A variety of approaches have been adopted to implement these requirements including the announcement of the cross-Government fossil fuel policy and within the FCDO an introduction of a new rule within the Programming Operating Framework to ensure that all new spend is aligning with the ambitions of the Paris Agreement. We have been working with our multilateral partners to increase their ambition and align with the Paris Agreement. By COP26 eight multilateral development banks (MDBs) had made timebound commitments to Paris alignment, with the majority planning to align by 2023. Discussions of approaches continue to be held between officials to maintain progress on the implementation of this In addition to our commitment to align UK aid with the Paris Agreement, the UK Government has taken steps to integrate nature into its Official Development Assistance (ODA), ensuring that all new UK bilateral aid spending does no harm to nature. This is a step towards delivering on our commitment in the Integrated Review to investing in nature and a nature- positive economy. This commitment to ‘do no harm’ sits alongside our commitment to spend at least £3 billion of our International Climate Finance on Nature by 2026. 364 8th National Communication The UK also supports the alignment of financial flows and raising of ambition through the NDC Partnership (NDCP) – see Section 6.6.1. 6.7.2 Accelerating ambition and implementation internationally The Climate Accelerator (CFA) is a £10.8 million UK International Climate Finance programme that works to support climate action at scale by supporting governments, project proponents seeking finance and the financial sector. It works with middle income countries to help them achieve their national climate plans and NDCs by helping to identify challenges and blockages that prevent finance from flowing at the volume and speed required to have a meaningful impact on their climate ambitions. By bringing together project proponents, finance providers (including experts from the City of London) and policymakers, the CFA seeks to enable a collaborative approach to unlocking a steady flow of blended funding for climate projects at scale and create a pipeline of ‘investment ready’ low-carbon projects, thereby strengthening countries’ ambitions to limit global warming to 1.5°C. It does this in a number of ways including identifying and supporting projects, which will contribute to a country’s NDC, to attract primary finance, which in many instances will involve blended finance products capable of funding projects at scale. 6.8 Monitoring and evaluation, lessons learnt and transparency Designing effective programmes that respond to the needs of developing countries is a priority of UK ICF. The UK draws on evidence from commissioned studies and from its ICF monitoring and evaluation framework to enable continuous improvements in project selection, 6.8.1 Monitoring and evaluation The UK’s cross-departmental ICF monitoring and evaluation framework assesses the performance of ICF against intended outcomes, and supports the generation and use of evidence across the ICF portfolio to allow for continuous improvement. The framework includes programme and portfolio results-reporting, annual reviews of all programmes, and independent evaluations at both programme and portfolio level. The monitoring aspect of the framework consists of 11 key performance indicators (KPI), covering achievements in adaptation, mitigation, nature, transformational change and mobilised finance. Programmes wholly or partly funded by ICF report results against relevant ICF KPIs. These are collected .and aggregated across the ICF portfolio for reporting publicly. The ICF key performance indicators, their detailed methodologies, and annual aggregate results are published on the UK Government website9. This suite of indicators is under review to ensure they capture the range of relevant benefits from ICF activities, including Programmes receiving UK International Climate Finance are reviewed annually. Results are compared with expected milestones and targets, and the opportunity is taken to reflect on evidence generated over the year – such as from independent evaluations. Lessons are documented and applied, and shared more widely across the portfolio as appropriate. The UK’s ICF monitoring and evaluation framework increases the impact of climate finance by filling key evidence gaps. It achieves this through the following 9

Chapter 6 Financial Assistance and Support for Technologies 365 • Evaluate and monitor pr ogrammes to understand why, how and in what contexts our programmes are successful (or otherwise) in achieving their aims; • Develop and use the evidence base to improve decision-making within the UK nment and influence the wider climate finance landscape; and ovide accountability for our ICF through understanding whether programme The evaluation aspect of the framework ensures independent scrutiny and learning from a range of commissioned evaluations. At portfolio level, independent evaluations provide evidence and learning to increase the effectiveness and to measure the impact of the UK’s international climate finance. At programme level, independent evaluations are commissioned to understand contextual factors around the effectiveness and value-for-money of interventions and to inform programming decisions such as whether to scale-up. For example, in 2020 the UK published an independent evaluation of our Carbon Market Finance Programme, implemented through the World Bank’s Carbon Initiative for Development (Ci-Dev) programme, and in 2020 and 2021 the UK published independent Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning Reports for UK PACT. The UK’s ICF welcomes regular scrutiny from both the UK’s Independent Commission on Aid Impact and the International Development parliamentary oversight committee. In particular, the UK’s monitoring and evaluation framework has been well regarded by the UK’s Independent Commission on Aid Impact, which stated in the 2019 review “The UK has made an important contribution to promoting better results measurement across the international climate finance architecture”, and that “the UK has been a consistent champion of results measurement […] encouraging its multilateral partners to develop results frameworks and strengthen their monitoring and evaluation processes.” The Commission also noted that “other actors in the climate finance area look to the UK as a thought leader on the monitoring and evaluation of climate finance.” ssons learnt and evidence-based programming Evidence is critical to designing climate finance programmes effectively and to ensure they deliver the greatest impact and respond effectively to the needs of developing countries.
Evidence generated through the UK’s ICF monitoring and evaluation is fed back into programme and portfolio level design decisions through the annual review process which all programmes undertake, management responses to evaluations recommendations, and analytical appraisal for future programming. Two of the key lessons learnt from this process of evaluation were that technical assistance is crucial for longer term sustainable development and success requires local buy-in and commitment. The UK’s Sustainable Infrastructure Programme was designed to reflect these lessons through its combination of technical assistance to address technical or regulatory barriers and investment capital. Experience demonstrates that when working together, these tools create the greatest opportunities to leverage public and private investment. To ensure that interventions are demand-led and sustainable, this programme works in close collaboration with partner governments and supports national plans. The ICF portfolio has also yielded important lessons learnt around ensuring effective and efficient project implementation. The UK has been deploying these lessons in the

366 8th National Communication • Thr ough the NAMA Facility, the UK identified that countries require greater support for the detailed project preparation phase, to increase the chances of projects progressing successfully through implementation; and • Through the multilateral funds, such as the Climate Investment Funds, the UK has ned the value of flexible programming to respond to in-country circumstances such as shifts in the costs of technologies. ACT programme evaluation suggested extending project timescales would increase impact and drive transformational change, through sustained action on emissions reductions. Since then, the first multi-year project was approved in April 2021, and following the SR outcome in October 2021 approving multi-year funding, new UK PACT programming from October 2021 will be offered as multi- In addition to the evidence base drawn from the existing ICF portfolio, the UK’s Knowledge, Evidence and Engagement Programme supports the development of effective climate finance by funding commissioned research to inform the focus and design UK ICF programmes and to build on lessons learned. The programme has helped to develop an evidence base on how to devise interventions that can be transformational and effectively respond to the needs and priorities of developing countries, and how to maximise the impact of UK support to ensure it delivers climate, poverty reduction and economic outcomes. Eleven research projects have e review which is providing an evidence base to be used at the ICF portfolio and programme level to inform business cases and strategy, as well as identifying evidence gaps and improved approaches to evaluations. The ongoing Economics of Energy Innovation and Systems T engagement project aims to help large emerging economy governments accelerate energy innovation and system transitions by transforming the economic analysis The UK has spent £7 million between April 2018 and March 2022 through this programme and further funding is currently being scoped. The UK originally funded the CIF Evaluation and Learning Initiative, and then supported this initiative to be incorporated into the core activities of the CIFs. This initiative has drawn out learning from the last 12 years of CIF programmes, identifying the transformational impacts these have helped bring about and providing useful lessons for funds across the climate The UK has an ambitious aid transparency policy ensuring all aid spend data including climate finance, is published and externally assessed to international standards. All business cases and annual reports are published on Development Tracker In particular, the UK is committed to a conservative and accurate approach to climate finance accounting, giving confidence to developing countries and civil society that the levels of climate-specific support reported accurately reflect the levels of climate-specific support provided. A specific example is our approach to calculating the level of climate finance associated with integrated development projects. Rather than using a standardised 10

Chapter 6 Financial Assistance and Support for Technologies 367 co-efficient for calculating this, as most providers of support do, the UK calculates the specific climate related cost of each programme on a case-by-case basis, reflecting the real contribution of each activity to meeting climate goals. The UK also works closely with the OECD in reporting climate finance and up to 2019 reported annually to meet the requirements under Article 16 of the EU GHG Monitoring In addition, the UK is committed to the avoidance of double counting, having played a key role in developing the Technical Working Group methodology used to enable OECD-CPI analysis of aggregate mobilisation of private finance. The UK is also committed to developing the evidence base on how public finance and policy measures can attract and measure private finance, including through participating in the OECD Research Collaborative for

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic This chapter presents information on the UK’s activities in climate research and observations, including domestic and international activities, and information about the roles of government departments and agencies engaged with the climate research agenda. The UK continues to be a world leader in research into climate science and observations, with an array of expertise across the country and collaborative research efforts with partners across the world. The UK is committed to research on both climate science and observations, as well as mitigation and adaptation actions. Selected highlights Publication of the third UK Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA3), setting out the priority risks and opportunities for the UK posed by climate change. The National Adaptation Plan (NAP) is due to be published in 2023, which will set out the actions that the UK Government and others will take over a 5-year period to adapt to the challenges of climate change in the UK. Continued work under the world-leading Met Of Programme, which plays a vital role in providing relevant scientific evidence for Continued UK support for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), ough UK Government funding and through the contributions of the UK’s world- ojects with international partners, such as the Climate Science for Service Partnership programmes (CSSP) (with China, Brazil, South Africa amongst others), and Future Climate for Africa (FCFA).
Significant investment in UK funding for science and approximately esearch, development and demonstration of low-carbon energy, transport, agriculture and waste between 2015 and 2021. ogrammes providing climate information services for domestic policy areas, such as the Climate Services for a Net Zero resilient World Significant investment in UNFCCC priority ar eas including a pioneering programme of work on Greenhouse Gas Removal Technologies and their implications. 370 8th National Communication • Continued participation in the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS), led by the s Met Office and involving a wide range of UK-based organisations. • UK Space Agency cooperation with inter national programmes such as MicroCarb and the European Space Agency-led TRUTHS mission. • The continued development of the UK DECC (Deriving Emissions linked to Climate Change) Network of tall towers. This pr ovides top-down verification of the UK’s 7.3.1 I ntroduction to research The delivery of climate science in the UK follows a clear strategic vision. The fundamental principle is that UK and international climate action must be underpinned by a robust evidence-base on the science of climate change. While this evidence-base is both strong and wide ranging, there is a continued need to develop it to understand and manage the risks of climate change, including through developing mitigation and adaptation strategies. Through direct UK Government funding for science, funding provided by the UK Research Councils, and collaboration with our international partners, we work to support research Section 7.3.2 will describe the UK’s approach to the delivery of climate research, including priorities and research funding, section 7.3.3 will describe how the UK cooperates internationally on climate research, section 7.3.4 will provide examples of climate services and how climate research is being used for policy application in the UK Government, and section 7.3.5 will go into detail on specific areas of climate science research in the UK, addressing the priority areas identified in UNFCCC guidance. pproach to the delivery of climate research The UK Government’s vision for action on climate change is summarised in the Net Zero Strategy1. Green technology, including research and development into new options to tackle climate change, is a cornerstone of the net zero journey. The Net Zero Strategy details the funding the UK provides in support of the mitigation efforts required to address climate change. The policies and spending brought forward in the Net Zero Strategy mean that since the UK Government’s Ten Point Plan 2020, the UK Government has mobilised £26 billion of UK Government capital investment for the green industrial revolution. As part of the Net Zero Strategy, the UK Government has committed to deliver at least £1.5 billion of funding during the spending review period (three years, starting in the 2022 financial year) expanding a portfolio of cross UK Government net zero innovation. This includes BEIS-led programmes on power, buildings and industry; Department for Transport-led programmes across transport; and Department for Environment and Rural Affairs (Defra)-led programmes on natural resources, waste and fluorinated gases, to target priorities aligned with the Net Zero Research and Innovation Framework. This spending includes programmes such as the £60m Heat Pump Ready programme. 1 2 file/936567/10_POINT_PLAN_BOOKLET.pdf

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 371 See Chapter 3 for more detail on Policies and Measures. 7.3.2.2 UK adaptation policy context The UK Government publishes a UK-wide Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA) every five years to assess the risks for the UK from the current and predicted impacts of climate change. The third iteration (CCRA3) was published in January 2022 by Defra, which is the department co-ordinating the UK Government’s programme of work on adaptation. Defra funded the Adaptation Committee of the Committee on Climate Change and a large consortium of experts led by the University of Exeter in partnership with the Met Office Hadley Centre to prepare an Independent Assessment of UK Climate Risk to inform CCRA3, which was published in June 20213. The CCRA3 will feed into the development of the next UK National Adaption Programme (NAP), expected in 2023. The NAP sets out the policies and programmes to treat climate risks across the economy. The third iteration will cover 2023-28 and be known as NAP3. The Independent Assessment of UK Climate Risk highlights research priorities where further evidence is needed to gain an understanding of the threats and opportunities of climate change to the UK and inform the options to approach climate change risks effectively in the future. See Chapter 5 for more detail on adaptation measures. 7.3.2.3 UK capability and excellence in climate research The UK is extremely well placed to address the research priorities associated with climate change, because of the strength of our climate science research community. There are numerous centres of climate science excellence, including the Met Office Hadley Centre, the UK Research and Innovation – National Environmental Research Council (UKRI-NERC) centres including the National Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, the National Centre for Earth Observation, the British Antarctic Survey, in addition to many world-leading UK university research departments and applied and policy-relevant research within the private sector. 7.3.2.4 UK Government departments and their agencies The following section provides background information on those departments and agencies who are engaged with the climate research agenda. The Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) is the lead UK Government department covering mitigation policy and, as highlighted above, plays a central role in funding research into low-carbon technologies. BEIS also leads the UK Government input into the IPCC and provides funding and governance for the Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme (MOHCCP). The MOHCCP provides the climate science evidence base that underpins much of the UK climate science capability, including the UK Climate Projections that inform the legally required 5-yearly UK Climate Change Risk Assessments, and a significant contribution to IPCC Assessment Reports. The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) is responsible for several policy areas that are associated with GHG emissions agriculture, forestry, land management, waste, and fluorinated gases.
Defra works with BEIS to ensure specific UK Government policies on low-carbon energy and decarbonisation measures are sustainable and aligned with Defra’s objectives on the environment, food production and rural economy including ensuring opportunities for maximising co-benefits such as cleaner air. Defra is also the UK Principal to the intergovernmental Group on Earth Observations (GEO),

