cycling, and
active trip calculators, personalised mobility advice
public transport. and dedicated campaigns. Several cities improved the
At the local level, a mobility agency and its serv-
integration of their mobility services by using an entirely
ices can be organised by a single local authority, an
new internet interface. inter-communal grouping, an association or a private
Whereas mobility agencies and mobility agents are
company. The organisational configuration largely de-
the channels through which promotion of an alterna-
pends on the institutional context, nature of the main
tive mobility can take place, personalised mobility ad-
promoters, and their competences, obligations, as well
vice, marketing, integrated ticketing, public transport
as their ambitions. 32 CIVITAS defines a company travel plan as a contract between the company and its employees, which aims at fostering the use of
alternative modes rather than private cars for commuting and professional trips. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
53
3.4 MOBILITY MAN Ag EMENT
It is possible to define the service of a mobility agency
promotion of sustainable mobility often takes place
around four principal components
through a simple travel information provision timetable
The provision of personalised mobility advice
information and real time. Within the CIVITAS Initiative,
A wider provision of multimodal information and
several innovative dedicated campaigns were tested. promotion of sustainable mobility
Besides information provision, mobility agencies
The offer of integrated tickets and tariffs and related
can be used to organise and make available an inte-
services public transport in combination with car-
grated offer of public transport in combination with
pooling, car-sharing, cycle rental
carpooling, car-sharing and cycle rental. Assistance in the development of various kinds
Finally, the mobility agencies and their agents are
of mobility plans from targeted commuter plans,
involved in the development and elaboration of a wide
school travel plans to more strategically oriented
set of dedicated travel plans for individual companies,
urban mobility plans
schools, public administrations or geographical areas. The provision of personalised mobility can take place
Mobility Plans, the mobility agency can be a tool to
at a physical office, by telephone or through home-vis-
organise citizen and stakeholder involvement. In relation to the development of Sustainable Urban
its. A wider promotion of multimodal information and
CIVITAS cities where transport mobility management solutions have been implemented
Aalborg, Berlin, Bologna, Bremen, Brescia, Brighton Hove, Bristol, Brno, Burgos, Coimbra, Cork, Donostia-San
Sebastián, Funchal, Gdansk, Genova, Gent, Gorna Oryahovitsa, Gothenburg, Graz, Iasi, Krakow, La Rochelle, Lille,
Ljubljana, Malmö, Monza, Nantes, Norwich, Odense, Pécs, Perugia, Porto, Potenza, Preston, Rome, Rotterdam,
Skopje, Stockholm, Stuttgart, Suceava, Szczecinek, Tallinn, Toulouse, Usti nad Labem, Utrecht, Venice,
Vitoria-Gasteiz, Zagreb
BENEfITS
The main benefit of mobility management for individu-
ing the accessibility to their company for customers by
als is that economically attractive alternatives are of-
reducing or even avoiding congestion which is bad for
fered to travellerscommuters to shift from the private
business. In co-operation with mobility agents, these
car to more sustainable transport modes. Benefits to
employers can take their own measures, e.g. to change
society include reduced congestion, cleaner air, and
their employees mode choice. potentially increased levels of health as a result of that
Mobility management measures can also contrib-
modal shift. ute to the overall attractiveness and quality of life in
Another major benefit is that mobility management
a city as they are ultimately contributing to reduced
actually motivates stakeholders to take action them-
congestion and fewer accidents due to fewer cars and
selves. For example, employers have a stake in improv-
improved road safety. 54
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
3.4 MOB IL ITY MANAg EMENT
BARRIERS
The direct results of mobility agencies are difficult to
cies generate certain revenues for instance for public
measure, as their primary role is the support and pro-
transport or for employers, but these seem not to be
motion of the use of alternative modes. sufficient to be economically self-sustaining. However,
So far, it is not clear how long mobility agencies are
if cities save on infrastructure development by main-
supposed to be in place. Cities may not be willing or
taining effective mobility agencies, they may well be
able to fund them in the long run.
The mobility agen-
worth permanent funding. CASE STUDY
Mobility agency in burgos, Spain
Burgos is situated in North-central Spain in the re-
The modal share is 40 percent for walking, 30 per-
gion of Castile and Leon and has a population of
cent for the private vehicle and 30 percent of the
around 170,000 inhabitants. Burgos had a number
travels made by public transport, cycling, carpool-
of local measures that fostered sustainable mobil-
ing andor private collective passenger transport
ity and formed the basis of the work of a newly
2009 figures. The main objective in terms of mo-
formed mobility agency. This included activities
bility is to regain a good level of walking and to
such as
augment the number of public transport users. The
The development of mobility information spe-
use of public transport increased by 8 percent dur-
cifically focused on visitors and tourists
ing the last years and consequently decreased the
Setting up of a car-pooling and city bike
number of travels made by private cars. scheme managed by the mobility agency
The mobility agency was developed within Burgos
The organisation of several marketing cam-
CIVITAS involvements as well as the activities in the
paigns that promote a change of mobility be-
framework of the SUMOBIS project INTERREG
haviour
SUDOE, project coordination by Tisséo-SMTC from
The creation of a mobility forum
Toulouse in which the fellow CIVITAS cities of Tou-
louse and Burgos have been collaborating to create
The establishment of the mobility agency is con-
mobility agencies and innovative mobility services. tributing to achieving the modal split objectives set
for the urban centre of Burgos. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
55
3.4 MOBILITY MAN Ag EMENT
CASE STUDY
ecopoints in Genoa, Italy
Genoa, the capital of the region of Liguria in North-
user plus a membership with Genova Car-Sharing
west Italy, has a population of 630,000. In central
andor an IKEA Family Card holder the IKEA fidel-
Genoa, the biggest mobility challenge is the number
ity card.
of private cars on the roads. A mix of measures was
More than 5,000 public transport passengers par-
required, including access restrictions and new
ticipated in the Ecopoints programme. By the end
forms of mobility for both people and goods to start
of 2007, the number of loyal public transport cus-
to change this unsustainable modal split. tomers i.e. those holding an annual public trans-
Within the CIVITAS Initiative, Genoas public trans-
port pass had increased by approximately 36 per-
port operator, AMT, introduced the Ecopoints
cent. The Ecopoints programme, an exclusive AMT
loyalty scheme. Integrated in its new fare policy
club card dedicated to annual ticket holders, of-
and mobility marketing plan, the basic idea is that
fers advantages such as online payment of annual
citizens using public transport and other sustain-
tickets as well as discounts in shops and theatres
able mobility options such as car-sharing man-
and other mobility services offered by AMTs com-
aged by Genova Car-Sharing S.p.A. instead of the
mercial sponsors and partners.