372 8th National Communication and responsible for delivery of the UK Climate Projections, Climate Change Risk Assessments and National Adaptation Programmes (adaptation agenda is described above). Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) has an active interest in the funding of climate science, reflecting its commitment to tackling climate change and its effects as a driver of future instability and poverty. Further details on FCDO funding of research, which spans both mitigation and adaptation, can be found in the international The Department for Transport (DfT) (and the Office for Zero Emission Vehicles) is also heavily involved in low-carbon policy in the UK, given the significant contribution that transport emissions make to total UK emissions and the challenges in decarbonising this sector. The UK’s ambition is for a modern, low-carbon, low-pollution transport system with net zero emissions in 2050 – as set out in the Transport Decarbonisation Plan, published in July 2021. In support of this, a range of programmes are being undertaken, including the £1 billion Automotive Transformation Fund supporting development of an electrified automotive supply chain, and funding for innovative technologies including £180 million for sustainable aviation fuels, £125 million of UK Government funding for the Future Flight Challenge, and £23 million for the Clean Maritime Demonstration Competition. Building on the success of our £20 million zero emission road freight trials, these are being expanded to trial three zero emission HGV technologies at scale on UK roads. Since 2020, the UK has committed over £2.5 billion to the electric vehicle transition, of which over £1.6 billion is to support charging infrastructure. Several agencies and public bodies exist to advise and implement the UK environmental strategy, including climate change. These Met Office is an executive agency, sponsored by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. See section 7.3.2.8 for more information on Met Office-led climate research programmes. UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) is the national funding agency investing in esearch in the UK, sponsored by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, supported by 7 agencies and public bodies. See section 7.3.2.9 for more information on the Research Councils and UKRI. Environment Agency (EA) protects and improves the environment and promotes sustainable development in England. It plays a lead role in managing flood risk and minimising the impact of flooding. (NE) is the UK Government’s advisor on the natural environment. NE aims to increase the capacity of the natural environment to cope with climate change, and support opportunities to mitigate against the causes of climate change. NE has developed the evidence base on carbon sequestration and storage by semi-natural habitats, including peatlands. Forestry Commission is responsible for protecting and expanding England and Scotland’s woods and forests. Through its research agency, Forest Research, it supports research on the role of woodlands in climate change mitigation and adaptation, both in rural and urban areas. Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture (Cefas) commissions and carries out a range of research activities connected to the aquatic environment, including the impacts of climate change and the UK’s ability to adapt to it. Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 373 • The Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) plays an important role in nature conservation at a UK scale, by co-ordinating nature conservation action at a UK level; working in partnerships to provide common approaches, shared solutions and best practice; and providing a cost-effective and robust environmental evidence UK Space Agency (UKSA) alongside the BEIS Space Directorate consolidates funding for space programmes from across the UK Government, the Research Councils and other public bodies. The UK Space Agency is responsible for civil space policy; working with the scientific community, policy makers and business; and strengthening the UK’s relationship with the European Space Agency (ESA), and other international agencies including UNOSSA and CEOS. Climate change science and adaption is a core priority in terms of fundamental science, space missions, data management, processing and analytics and the generation of (UKHSA, previously Public Health England) is an agency of the Department of Health and Social Care. UKHSA is committed under the 3rd National Adaptation Plan to develop a single adverse weather and health plan for England by 2023. Building on the existing Heatwave and Cold Weather Plans for England, this will include updated guidance on hot and cold weather, drought, flooding and thunderstorm asthma to inform action across the health system and local communities and reduce the health impacts of adverse weather. Under the Adaptation Reporting Powers of the Climate Change Act 2008, the NHS and UKHSA published the Third Health and Care Adaptation Report 2021 on Climate Change Committee (CCC) is an independent, statutory body established under the Climate Change Act 2008. Its purpose is to advise the UK and Devolved Administrations on emissions targets and to report to Parliament on progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and preparing for and adapting to the impacts of climate change. Climate science is a priority area for UK Government funding of science. More broadly, investment in the UK’s science, research and innovation base is viewed as fundamental by the UK Government. UK science is the most productive in the G7 – from 3.2% of global research and development (R&D) spend, the UK accounts for 16% of the most highly- cited research articles. Recent examples of the UK Government’s commitment to science The Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) has confirmed an allocation of £7,908 million to UKRI for the financial year 2021-22. This provides ease in excess of inflation to the core research and innovation budgets otal UK public investment in R&D has also increased over this period, rising from £13.2 billion in 2020-21 to £14.9 billion in 2021-22.
The Scottish Government is a significant funder of research relating to climate and achieving a just transition to net zero across all sectors of the economy and wider environment. In 2011, the Scottish Government established a centre of expertise on climate change to provide

374 8th National Communication an interface between policy and researchers in academia, enhance the levels of knowledge exchange, and provide advice on both mitigation and adaption in Scotland. The Welsh Government is engaged as an active partner in a number of the climate science programmes identified in this chapter. These programmes feed into the Welsh Government’s climate change policy and provide a robust evidence base to support action in this area. In addition to the UK research programmes, the Welsh Government supports a range of additional climate change research and funds Natural Resources Wales to act as its principal The Northern Ireland Government has an established programme of research and innovation projects related to reducing greenhouse gases from agriculture and climate change mitigation. Going forward, the draft Green Growth Strategy, the Northern Ireland Executive’s multi-decade strategy aimed at balancing climate, environment and the economy in Northern Ireland will develop NI’s first Climate Action Plan. 7.3.2.7 Coordination mechanisms In addition to the underpinning climate science vision discussed above, there are specific coordination mechanisms and functions that help to guide UK climate science. BEIS hosts the UK Government Office for Science (GO-Science) which ensures that all levels of UK Government receive the best scientific advice possible and create policies that are supported by strong evidence. The GO-Science is led by the Government Chief Scientific Adviser, Patrick Vallance, who was made Chief Scientific Adviser for COP26. This appointment helped bring a scientific focus to the event and ultimately helped increase The Research and Innovation for our Dynamic Environment (RIDE) Forum has evolved from the Living With Environmental Change (LWEC) partnership, which provides coordination and alignment of research activities in environmental change. It is a forum of 23 public sector member organisations who hold a stake in environmental change research, innovation, training and capabilities, whether that be as funders, providers and/or users. The RIDE Forum’s unique contribution lies in its breadth. It brings together the complementary resources of the many different disciplines and publicly-funded sector stakeholders needed to increase our understanding of the natural, social, economic and technological systems interacting with environmental change and the translation of that knowledge into innovating policy and practice. It focuses on the UK perspective and challenges, whilst necessarily placing that in the international context. Marine science provides vital knowledge and information to enable key decisions on the management of the seas and oceans. The Marine Science Co-ordination Committee (MSCC) provides the forum to deliver the UK Marine Science Strategy (2010 to 2025) and to improve UK marine science co-ordination. The committee involves the major marine science funding Departments, the Devolved Administrations, the key marine science providers and independent members. One of the priority areas is responding to climate change and its interaction with the marine environment. One particular initiative relevant to UNFCCC is the Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership4 which provides independent advice on marine and coastal climate change impacts evidence, mitigation and adaptation. Their “report cards” have been developed for countries around the world from the Arabian Gulf to the Caribbean. Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 375 UKSA chair the Space4Climate group bringing together a range of UK stakeholders who together create a seamless supply chain of data and information from satellites to the end users of climate services. UKSA has also funded a strategic landscape review with the UN Office for Outer Space to look at the international partnerships and organisations that bring together space and climate with to sharing expertise and aligning goals. For UK Government-funded research into low carbon technology, the Net Zero Innovation Board has been established. The board provides strategic oversight for UK Government funding of Net Zero Innovation Programmes. The Board is Chaired by the UK Government’s Chief Scientific Advisor, Sir Patrick Vallance, and attended by senior civil servants responsible for major decarbonisation RD&D programmes across BEIS, UKRI, DHLUC, Defra, he Met Office and the Met Office Hadley Centre The Met Office is the UK’s national weather service. It provides weather and climate-related services to the Armed Forces, UK Government departments, the public, civil aviation, shipping, industry, agriculture and commerce. The Met Office is an executive agency, sponsored by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Science and Services The Met Office Hadley Centre is one of the UK’s foremost climate change research centres. Its flagship climate research programme is the BEIS-funded Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme (MOHCCP). This delivers world-leading scientific evidence on climate variability and change and provides the core science evidence on which UK Government can make decisions to help the UK become resilient to climate change, benefit from opportunities for growth and engage in international climate negotiations. The MOHCCP makes a vital contribution to the UK national climate capability through its central role in climate data provision from modelling and observations, and through translating, delivering and applying climate science. It focuses on both direct policy-relevant research and improving the underlying fundamental science. The current iteration of the MOHCCP , 2021-2024 addresses four key questions that the UK Government has agreed the climate science community needs to answer over the next five years and beyond. These questions reflect the changing agenda for climate science, moving from defining the problem to enabling solutions. e the current weather and climate hazards, risks and impacts that should be expected in the UK and globally? e the future hazards, risks and impacts from weather and climate that we may wish to avoid or need to adapt to? 3. What are the carbon budget and mitigation scenarios that will avoid the most ous impacts of global climate change? e the impacts and opportunities from mitigation and adaptation actions to proceed towards a resilient and net zero future?
In addition to these research themes, enhancements to infrastructure have included development of next generation modelling systems, observational datasets, and the exploitation of a new generation of high-performance computing. 376 8th National Communication Newton Fund Weather and Climate Science for Service Partnership Programme The Newton Fund Weather and Climate Science for Service Partnership (WCSSP) programme has developed a global network of projects and partnerships that harness the scientific expertise needed to strengthen the resilience of vulnerable communities to weather and climate variability. Administered by the Met Office on behalf of the UK Government, WCSSP projects aim to develop strong international partnerships, connecting the best scientific expertise. Through the programme, which started in 2014, the Met Office and other UK institutions collaborate with organisations in Brazil, China, India, South Africa and South-East Asia to advance our knowledge of weather and climate science and create new and improved weather and climate services, that support the United Nations Sustainable The Met Office and UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) councils are delivering climate research through the Strategic Priorities Fund (SPF) UK Climate Resilience (UKCR) programme. It is led by the Met Office and the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), working in partnership with the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), and the Committee on Climate Change (CCC) The programme draws together a fragmented climate research community from across the UK to deliver robust, multi-disciplinary climate risk and solutions research, ensuring the UK is resilient to climate variability and change. Running for five years from 2018 to 2023, the objectives of the programme are Characterise and quantify climate-related risks, elated risks through adaptation, 3. Co-produce climate services. ogramme recognises that multi- and inter-disciplinary approaches are required to achieve these objectives, and it draws upon researchers from the natural sciences, social sciences, engineering, and the arts and humanities. An important aspiration of the programme is to grow the community of interacting researchers, practitioners and policymakers in climate resilience from across the UK. UKCR is producing useful and useable outputs that make it easier to bring climate risks into decision making for public, private and esearch Councils and UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) Launched in April 2018, UKRI is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS). UKRI is the UK’s largest public funder of research and innovation. UKRI invests more than £8 billion annually to advance our understanding of society and the world around us and deliver benefits for society, the economy and the environment. The organisation brings together the seven disciplinary research councils, Research England, which is responsible for supporting research and knowledge exchange at higher education institutions in England, and the UK’s innovation agency, Innovate UK. The nine councils work together in innovative ways to deliver an ambitious agenda, drawing on our great depth and breadth of expertise and the enormous diversity of our portfolio. Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 377 The primary role of the seven disciplinary Research Councils is to fund research, training and knowledge exchange. Each year a total of around £3 billion is invested in research conducted at UK universities, Research Council institutes, and in securing access to international facilities for UK researchers. Together, the Research Councils cover the full spectrum of academic disciplines from the medical and biological sciences to astronomy, physics, chemistry and engineering, social sciences, economics, and the arts and humanities. The Research Councils work in partnership with each other and with policy and business partners to tackle global challenges, such as environmental change, energy and food security. The • Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Resear • Engineering and Physical Sciences Resear onment Research Council (NERC) echnology Facilities Council (STFC) Each research council has a particular strategic perspective on funding of climate science. NERC is the UK’s leading public funder of environmental science. NERC invests around £290 million each year in cutting-edge research, postgraduate training and innovation in universities and research centres, alongside £34 million capital in world-class laboratories, plus additional capital in large research infrastructure. Data generated through NERC funded research is made available through its network of Data Centres under the Environmental Data Service (EDS). NERC-supported research aims to the address the great challenges facing how we benefit from natural resources, our resilience to environmental hazards and how to manage environmental change – with climate change being a fundamental aspect of these areas. In addition, NERC-funded discovery science drives fundamental advances in knowledge across the breadth of the NERC science remit. Long-term science funding sustains the UK national capability that delivers scientific understanding of environmental processes over large time and spatial scales, supports world-leading environmental science and innovation, and meets national needs. NERC plays a leading role in the development of risk-based predictions of the future state of the climate on regional and local scales, spanning days to decades. NERC also develops improved predictive capability working with national and international partners, notably the Met Office Hadley Centre. NERC research centres all have programmes delivering climate change science, some of which are highlighted in this chapter. The centres are Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, British Geological Survey, British Antarctic Survey, National Oceanographic Centre, National Centre for Atmospheric Science and the National Centre for Earth Observation. EPSRC funds a broad range of research and training aimed at tackling climate change and achieving UK’s net zero 2050 target. EPSRC leads the UKRI Energy Programme, whose key drivers are to ensure secure and affordable energy supplies, whilst reducing carbon dioxide emissions. EPSRC’s specific focus is on engineering and scientific research into new low- and zero-carbon energy technologies, both for energy generation and for managing and reducing demand for energy in buildings, industries and transport. A key element is the provision of training to ensure sufficient researcher capacity to underpin future energy options.
Research areas specific to the engineering and physical sciences include aspects of sustainable power

378 8th National Communication generation and supply, conventional generation including carbon abatement technologies, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. EPSRC also supports research in engineering and physical science that advances the utility of models (i.e. developing better mathematical sciences for modelling and reducing uncertainties) and improvements to the input into models (i.e. better sensors and data acquisition). Research on mitigation and adaptation strategies for energy and infrastructure is also funded, for example, research to increase the contribution of bioenergy to the UK and how to build resilience into national infrastructure and transform cities to minimise the impacts ESRC has a strategic priority area of climate change and sustainability. ESRC fund social science research to understand and inform a successful social and economic transition to sustainable and biodiverse environment, and a net zero society. For example, economics, behavioural practices, and social research. In addition, ESRC contribute to interdisciplinary research programmes on climate change mitigation and adaptation. MRC has over-arching strategic priorities related to climate science, including exploring the relationship between our environment and human health and wellbeing, and the impacts on human disease. The MRC encourages partnership working in the international community to accelerate progress in global health research, including addressing the challenges which arise from climate change. Research at the MRC Centre for Environment and Health includes the human health impact of climate change scenarios and environmental risks at the individual and population level, as well as the public health impacts of climate policies. BBSRC supports research relevant to environmental change, including the responses of biological systems to climate and other environmental factors and their possible adaptations to them. Bioscience is identifying options for reducing energy consumption and GHG emissions, and developing renewable biological sources of energy, materials and chemicals that will reduce dependency on petrochemicals and help the UK become a STFC works with partners, such as NERC, the Met Office, Defra, BEIS and industry, to enable climate change research. STFC’s main research areas are astronomy, particle physics and nuclear physics, but it hosts and provides access to world-leading facilities, technologies and expertise serving the whole of the UK research base. Examples of this include operating the Centre for Environmental Data Analysis5, providing data services for the Copernicus Climate Change Service and the European Space Agency, leading the development of data standards and data service standards in the context of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP), and hosting the JASMIN data storage and analysis platform on behalf of NERC. 7.3.3 International cooperation The UK is an enthusiastic participant in a wide range of international programmes related to climate science and recognises the value of collaborations that enable scientists from differing countries and regions to work in partnership and to leverage UK expertise in support of significant global challenges. This section describes the extensive work that the UK undertakes in climate-related research and initiatives with partners across the globe, and presents examples of UK support for adaptation and mitigation projects. Finally, there is a discussion of potential barriers to exchange of relevant data. Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 379 7.3.3.1 International cooperation for global climate science initiatives The UK recognises the fundamental importance of policymakers around the world being able to access the best available science on climate change. The UK has had significant involvement in the preparation of the IPCC 6th Assessment reports (AR6) through the participation of UK scientists and their research, and support of Prof. Jim Skea, of Imperial College London, as co-chair for the Working Group III (WGIII) report on Mitigation of Climate Change. The UK Government played a key role in supporting the IPCC process including by providing financial and technical assistance, and also hosted the approval plenary for the WGIII report in March-April 2022. The UK also supports other global climate science initiatives, for example, sitting on the board of the World Adaptation Science Programme, and, as COP President, currently sits on the Steering Board of the UN Emissions Gap Report. 7.3.3.2 International cooperation on Climate Understanding and Adaptation The UK recognises that the damaging impacts of climate change are already being felt in countries around the world and that weather and climate play a significant role in the daily lives of many people. This is particularly the case in the developing world where exposure and vulnerability are high. As such, the UK places great importance on cooperation with international partners to deliver research that will help those most impacted by the world’s Whilst it is possible to identify interventions that will increase the resilience of poor peoples’ livelihoods to an uncertain climate future, the range and cost of adaptation options and improved resilience measures could be significantly improved by enabling the production of more accurate and tailored climate and weather forecasts and enhanced operating procedures for responding to forecasts and early warning systems. The UK Government, FCDO in particular, is supporting research programmes that increase capacity in this area and advance our knowledge of the practical application of climate science in the developing country context. The UK has been key in enabling the launch of The Adaptation Research Alliance (ARA), an alliance of over 140 organisations across 30 economies that will see governments, research institutions and communities collaborate to increase the resilience of vulnerable communities on the frontline of climate change. Signatory organisations are operating at a range of scales including local community-based organisations, universities, government departments, regional organisations and international organisations such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). More than half of these organisations are based in the global South – organisations participating include those based in Kenya, South Africa, India and Colombia. The Alliance has already produced a set of Adaptation Research for Impact Principles, undertaken two evidence reviews, four consultations on research priorities, and awarded 28 microgrants to enable recipients to identify burning issues for adaptation research across Africa, Asia and South America.
To better understand and improve confidence in predictions of climate variability and change across sub-Saharan Africa on timescales to support adaptation, FCDO and NERC have invested in a £20 million Future Climate for Africa research programme (FCFA). The programme has improved the understanding of what drives Africa’s climate and how it will change, as well as the impacts and adaptation options. The use of this climate information to address real world problems and inform development plans was achieved by FCFA through innovative engagement processes that included, amongst others, government decision- makers, communities and researchers. The programme has involved over 200 researchers, of which there are 185 from Africa, spanning 14 countries and 185 institutions; and

380 8th National Communication • influenced 17 policies, plans and investments; oduced over 185 peer reviewed articles, working papers and policy briefs on issues of climate science and its application in Africa; and oduced 72 climate-related tools and supported 34 learning events On shorter timescales, the Weather and Climate Information Services for Africa programme (WISER) has delivered transformational change in the quality, accessibility and use of weather and climate information at all levels of decision making for sustainable development in Africa. The Met Office has led the East African component of this programme, enhancing national and regional weather observing and forecasting capabilities in the region. Pan-African work is led by the UNECA African Climate Policy Centre (ACPC). To date, the programme has achieved substantive results, including for example improving the understanding of weather and climate issues and access to services for 11 government departments in Kenya and Tanzania, and providing new and improved forecast services in Kenya and Tanzania for FCDO recognises that adaptation support needs to be underpinned with rigorous research and evidence to inform decision-making. The Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA) programme has focused on societal barriers to resilience and adaptation in climate change hotspots in Africa and Asia. It achieved significant policy influence, in addition to research excellence. CARIAA led to more than 20 examples of policy impact, including several which effectively integrated gender equality and social inclusion considerations into climate change policy. For example, IPCC AR6 includes more than 20 references to outputs from this programme. The Science for Humanitarian Emergencies and Resilience (SHEAR) research programme, co-funded with NERC, has led FCDO’s efforts to improve understanding of how climate/ weather observations and forecasting can result in more effective decision-making to reduce exposure of the most vulnerable to the increased risks posed by natural hazard – including those presented by a changing climate – through measures such as provision of risk information, early warning systems and forecast-based financing. As part of the programme, research undertaken by University of Reading and Partners has contributed to the use of forecasts from the Global Flood Awareness System (GloFAS) to drive action before disasters within the Red Cross Red Crescent (RCRC) network, UN Agencies and the Start Network. The success of robust Early Action Protocols (EAPs) led to a dedicated RCRC funding mechanism for forecast-based Action and inspired similar funds that together cover 60 countries. For example, in 2020, over $5m was released based on a GloFAS trigger to protect hundreds of thousands of people in Bangladesh. The Asia Regional Resilience to a Changing Climate programme (ARRCC), delivered by the UK’s Met Office and the World Bank, is increasing the resilience of vulnerable groups and of economic growth to current and future climate and environmental impacts in Asian countries namely Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan. To date it has delivered a range of high-quality trainings, national and regional partnerships, cutting-edge tools and system enhancements, and world-class knowledge products that are on track to be fully FCDO has also recently launched a landmark programme of innovative climate research that will turn new discoveries into actionable solutions to reduce the risks from climate change. The Climate Adaptation and Resilience research programme (CLARE) will deliver the commitment made at COP26 to support action-focused research to inform development in a changing climate, ensuring that science is the foundation of decision-making as developing

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 381 countries adapt to the changing climate. Jointly funded by the UK and Canada, CLARE will generate new knowledge, practical tools and approaches to support those most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and related natural hazards, such as floods, droughts and heatwaves. The UK has committed a total UK aid funding to £100 million towards this programme, which is set to benefit at least 5 million people around the world. Through the Newton-Bhabha Fund, NERC is working with India on a number of programmes relevant to climate change. For example, the Sustaining Water Resources for Food, Energy and Ecosystem Services programme (£3m UK contribution, with matched Indian research effort) is aiming to develop a whole systems approach to basin modelling to enable informed decision making about the management of India’s water resources. These models will have a forecasting capability that can be used to study future trends including the impact of The Met Office collaborates extensively with organisations across Europe through its participation in European Union funded research programmes, which in the past five years have been the Horizon 2020 and Horizon Europe programmes. Collaborative work through these programmes has provided substantial benefits to the development of climate science capability and understanding in the UK and globally, through leveraging the capabilities and talent pool between world-leading research organisations.
Major projects in which the Met Office played a leading role ojections (EUCP) which have provided advances in modelling and projections across the continent; ope project which created a network and forum for Europe climate service providers, practitioners and users; VERA project developing European high-resolution climate modelling capability and providing new datasets and understanding for IPCC AR6; and • The High-End Climate Impacts and Extr emes (HELIX) project led by the University of Exeter in partnership with the Met Office which looks at climate impacts at different Other major projects in which the Met Office has played a key role include the EMBRACE and CRESCENDO projects that emphasized the development and application of full Earth System Models, including a coordinated European contribution to CMIP5 and CMIP6. nternational cooperation on mitigation technologies FCDO has facilitated and demonstrated the application of low-carbon technologies to support clean energy access in developing countries. Examples n Energy Cooking Services (MECS) programme that, has been working closely with the Kenyan Ministry of Energy over the last two years on a revised national energy policy that includes for the first time a specific component on electric clean cooking. With around 70% of the Kenyan population connected to an underutilised grid, but 83% still cooking on firewood and charcoal. The transition to electric cooking is a huge opportunity for improving health, reducing deforestation and expanding the use of modern energy. The new energy policy, expected to be released in 2022, will include a significant shift away from biomass cooking to improved options that particularly benefit women and girls. The Low Energy Inclusive Appliances (LEIA) pr of the need for cooling technologies in Pakistan as it suffered some of the hottest

382 8th National Communication temperatures ever recorded during the Coronavirus (Covid-19) pandemic. The programme conducted a series of research and standards development activities that directly informed World Bank provision of 200,000 Solar Home systems and the use of energy efficient fans to LEIA standards, including for the poorest people ransforming Energy Access (TEA) programme is investing in early-stage testing and scale-up of innovative technologies and business models that accelerate access to affordable and clean energy-based services for poor households, enterprises and social institutions, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Since 2016 the programme improved access to clean energy for 9.5 million people (including 4.8 million women) in developing countries, through the incubation and scaling of new clean energy businesses in sectors like distributed solar • stimulated UK-led clean energy innovation funding r (R&D) of 147 new technologies and 202 innovative business models in areas such as circular economy energy storage, sustainable cooling, electric pressure cookers, remote network management, energy access crowdfunding created over 74,000 sustainable jobs in clean energy and supported over 700 African graduates and trainees with placements in energy access businesses; leveraged £599 million of additional investment from both private and ound 979,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions. owth (CCG) programme is providing research and global public goods to help countries develop economic strategies, plans, and policies to attract investment into low-carbon growth opportunities across multiple sectors, currently focused on grid-scale energy and transport. It builds on partnerships in key countries that bring together key stakeholders and decision-makers in target countries, supporting them with a consortium of world-class UK and international researchers to rapidly build the evidence, tools and decision support frameworks needed to leverage a shift to clean investments. See section 7.3.5.5 for more detail on research for mitigation technologies. arriers to dissemination of climate research Despite the extensive body of collaborative research undertaken by UK scientists, it is recognised that barriers continue to exist to the dissemination of data and research. The UK Government believes that Open Access to research is a public benefit which enhances transparency, scientific integrity and rigour, stimulates innovation, promotes public engagement, and improves efficiency in research. The UK is widely recognised as being a leading nation in the Open Access and Open Data movements. Since the Finch Report was published in 2012, the UK has made substantial progress towards the objective of ensuring that publicly funded research is made available through an Open Access route. UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) announced its new open access policy in August 2021. The UKRI open access policy applies to peer-reviewed research articles submitted for publication from 1 April 2022 requiring full and immediate open access;

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 383 and for the first time, monographs, book chapters and edited collections published from UKRI is supporting a range of activities to help researchers publish open access easing funding to support open access from £24M to £46.7M per year. This includes allocations to the research articles block grant, a dedicated fund for monographs and the policy supporting actions. Ensuring open access options for authors, by supporting Jisc to enable more esearch organisations, publishers and learned societies to participate in transitional • Engaging with stakeholders to support implementation, including establishing a ch England Development (RED) Fund support for the UK Reproducibility Network to promote uptake of open research practices. Nevertheless, further effort is required. To this end, in 2015 the Minister for Universities and Science, Jo Johnson, requested an independent report from Professor Adam Tickell, Chair of the UK Open Access Co-ordination Group, on open access to research policy. As part of this advice, a recommendation was made that a roadmap for national open research data infrastructure be produced, with a set of recommendations. A Taskforce was established 6 observed that there remain significant barriers to sharing data, including the lack of infrastructure for data access and preservation, concerns about personal or commercially confidential information, or lack of incentives for researchers. In addition to open access of published scientific results, the final report of the Open Research Data Task Force7 also highlighted the importance of open research data and set out recommendations to reduce barriers, including but not limited to infrastructure provision, user friendly services and incentives for researchers.
The UK Government has recognised the importance of Data and in 2020 launched a National Data Strategy the publication of a policy framework in November 2021 to address Mission 1 of the National Data Strategy to unlock the value of data across the economy UKRI itself has a vision for coherent state-of-the-art national digital research infrastructure, that will seamlessly connect researchers, policy makers and innovators to the computers, data, tools, techniques and skills that underpin the most ambitious and creative research. Data infrastructure and associated services is a key theme within this vision.
It will be delivered through the evolution of existing infrastructures to support new communities of practice and subject to funding, by investing in new capabilities to enable researchers to turn data into knowledge. For example, NERC, whose commitment to data sharing was 6 7 Realising-the-potential-ORDTF-July-2018.pdf 8 9 the-value-of-data-across-the-economy/national-data-strategy-mission-1-policy-framework-unlocking-the- value-of-data-across-the-economy#intervention

384 8th National Communication reported previously in the NC7 submission, continues to operate a number of data centres under its Environmental Data Service10. The EDS is responsible for making data available under the NERC data policy, which specifies that NERC-funded scientists must make their data openly available within two years of collection and deposit it in a NERC data centre for long term preservation. NERC makes its environmental data available free of charge apart from special cases that involve third party data. NERC is currently reviewing its Environmental Data Service with a view to further developing the roles of its data centres into a more integrated user-focused set of services, with an aim to maximise the economic and social impact of environmental research. In addition, the UK Data Service11 provides ESRC funded access and training to use UK’s largest collection of economic, social and population data for 7.3.4 Climate information services In order to manage the risks associated with climate change it is necessary to deliver climate information in accessible, usable and relevant forms, and to combine climate hazard information with context dependent knowledge on vulnerability and exposure to the hazards. Climate services translate climate research and data into these usable formats and help to apply the information for users so they can make more informed decisions. The transition to a low carbon resilient economy and increasing awareness of climate impacts at a local level is driving a growing need for climate services in the UK and internationally. Examples of UK- funded programmes providing climate services are below. 7.3.4.1 Climate services to inform decision-making in the UK Met Office-led Climate Services and UKCP18 The Met Office provides a range of climate information services to inform UK Government decisions and policy. These include international climate negotiations, domestic mitigation and domestic risk assessment and adaptation (as described in the UK Climate Change Act). They are typically based on the tailoring the scientific research from the Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme (MOHCCP). Climate services focusing on observational data are delivered through a climate dashboard and the National Climate Information Centre (NCIC). Further climate services deliver seasonal climate forecasts, decadal forecasts and long-term projections (UKCP18, see below), including guidance on how to use them to a range of departments and other users, and regular updates on global carbon budgets. A dedicated Knowledge Integration team works closely with UK Government stakeholders in order to co-develop these climate services and tailor them to particular policy maker needs. Additionally, Defra commissions climate services from the Met Office related to encouraging the wider use of UKCP18 and to inform issues related to food, farming and the natural environment. The latest UK climate projections (UKCP18), produced by the Met Office Hadley Centre, were released beginning in November 2018 and provide an up-to-date assessment of how the UK climate may change in the future. These projections updated the probabilistic projections over land and provided a set of future climate projections for the globe at 60km scale and for the UK at 12km scale. In 2019, these were downscaled for the UK to a level (2.2km) previously only used for short-term meteorological modelling, allowing more realistic simulation of high impact extreme events, e.g. localised heavy rainfall in summer. 11

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 385 General climate change trends projected over UK land for the 21st century in UKCP18 are broadly consistent with earlier projections (UKCP09), showing an increased chance of warmer, wetter winters and hotter, drier summers along with an increase in the frequency and intensity of extremes. This is seen in the Probabilistic (25km), Global (60km), Regional (12km) and Local (2.2km) projections, which add detail to the top-level view including providing more The UKCP18 projections have been used extensively to support the development of the third Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA3), as required under the Climate Change Act 2008, to inform the 5-yearly National Adaptation Programmes (NAPs) of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. In addition, UKCP18 is being used by organisations as part of their adaption and resilience planning, in support of the NAPs and other drivers affecting businesses and individuals in the UK. Current endeavours in UK climate services seek to maximise the utilisation of UKCP18. The UK Climate Resilience (UKCR) Programme uses UKCP18 to build the evidence on climate risks, adaptation and services in the UK. It has delivered several high impact outputs to date, including climate risk indicators to support climate risk assessments, FUTURE-DRAINAGE which provides estimates of changes in rainfall for use in drainage design, EFLAG which is providing a new dataset of river flows for water resource planning, and urban climate services for use within cities to raise awareness of climate change issues and provide information to help climate resilient planning. UK Climate Services provided by other research bodies The UK academic sector has a strong track record providing environmental services in the UK and overseas. The CEDA Archive forms part of NERC’s Environmental Data Service (EDS) and is responsible for looking and supplying data from atmospheric and earth observation research. It currently hosts over 18 Petabytes of data from climate models, satellites, aircraft, meteorological observations, and other sources. Many universities now provide bespoke climate services to individual departments across the UK Government covering physical science, economics, social science research and engineering. In 2021, BEIS commissioned the Climate Services for a Net Zero resilient World (CS-N programme.
The £5M, 4-year programme, delivered by a consortium led by consultancy Ricardo and including University College London, the Tyndall Centre and the UKRI-NERC centres of excellence, comprises 15 sub projects, Global decarbonisation analysis eview of global maritime emissions, to inform the UK’s position in discussions with the International Maritime Organisation • Analysis of the interactions between mitigation measur H2, Biological VOCs, aviation emissions) -reviewed evidence on climate impacts at a global, regional and country scale, via a simple-to-use database and comprehensive e water availability for water-intensive, low-carbon energy oving the resilience of UK energy networks, through understanding future impacts, based on the UKCP18 climate projections ojections of temperature change and impacts on UK housing