Public Transport
private car receive rewards. ridership for the period 2005 2008 increased by
The target of the Ecopoint Programme was house-
over 6 percent or almost 10 million passenger trips. holds with at least one annual public transport
This increase in patronage can be directly attrib-
ticket or 12 consecutive monthly tickets and one
uted to the series of marketing initiatives of which
member who is a very frequent public transport
the Ecopoints programme was a part. Passengers trips per year
s
n
o
i
l
l
i
m
s
p
i
r
t
s
r
e
g
n
e
s
s
a
P
165
162
159
156
153
150
151.56
161.20
157.63
155.74
2005
2006
2007
2008
Ex ante new
fare structure
With new fare structure more customer
oriented departing from November 2006
and marketing initiatives
Figure 3 ATM passenger trips per year
56
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
3.4 MOB IL ITY MANAg EMENT
fACTS
Mobility Credit Schemes
The notion that there must be limits to consumption
2. Distribute credit budgets Convert the SEF into a
of a common resource urban road space is con-
total amount of credits which is distributed to all trav-
veyed by the allocation of mobility credits. Whereas
ellers and transport operators in the local area using
normal road pricing charges from the beginning of
various schemes. consumption, with mobility credits, payment starts
3. Set the rules The rules will imply a consumption of
after a certain level of consumption, limiting abuse
credits based on actual behaviour of travellers includ-
rather than penalising use.33
The four basic pillars of a mobility credit scheme are34
ing the modes of transport, the characteristics of ve-
hicles, levels of emissions of CO2 and other pollutants
during actual conditions of use. The consumption of
1. Set the target This requires defining a suitable
credits will depend heavily on the mobility choices of
sustainable environmental footprint SEF. This can
the traveller. include all the externalities associated with transport,
4. Exchange Allow travellers with a negative balance of
from greenhouse gases to noxious emissions, con-
credits to buy extra credits from other travellers with
gestion, street occupancy and noise. a positive balance. Receive mobility budget - Mobility credits card
Travel and consume credits
Balance at the end of the validity of credits
unused credits
positive balance
higher needs
of credits
negative balance
used all credits in
the deﬁned period
balance 0
selling excess
of credits
ﬁnancial
beneﬁt
buying credits
ﬁnancial
deﬁciency
Figure 4 Overview of a mobility credit scheme from the user perspective
Source EU DEMOCRITOS project httpwww.democritos.ipacv.rodocsflyer20DEMOCRITOS-v3.pdf
33 The concept and the theoretical approach to a Mobility Credit Scheme, José Manuel Viegas, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical
University of Lisbon and TIS.pt, consultores em Transportes, Inovação e Sistemas, s.a. Lisbon, Portugal.
34 httpwww.itsinternational.comcategoriescharging-tollingfeaturesurban-mobility-and-demand-management-the-mobility-
credits-model. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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3.4 MOBILITY MAN Ag EMENT
CASE STUDY
Company travel plan promotion in nantes, france
Within the CIVITAS VIVALDI project, Nantes
In partnership with the public transport opera-
Métropole, the service agency for roughly 600,000
tor, the environmental agency, the chamber of
inhabitants of the City of Nantes and 23 surround-
commerce and several company clubs, Nantes
ing suburban towns, has initiated a campaign to
Métropole provides technical and financial support
promote company travel plans among local com-
to companies to develop and implement company
panies and their employees. travel plans. It grants employees a 15 percent dis-
In the Nantes metropolitan region, almost 600,000
count on public transport under the condition that
work-related trips are undertaken every day, 75 per-
the company also contributes 15 percent offering
cent of them 2002 study by car. For Nantes, com-
employees a 30 percent discount on their season
pany travel plans are a means to contribute to the
ticket. Another condition for a company to join into
objective of the conurbation mobility plan to de-
a Nantes Métropole supported company travel
crease the car modal share and to reach a 5050
plan is the provision of access via an access code
balance between the use of cars versus alternative
to the car sharing website of Nantes Métropole. transport modes. A company travel plan as promoted by Nantes
Various benefits are associated with company travel
Métropole follows a four-step implementation
plans. In the promotional campaign, the arguments
1. Diagnosis of employees mobility needs and
used to convince stakeholders of the travel plan ad-
habits and the companys accessibility
vantages include
2. Awareness raising among stakeholders and
for companies improved accessibility for cli-
elaboration of concrete measures such as se-
ents and visitors due to traffic reductions, the
cure bicycles sheds and inexpensive seasonal
need for fewer parking spaces and cost sav-
public transport tickets
ings as cars are more expensive than alterna-
3. Contract between
the company, Nantes
tive modes of transport
Métropole and the public transport operator
for employees cost savings on commuting
4. Assessment of the contracts after latest three
trips, contribution to better health and less
years
stress, and a viable solution for employees
without a car
The company travel plan promotion in the Nantes
for the local authority a general increase in the
metropolitan region was a success and has re-
economic attractiveness of the city and the
sulted in a continuous increase in the number of
quality of life, less congestion and a reduced
participating companies and employees. the number of car accidents as less traffic
Nantes Métropole has also set an example by
leads to improved road safety
implementing a travel plan for its own employees
Date
Active
Company
Travel Plans
Number of
represented
employees
December 2005
October 2008
August 2012
16
182
277
16,000
61,000
77,439
2,300. This company travel plan helped to reduce
commuting trips by car from 62 to 50 percent
2008 vs. 2005, thus leading to an annual saving
of 640,000 kilometres of car trips and a decrease in
CO2 emissions of 90 tons.
A new study on the im-
pact of travel plans car use, saved CO2 emissions
will be launched by the end of year 2012. 58
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
3.4 MOB IL ITY MANAg EMENT
CASE STUDY
Integrated package of measures Implementing
new mobility patterns in Stuttgart, Germany
Stuttgarts geographical location in a valley basin,
Due to these measures, traffic and mobility during
along with its mild climate, low winds and sur-
the Football World Cup 2006 was smooth and traf-
rounding industries constitute a challenging situa-
fic jams were prevented. The mobility centre now
tion as regards air quality. Continuous air monitor-
responds to up to 70,000 information requests
ing indicates high levels of traffic-related emissions
annually. This includes about one third of public
especially particulates and nitrogen oxides, with
transport information, one third of city tourism and
European limit values being exceeded on some of
one third of information on environmentally friendly
Stuttgarts busiest roads.