386 8th National Communication • Impr oving understanding the co-benefits of climate action – international regional/ country assessments of climate change mitigation co-benefits oving understanding of UK adaptation-mitigation co-benefits and trade-offs • Summarising the potential for gr eenhouse gas emissions verification through application of novel technologies and comparison with current accounting approach The overarching aims of the programme are to deliver climate information to policy teams and other decision-makers, in a range of audience-appropriate formats, to improve their understanding of the role of climate change in their policy areas and to ensure decisions take this evidence into account and reduce overall harm and costs of climate change across the 0W will build on underpinning science and service development in other imate services to inform overseas development and international decision This section details some of the international climate services work carried out by the Met Office. For details of other international projects led by FCDO and UKRI-NERC, see The Met Office’s International Applied Science to Services team deliver projects to make climate information useful and accessible for the international community, so that informed decisions can be made in the face of climate variability and change. Understanding future climate risks depends on analysing both current and future climate conditions and the socio-economic vulnerabilities exposed by those conditions. Drawing this knowledge together requires us to build strong national, international, and importantly transdisciplinary partnerships. The Met Office produces Climate Risk Reports for the FCDO using a ‘climate in context’ approach to provide an evidence-base for climate sensitive regional policy and planning. Working with development consultants from the Overseas Development Institute, who have expertise in the regions being assessed, has enabled us to draw from across our disciplines to explore the current and evolving climate-related risks on development themes central to FCDO regional office planning and policy activities, such as food security, livelihoods, water resources, infrastructure, and human health. Climate risk information provided in the context of these socio-economic systems aims to inform climate-smart development planning and decision making and support climate adaptation and resilience building. Using a similar multi-disciplinary approach, the Met Office has worked with the Development, Concepts and Doctrine Centre (DCDC) to produce a series of reports for Africa, Middle East, the Americas and Russia that summarise observed climate, climate projections and their potential implications from a defence and security perspective, providing strategic context and insight for the MOD and the wider UK Government. The Met Office’s transdisciplinary approach to co-developing user-relevant climate information and services has been developed over a number of years and across several projects. The FCDO funded Future Climate For Africa project Future Resilience for African Cities and Lands (FRACTAL) pioneered methodologies and principles to bring together and effectively integrate the needs, knowledge and actors required to generate information and develop plans and actions to build resilience in developing country city regions, with a focus on South Africa. These methodologies and principles have subsequently been applied in other FCDO funded

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 387 projects and programmes including the Weather and Climate Services for Africa programme (WISER) and the Asia Regional Resilience to a Changing Climate Programme ARRCC. While the WISER programme has worked to make a step change in the quality, accessibility and use of weather and climate information services for sustainable development in Africa, the ARRCC programme (2018-2022) has focused on delivering new technologies and innovative approaches to help vulnerable communities (primarily in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal and Afghanistan) receive and use climate information, weather warnings and forecasts to better prepare for climate-related shocks. The Met Office was a major partner in the UK Space Agency International Partnership Programme (UKSA IPP) CommonSensing project is to improve the uptake and use of satellite-based climate information in three South Pacific countries – Fiji, Vanuatu, and Solomon Islands. Project activities supported national and regional governments to build resilience to the impacts of climate change and improve access to climate finance. The Met Office also provided support to another UKSA project – the Dengue forecasting MOdel Satellite-based System (D-MOSS) – which developed a dengue fever early warning Under the Weather and Climate Science for Services Partnerships programme (WCSSP), the Met Office has carried out underpinning science which is being pulled through into climate service development. In CSSP China, a service which delivers forecasts off summer rainfall for the Yangtze River Basin months ahead is being used to inform water management organisations in the region, such as the Three Gorges Dam. CSSP Brazil has produced a new service that supports wildfire management and planning across South America by combining seasonal forecasts of temperature and rainfall with fire trend data to predict fire probability. 7.3.4.3 Climate Services research and future development As climate services are less mature than weather services, and because there is both rapidly improving capability from climate science (e.g. better spatial information of treatment of climate extremes) and more sophisticated needs for climate information (e.g. from evolving regulation and stress testing) there is ongoing investment in climate service research. The SPF UKCR programme is a join initiative between the Met Office and UKRI to produce the approaches needed to make a step change in building resilience to climate change in the UK. Components include better risk assessment, building resilience, for instance through adaptation, and development of climate services to deliver climate information.
The outputs of the programme will include improved practice, new national datasets, and a vibrant community of climate resilience researchers. The Weather and Climate Science for Service Partnerships (WCSSP , established for China, Brazil, India, Southeast Asia and South Africa) provide additional climate service research, typically focused on a particular region but with transferable elements for use more widely. The University sector in particular plays a major role in UK climate service research, including enabling more inter and transdisciplinary services needed to inform low-carbon The UK plays an active, and at times leading, role in the development and delivery of climate services internationally. Key international activities include thought leadership with the WMO for the Global Framework for Climate Services (facilitated by the WMO and UN Agencies), leadership of international WMO climate service Expert Teams, and strong engagement in climate service development in Europe, for instance through the Climateurope and Climateurope2 EU projects. Additionally, discussions are ongoing to facilitate a National Framework for Climate Services, with development driven through the SPF UKCR

388 8th National Communication programme. A number of ISO standards are used in the UK to further adaptation-based services including ISO14090/91. 7.3.5 Priority areas in UK Climate Research Programmes The following section describes examples of UK funded research programmes, addressing the priority areas identified in UNFCCC guidance. 7.3.5.1 Climate process and climate system studies, including paleoclimate studies Predictions of regional climate are reliant on global climate models, and observations. Global climate models have developed rapidly over the last few decades but require further improvements particularly in the representation of key earth system processes. The UK is funding several major research initiatives to improve the understanding of key processes and refine their representation in climate models. Changes in Antarctic ice sheets can induce large changes in sea level and in the freshwater flux to the oceans, which in turn can affect the ocean circulation and climate. However there remain large uncertainties deriving from the cryosphere in predictions of future sea level rise. NERC and the United States National Science Foundation are undertaking a $50m collaboration to substantially improve both decadal and longer-term projections of ice loss and sea level rise originating from Thwaites Glacier in West Antarctica. The 2015 SCAR (Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research) horizon scan singled out this location as a ‘region of particular concern’ and it is considered to be one of the most unstable One of the most pressing problems in understanding and predicting global climate change is the inability of modern climate models to reproduce Arctic climate change. The Multidisciplinary Drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC) was designed in response to this need. By partnering with BEIS, NERC were able to provide funding for ship berths on the MOSAiC expedition to enable UK researchers to participate in this observational study and undertake research that will provide a step change in understanding The Southern Ocean is one of the most important components of the global carbon cycle, having captured half of all human-related carbon that has entered the ocean to date. This vast anthropogenic perturbation to the Southern Ocean carbon system is activating a range of complex climate feedbacks, many of which are poorly understood and quantified. =NERC is investing in two complementary research programmes to address the uncertainties in the future behaviour of the Southern Ocean carbon sink and therefore substantially reduce uncertainty in 21st century global climate change projections. The Ocean Regulation of Climate by Heat and Carbon Sequestration and Transports is an £8.4 million programme that will focus on a subset of the physics of heat and carbon uptake. The Role of the Southern Ocean in the Earth System is a £7 million programme that aims to make 21st century global climate change projections more accurate through improved assessment of the Southern Ocean carbon sink, and provide the scientific basis to inform international climate policy on the role of the Southern Ocean in global climate change. Improved prediction of the European climate is critical for the UK, with the impacts of unusual weather episodes such as the 2003 heat wave, 2010 cold winter and 2012 wet summer

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 389 felt across society and the economy. Recent developments in observation, modelling and data reanalyses provide an exceptional scientific opportunity to increase understanding of the causes and predictability of these unusual seasons. Weather and climate models are critical to society’s ability to reduce the impacts of hazardous weather, informing decisions on mitigating and adapting to climate change. NERC has invested £5 million on research in partnership with Met Office to deliver a better understanding of convective processes and their interactions with atmospheric flows, and to translate this into new convection parameterisation schemes. Representing convection is still the key error in weather and climate models. This limits our confidence in predictions and in turn their value when it comes to making decisions on timescales, which can range from days to decades. Major changes are occurring across the North Atlantic climate system in ocean and atmosphere temperature and circulation, in sea ice thickness and extent and in key atmospheric constituents such as ozone, methane and aerosols. Changes in the North Atlantic directly affect the UK’s climate, weather and air quality, with major economic impacts on agriculture, fisheries, water, energy, transport and health. The North Atlantic also has global importance since changes here drive changes in climate, hazardous weather and air quality further afield, such as in North America, Africa and Asia. NERC is investing £9 million in a five-year research programme to enhance the UK’s capability to detect, attribute, and predict changes in the North Atlantic climate system. The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a key component of the global climate system and dominates northward ocean heat transport over most of the Atlantic. The Subpolar North Atlantic is the region where the AMOC is actively shaped through a combination of surface fluxes of heat, freshwater and momentum.
There is increasing evidence that Subpolar North Atlantic knowledge is important for decadal climate prediction. NERC, in collaboration with the National Science Foundation, have invested in a programme to extend the observations of the Overturning in the Subpolar North Atlantic Program (OSNAP) to a decade and to support research which will use the observations effectively in science and policy predictions. Understanding dangerous climate threshold UK scientists are investigating the possibility of crossing future dangerous thresholds in the climate system, such as irreversible decline of the Greenland Ice Sheet, dieback of the Amazon rainforest and collapse of The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). For example, new work shows there is now greater confidence that partial irreversible loss of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet has already begun, and that East Antarctica and northeast Greenland are potentially more sensitive to climate change than first thought, which has implications for future sea level rise and associated impacts. Changes to the Hydrological cycle are being induced by climate change and other catchment changes. These changes are affecting the infiltration and movement of pollutants within river systems and the ecosystems that they support. NERC is investing in an £8m programme over 4 years, to better understand the processes and sources by which pollutants are entering, mixing and being transported through river systems as well as how mixtures of chemical (and biological contaminants) and their exposure regimes are impacting on the quality, ecology and biodiversity of UK rivers. The overarching aim of the Understanding Changes in Quality of UK Freshwaters programme is to enable and inform the development of better plans for adaptation, mitigation and detection of risks associated with declining river quality now and in the future. 390 8th National Communication NERC leads an £18.7 million UKRI investment (with the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), and the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), in partnership with Met Office) bringing together fragmented climate research and expertise to deliver robust, multi and interdisciplinary climate risk and adaptation solutions research focussing on the two major knowledge gaps in UK Climate Resilience research; 1) characterising and qualifying climate-related risks in decision-relevant terms; 2) developing effective adaptation strategies and policies that deliver resilience, improve lives, and promote economic growth. This will ensure the UK is resilient to climate variability and change, and powerfully positioned to exploit the opportunities of adaptation and green growth. 7.3.5.2 Modelling and prediction, including general circulation models Climate modelling in the UK is led through the Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme, funded by BEIS and Defra. This relationship ensures that the world leading modelling capability of the UK feeds directly into UK Government and informs policy. Exploitation of the latest supercomputer at the Met Office has allowed the UK to lead the global effort to develop larger ensembles of higher resolution climate and Earth system model simulations, through a number of international collaborations including a UK-led EU-funded project PRIMAVERA (PRocess-based climate AdVances in high-resolution modelling and European climate Risk Assessments). These provide more accurate information on climate variability and change to decision-makers and society. The UK climate and Earth System models, HadEGM3-GC3.1 (Hadley Centre Global Environment Model 3 – Global Coupled 3.1)and UKESM1.0 (UK Earth System Model 1.0), made a significant contribution to the 6th Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6), with data submitted to fourteen individual Model Intercomparison Projects (MIPs). The UK has played an international leading role in Earth System Model development, for example through the EU project CRESCENDO (Coordinated Research in Earth Systems and Experiments, kNowledge, Dissemination and Outreach). This data is now being actively analysed by scientists around the world and was extensively used in the recent IPCC 6th Assessment Report (AR6). A special issue of the Journal of Advances in Modelling the Earth System (JAMES) details the UK contribution to the CMIP6 DECK12 (Diagnostic, Evaluation and Characterization of Klima). The next generation of UK models are under active development and will be the last based on the Unified Model (UM) system. HadGEM3-GC5 will be the core UK physical climate model for the coming ~5 years and will also form the basis of the 2nd UK Earth system model (UKESM2). UKESM2 will continue to be developed through a collaboration between the Met Office Hadley Centre and NERC centres. UKESM2 is intended for use in the next CMIP project (CMIP7) and will be released for use by the full UK research community. In addition to UKESM, NERC has invested £5 million (with resources matched by the Met Office) in its ‘understanding and representing atmospheric convection across scales’ programme. This builds on developments in understanding of convection in recent years to significantly improve the parameterisation of convection within models, which remains a limitation. This will lead to substantial improvements in both the weather and climate models that are critical to society’s ability to reduce the impacts of hazardous weather and inform 12

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 391 decisions regarding mitigation of and adaptation to climate change. Some early tests of how the new convection scheme impacts climate simulation are planned in 2022. The Met Office is investing in its Path to High Resolution Research and Innovation Theme through 4 flagship projects around km-scale modelling at global and large-regional domains as well as 10km (atmosphere and ocean) global coupled climate simulations and urban-scale regional modelling. These projects assess the role of scale-interactions delivered by these ultra-resolutions, notably on the ability to simulate high-impact weather across timescales from 1-day forecasts to century length projections. Knowledge gained will inform choices for future operational capability. The Met Office Hadley Centre – NERC collaboration on Earth system modelling will continue to emphasize model realism with respect to a range of key Earth system processes, couplings and feedbacks.
In the near term such developments are targeted for UKESM2 (with a target release date of mid-late 2025), which, in addition to already employing a global carbon cycle including terrestrial nitrogen limitation and interactive whole-atmosphere chemistry and aerosols, will include the following new process descriptions; (i) interactive Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, coupled to both the ocean and atmosphere, (ii) interactive wildfires, coupled to the terrestrial carbon cycle, dynamic vegetation and atmospheric composition, (iii) permafrost physics and biogeochemistry, (iv) nitrate aerosols and (v) an improved treatment of stratospheric ozone . UKESM2 will be designed to run using emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), with full cycles of both gases simulated. This will support research into the efficacy of various CO2 and CH4 mitigation actions for reducing climate warming, while considering the broader Earth system and environmental responses. Work on including various forms of human land-use will also allow investigation of a range of land-based climate mitigation options. The UK views the prediction of climate variability and change for the coming seasons to a decade ahead as a key area of climate science. In recent years the Met Office seasonal and decadal prediction systems have been substantially upgraded to higher resolution in both the atmosphere (~50km) and the ocean (0.25 deg), resulting in significantly improved climate predictions when assessed against the recent historical period. The EUCP project, which is led by the UK, has been investigating how to seamlessly link decadal predictions with longer The Met Office is also investing in its ‘Producing and Exploiting Ensembles’ Research and Innovation Theme by increasing the ensemble size for seasonal and decadal predictions by a factor of 4 and by producing large ensembles of historical and future climate simulations and projections. The increase in ensemble size increases the skill of seasonal and decadal predictions and increases the accuracy and understanding of past climate change and future Key improvements include a new capability to predict the large-scale circulation in the North Atlantic region (the North Atlantic Oscillation), and hence winter conditions for the UK and the rest of Europe out to seasons and years ahead. However, current climate models appear to underestimate the size of the predictable signal and work is ongoing to understand Decadal prediction has recently become an international operational activity governed by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the Hadley Centre has recently been chosen as the international Lead Centre for Annual to Decadal Prediction. The Met Office therefore collects decadal forecasts each year from around 10 international centres and collates them into a the WMO Global Annual to Decadal Climate Update. This provides forecasts