In addition, a high number
transport modes. of regional commuters some 260,000 people into
The implementation of the traffic management
and out of the city plus numerous large-scale public
centre was accompanied by awareness-raising
events in Stuttgart around 90 throughout the year
activities. A marketing concept was developed,
result in additional challenges as regards congestion
including flyers, banners, videos and a website,
and road use. In response to this situation, for the
in order to promote sustainable transport modes. city of Stuttgart the CIVITAS Initiative proved to be a
These activities helped to change the behaviour of
valuable trigger to initiate and implement a number
road users in favour of new forms of vehicle use
of integrated sustainable mobility measures. Within
and environmentally friendly transport modes. Due
the CIVITAS CARAVEL project, Stuttgart developed
to the integrated traffic management, only half the
a package of measures on
Mobility management
Promotion of carpooling
Access restrictions
Mobility marketing
time is needed to bring the traffic situation back to
normal. A comparison of emission values during
peak periods revealed an hourly average reduction
of approximately 38 percent of carbon monoxide
and nitrogen oxides from traffic leaving the sta-
dium after a match. Most importantly within CIVITAS CARAVEL, Stutt-
Addressing the 205,000 cars which enter Stuttgart
gart set up an integrated traffic management cen-
each day and the approximately 58,000 commut-
tre. In parallel, the mobility information centre was
ers driving from Stuttgart to the surrounding region,
reorganised to improve the coordination between
the carpooling system Pendlernetz Stuttgart was
traffic control, traffic information and mobility man-
set up. The system offers all commuters a chance
agement. The specific goals of these local activi-
to find an appropriate car pool, enabling them to
ties were
travel to work in a more relaxed and environmen-
To improve traffic conditions during events and
tally friendly way. The Pendlernetz Stuttgart, which
in case of traffic accidents
is able to organise door-to-door car pools, is like-
To integrate the existing diversity of traffic infor-
wise operated by Stuttgart Mobility Centre. mation into the Integrated Traffic Management
Centre ITMC
To promote intermodal travel to major events
To prevent congestion during major events
To reduce travel times by providing optimum
information and guidance to road users
CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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3.4 MOBILITY MAN Ag EMENT
Integrated package of measures Implementing new mobility patterns in Stuttgart, Germany
Innovative features of the system include commu-
A year-round ban on diesel vehicles that do not
nication on potential car pools via mobile phone
meet at least the EURO 2 emissions standard,
text messages to users geographically referenced
with the exception of those retrofitted with soot
route mapping and automatic transfer to the pub-
particle filters 2008
lic transport information system to help people find
The installation of two pedestrian crossings
alternative options in the event that no suitable car
on a highly polluted city road to reduce traffic
pool match is found. speed and prevent congestion 2006
As a result, demand for the carpooling system in-
creased the number of hits on the carpooling por-
The measures were supported by a wide range
tal rose from around 200,000 in 2005 to more than
of public relations activities, including a round-
800,000 in 2008. Awareness was raised among
table on clean air and noise reduction in 2005 a
members of the public as well as among private
public awareness campaign in 2006 highlighting
companies and public institutions in Stuttgart and
the topic of particulate emissions and promoting
the region. environmentally friendly transport modes such as
To tackle the air quality challenges, various meas-
cycling, public transport and carpooling and a sur-
ures were designed, implemented and assessed
vey among the general public in 2007 on the meas-
in an effort to reduce air pollution and fulfil the re-
ures contained in the Clean Air Programme. As a
quirements of the European Clean Air Directive. result of all above interventions, in a 2-km section
This included the Clean Air Programme and Action
of monitored test road the amount of heavy-duty
Plan, as well as operative measures such as action
vehicles fell by 11.5 percent, achieving emission
restrictions. The access restrictions included
reductions of 8 percent.
A year-round ban on heavy-duty vehicles pass-
ing through Stuttgart January 2006
A year-round traffic ban on diesel vehicles that
do not meet any EURO standard, with the ex-
ception of those retrofitted with soot particle
filters 2007
60
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3.5 C OLL ECTIVE PASSENg ER TRANSPO RT
3.5 Collective passenger
transport
whAT IS ThE SOLUTION? There is a close connection between the modal share
The stimulation of public transport use focussed less
of public transport and the density of a town in general
on a direct increase in modal share, and more on the
the modal share of public transport increases with the
greening of public transport and improved quality of
density of a town. There is, however, also an inverse re-
services by means of
lationship between public transport share and income
Introducing clean and energy-efficient vehicle fleets
levels the higher the income, the lower the share of
see chapter 3.1
public transport. When comparing across countries,
Introducing additional services on-board technol-
cultural influences must be taken into account. North-
ogy, real-time information, new forms of ticketing
ern European cities in the Netherlands and Denmark,
see chapter 3.6
for example, have a high rate of bicycle use, which re-
Experimenting with non-conventional public trans-
sults in lower public transport use. In cities like San
port systems
Sebastian with high levels of walking, public transport
rates are also lower. A common characteristic of the
Improving security safety
Improving accessibility for people with reduced
modal share of public transport in the European Union
mobility
is that changes occur relatively slowly. Annual rates of
Integrating walking, cycling and other modes park
change of more than one percent in use of different
ride
modes of public transport without specific influence
factors the opening of a new metro line or an economic
crisis are rare. Most CIVITAS cities have an extensive network
of public transport lines relative to the size of city in
terms of area and population. Depending on the size
of the network and strategic choices made, this in-
cludes bus, tram and metro. Most measures executed
The two most tested public transport in-
novations were the introduction of dif-
ferent types of on-demand services and
the development of faster bus service, for
example by introducing separated public
in the CIVITAS cities involved a range of public trans-
transport lanes.
port solutions such as new infrastructure, clean pub-
lic transport vehicles, innovative and flexible services,
improved accessibility, integrated tariffs, contactless
andor paperless ticketing. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
61
3.5 COLLEC TIVE PASSENg ER TRA NSPORT
Especially in suburban areas, there are generally very
both inside and outside the vehicle. Outside issues can
few transport alternatives available there is relatively
be in the bus lanes or at stops or in the direct environ-
inexpensive traditional local public transport with its
ment. These can be solved through the installation of
rigid timetables and routes or the more expensive, and
improved street lighting, cameras and organisational
often polluting, private car. For many citizens, particu-
arrangements. In Lille, for example, a rapid intervention
larly the elderly, the lack of in-between options is very
programme was established in the event of problems It
limiting. Even if running an on-demand service has a
is managed via GPS location equipment and improved
higher per-customer cost in suburban areas than ur-
cooperation and communication between the public
ban ones, increasing accessibility legislation and pub-
transport operators, the police and justice officials. lic transport obligations may render it cheaper than
Safety and security issues inside the vehicle are dealt
running an empty regular bus in the respective areas. with, among other things, through driver training, as
Several forms of on-demand services exist services
was carried out in Debrecen. that pick passengers up at bus stops with semi-fixed
time tables such as in Preston, those that pick them
Following the EU Equal Treatment Directive35 and its
up in front of their house and bring them to impor-
adoption in national legislation, public transport has
tant public transport hubs as in Toulouse, or directly
had to assure non-discriminatory access to their
to the final destination. In Genoa, reservations can be
services for all citizens. In CIVITAS, this resulted in
made by phone or via the Internet one day before up to
experimentation with numerous measures from the
20 minutes before departure. development of strategic accessibility plans to the
introduction of level bus stops as in Burgos. Special
Several forms of separated bus lanes were tested in
attention was paid to the development of accessible
CIVITAS, for example in the centre and the agglomera-
public transport ticketing e.g. in Toulouse and pub-
tion area of Nantes or on radial lines such as the high-
lic transport information services e.g. Brighton and
quality bus network in Toulouse. Often these corridors
Hove. Several on-demand services are also adapted
bring several public transport lines together and in
to the transportation of disabled travellers. certain cases even different modes, as in Gothenburg
and Stockholm tram and bus. These lanes are often
In line with the Urban Mobility Green Paper, many of the
meant to increase the visibility of public transport to the
CIVITAS cities rethought the optimisation of the use of
citizens, to optimise the coverage of the wider public
all modes of transport and of organising co-modality
transport network e.g. feeding a tram or metro net-
between the different modes of collective passenger
work and to contribute to solutions for specific points
transport train, tram, metro, bus, taxi and the different
of congestion and environmental problems.
modes of individual transport car, motorcycle, cycle,
walking.36 Most of them relate to park ride facilities. Encouraging people to use public transport more
In the CIVITAS City of Cork this resulted, for example,
involves improving the quality of services through in-
in the first permanent park ride facility in Ireland. Be-
creased reinforcement of rules and safety and secu-
sides the introduction of physical infrastructure e.g. rity for passengers. This subject has a scope ranging
cycle infrastructure at the main stations in Venice,
from prevention of terrorism to reduction of simple acts
intermodality also involved the integration of time
of vandalism. Issues of safety and security can arise
schedules, information and ticketing. 35 EC, Equal Treatment Directive, 200078EC of 27 November 2000, Brussels. 36 EC, Green Paper Towards a new culture for urban mobility, COM 2007 551 final of 25 September 2007, Brussels. 62
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
3.5 C OLL ECTIVE PASSENg ER TRANSPO RT
CIVITAS cities where collective passenger transport solutions have been implemented
In the following CIVITAS cities collective passenger transport solutions have been implemented.
The experiments related
to clean vehicles and new technological services are dealt with in chapter 3.1 Clean Vehicles and Fuels and chapter
3.6 Telematics respectively. Experimenting with non-conventional public transport systems
Brno, Bristol, Genoa on-demand transport agency, Kaunas, Krakow dedicated bus lanes and demand-responsive
transport, La Rochelle, Nantes, Prague, Rotterdam people mover, Toulouse on-demand services
Improved security safety
Debrecen bus driver training, Rome, Lille safety and security plans, Malmö, Stuttgart
Accessibility of people with reduced mobility
Burgos, Brighton and Hove, Kaunas, Toulouse
Integration with walking, cycling and other modes park ride
La Rochelle, Malmö, Toulouse train, metro, bus, bike sharing, car-sharing, Barcelona, Nantes, Toulouse, Cork and
Rotterdam park ride, Bremen tram and train
CASE STUDY
Structuring of the public transport network
in nantes, france
The Nantes metropolitan area comprises the city
and equipped stations, priority at all intersections,
of Nantes along with 23 suburban towns with
high frequency. Moreover it serves four park ride
shared areas of responsibility, among them public
facilities within extended hours. The line is seven
transport. Nantes has a long-established and well-
kilometres long and has 15 stations. integrated sustainable transport policy with a focus
The EUR 50 million infrastructure costs and
on public transport and cycling. The PT operator
EUR 9.2 million cost for 20 natural gas buses
and the urban authority of Nantes cooperate on the
brought the total to EUR 8 million per kilometre,
structuring of public transport. Constructed dur-
about three times less than what a tramway would
ing their CIVITAS project VIVALDI, line 4 entered
have cost. Punctuality went up to 95 percent with
into service on November 6, 2006. Completing the
an average service speed of 21 to 23 kilometres
3-line tram network, the bus line was the result of
per hour. Frequency during peak hours was in-
a bet offer the same level of service with a bus
creased in 2010. Ridership increased from 17,000
system as with a tram. Indeed, the BusWay applied
users per day at inauguration to 21,000 after four
all the elements that characterise the tram dedi-
months and 30,000 in 2012. cated lane, dedicated rolling stock, well-designed
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63
3.5 COLLEC TIVE PASSENg ER TRA NSPORT
BENEfITS
The collective passenger transport measures tested in
The introduction of separated bus lanes represented
CIVITAS aim to optimise use of each public transport
the physical part of new forms of non-traditional public
mode and improve their perceived quality. The mod-
transport services, especially aimed at the improve-
ernisation of the infrastructure, service and image of
ment of the reliability of service, yet also through its
public transport can avert a decline in modal share in
features improving the physical access and image of
competition with the private car on certain corridors. the collective passenger transport. Cities like Nantes
The measures aimed at the improvement of features
and Stockholm offering services around the entire net-
such as comfort, image, hospitality, reliability, frequen-
work provided faster public transport service through
cy and information. In terms of infrastructure, most of
the introduction of separated bus lanes which resulted
the measures focussed on the improvement of physical
in a modal share change on the respective corridors
access, ease of interchange and ticketing. Not to be
of five percent in Stockholm and over 30 percent in
neglected, efforts were made to increase the safety and
Nantes in favour of public transport. Most of the gains
security of infrastructure, vehicles and services. are in the longer term related to regularity. Whereas the
On-demand transport, the most tested new public
EU standards on service quality in public transport re-
transport service, allows for maintaining reliable service
quire at least 80 percent regularity, within most studies
and frequency in suburban areas where maintaining a
in the various CIVITAS demonstration cities, it proved
regular bus service is too costly. This service proved to
possible to achieve levels of 95 percent regularity with
guarantee accessibility to public transport services in
the introduction of separated public transport lanes at
general, particularly for elderly and disabled travellers. strategic points and corridors.37
Overview of benefits of CIVITAS experiments
improved
collective
transport
Comfort,
Image,
Hospitality
improved
collective
transport
Reliable service, good frequency,
information
Physical Access to the network, ease of interchange, ticketing
Safe and secure infrastructure, vehicles and services
Figure 5 Overview of benefits of CIVITAS experiments
37 See also www.bhls.eu Cost action TU0603. 64
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
3.5 C OLL ECTIVE PASSENg ER TRANSPO RT
All CIVITAS sites that worked on increasing acces-
The success, measured in terms of increased usage
sibility for elderly and disabled travellers continue to
due to an improved integration of modes depends in
do so. The EU directive and various Member States
the long term not only on the level of integration itself,
laws oblige all authorities and operators to guarantee
but also on the development of the individual modes.
full access to all citizens. On the more frequented cor-
For example, if cycling is not a very popular mode lo-
ridors and services, this is resulting in the continuing
cally, integration with public transport will only be ben-
introduction of accessible vehicles and infrastructure. eficial in a limited way. The success of park ride de-
In the areas with lower levels of demand, this is done
pends not only on the efficiency of the transfer and time
through the introduction of replacement often on-de-
gains, but also on the presence of supporting access
mand public transport services.