392 8th National Communication of near surface temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric circulation, as well as selected climate indices including the probability of global temperature temporarily exceeding 1.5oC above preindustrial levels – an event which will happen as global warming approaches the first Paris agreement level. These forecasts offer the potential to provide early warnings of other extreme events and are being used, for example, to develop other new climate services including multiyear Atlantic hurricane forecasts for the insurance industry. 7.3.5.3 Research on the impacts of climate change Observed impacts of climate change The Met Office has worked with partners in the UK and abroad on new datasets documenting the observed impacts of climate change, particularly on fire weather and on mountain glaciers. The latter includes satellite observations of a worldwide expansion of glacial lakes, a global dataset of changes in the frequency of glacial lake outburst floods, and an inventory of glaciers with a high rock content which melt less rapidly. Future climate change impacts on Global Warming Levels (GWLs) of 1.5°C, 2°C and 4°C A UK-led EU project HELIX (High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes) assessed climate change impacts at Global Warming Levels of 1.5°C, 2°C and 4°C, and this has continued with the Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme (MOHCCP). HELIX and subsequent work assessed changes in extreme rainfall, river and coastal flooding, drought, water and food security, heatwaves, human heat stress, fire weather land ecosystems and biodiversity, and economic impacts, at global scales and also with a regional focus in Europe, Africa and South Asia. Recent Met Office work has also applied the GWL framing to impacts of climate change in the UK, including a range of extreme temperature and rainfall metrics plus drought and wildfire risk. Publications and figures from these projects featured extensively in the IPCC Special Report on 1.5C Global Warming and the IPCC 6th Assessment Report (AR6), and HELIX was also influential in establishing the AR6 framing of future climate change in terms of Integrated modelling of climate change impacts The Met Office has made substantial contributions to all three rounds of the Inter-Sectoral Impacts Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP). As part of this, the Met Office has been undertaking a long-term programme of developing a more integrated approach to modelling climate change impacts in the model JULES (Joint UK Land Environment Simulator). The focus has initially been on the response of biomes to changing climate and resulting impacts on the water and food sectors. The configuration includes the estimation of changing fire frequency, nitrogen limitation on plant growth, and the influence of changing biomes on elements of the water cycle such as surface runoff, soil moisture and river flow. Climate change impacts in South America Under the Climate Science for Service Partnership (CSSP) Brazil project, the Met Office has been working with Brazilian partners to improve modelling of crops and forest response to drought, with a view to improving carbon cycle and crop productivity estimates. The Met Office and Brazilian partners have also assessed climate change-driven increases in the risk of landslides due to heavy rainfall. Climate change impacts in Asia As part of the current FCDO funded Asia Regional Resilience to a Changing Climate (ARRCC) programme, the Met Office is involved in strengthening understanding of monsoon dynamics on seasonal timescales.
Skilful seasonal forecasts have the potential to support long-term

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 393 planning decisions for agriculture, food security and water availability, and provide advanced warning of anomalous climatic conditions, such as droughts and floods, which can lead to widespread impacts on vulnerable livelihoods and the economy. On climate timescales, driven by the needs of hydropower stakeholder in Nepal, the ARRCC programme has supported applied research to evaluate present-day climate and projected changes to extreme rainfall. The findings are informing resilient development policy and planning decisions, enabled through ongoing engagement with key stakeholders (e.g. Electricity Regulatory Committee). In addition, ARRCC has facilitated new sea-level science and 21st century projections for tide gauge locations across South Asia, adapting the methods used for the UKCP18 marine projections. The new projections are feeding into local-level research by project partners the Institute of Water Modelling in Bangladesh, and capacity building and knowledge sharing has been conducted in parallel through sea-level science training workshops and science-policy webinars in Pakistan and Bangladesh. The NERC-funded project EMERGENCE studied the new CMIP6 climate projections. Research involving the Met Office as a project partner assessed the impacts of human heat stress on farm labour productivity in the rice-growing regions of South Asia. Climate change impacts in Africa Met Office has led major research in the Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF) AFRICAP (Agricultural and Food systems Increasing Capacity and Advising Policy) project on climate smart agricultural development. Research into present-day climate extremes is informing policies and practices for disaster risk management in East and Southern Africa. Weather extremes have significant implications for human lives and livelihoods, through their adverse impacts on food, energy and water security, health and vital infrastructure. For example, Met Office research found that the maize-growing region of South Africa is at risk of experiencing record-breaking hot and dry events under current climatic conditions. The Met Office is a project partner in the NERC-funded project CongoPeat, an extensive study of the newly discovered world’s largest tropical peatland in the Cuvette Centrale in the Congo basin. The Met Office contribution is to support the development of a new model of tropical peatlands in JULES for testing against palaeoclimate data and application to future projections of climate change and deforestation, to assess the risk of large-scale carbon release if the peatlands were to be degraded by human activity. 7.3.5.4 Socio-economic analysis, including analysis of both the impacts of climate The Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) are investing in research and data collections to understand how individuals, communities, political and corporate actions can contribute to, or mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate change. ESRC investments generate the evidence to support sustainable and equitable societies, structures, and ESRC funds a team of social scientists and interdisciplinary experts to provide leadership for climate and environmental social science research – Advancing Capacity for Climate and Environment Social Science (ACCESS). They will increase the co-ordination and visibility of social science research through outreach and close relationships with stakeholders. ESRC are investing in major research programmes designed to understand the impact of climate change on society and the economy, with the goal of developing practical solutions that will move us in the right direction to a more sustainable world. The Centre for Climate Change and Social Transformations (CAST), led by Cardiff and Bath universities, is a global

394 8th National Communication hub for understanding the profound changes required to address climate change. CAST’s work focuses on how we can all make a difference in our everyday lives in the areas of food, travel, shopping, and heating or cooling in buildings, and how best to bring about these changes. And ESRC investment in the Place-based Climate Action Network (P-CAN) is translating top-level climate policy into direct, practical actions within local communities, creating healthier, more prosperous and resilient towns and cities with reduced greenhouse gas emissions. The Productivity Institute also includes important research, and the productivity portfolio has recently been expanded to include a large grant on a Productive Interdisciplinary research delivered in partnership across UKRI is critical to achieving ESRC’s research ambitions. Social science research within cross-council programmes helps to accelerate the rapid transformation required for a sustainable future and develop innovative solutions to tackle climate and environmental challenges effectively and fairly. Through cross- council programmes ESRC has supported research on climate change, air quality, land use decisions, coastal and urban environments, and the circular economy. ESRC existing portfolio also includes UKRI collaborations such as the UK Energy Research Centre and the Centre for Research on Energy Demand Solutions focusing on innovative energy solutions and moving 7.3.5.5 Research and development on mitigation technologies Note that examples of this theme of research are also found above in the discussion of research and international cooperation. See Chapter 5 for adaptation innovation Innovation is central to the UK’s approach to delivering net zero. The UK has a commitment to raise total private and public R&D investment to 2.4% of GDP by 2027 – enabling the next phase of green innovation. The UK Government has recently expanded its cross-government portfolio of net zero innovation support, delivering at least £1.5 billion over the period to 2025. This will accelerate the commercialisation of low carbon technologies, systems, and business models across the economy. Sectors covered include power, buildings, industry, transport, and natural resources, waste and F-gases. To guide priorities and investment, the UK published a Net Zero Research and Innovation Framework which sets out the critical research and innovation challenges across the UK over the next 5-10 years. UK Government funded innovation is supported by substantial programmes to develop a supportive policy environment and regulatory framework, including The UK is committed to continued active membership of Mission Innovation as the primary forum to strengthen international cooperation on clean energy innovation.
The UK will provide global leadership and co-lead missions to build a renewable-powered future and deliver low Lower carbon energy system and economy The shift towards low carbon sources of energy means more intermittent or inflexible generation particularly from wind and solar, and increased electricity demand as we electrify transport and heat. Significant amounts of low carbon flexibility will be needed to facilitate shifts in energy in time or location to balance supply and demand. Flexibility is essential for integrating low carbon power, heat and transport. UK Government is investing up to £100m for challenges in the areas of ‘Energy Storage and Flexibility’ as part of the Net Zero

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 395 Innovation Portfolio. This includes the Flexibility Innovation Programme which will make up to £65 million available for innovation which enables large-scale widespread electricity system flexibility through smart, flexible, secure, and accessible technologies and markets; and the Long Duration Energy Storage Programme which aims to accelerate commercialisation of innovative longer duration energy storage projects at different technology readiness levels, through first-of-a-kind full-system prototypes or actual demonstrations. The large-scale removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere is assumed in nearly all global scenarios that succeed in holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. The feasibility, mechanisms, and implications of some greenhouse gas removal (GGR) methods are, however, insufficiently understood for commercial-scale deployment. BEIS is investing £70 million in a pre-commercial Direct Air Capture and Greenhouse Gas Removal Innovation Programme with the aim of developing First of a Kind demonstration plants to showcase GGR technologies in the UK. This programme will better define the ‘real world’ feasibility of GGR techniques that might significantly assist in achieving climate policy goals from a range of technical, economic, societal and environmental perspectives. Alongside the innovation programme, research teams across the UK will investigate the viability of five innovative methods of large-scale greenhouse gas removal from the atmosphere to help the UK reach its net zero climate target. For example, UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) will invest £30 million in five interdisciplinary projects and a central Hub located at the University of Oxford, to conduct the research over 4.5 years. The Met Office Hadley Centre is an unfunded project partner in at least one of these projects, ensuring effective use of UK climate projections. An additional £1.5 million will be invested in further studies in year 3 of the research. Air pollution and urban environmental control Currently, approximately half of the energy use, carbon dioxide emissions and exposure to air pollution in cities is due to either buildings or transportation and this level is increasing. UKRI has invested £42.5million through the UKRI’s Strategic Priority Fund in the Clean Air programme which supports multidisciplinary research and innovation, which will help develop practical solutions for today’s air quality issues and equip the UK to proactively tackle future air quality challenges to protect health and support clean growth. The programme will stimulate practical and usable solutions for clean air through predictive understanding of future air quality challenges, a systems approach to analysis, new technologies, and innovative policy and practice interventions to benefit vulnerable groups, improve public health and support clean growth. Reduction in industrial energy use Reducing industrial energy demand could make a substantial contribution towards decarbonisation. Industry accounts for 21% of UK GHG emissions. These emissions come from intense energy use, the manufacturing process, petroleum refining, fuel manufacturing and fugitive emissions, and grid electricity consumption. Industrial decarbonisation to the scale required requires a suite of technologies within industry including commercially mature energy efficiency, fuel switching (e.g. hydrogen), material efficiency, and carbon sequestration technologies such as carbon capture, use and storage (CCUS) and negative emission technologies such as direct air carbon capture (DACC) and bio-CCS (BECCS). UKRI’s major coordinated investment in this space is the ISCF Industrial Decarbonisation Challenge (£170m), which is supporting the development of low-carbon technologies that will increase the competitiveness of industry and reduce the carbon footprint of heavy and energy

396 8th National Communication intensive industries in the UK, such as iron and steel, cement, refining and chemicals through investment in deployment projects, cluster plans and the Industrial Decarbonisation Research and Innovation Centre (IDRIC). A major UKRI investment that is also tackling these questions is the Centre for Research into Energy Demand Solutions (CREDS)13, which is a research centre established in 2018 with a vision to make the UK a leader in understanding the changes in energy demand needed for the transition to a secure and affordable, net-zero society. CREDS is focussing on the challenges of demand side change going ‘further, faster and flexibly’. Carbon capture, usage, and storage (CCUS) Between 2004-2019 the UK has provided over £330 million public funding for CCUS Research and Innovation. This has been crucial in understanding the fundamental science, developing improved capture processes and equipment, as well as training the next generation of subject matter experts in CCUS. As part of BEIS £1bn Net Zero Innovation Portfolio innovation projects focussing on CCUS will be funded predominantly through three BEIS’ Energy Entrepreneur Fund (EEF), UK participation in the 3rd international call of “Accelerating CCS Technology (ACT-3)” and the £20m CCUS Innovation The aim of CCUS Innovation 2.0 is to develop novel CCUS technologies and processes that have the potential to reduce the cost of deployment in industrial sectors that have emissions that are hard to abate by other means. It does this through two grant-funded calls which will fund a number of innovation programmes to increase the technology and commercial readiness of a portfolio of projects, selected through a transparent competition process, in preparation for subsequent routes to deployment. Through this process, the consortia delivering the projects are expected to demonstrate both the technical and commercial viability of their proposed solutions, which would be aimed at deployment at moderate scale in the 2030 timeframe through first-of-a-kind demonstrators, or similar.
The CCUS Innovation 2.0 programme is also funding a next-generation study which is aimed at providing techno- economic cases studies aimed at helping UK industry to understand the opportunities for deploying next-generation carbon capture technologies on site archetypes covering industry, waste and power generation for deployment in the 2030 timeframe. BBSRC and EPSRC jointly fund the £5.3 million Supergen Bioenergy Hub which brings together industry, academia, and other stakeholders to focus on the research and knowledge challenges associated with increasing the contribution of UK bioenergy to meet strategic environmental targets in a coherent, sustainable and cost-effective manner. It does this by taking a “whole systems” approach to bioenergy, so that the research focuses on the benefits that new technologies can bring within the context of the whole production and utilisation chain. In order to ensure focused research with rapid dissemination and deployment this is done in close collaboration with industrial partners and other stakeholders, including UK Government agencies. The hub takes an expressly interdisciplinary approach to bioenergy, ensuring important issues are addressed, such as the impacts of land-use change not just as scientific quantification exercises, but taking due account of the social and economic impacts. The science requirements of the bioenergy hub will be underpinned by the BBSRC Networks in Industrial Biotechnology and Bioenergy. Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 397 Marine renewable energy mix towards 2050 The International Energy Agency’s (IEA) International Vision for Ocean Energy sets a goal of installing 337 gigawatts of wave and tidal capacity, creating 1.2 million jobs, and reducing 2 emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2050. With the Supergen Marine ORE programme and the UK Centre for Marine Energy Research (UKCMER) hub, EPSRC is investing in the world-leading research, innovation, development, demonstration and deployment of wave and tidal energy. For example, the three-year EcoWatt2050 project is using computer models to simulate ways in which the deployment of multiple large-scale wave and tidal energy arrays can be planned and arranged to minimise environmental impacts and offset effects of climate change. The UKRI Energy Programme recently commissioned the Offshore Renewable Energy (ORE) Supergen to develop a wave energy roadmap to articulate how targeted research and innovation could play an important role in the wave energy journey to commercialisation which has very recently been published and to enable the capability to be matured in time to contribute to the UK’s net zero 2050 target. In response, UKRI- EPSRC has also recently invested in a portfolio of research projects focussed on tackling the challenges outlined in the roadmap including novel designs for niche applications; survivability and reliability of devices in the marine environment; power take off and control systems; modelling, forecasting and evaluation of wave energy resource; and new materials for wave Research for developing countries The £1bn Ayrton Fund for clean energy innovation is the main UK vehicle for ODA R&D funding of mitigation technologies (with the scope for Ayrton also including demonstration projects). Ayrton Platforms and programmes are listed under 7.2.3.3 above, however some specific examples of innovations supported by these programmes include the ovided £1m of funding to the St Andrews University-led Nexgenna research group, on top of the £10m from the Faraday Institution, and this has allowed the team to focus on the energy storage opportunities and needs of developing country markets. NEXGENNA has identified a new Sodium Ion battery made only with low- cost materials for which a patent is being sought. They are working with commercial companies on some of the key technical challenges including extended cycle life and power density, while maintaining the important advantages sodium ion has over lithium ion including safety, materials sustainability and cost. owdfunding platform raising investment from the UK public in enterprises delivering household solar systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. It launched in 2017 to understand the market opportunity, design and develop the crowdfunding platform itself, and iterate the offer for both borrowers and lenders. Since then, the programme has built an investor community of over 4,200 people, raised over £25million and enabled more than 600,000 people in Sub-Saharan Africa to access life-changing clean, affordable electricity. Systematic observations in the UK and its overseas territories are made by a number of national agencies and organisations. The UK’s Met Office is the lead agency for making and collecting meteorological and atmospheric observations and participates in the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS). Terrestrial observations are also made or coordinated by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), the Environment Agency (EA), the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA), Natural Resources Wales (NRW), the Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA), the Forestry Commission and others. Collection of oceanographic (and marine) observations is widely distributed throughout the