restriction in the areas of destination. The introduction
The improvements in safety and security in public
of a park ride scheme in Toulouse together with an in-
transport services aim first at reducing the generally
crease of access to the city centre through a new metro
already relatively low levels of accidents and incidents. line and the introduction of paid parking in its central
Nevertheless, when presented well to citizens, they
area contributed to the large success of the park ride. also help to improve the image of public transport as a
A significant enlargement of the suburban park ride
secure and safe form of transportation.
scheme is planned to guarantee continued services. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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3.6 TRANSPORT TELEMATIC S
3.6 Transport telematics
whAT IS ThE SOLUTION? There is a wide range of services and applications
integration with other types of services access to other
where information and communication technologies
public services. Similar to e-ticketing systems, inte-
telematics can be found in and around public trans-
grated tickets are operated by central computer sys-
port and urban mobility, more or less visible to the pas-
tems thus they can easily be combined checking the
senger. validity and providing discounts. The most visible and tangible telematics applica-
Traffic management and control systems and ap-
tion is the electronic ticket e-ticketing systems based
plications are transport telematics systems that aim
on smart cards or mobile phone devices. Instead of a
to optimise traffic flow, to reduce congestion and to
printed paper ticket, the entitlement to travel is stored
enhance traffic safety. They can be subdivided into
on a microchip of a smart card or on a dedicated ap-
priority systems for public transport and traffic moni-
plication usually called an app or text message of a
toringcontrol centres. Buses and trams get priority at
mobile phone. In all cases, the electronic tickets can
crossroads with traffic lights in order to increase the
be validated by a reader. E-Ticketing systems are op-
average vehicle speed andor to improve the regularity
erated by back office computer systems monitoring
of the services telematics systems are installed in the
variable tariff schemes, black lists of stolen or invalid
vehicle and in the road infrastructure. Control centres
smart cards and assessing travel behaviours and pat-
analyse diverse real-time traffic information parking
terns with the aim to improve the overall service quality. spaces, congestion, accidents, the regularity of pub-
Less tangible but nevertheless successful in moti-
lic transport, the pollution situation collected by vari-
vating citizens to shift to public transport are integrated
ous means radio, electromagnetic loops, CCTV, GPS
ticket services or applications. This is the integration of
trackers, sensors, etc. and react according to prede-
different transport operators where customers make
fined plans in order to optimise the traffic flow to and
one single payment despite the service being provided
from major events concerts, football games, to pro-
by different operators, the integration between differ-
vide more buses or to send replacement buses in case
ent transport modes public transport, bike sharing,
of accidents or road work. car-sharing, parking where a combined ticket enables
Selected and specific real-time traffic information
the customer to use different mobility services or the
schedules, maps, arrivaldeparture times and chang-
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3.6 TRANSPORT TELEMATICS
es, destinations, next stops, possible connections can
and commercial information, so-called infotainment,
be provided and displayed to the passengers via the
providing news or advertisement verbally and graphi-
Internet, at public transport stops and stations and on
cally. buses, trams or trains. Sophisticated tools even allow
Last but not least, registered and analysed real-time
for personalised trip planning. This travel and passen-
traffic and travel information can be used for simulating
ger information can be combined with entertainment
and planning future traffic solutions. CIVITAS cities where transport telematics solutions have been implemented
E-Ticketing Alborg, Bologna, Bremen, Brescia, Bucharest, Coimbra, Kaunas, Lille, Ljubljana, Preston, Rotterdam,
Stockholm, Toulouse
Traffic management and control systems Bath, Bologna, Coimbra, Funchal, Genoa, Krakow, La Rochelle, Malmö,
Monza, Norwich, Ploiesti, Preston, Rotterdam, Stuttgart, Tallinn, Toulouse, Venice
Passenger information Alborg, Bath, Bremen, Funchal, Kaunas, Krakow, La Rochelle, Malmo, Norwich, Ploiesti,
Preston, Rotterdam, Tallinn, Toulouse
Simulating and planning Genoa, Krakow
BENEfITS
Telematics applications and services optimise the traf-
purposes and can help join up service delivery in other
fic and travel conditions in cities and facilitate the use
areas. Furthermore it can be combined with access
of public transport means they can be considered
control or additional services such as self-service bi-
enabling and supporting technologies from which all
cycles, or it can be customised for special user groups
stakeholders benefit.
such as school children, etc. For operators, there are
quantifiable benefits in speeding up boarding times, re-
E-Ticketing Generally speaking, smart ticketing can
ducing fraud and removing cash from the system. Fur-
offer various advantages. To passengers it can bring
ther benefits can be derived from better data, allowing
increased speed, convenience, cashlessness, the
improved use of existing resources offering variable
flexibility of stored value products and security against
pricing for demand management, pay-by-use, i.e. after
theft and loss, access to services beyond transport and
trip payment, a better understanding of customer be-
the reliability and convenience of using one pass all day
haviour as well as the development of new commercial
long across multiple operators. For the public sector, it
opportunities hotlists and blocks in case of theft. can offer greatly improved data for transport planning
CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
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3.6 TRANSPORT TELEMATIC S
Toulouse started its innovative ticketing solutions with
system was quickly recovered by the fines generated. a magnetic stripe ticket in 1992 and is using a smart-
Passengers experience less congestion, in public
card solution called Pastel with more than 380,000
transport vehicles which has a positive impact on ac-
cards distributed since 2007. Thanks to its success,
tual travel times. For the public realm, parking routing
new offers have been developed, e.g. the combination
systems both reduce congestion and pollution gener-
of the Pastel card for public transport with the bicycle
ated by the fruitless search for parking and increase the
card VélôToulouse or multiservice cards for schools
occupancy rate of public garages. Both individuals and
and universities planning to use near field communica-
the public realm profit from a more efficient use of the
tion NFC technology. Smart ticketing is seen as reli-
road infrastructure as traffic can be re-routed following
able, convenient, fast and easy to use and as giving
disturbances in the overall traffic system. Operators
users more liberty to travel. gain more passengers when service quality and reli-
ability are improved through telematics the traffic situ-
Integrated ticketing The key benefit of an integrated
ation can be monitored, vehicles can be located and
ticket is perceived by the passenger. It simplifies the
thus, operators can react faster and more appropriately
travel arrangement for both regular commuters change
in case of incidents. The traffic data and experience
of time and route in case of incidents, use of any avail-
accumulated enable operators to further improve and
able transport mode regardless of the operator and
adapt the service to the users needs and behaviour. occasional travellers one overall ticket for travel from A
This also applies to logistic operators dealing with the
to B with no need to check different tariff schemes. The
distribution of goods. A unique approach has been
simplification of travel arrangements increases pas-
chosen in Stuttgart where the city traffic management,
senger satisfaction which may be illustrated by a modal
the police traffic department, the fire department, the
shift towards public transport. Increased use of public
ambulance service and the public transport operator
transport gives public realm a boost as the quality of
have been physically combined under one roof all traf-
life has improved. Combined tickets also encourage
fic related information converges in this centre. The dif-
citizens sense of belonging to a city or region or to
ferent entities are able to react much faster and more
contributing to the environmental benefit of a city e.g. efficiently in case of incidents or large events for exam-
low-cost environmental travel cards. Where a modal
ple, thanks to dynamic lane signalling, the time needed
shift can be achieved, operators directly realise greater
to empty the stadium car parks was halved.
The crucial
revenues. Starting with only one corridor, the integrated
test of the system was the Football World Cup in 2006. ticket between the Polish State Railway and the city of
Since then, the concept has proved its value on multi-
Krakow quickly achieved a 10 percent market share
ple occasions. which encouraged the partners to extend the offer to
four other corridors. Passenger information Real-time and reliable traf-
fic and travel information is key for shifting the mo-
Traffic management and control systems aim to op-
dal split towards more sustainable public transport. timise traffic flow and reduce congestion and pollution. It builds confidence. Real-time passenger informa-
Thus, all stakeholders of urban mobility benefit from
tion with widely distributed displays sustainably im-
traffic management. Thanks to a real-time observation
proved the image, acceptance and attractiveness of
of strategic locations on the Grand Canal in Venice traf-
the public transport services in Norwich. When there is
fic rule infractions were reduced leading to less pol-
reliable and accessible information, passengers can
lution and noise. The same can be said for Krakow,
plan their door-to-door trips better, reduce frustrating
where number-plate recognition cameras helped to
waiting times, and thus, shorten travel times, making
identify and automatically fine illegal accesses to and
public transport a real alternative to private car use. transits through the city centre. The number of illegal
Information based on a tracking system for buses in La
trips fell considerably, the traffic volume of the city
Rochelle that had been installed for internal purposes
centre was reduced, and the investment for the overall
was made available to the public showing the waiting
68
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
3.6 TRANSPORT TELEMATICS
times via displays or informing about the arrival time of
can provide additional information about its services or
the next buses via text message or e-mail 90 percent
traffic or sell advertisement slots. of users considered this a worthwhile enhancement of
the bus service. The public realm benefits from any
Simulating and planning While analysing the data
additional passenger in public transport as it reduces
collected through the diverse telematics applications,
the pressure on road space and the need for additional
both local authorities and operators can easily simu-
costly road works. The environment also profits from
late different traffic situations incidents and improve
less congestion. On top of an existing real-time in-
the planning and implementation of new or alternative
formation system, Malmö provided a mobile Internet
infrastructure and services. service including a travel planner which increased the
number of public transport trips remarkably the users
The police in Krakow and Genoa were equipped with
also considered this additional feature a travel service
handheld computers for collecting relevant data relat-
of higher quality. The operators image improves when
ed to accidents. In Genoa, an exhaustive multi-source
it takes more seriously the passengers wishes for bet-
data warehouse was established where all information
ter and reliable traffic and travel information audio
about accidents, injuries and road and traffic charac-
and graphical information facilitates the use of public
teristics are gathered, compiled and analysed in order
transport, in particular for current occasional users
to better understand the real causes of road accidents
who may become regular users in the future. As the
and to develop preventive actions.
In both cases, road
display can also be used for other purposes, operators
safety improved. BARRIERS
The challenge for services and applications focusing on
While integrated tickets covering several operators
passengers is to develop and implement user-friendly,
are quite common in western European countries, it
understandable, and reliable systems which do not cre-
is a big challenge in most of the New Member States. ate a barrier to public transport but rather facilitate the
Two main challenges are finding agreement among the
shift towards public transport. This applies particularly
different operators on the division of income generated
to ticketing and the use of telematics-supported user
by e-tickets and integrated tickets and making different
interfaces be it a stand-alone terminal for finding out
existing technical equipment compatible. The agree-
timetables, the Internet, smart phone-base trip plan-
ment process may be compromised if the main op-
ners or displays with unambiguous information. New
erator does not see a need for joint ticketing and tariff
services and their advantages for passengers need to
schemes or is not convinced that increased ridership
be the focus of appropriate and widespread marketing
will result.
and awareness campaigns. A general barrier to transport telematics is the lack
Operators and public authorities face organisa-
of interoperability between existing and upcoming sys-
tional and financial issues when deploying transport
tems which are installed as stand-alone solutions for a
telematics. They have to collaborate closely in dedi-
given region or city the key to further development is
cated working groups to define tasks and responsibili-
agreement and application of national and European
ties during development and operation and to decide
standards. on technical equipment and services to come up with
solutions that fit passenger requirements.
In order to
succeed, mutual trust needs to be established. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
69
3.6 TRANSPORT TELEMATIC S
CASE STUDY
rATb travel card in bucharest, romania
The main idea for the e-ticketing solution in
cards the ACTIV one for regular users commuters
Bucharest was the integration of different public
which also provides the function of an electronic
transport operators in order to provide flexible
purse, and the MULITPLU for occasional travellers
fares responding to citizens needs and to deliver
10 trips, one-day pass. A data warehouse collects
a more convenient transport service to the public. all ticket validation information, manages the lost
One contactless smart ticket allows for travel-
stolen cards black lists and integrates other data
ling in networks of different operators. The system
from the fleet management system and on-board
started with the two main operators for under-
surveillance. Two million ACTIV cards and one mil-
ground, tram, bus and trolleybuses, but it is open
lion MULITPLU cards are in use per year. to integrate more operators. There are two types of
CASE STUDY
real-time travel information the muoversiaroma
application in rome, Italy
One of the main tasks of the Mobility Agency of
The following information is available
Rome is to supply updated and reliable real-time
Bus waiting times information on arrival times
travel information to citizens. The idea of com-
by bus line at each bus stop
bining the information available on public and
News real time news on traffic, status of road
private mobility and providing this to citizens in
works, demonstrations
a user friendly way was initially investigated dur-
Access restrictions in place
ing the CIVITAS MIRACLES project 2002 2006. Traffic bulletin allows to check a list showing
In 2008 the Atac mobile application renamed
the traffic conditions by zone
muoversiaroma in 2012 was launched. It was
Urban travel times on 130 kilometres of main
the first attempt at providing a set of open data
roads of the capital
using a common platform.