398 8th National Communication UK with many UK Government departments and laboratories, universities and commercial companies involved. The UK also contributes to space-based observations through the European agencies; the European Space Agency (ESA) and the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). The Met Office makes a considerable effort to undertake comprehensive quality control of its GCOS stations by running checks on the data held in its climate database. These include range, internal consistency and spatial checks on the observations. Faults identified are flagged for further investigation to resolve the problem promptly. Any changes to observing networks go through a robust set of checks before implementation to ensure that GCOS monitoring principles are upheld. The Met Office climate network includes seven stations which have been recognised as centennial observing stations as part of the WMO long-term observing stations initiative. Other subsets of the UK climate network, such as the Central England Temperature sites, also recognise the importance of sites with long and unbroken records. The Met Office works closely with the observing sites to ensure the continuation of the record wherever possible and have automated a number of climate stations in the past. The Met Office employs dedicated teams to inspect land and marine observing sites to ensure consistency of exposure according to WMO No. 8 guidelines.
Details of local conditions, instruments and exposure (Metadata) are recorded using in-house developed software and archived. This includes assessing exposure using the WMO CIMO siting classification for land observing sites. In addition to the day-to-day treatment of data, larger projects related to data quality are periodically undertaken. For example, intercomparisons are made when equipment is changed. The Met Office is in the process of replacing its land surface observing network and has carried out extensive user testing and side by side comparisons of the equipment, inputs and outputs, with a programme of longer-term checks being carried out to ensuring continuity of climate records. This will ensure relative performance is understood and provide documentation for future reference. The Met Office is committed to the principles of free and unrestricted exchange of essential data, as defined by the World Meteorological Organisation Resolution 40, which sees meteorological observations from the Met Office observations networks made available to the meteorological community via the WMO Information System (WIS). A key development to ensure the continued availability of meteorological and environmental data internationally is the WMO Integrated Global Observing System (WIGOS). WIGOS is currently in the implementation phase and the Met Office is actively supporting WIGOS and leading its 7.4.2 Atmospheric observations The UK‘s contribution to the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) Surface Network (GSN) comes from the national network (for the UK itself) of 20 stations within the UK‘s Regional Basic Climate Network (RBCN) and the 34 stations within the UK’s Reference Climate Network. The UK land surface observing network currently comprises 280 ordinary, principle and reference climate stations and 149 synoptic stations. There are an additional 2482 rainfall-only stations. These stations are all compliant with GCOS standards but are more subject to site changes or closures than the above networks. Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 399 The British Antarctic Survey (BAS) runs four overseas GCOS Surface Network Halley, Rothera and Fossil Bluff and Grytviken, South Georgia. All four of the UK BAS GSN stations operate to GCOS standards and historic data have been supplied to the International Data Centre (IDC), for their operational periods where the data have been digitised. The Met Office contributes to the European Meteorological Network (EUMETNET) Surface Marine programme (E-SURFMAR) (managed by Meteo-France & KNMI), which deploys around 120 drifting buoys per year in the North Atlantic, Nordic Seas and Mediterranean. The Met Office also procures and deploys around thirty drifting buoys each year in the South Atlantic/Southern Ocean in support of the global drifter array. The Met Office currently manages the UK National fleet of Voluntary Observing Ships (VOS), an internationally coordinated programme of the WMO’s Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS). The UK fleet consists of around 175 VOS making manual observations and a further 50 ships hosting the Met Office in-house built Autonomous Marine Observing System (AMOS). AMOS are additionally installed at six land stations in the Falklands and one Met Office-Plymouth Marine Laboratory collaborative buoy in the English Channel. The Met Office is currently running a project to replace all original AMOS systems with a second-generation version, known as AMOS2X. This is planned to be rolled out across all Met Office automated marine platforms, including ships, moored buoys and Light All marine data are exchanged on the Global Telecommunication System (GTS) and available to the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (ICOADS). This includes contributions from BAS, NERC and other research programmes. The Met Office presently operates ten moored buoys, mainly to the west of the UK and in Biscay, and four instrumented light vessels in the English Channel, which contribute to the wider World Weather Watch/Global Observing System (WWW/GOS) surface network. The UK contributes to the Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) with two stations, at Lerwick and Camborne, which are in the process of being refreshed. The Met Office Radiosonde Network is part of the full WWW/GOS Upper Air Network and GCOS Upper Air Network (GUAN) and provides measurements of air temperature, water vapour and wind speed and direction. There are two sites in the UK, at Lerwick and Camborne. The Met Office Radiosonde Network is part of the Full WWW/GOS Upper Air Network and GCOS Upper-air Network (GUAN) and provides measurements of air temperature, water vapour and wind speed and direction. The data is widely used for climate measurement and model verification. The two sites in the UK are Lerwick (03005) and Camborne (03808). The Met Office also assists with the support of a small number of The Atmospheric Measurement and Observation Facility (AMOF) is a NERC funded UK research facility that enables advanced measurements of the atmosphere. It manages a comprehensive suite of mobile instrumentation, observatories and laboratories. AMOF includes the Chilbolton Atmospheric Observatory (CAO) which is hosted by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). Through a combination of long-term observations and tailored operations it provides national capability for the study of clouds, rainfall, boundary- layer processes and aerosols. The portfolio includes a powerful combination of dual- polarisation Doppler radars, lidars, radiometers, and supporting instruments; the continuous round-the-clock operation of lidar and cloud radar instruments at Chilbolton is unique within the UK. The activity collects water vapour density measurements. Co-located surface meteorological measurements including solar irradiance (relevant to the surface radiation budget) are taken. Continuous monitoring of cloud profiles has allowed evaluation of model

400 8th National Communication biases or errors to be identified. Monitoring began in 1998 and is important for understanding the mechanisms by which aerosol in the atmosphere leads to the formation of different cloud types, which is important for predicting climate change.
This approach, which was first established at Chilbolton, has been rolled out to other observatories across Europe as part of the Aerosol Clouds and Trace Gases Research Infrastructure (ACTRIS), and elsewhere, BEIS has a monitoring and verification research programme that derives independent emission estimates for the UK using in-situ high-precision high-frequency atmospheric observations of the principal greenhouse gases reported in the UK’s greenhouse gas inventory (see Chapter 2), and a range of other trace gases, at the Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station on the west coast of the Republic of Ireland and at tall tower sites in the UK DECC (Deriving Emissions linked to Climate Change) Network. The measured atmospheric concentrations are used to infer UK greenhouse gas emissions estimates using an inversion The Met Office routinely produces many ocean products which contribute to larger international observational programmes. Observations from Voluntary Observing Ships (VOS) provide measurements of sea surface temperature, sea ice and sea state (the latter two measurements being from manually observing VOS). Sub-surface observations are not made BAS ships observe sea-ice extent in an opportunistic manner through the VOS programme; it is observed as part of the 6-hourly meteorological synoptic observations disseminated via the WMO GTS/WWW system as part of BAS Antarctic operations. The Met Office acts as one of two Global Data Assembly Centres (GDAC) for VOS data, with responsibility for basic quality control of ship data, and collection of those data in delayed- mode format (e.g. ship’s logbooks). As part of its role as a real-time monitoring centre for marine data the Met Office routinely monitors VOS data. The UK Argo Programme contributes to the international Argo array that makes global measurements of temperature and salinity in the water column. The UK presently has around 148 active floats contributing to the Argo float array, including floats that make additional measurements of bio-geochemical variables. The UK Argo programme is managed by the Met Office and operated in partnership with National Oceanography Centre (NOC) Southampton, British Oceanographic Data Centre (BODC) and Plymouth Marine The National Oceanography Centre (NOC) will invest in Biogeochemical (BGC) Argo floats over the next three years to contribute to the expansion of standard Argo to biogeochemical NOC will continue to contribute to the full ocean depth continent-to-continent ship based hydrographic sections under the GO-SHIP programme of the Global Ocean Observing System. The UK occupied Section A5 (24.5N) in the North Atlantic in 2020. In particular, BAS and NOC cooperate in regular occupations of a transect across the Drake Passage between South America and Antarctica (SR01). Other sustained ocean observations undertaken under the NOC-Led Climate Linked Atlantic Sector Science programme are the Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT) Ship of Opportunity programme sampling biogeochemical variables in the upper ocean on passage from the UK to the Southern Ocean (led by PML) and Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR)

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 401 measurements of surface plankton in the North Atlantic basin (led by the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science); the Western Channel Observatory – a long time series in shallow waters in the SW English Channel (led by PML). 7.4.4 Terrestrial observations The UK reports river discharge measurements from seven UK gauging stations to the Global Terrestrial Network for River Discharge (GTN-R), which forms part of the Global Terrestrial All seven sites operate in accordance with GCMPs. The majority of sites have a complete historical record with the Global Runoff Data Centre (GRDC). Data will continue to be provided to the GTN-R for all seven sites as part of the larger UK contribution of over 200 The National River Flow Archive (NRFA) is maintained by the UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology and is the UK’s main focal point for hydrometric data, providing stewardship of, and access to, daily, monthly and flood peak river flow data from over 1,500 gauging stations across the UK. The NRFA collates, quality controls, and archives river flow data from gauging station networks across the UK including the extensive networks operated by the main UK Measuring Authorities. NRFA data also include catchment daily rainfall, station descriptions, photographs, and various spatial data sets (e.g. digital elevation data, land cover, geology and hydrogeology). The NRFA regularly provides data updates, summary information and reports the GRDC, Eurostat, OECD and the ONS. The National Groundwater Level Archive (NGLA) is maintained by the British Geological Survey (BGS), part of the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and operated in close collaboration with the NRFA. The NGLA brings together water level data from across the UK for a set of boreholes chosen to provide a representative national network, with boreholes in all major aquifers, which can be used to assess seasonal resource variations and long-term trends. A sub-set of the data from the NGLA are used in reports by the ONS to account for the UKs progress against groundwater-related SDGs. Water quality monitoring is carried out in the UK by various organisations in response to water management needs – including regulatory requirements and to report on the quality of rivers, lakes, estuaries and coastal waters. This broadly consists of surveillance monitoring to measure widespread long term environmental change, and locally targeted risk-based monitoring to check for deterioration, drive water quality improvement measures, and evaluate progress towards meeting water quality objectives. Of the stations in the Met Office land surface network, 73 synoptic sites have automatic snow depth sensors. Some ordinary climate stations also periodically report snow depth. The British Antarctic Survey (BAS) monitors and maintains networks of GPS stations measuring the movement of key ice streams and glaciers. 7.4.5 International cooperation on observations The following are examples of UK involvement with international observation The intergovernmental Group on Earth Observations (GEO) The UK is a member of the intergovernmental Group on Earth Observations, GEO, with Defra as UK Principal.
GEO is a unique global network connecting government institutions, academic and research institutions, data providers, businesses, engineers, scientists and experts to create innovative solutions to global challenges through global collaboration of

402 8th National Communication experts to help identify gaps and reduce duplication in the areas of sustainable development and sound environmental management. The UK is an active member of the GEO Climate Change Working Group (amongst others) with representatives of UK government, academia and private sector coming together to contribute to the development of a climate change programme for GEO that uses its unique convening power to connect Members and key partners such as the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment), and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) to lead national, regional and global climate action efforts. The UK provides funding to the Group on Earth Observations Global Agricultural Monitoring Initiative (GEOGLAM) towards its work to increase market transparency and improve food security by producing and disseminating relevant, timely, and actionable information on agricultural conditions and outlooks of production at national, regional, and global scales. The UK contribution is being used to support the development of National Adaptation Plan guidance for the agricultural sector. Copernicus is a joint initiative of the European Commission (EC) and ESA to which the UK contributes. The fleet of Sentinel satellites is the world’s leading Earth observation constellation. Recent UK involvement e of the Sentinel-5 Precursor satellite, launched in October 2017, bridging the data gap between Envisat and Sentinel-5 providing measurements of greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere; Instrument contributions CCD detectors; radar electronics; cryo-coolers; instrument calibration expertise and facilities; Platform equipment batteries; propulsion systems and UK scientists are leading the specification of the anticipated Sentinel-8 high spatial esolution land surface temperature instrument; • The UK has a scientist on the CO2 monitoring task force. In addition to the Sentinel satellite activity, Copernicus also involves in-situ measurements and the provision of services. The European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF) manages the Copernicus Climate Change and Atmosphere Services from the UK. The Climate Change Service (C3S) combines observations of the climate system with the latest science to develop authoritative, quality-assured information about the past, current and future states of the climate in Europe and worldwide. Various UK institutions contribute to observational C3S services such as those recovering and providing access to historical surface meteorological observations and those providing updates forwards in time to sea- surface temperature information. The Copernicus Marine Environmental Monitoring Service led by MERCATOR in France, also features contributions from the Met Office providing The UK Space Agency collaborates with a range of international organisations, working for instance with CNES (French space agency) on MicroCarb, a satellite monitoring system for 2 sources and sinks across the whole earth. The UK Space Agency also co-leads on the