The service is avail-
Journey planner
able in two versions XHTML, accessible from all
Video cameras four cameras display various
mobile phones with a web browser and the URL
traffic situations
www.muoversiaroma.it. Bike sharing users can check the availability
of bikes
Parking users can check the availability of
parking spaces in four city parking locations
Ticket offices location
70
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3.6 TRANSPORT TELEMATICS
fACTS
Smart, intermodal, interoperable, and interregional
Smart electronic tickets either as a card or via mo-
bile phone that are emerging everywhere in Europe
and in the rest of the world are basically debit
cards the customer pre-loads an amount of money
for which heshe can travel a certain number of trips
or a certain distance. Further, for these smart cards,
we distinguish the following characteristics
metro and short and long distance railways. This
system was developed as a national system, not as
a merger of different local systems. With the OV-
chipkaart, passengers can travel from one city to
another by an intercity train, and continue on a local
tram or bus. The OV-chipkaart can also be used for
other services, such as bicycle rent. Intermodal the first precondition for smart tickets in
public transport. The ticket works in buses, trams and
underground trains within the city. The challenge is
primarily technical to have ticket-reading machines
in operation in all modes. Benefits of such a system
are for the traveller easy transfers, secured access,
and also for the operator no cash handling, more ef-
ficient passenger flow, customer information. Single
fare systems exist example Toulouse as do multi-
fare ones Oyster Card London, Navigo Paris. There
are many examples of intermodal systems. Interoperable tickets can be used among different
providers of public transport. The challenge is also
technical, but even more legal and organisational. All
operators need to comply with a certain standard and
a clearing house for financial re-distribution must be
set up. Some of the interoperable smart tickets can
be used not only in different public transport modes,
but also for other services. In Toulouse, the mobility
card Pastel can now be used for car parking at PR
facilities. In other cases, such as the MULTIPLU card
in Bucharest, and the Kaunas tourist card, the mobil-
ity ticket can also be used as an electronic purse for
small non-transport payments. This can come in
very handy for public transport users, adding to the
attraction of the public transport system. Interregional systems function not only in a single
metropolitan area, but also beyond and in other cit-
ies. Only in the Netherlands38 is a national smart
card system OV-chipkaart now in operation, func-
tioning for all public transport modes bus, tram,
Local intermodal systems are widespread across Europe
and a wide range of technologies are applied for these
systems39. Some of them are also interoperable. The
development and introduction of an interoperable sys-
tem is a complex task. Often, different operators have to
comply with a single system and simply trust that they
will get their due revenues in a timely fashion.
It requires
investment and reduces independence. In cities where
all public transport is in the hands of a single organisa-
tion e.g. RATB in Bucharest, an intermodal system may
suffice, and the introduction of such a system may be
relatively easy, as compared with a situation where dif-
ferent companies operate bus and railway lines e.g. in
London. Different from simply handling transport fares,
interoperability requires the handling of money transfers,
which requires a bank license. For that reason, there are
fewer examples of truly interoperable systems in Europe. Another complicating factor is a multi-fare system. The
easiest system has one fare for a single trip e.g. Tou-
louse, regardless of the length of the trip. The payment
can be handled simply by checking in, requiring a single
action from the passenger and a simple check from the
operator whether the balance on the card is sufficient for
one single trip. When the length of the trip matters for the
fare, a method is needed to determine trip length and the
amount to deduct from the card. Further, the balance on
the card must be sufficient for the longest trip possible,
assuming that the passenger may stay on the vehicle
until the last stop. This was a constraining complexity
for the chipkaart-system, where the a single fare in the
city is below EUR 1 and a long distance train trip can
amount to EUR 50. 38
In Israel, a similar national system is under development, RavKav. In Asia, notably in Taiwan, South Korea and China regional systems
are operated for large regions. 39 UITP, the International Association of Public Transport, and the European Commission are now looking for interoperable standards for
electronic ticketing throughout Europe. See The next step in creating Electronic Ticketing Interoperability for Europe Memorandum
of understanding. ITSO, VDV KA, Calypos Networks, AFIMB, UITP, February 2012.
httpwww.uitp.orgfileshomepagepdfIFM20
Alliance20MoU20signed201520Feb202011.pdf. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
71
3.6 TRANSPORT TELEMATIC S
CASE STUDY
Integrated package of measures
Transport telematics and road safety
in Krakow, poland
Within the CIVITAS CARAVEL project 2005 2009
introduction of clean high-mobility corridors and
the city of Krakow implemented a package of
the improvement of public transport infrastructure
measures, all geared towards making the roads of
in the city centre, taking into particular considera-
the Polish city safer for pedestrians, public trans-
tion the needs of passengers with reduced mo-
port users and car drivers. During the CIVITAS
bility. The audits focused primarily on tram stops
measure Monitoring Centre for Road Safety and
where passengers have to alight into the road. An
Accident Prevention, members of the police were
additional passenger survey highlighted important
equipped with mobile computers to collect all rel-
factors that compromised safety
evant information in a standardised data format
The difference in level between the pavement
directly at the site of an accident. This information
and the bus or tram is a particular problem for
was automatically forwarded to a new resource
older passengers and those with reduced mo-
and information management centre where the
bility
impact of the accident on the public transport
Cars often drive too fast close to public trans-
system was also analysed. This measure helped
port stops
to improve the entire information process, led to
There are too many cars close to public trans-
a better understanding of the causes of road acci-
port stops, making it difficult for passengers to
dents, and thereby contributed to improved road
get on and off the vehicles safely
safety and much better management of the public
Visibility at bus and tram stops is often poor
transport system. Complementary to the use of modern tech-
As a result of the audits and the surveys, an im-
nologies and based on the information gained,
portant junction and a public transport stop in the
the Krakow city administration developed an inte-
city centre were reconstructed and safe bus and
grated public transport security action plan. In a
tram stops were installed serving as a model for
first step in the citys efforts to promote the use of
other locations in the city. The new combined bus
public transportation, a security audit was carried
and tram stops also feature real-time information
out.
The audits took place in conjunction with the
conveyed in written form. 72
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3.7 LESS CAR- DEP END ENT MOB IL ITY OP TIONS
3.7 less car-dependent
mobility options
Urban mobility accounts for 40 percent of all road trans-
CAR-ShARINg
port CO2 emissions and up to 70 percent of other pol-
lutants from transport. The increasing number of cars
Car-sharing40 gives access to a car without the need
causes problems in terms of congestion increased pol-
for ownership. Car-sharing is an innovative solution to
lution and energy consumption and space consump-
the increasing problem of parking in urban neighbour-
tion for parking problems of urban environment and
hoods. Car-sharing is a useful and practical way of
quality of life. The issues of car ownership and usage
sharing vehicles for both business and private drivers. are crucial to the environmental impact of individual
The idea of car-sharing is that a group of registered
transport patterns and to the quality of the urban realm
members share the opportunity to use a car when they
in general through space consumption of cars. need one. The pay-as-you-drive principle supports
Alternative forms of transport can reduce the en-
the rational choice of transport modes with the result of
vironmental footprint of these individual transport pat-
a modal shift from the car towards sustainable modes
terns and improve the urban environment. Car-sharing
including rail for long-distance travel. Car-sharing has
has the unique potential of regaining street space and
demonstrated the ability to replace private cars and to
offering more flexible individual mobility. Carpooling re-
optimise fleet management of corporate customers. duces the number of car trips and thus emissions and
The interaction with public transport plays an important
energy consumption. Cycling is considered the most
role in a win-win situation to achieve more sustainable
suitable mode for distances from 2 to 5 kilometres, and
mobility patterns and a reduction in the number of cars
in Member States like the Netherlands, Denmark and
in our cities. parts of Germany and in Flanders even up to 8 kilo-
Car-sharing plays an important role in creating a
metres. The main options to decrease
car dependency are
1 Breaking with current patterns
for car ownership and use
Car-sharing
Carpooling
PR travel
2 Slow modes
Cycling and walking
new mobility culture. The potential is immense and still
far from fully exploited either on the European scale
or on the national or local level. At the end of 2009 al-
most 400,000 Europeans were car-sharing customers
see table on the next page. However, large differences
exist between countries. In Switzerland, Germany and
the Netherlands car-sharing is already an established
service, whereas for instance in Ireland, Portugal and
Spain, car-sharing is just getting started.