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 403 TRUTHS mission, along with the National Physical Laboratory. TRUTHS is a European Space Agency (ESA) climate mission, to provide a standard reference of radiation from the sun. In addition, it will enable in-flight calibration of Earth observation (EO) satellites. TRUTHS will help deliver improved confidence in Earth Observation data gathered from space and the climate forecasts driven by this data. EUMETNET Composite Observing System (EUCOS) The Met Office contributes to the EUCOS network, which aims to establish, operate, and evolve a European observing network under the auspices of the European Meteorological Network (EUMETNET) to deliver increased efficiency, leading to improved weather and climate services to save lives and livelihoods across Europe and further afield. EUCOS includes a terrestrial segment (surface and upper-air observing) and a surface marine programme, both of which contribute to GCOS. The international Argo project is an international array of profiling floats that provides a continual record of the three-dimensional temperature and salinity structure of the global ocean to 2,000m depth, with a small number of newer float designs measuring down to 6,000m depth and an increasing number of floats also measuring bio-geochemical (BGC) variables (dissolved oxygen, pH, chlorophyll fluorescence, nitrate, suspended particles and irradiance). The UK’s contribution to Argo is undertaken by a partnership between the Met Office, the National Oceanography Centre (NOC) Southampton, which includes the British Oceanographic Data Centre (BODC) and Plymouth Marine Laboratory (PML). See section The UK supports some overseas observation sites directly through the UK/Met Office contribution to the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) Voluntary Cooperation Programme (VCP). For over 40 years, the UK has supported significant GUAN (Global Climate Observing System – GCOS – Upper Air Network) stations at St Helena, Seychelles and in the South Pacific (the latter in partnership with the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and New Zealand’s MetService) at Funafuti in Tuvalu, and Tarawa in Kiribati. These observations provide important data both for weather prediction and climate monitoring. Additional support is also provided to other GUAN stations where funds allow. Chapter 8 Education, training and Education, training, public awareness and communications on climate change are an essential element of action on climate change. All actors, from the government to formal educators, have an important role to play in conveying clear, accurate and useful information to the public. Education, training and information raising is a devolved area of competence. This chapter covers actions supported by the UK government, Devolved Administrations and It is important to raise public awareness of climate science so that the public understand the risks and uncertainties of climate change. We need to engage the public in a conversation about the actions needed to combat climate change. This should involve climate scientists communicating the science effectively to the public.
• In April 2022, the UK’s Department for Education published its Sustainability and Climate Change Strategy for England, for education and childr It is centred on four strategic 1) Excellence in education and skills for a changing world 2) Net Zero by 2050 3) Resilience to Climate Change and 4) A better environment for future generations. The strategy sets out a vision for the UK education sector to be world leading in sustainability and climate change by 2030. In achieving this vision, the Department for Education seeks to both inspire and respond to international action and make a difference to children and young people all over the world by championing and helping to create formal and extracurricular learning and training opportunities for all. nment published the Net Zero Strategy, which sets out our plan for achieving net zero carbon emissions by 2050, including clear principles on how we will engage the public and support them to make green choices. nment launched the ‘Together for our Planet’ campaign which used storytelling, high impact visuals and partnerships to demonstrate to the public the positive impact of tackling climate change. In December 2020, the UK gover nment launched the MacKay Carbon Calculator, a simple, user-friendly model of the UK’s energy system. Its purpose is to engage the public by helping them explore the full range of options for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to the year 2050. 406 8th National Communication In England there are over 72,000 early years and childcare providers. Across the UK there are more than 16m children, young people and adults in education. In April 2022 the UK Department for Education launched the Sustainability and Climate Change Strategy for the education and child services sector in England 1. The strategy aims to prepare all children and young people to meet the challenges of climate change impacts and to benefit from the opportunities in our transition to net zero by 2050. The strategy explains our short, medium and longer-term actions towards achieving our vision for the UK education sector to become a world leader in sustainability and climate change by 2030. Since November 2021, the Department has engaged domestic and international stakeholders across sectors and has targeted young people, through a youth panel to gain their views The final version of the strategy was published on 21 April. The vision for the strategy is that the United Kingdom is the world-leading education sector in sustainability and climate change by 2030. W e will achieve this through the following strategic Excellence in education and skills for a changing preparing all young people for a world impacted by climate change through learning and reducing direct and indirect emissions from education and care buildings, driving innovation to meet legislative targets and providing opportunities for children and young people to engage practically in the transition to net zero; Resilience to climate adapting our education and care buildings and epare for the effects of climate change. onment for future enhancing biodiversity, improving air quality and increasing access to, and connection with, nature in and around Building on a foundation of fundamental numeracy, literacy and broad academic knowledge, all children will learn about nature, the causes and impacts of climate change and the From birth to five years old, the early years foundation stage (EYFS) framework ensures that all children develop an understanding of the world and the natural environment. As they progress through primary and secondary school, children and young people will continue to build on this through science, geography and citizenship teaching within the national curriculum. Furthermore, existing (General Certificate of Secondary Education) GCSEs such as design and technology, food preparation and nutrition, and economics contain environmental and sustainability issues. Support and resources will be provided to teachers to ensure they have both the confidence and capability to teach climate change By 2025, DfE aims to introduce a Natural History GCSE giving young people a further opportunity to engage with and develop a deeper knowledge and understanding of 1

Chapter 8 Education, training and public awareness 407 the natural world. An Environmental Science A level is already available for those who For those who continue their studies into Universities and Colleges (further and higher education), there are many excellent opportunities to gain in-depth knowledge into sustainability and climate change. Additionally, many further and higher education providers are already taking steps to embed sustainability and climate change across the full range Practical educational activities and clubs outside of the national curriculum allow children and young people to bring their learning to life. In some schools, children and young people can take part in eco-clubs or vegetable growing, or be exposed to sustainable food choices, recycling, adaptation projects or weather and energy monitoring. The National Education Nature Park and Climate Leaders’ Award will ensure all children and young people have opportunities to gain practical experience and turn their learning into positive action. These initiatives will be inclusive for all and will ensure that those from disadvantaged backgrounds can access these opportunities. Retrofitted and new-build education buildings will provide various learning opportunities through their design ensuring that they are net-zero compliant with minimal DfE will support the provision of carbon literacy training for all sustainability leads in every nursery, school and college by 2025. The DfE will develop and publish a framework by 2023 to evaluate the impacts of the actions and initiatives set out within the strategy. We will continue to identify appropriate opportunities to align climate education with the UN’s Education for Sustainable Development (ESD for 2030) framework. 8.3.1.2 Green Skills and Careers The Government’s Net Zero Strategy sets out in detail how our skills reforms will support more people into green jobs and help grow future talent pipelines. DfE’s Sustainability and Climate Strategy continues to build on this.
This includes aligning apprenticeships to net zero objectives through the Institute for Apprenticeships and Technical Education’s (IfATE) Green Apprenticeships Advisory Panel; continuing the roll-out of T-Levels (2-year courses taken after GCSEs) to support young people into green careers; driving STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths) provision through our growing network of Institutes of Technologies (IoTs); and expanding Skills Bootcamps so that adults are able to upskill and retrain in key green sectors. Through the Skills and Post-16 Education Bill, we are legislating to ensure employer leadership of Local Skills Improvement Plans have regard to skills needed to help deliver on our net zero target, adaptation to climate change, and other environmental goals. Building on the work of the Green Jobs Taskforce, through a Green Jobs Delivery Group, launched earlier this year2, government has brought together representatives from industry, the skills sector and other key stakeholders to develop data-driven action to support the delivery of plans for green jobs and skills, ensuring that we are offering young people and workers the opportunity to develop the skills needed to deliver the low-carbon transition. Since the publication of the Net Zero Strategy, we 2

408 8th National Communication • Set out investment of £3.8bn in further education and skills, to ensure people can access high-quality training and education that leads to good jobs, addresses skills gaps, boosts productivity and supports levelling up. This includes funding for ogrammes to support green skills crucial to the net zero transition. • Committed to expand Skills Bootcamps to pr ovide more opportunities for adults to gain new skills. We will prioritise green skills in areas such as heat pumps, zero emission vehicles, and carbon capture. idened the eligibility criteria of our Free Courses for Jobs offer. From April 2022, any adult in England earning under the National Living Wage annually, or unemployed, will be able to access these qualifications for free. This includes qualifications linked to green sectors such as agriculture, building and construction, engineering, environmental conservation, horticulture and forestry and science. Launched a pilot of our new General Further Education College Accountability eements that will ensure colleges strategically plan provision to meet skills needs at both local and national levels, including those in the green sector. • Established eight Local Skills Impr ovement Plan (LSIP) trailblazers, where employer representative bodies have been working closely with providers and key local stakeholders to develop tailored plans to help shape technical skills provision to better meet local labour market needs. Multiple trailblazers have been considering the skills needed to support green growth in their local economy. Commenced delivery of our £65 million Strategic Development Fund pilots to identify employers’ skills needs, design provision, and build the capacity of local FE oviders to deliver them. Where local areas identify skills needs, providers can use this funding to, amongst other things, purchase equipment, train their staff, bring in industry expertise to provide training, or deliver new provision. Children and young people will also continue to be at the heart of Welsh Government’s approach to public engagement on climate change and environmental matters, recognising the crucial role that the voices of our youth play in Wales’ efforts to tackle the climate emergency. The voices of young people were extremely important in the development of the Net Zero Wales Plan, and the Working Together to Reach Net Zero Plan. They illustrated the power of collective action and are continuing to inspire others to do more. The Welsh Government is committed to listening to young people and supports many activities, including funding Eco Schools and Size of Wales . These leading environmental organisations reach up to 93% of schools across Wales. Their educational and pupil-led, real- world programmes get schools, young people, families and the wider community involved in hands on environmental projects, greening their playgrounds, homes and outside space. We are continuing our commitment to enhance opportunities for children and young people to have their voices heard but to also provide real opportunities to participate and influence what happens next. Our Youth Climate Ambassadors attended and participated at COP26, ran sessions during Wales climate week and continue to produce resources and videos, showing the actions they are taking, to inspire others. Chapter 8 Education, training and public awareness 409 8.3.2.2 Public sector education There are about 311,000 people working in public services in Wales. Education and training in the form of carbon literacy programmes within the public sector will play an important role in increasing understanding across society on the climate emergency. The Welsh Government will shortly launch a new e-Learning module providing introductory training on the climate emergency available to all staff and is piloting bespoke training packages for relevant teams on topics such as biodiversity with a view to rolling-out further topic-specific modules, and a broader carbon literacy programme in the future. The Welsh Government has provided funding to the Welsh Local Government Association (WLGA) to develop a support programme for all 22 local authorities in Wales to address climate change including taking steps to adapt to the effects of climate change that are already ‘locked in’ as a result of previous emissions. Focussing around the four key themes of the Welsh Government’s public sector route map3 to net zero across the Welsh public sector by 2030 (buildings, land use, transport and procurement), the programme is delivering a range of support including toolkits, commissioned research on suitable interventions, training to build knowledge and expertise, and events to facilitate sharing of best practice. The primary focus is on local authorities’ decarbonising their own organisations but also acknowledging and supporting the important leadership role they have within their communities. This also includes a series of decarbonisation masterclasses to highlight best practice and innovative projects that Welsh councils are delivering on their journey to net zero, developing a communications and engagement strategy, and establishing the All Wales Climate Change Officers Group to promote alignment and consistency across authorities and identify potential opportunities for collaboration.
A Local Government Climate Change Strategy Panel of chief executives and experts has been set up to support local government work on both adaptation and decarbonisation and to oversee the WLGA programme. Through that forum and with the input of the local authority Leaders and Ministers, a set of local government commitments were agreed and included in the Net Zero Wales plan. Scotland’s Curriculum for Excellence (CfE)4, incorporates an emphasis on the cross-cutting theme of Learning for Sustainability – a term that brings together sustainable development education, global citizenship and outdoor learning. CfE enables young people in Scotland to learn about sustainability, including climate change, in a holistic way across the whole curriculum. Learning related to several important crosscutting themes, including sustainable development and global citizenship, is built into the experiences and outcomes across all eight curriculum areas in CfE. The Learning for Sustainability Action Plan5 will help to ensure that all children and young people in Scotland can experience this vital area of education. Further information on education and training, including the Scottish Government’s Climate Emergency Skills Action Plan, is available in Chapter 3. 3 4 5

410 8th National Communication Queen’s University Belfast has signed the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Accord, affirming its commitment to embedding SDGs into education, research, leadership, operations, and engagement activities. This includes a commitment to annually Sustainability is a key principle of the University’s Social Charter, and Queen’s is home to a wide range of teaching, research and practical actions in the field, including in areas directly connected with climate change. In December 2021, the University became a member of the UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) and is developing links with other SDSN partners across the The Centre for Sustainability, Equality and Climate Action (SECA) encourages collaborative links across Schools, Faculties and Directorates in Queen’s University Belfast to investigate the interconnections between socio-economic (in)equality and the interlinked climate and ecological crisis as determined by natural and social sciences. The Education Strand of the Corporate Strategy 2030 includes a goal to re-define degree structure at Queen’s University, including curriculum, assessment and feedback. This includes a focus on embedding the UN Sustainability Goals within all programmes supported by meaningful engagement between students and research leaders and innovators. An implementation plan is under development to scope out the delivery of this goal. A host of postgraduate teaching courses incorporate aspects of SDGs as well as many undergraduate courses; for example every course offered by the Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences includes consideration of aspects in relation to sustainability, energy, food, land use, Queen’s University is also taking part in a new Carbon Literacy initiative, which will provide certified training to 400 students across its three Faculties on carbon literacy and climate action. The project, run in partnership with DAERA and Keep Northern Ireland Beautiful, has been offered to students from January 2022. 8.3.4.1 Accelerating and Mainstreaming Education for Sustainable Development Ulster University’s Strategy for Learning and Teaching Enhancement (SLaTE) has developed a focus on education for sustainable development to be rolled out across all faculties and campuses. Some recent achievements include Students Organising for Sustainability (SOS) UK SDG Teach In; an Education for Sustainable Development Project (ESD) to embed ESD across all curricula; Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education Practice which includes a ‘Shaping the Curriculum’ module. The BEIS Public Attitudes Tracker runs four times a year and consists of one longer, annual survey and three shorter, quarterly surveys which focus on a subset of questions where government perceives attitudes might shift quickly or be affected by seasonal changes. The survey was set up in 2012 to understand and monitor public attitudes to the Department’s main business priorities, including climate change. Following disruptions to data collection due to Covid-19, the time series has been restarted from Autumn 2021 with a new methodology using address-based online surveying. The most recent data was collected

Chapter 8 Education, training and public awareness 411 from 15 September to 17 October 2021 with a representative sample of 5,560 adults aged In November 2020, the UK government launched the brand ‘Together for our Planet’, marking the one year to COP26 milestone. The campaign used storytelling, high impact visual moments and partnerships to demonstrate to people the positive impact of tackling climate change. The campaign was successful in building positive sentiment and understanding around the summit by showcasing how people across the UK are going One Step Greener to tackle climate change. As part of the campaign, 26 One Step Greener champions showed how taking one step can have a positive impact on the environment, encouraging the public to also do their bit, however large or small. In the lead up to COP26, the Government published the Net Zero Strategy, which sets out its proposal for decarbonising all sectors of the UK economy to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2050. This strategy aims to inform and engage the public on our The Strategy sets out how the government will support the public to make green choices, by making these easier, clearer and cheaper, and outlines the government’s commitment to deliver public engagement on net zero Communicating a vision of a net zero 2050, build a sense of collective action, ove understanding of the role different actors play in reaching net zero, and how and when choices can be made. b. Ensuring there is trusted advice and support for people and businesses to c. Mobilising a range of actors and stakeholders to increase and amplify their communication and action on net zer d. Giving people opportunities to participate in and shape our plans for reaching o, thereby improving policy design, buy-in and uptake of policies. Social media has been used as a tool to generate wider awareness of the UK government’s work on Net Zero. In the run up to the publication of the Net Zero Strategy, the BEIS twitter account @beisgovuk was used to raise awareness of the release and content of the strategy.
The UK government has funded several digital tools that can help people reduce their carbon footprint, including the ‘Simple Energy Advice’ service on how to reduce energy use in the home. The Simple Energy Advice service has received over 1.7m users to date, providing homeowners with personal, tailored advice for improving and decarbonising their homes and links to local, accredited, trusted installers. The government are also reviewing other existing digital information and advice services related to net zero and exploring how to improve wider existing public-facing net zero content and advice on gov.uk. Public Involvement in Climate Decision Making The UK government regularly fund public workshops and deliberative dialogues to inform a wide range of policy areas, including on climate change. In recent years, the UK has also run and funded public workshops and deliberative dialogues on a range of net zero issues such