40
In the U.K., the term car club is used. CIVITAS GuI de f or T he u rbA n TrAn S po rT p rof eSSIonAl
73
3.7 LESS CA R- DE PEN DENT MOBILITY OP TIONS
Country
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Great Britain
Ireland
Italy
Car-sharing customers
Car-sharing vehicles
11,000
6,932
Approx. 5,000
2,232
169
248
225
38
13,000 estimate
700 estimate
137,000
64,679
63
15,850
3,900
1,459
9
498
1,832
12
127
more than 492
2,200
11,909
The Netherlands
27,000 estimate
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Total
100
2,504
14,889
84,500
384,749
Table 6 Car-sharing customers and vehicles in Europe 200941
In European cities, car-sharing differ primarily in the
Theoretically, car-sharing schemes are economically
level of commercialisation. The commercialisation level
self-sustainable and can be operated without much
can be distinguished in the following forms
interference from the authorities on a break-even basis
Fully commercial. Car-sharing is organised and
after three to four years and full repayment of initial
financed by one or more commercial businesses. investment costs from year six on. The precise figures
The authorities are not directly involved e.g. Aal-
depend on the success in terms of usage and organi-
borg.
sational structure.42
Fully collective. The car-sharing is organised and
The number of participants and cars involved in
financed fully by the local authority. No commercial
car-sharing differs significantly among European cit-
partners are involved. ies. Both Bremen, with roughly 180 cars and 7,000 us-
Public-private partnership. A combination of the
ers May 2012, and Bristol 45 cars and 1,286 users
local authorities and a commercial provider is in-
have fairly large car-sharing schemes. In contrast, the
volved in implementing car-sharing. The public-pri-
scheme in Aalborg had 11 cars and now July 2012
vate partnership is the most common construction
operates with only eight and a customer base of 149
in European cities e.g. Bremen and Bristol. users. The highest density of car-sharing can be found
Private citizen initiative. Car-sharing is organised
in Switzerland. At the end of 2008, the Swiss car-shar-
by a group of citizens, with some financing in the
ing company Mobility had 84,500 customers who had
form of subsidies and operational assistance e.g. access to 2,200 vehicles all across Switzerland.
Car-
reservation of parking places e.g. Toulouse and
sharing services are available in 430 cities and commu-
the UK car clubs. nities. The majority of Swiss towns offering car-sharing
are of a size at which, in other European countries, vir-
tually no car-sharing services can be found. 41 Source The State of European Car-Sharing, Final Report D 2.4 Work Package 2, June 2010, EU project momo Car-Sharing. 42
Internal car-sharing study of the public transport authority of Toulouse. 74
CIVITAS GuI de for T he u rbA n TrAnS po rT p ro feSSIonAl
3.7 LESS CAR- DEP END ENT MOB IL ITY OP TIONS
CARPOOLINg
CYCLINg
Carpooling is when two or more people who live near
Almost half of all car journeys are shorter than five
each other, have destinations near to one another and
kilometres and, as it takes time before the motor is
travel at similar times, agree to travel together in one
warmed up, fuel consumption and emissions are higher
car. This is also called ride-matching or ride-sharing. for these trips. In 2005 such car trips generated over
Each city can stimulate this form of behaviour through
information campaigns conveying the benefits of trav-
14,000 kilo tons of CO2 in Germany alone and it is ex-
pected that such travel will still produce 11,000 of kilo
elling together shared costs and reduced congestion. tons by 202043. Cycling is considered the most suit-
Car-pooling reduces the number of car trips and thus
able mode for short distance travel. The development
emissions and energy consumption. For example,
of electric bicycles can help overcome the often-cited
within an industrial area in Burgos Spain a carpooling
limitations of hills and high temperatures. The meas-
platform was offered for 450 employees. About 325 of
ures in CIVITAS showed that there are no miracle solu-
them now use the service and the average car occu-
tions to achieve a higher modal share for the bicycle. pancy rate rose within three years from 1.15 to 1.53 per
Every city must set its own targets for cycling. vehicle. With fewer cars on the road, and fewer vehicles
parked, traffic congestion and parking problems can
In general a distinction can be made between three
be reduced.
Accessibility within the area is enhanced
types of situations44
and more urban space is available for public use. Cities with a modal share for cycling between 20
Cities can support carpoolers by offering matching
and 40 percent Denmark, the Netherlands and cer-
services either online or via a call centre. Such a service
tain parts of Belgium and Germany
can be offered to the wider public or to smaller groups
Cities with a modal share for cycling between 5 and
firms, schools. Commuters generally form the main
20 percent most in Austria, Switzerland, Germany,
target group. Companies are encouraged to support
Belgium, the Scandinavian countries and larger cit-
carpooling among their employees in order to save on
ies in the Eastern Member States, UK, Spain, and
costly parking spaces. The potential for carpooling is
Portugal
limited by the fact that it can be challenging to coordi-
Cities with a very low modal share or virtually no
nate different peoples trips. Approximately 30 percent
cycling at all
of car users have the freedom to choose carpooling as
an alternative. In all cases only an integrated approach over time de-
In almost every country within Europe, small-sized
livers real results
initiatives can be found for stimulating carpooling and
Integration in terms of organisational aspects from
or ride matching. The technology needed to facilitate
policy to new services and simple promotion activi-
carpooling is minimal, whereas the promoting and
ties
organisational assistance provided largely defines its
Integration of infrastructure, from bicycle racks to
success. At the informal level, carpooling can be facili-
new cycle lanes
tated through personal contact. Even if it only provides
the basis, it is usual to make use of a database and
Health and safety are arguments that become more
some form of software accessed via the Internet and
and more important in the support and realisation of
or telephone. bicycle initiatives. 43 Thiemann-Linden, German Institute of Urban affairs A-42010.