412 8th National Communication as homes, heating, transport decarbonization, hydrogen, food, Carbon Capture Use and Storage (CCUS), Advanced Nuclear Technologies (ANT) energy, and the environment. Through the UKRI’s sciencewise programme, we have funded over 60 deliberative dialogues on science and technology over the last 15 years. Since July 2020, the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport is also supporting a consultation tool for people under 25, managed by the British Youth Council. ‘Involved’ is an Instagram page that invites young people from across the country to share their views on key issues with the government by asking questions through the app’s polling and stories functions. Responses feed directly into live public consultations and wider policy making across government departments. The Met Office works closely with governments, individuals and organisations to share its expert scientific knowledge and advice. Climate science can be challenging to communicate, so the Met Office has established a range of channels and approaches to conveying everything from the basics of climate science to its very latest world-class research. These channels include the main Met Office website which has pages dedicated to helping the public find out more about the climate system and climate change, a range of social channels (including YouTube and Twitter) which deliver targeted and engaging information and an award-winning outreach programme aimed at encouraging young people to study science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) and to find out more about the work of the Met Office, including climate science. In December 2020, the UK government launched the MacKay Carbon Calculator6, a simple, user-friendly model of the UK’s energy system (named in honour of the late Sir David MacKay who was the driving force behind the first UK 2050 calculator). Its purpose is to engage a wide variety of people by helping them explore the full range of options for reducing GHG emissions to the year 2050. People can use this open-source tool to see the impact of building nuclear power stations or wind farms, of reducing energy demand by insulating homes or driving less, and can build their own vision of the future There are two online versions of the calculator, a universal version called My2050 and a detailed version. Both versions contain levers of decarbonisation; 15 in My2050 and 45 in the detailed version. People can use these levers to create pathways to find out how we might reduce the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2050 and beyond. Users can choose their ‘levels of ambition’ for decarbonising different parts of the energy system, and the calculator then shows how their choices affect UK emissions expressed as ‘carbon dioxide equivalent’ (CO2e). A toolkit for teachers is also available to support its use in schools, offering lesson plans linked to the national curriculum. The former Department for Energy and Climate Change (now the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy) received funding from the International Climate Fund to support 10 developing countries to build their own Calculators, as well as to develop a Global Calculator. There are now over 30 Calculators around the world covering different countries, regions and cities. The Global Calculator can be used to explore global options for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and meeting the international 2˚C target, and to see how those options affect one another. Access to the Calculator is available free online.7 6 7

Chapter 8 Education, training and public awareness 413 The government also engages with the public through the Local Net Zero Hubs which aim to promote best practice and support local authorities and communities to develop net zero projects. For example, the Greater Southeast Local Net Zero Hub is supporting a project in Bromley, Greener and Cleaner, which aims to help people work towards creating a more sustainable local community. During COP26, the Local Net Zero Hubs also delivered a locally led COP26 Domestic campaign in partnership with local authorities and other partners in the UK. It focused on promoting local contributions to the UK Net Zero ambition. During the campaign, hundreds of case studies/carbon stories were collected which focused on locally delivered net zero projects to showcase what individuals and organisations can do now to support government’s net zero ambitions. The case studies have been presented openly for local authorities, businesses, and communities to access8. These stories are a legacy of the COP26 Domestic Campaign; a resource that will continue to inspire and accelerate collective Since 2013, the Welsh Government has been delivering important external communications on the climate emergency. The focus of this activity has been around Wales Climate Week, an annual event held to coincide with the global Conference of the Parties (COP). In November 2021, to mark the hosting of COP26 in Glasgow, Wales Climate Week formed part of a broader programme of ‘COP Cymru’ events. This extensive programme engaged with nearly 4000 virtual attendees at a series of COP26 Regional Roadshows and Wales Climate Week events.
A total of 38 sessions were held and involved 200 speakers, stimulating an important debate on the urgent action needed to decarbonise and adapt to the impacts of COP Cymru also marked the launch of ‘Net Zero Wales – Carbon Budget 2’9 setting out the next stage in our pathway (2021 to 2025) to net zero by 2050. This plan signals the important shift that will need to be made by the public as we look ahead to Carbon Budget 3 (and references that nearly 60% of the abatement in the CCC’s Balanced pathway for the UK that occurs by 2035 will rely on societal or behaviour change). The launch of the Plan was supported by the publishing of Working Together to Reach Net Zero10, demonstrating the commitments already being made by individuals, communities and organisations across Wales. An important focus of these collective efforts is Wales’ Pledge Campaign, which has now generated hundreds of pledges for action. Welsh Government continues to promote the Pledge Campaign, as well as showcasing inspiring case studies around some of the actions already taken. The Plan emphasises the importance of every citizen, community, group and business in Wales embedding the climate emergency in the way we think, work, play and travel. To support public understanding and behaviour in response to the climate emergency, work is already underway to launch a nationwide behaviour change campaign to begin later in 2022. The campaign will aim to reach everyone in Wales and encourage society to do what we can to help Wales along the path to becoming a net zero nation by 2050. To shape this, the Plan 9 10

414 8th National Communication commits to consulting on a Behaviour Change Strategy by summer 2022, setting out the principles around how we will involve society in the approach. Above all, the vision and ambition is to plan a better, fairer, and greener future – and a focus on fairness will be essential in embedding the required changes across society. A Just Transition will be at the heart of Wales’ approach to public engagement, ensuring no-one or no community is left behind. The approach will be framed within the context of our Programme for Government (and wellbeing objectives), and two key statutory the Wellbeing of Future Generations Act and the Environment (Wales) Act (2016). These important pieces of legislation will be used to shape effective public involvement to better understand the needs of Wales’ communities and people. 8.4.1.3 Stakeholder Engagement Beyond important public engagement, the Welsh Government will publish a new Stakeholder Engagement Plan in 2022, describing our approach up to 2026. It will cover both mitigation and adaptation and set out how we will collaborate and involve our partners to develop and deliver the actions needed to tackle the climate emergency. It will also set out our aspirations for continuing to build Team Wales and broadening support and consensus right across 8.4.1.4 Public Sector (Employee Engagement) The Welsh Government is also conducting important engagement work across the public sector in Wales. In recognition of the leadership role that the public sector needs to be demonstrating to broader society, an important step-change will be required amongst the estimated 311,000 people who work in public services. This includes employee engagement programmes as an opportunity to employ learnings towards broader societal engagement, an example of which includes a project being delivered by the Welsh Government Energy Service who are working with Welsh local authorities, health, Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Authority and Mid and West Wales Fire and Rescue Service to identify barriers to and opportunities for carbon reduction through workforce behaviour change. The vision of the Welsh Government Wales and Africa programme is to support Wales to be a globally responsible nation through building and growing sustainable partnerships in sub- Saharan Africa that support the delivery of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The programme supports dozens of small civil society groups who work with African partners on education, climate change initiatives, livelihoods, health and sport and culture projects promoting well-being both in Wales and in African communities. Working with Size of Wales, the Mbale tree planting programme is a flagship collaboration initiative of the Welsh Government, The Mount Elgon Tree Growing Enterprise and partners in the Mbale Region of Eastern Uganda. For over 10 years and since the programme started 15 million trees have been distributed. The project seeks to support communities by distributing 3.1 million trees every year – one for every person in Wales, with the ambition of reaching 25 million trees by 2025. It also seeks to engage people of all ages on climate change and the importance of trees and forests as part of the solution. The programme also supports the Plant! scheme which is now in its 10th year. Plant! celebrates the birth of every child born or adopted in Wales by planting two trees, one in new Welsh woodland ensuring trees for our future generations, while also nurturing a close personal relationship with nature from an early age. The other is a fruit tree planted in

Chapter 8 Education, training and public awareness 415 In September 2021, the Scottish Government published the Public Engagement Strategy for Climate Change11. The strategy marks a new chapter in Scotland’s people-centred approach to climate change policy, moving from encouraging incremental changes in attitudes and behaviours, to supporting a society-wide transformation. It sets out Scotland’s for all of Scotland to understand the challenges they face and embrace their role in our transition to a net zero and climate ready Scotland. The Scottish Government’s approach is centred around three ensuring people understand the action that Scotland is taking to tackle climate change and how it relates to their lives; enabling people to participate in sharing just and fair policies; and encouraging people to take action. The approach set out in the strategy will guide how the Scottish Government shapes engagement and participation with the Scottish public on climate change over the next five years.
As part of the ‘Path to Net Zero’ Energy action plan for 2022, Northern Ireland’s Department for the Economy (DfE) has committed to developing and implementing a ‘one stop shop’ to provide Consumers with Energy advice. DfE also manage a phone line offering Energy advice including advice and information on grants. This is updated regularly with emerging information flowing from the ‘Path to Net In December 2020, the Department of Agriculture Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA) initiated a project with Keep Northern Ireland Beautiful (KNIB) to develop and deliver carbon literacy training specific to Northern Ireland. The Project builds upon the pre-existing Carbon Literacy Project ran in other parts of the UK. Accredited carbon literacy courses are being delivered to teachers across Northern Ireland utilising the existing eco-schools’ network. The training is also being made available to youth and community leaders via a train the trainer approach. The Carbon Literacy Project aims to raise awareness of climate change and the impacts of everyday actions on an individual, community and organisational basis to encourage action to tackle climate change. To help support the delivery in schools, a new formal Open College Network (OCN) Award, which is equivalent to a GCSE, in reducing carbon footprints through environmental action has been developed. This will be available for schools to deliver from September 2022. UK Government civil service materials for the carbon literacy programme have also been adapted for delivery to the Northern Ireland Civil Service (NICS) and will be delivered through Further information on the Carbon Literacy project can be found on the Keep Northern Ireland Business in the Community and Climate NI, both voluntary and community organisations, are delivering climate action campaigns targeted at Businesses and Local Government respectively. These campaigns include carbon literacy training, business support services and 11 12

Annex 1: UKs Fifth Biennial Report to The UK is pleased to submit its fifth biennial report. This report provides information on greenhouse gas emissions and trends, including information on the UK’s national GHG inventory. 2. I nformation on GHG emissions and trends This chapter presents information on the UK GHG inventory, covering emissions estimates for the period 1990-2020, and the national system established to produce and quality assure the Total UK emissions decreased by around 49.5% between 1990 and 2020. The reduction in GHG emissions since 1990 has been mainly driven by factors such as the move away from coal-fired generation towards the use of natural gas and renewable sources, tighter regulation of landfills, increased utilisation of landfill methane (CH and abatement technology in adipic acid and nitric acid manufacture. In 2020, COVID-19 had a significant impact on greenhouse gas emissions in the UK, in particular from transport and The UK is obliged to produce an annual GHG inventory, containing an estimate of all anthropogenic GHG emissions across the UK, in order to meet its commitments under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. The inventory is also used to track progress against the UK’s domestic emissions reduction targets under the Climate Change Act. For more information on the UK’s domestic and international targets, see Chapter 3. The GHG inventory covers the seven direct GHGs under the Kyoto Protocol. These are collectively known as the ‘basket’ of GHGs and carbon dioxide (CO (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3). For more information on the UK inventory, see Chapter 2 of the UK’s 8th National Communication. 418 8th National Communication 2.2.1 National Inventory arrangements This section provides a summary of the national system the UK uses for preparing its GHG inventory. For more information on UK national inventory arrangements, see Chapter 2 of the UK’s 8th National Communication. The Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) has been appointed as the Single National Entity with responsibility for the overall management and strategic development of priority improvements in the UK’s GHG inventory. The latest National Inventory Report (NIR) provides the contact details for the Single National Entity. The UK’s GHG inventory is compiled and maintained by a consortium led by Ricardo Energy & Environment1 – the Inventory Agency – under contract to BEIS. The GHG inventory is compiled annually according to international best practice with regard to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2006 Guidelines2 and the IPCC 2013 Wetlands Supplement3. The GHGs reported are estimated using methodologies which mostly correspond to the detailed sectoral Tier 2/3 methods in the IPCC Guidelines. The development of the inventory is driven through the National Inventory Steering Committee (NISC), and the inventory improvement programme. Methodological improvements take account of new data sources, updated guidance from IPCC, and specific research programmes sponsored by UK Government Departments including the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS), the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), and the Department for Transport (DfT) together with the Devolved Administrations. All methodological improvements are applied back to 1990 to ensure a The UK operates an established national system for GHG emissions estimation, reporting and archiving. The methodologies and data sources used to create the GHG inventory are summarised in Section 1.4 of the NIR. 2.2.2 Changes since the last Biennial Report and National Communication Since the UK submitted its Fourth Biennial Report in 2019, one major change to the UK’s national inventory system is that the NISC has been restructured from a single body to two groups, the Advisory Body and the Executive Body. For more information see Chapter 2 of the UK’s Eighth National Communication. Since the publication of the Seventh National Communication in 2017, various updates and revisions to methodologies have been implemented in the UK’s GHG inventory that have impacted on the time series of emissions. Summary information on the major revisions to the UK GHG inventory since the publication of the UK’s seventh National Communication can be found in Chapter 2 of the UK’s eighth National Communication. The Kyoto Protocol (KP) was adopted in 1997 in response to the threat of dangerous climate change.
For the KP , the UK’s base year for assessing emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O is 1990. The UK has chosen to use 1995 as the base year for fluorinated gases emissions 1 Ricardo Energy & Environment, The Gemini Building, Fermi Avenue, Harwell, Didcot, OX11 0QR, +44(0)1235753000, enquiry-ee@ricardo.com. 2 IPCC 2006 3 IPCC 2013 Wetlands guidelines-for-national-greenhouse-gas-inventories-wetlands/

Annex 1: UKs Fifth Biennial Report to the UNFCCC 419 (HFCs, PFCs, SF6 and NF3). This is in line with most EU Member States, and in accordance with Article 3.8 of the Kyoto Protocol. This differs from the base year used by the UK when reporting more generally to the UNFCCC where the base year for all GHGs is 1990. The UK also uses the inventory to track progress against legally binding domestic targets, which are further discussed in Chapter 3. The UK National Registry required for the KP4 is operated and maintained by the Environment Agency5 on behalf of BEIS. The UK Registry entered live service in January 2021. BEIS is accountable for the UK Emissions Trading Scheme (UK ETS) and KP on behalf of the UK Government. BEIS delivers Registry services via third-party delivery partners and provides governance in the form of legislation, policy and Authority-level operations (including public reports). The Environment Agency (EA) is responsible for the day-to-day administration Information on the UK Emissions Registry is available on the UK Registry website in the Kyoto Protocol Public Reports area6. Chapter 14 of the NIR contains further information on the 2.2.4 Geographical coverage used in this report Unless otherwise indicated, this report presents emissions estimates based on UNFCCC geographical coverage7. Figures in this chapter present emissions estimates consistent with this coverage. This is consistent with the coverage for emissions trends presented in Chapter 2 of the UK’s 8th National Communication and the projections presented in Chapter 4 of the UK’s 8th National Communication. For more information on geographical coverage used for domestic and international reporting of the UK GHG inventory, see Chapter 2 of the UK’s 8th 2.3 Greenhouse gas emissions trends In 2020 total GHG emissions for the UK by UNFCCC coverage were 409.5 MtCO2e. This compares with emissions of 810.2 MtCO2e in 1990, representing a decrease in emissions of around 49.5%. Annual GHG emissions estimates for 2020 were an estimated 49.6% below emissions for the UK from 1990 to 2020 by gas and by sector. The data are presented under UNFCCC coverage with and without net emissions or removals from LULUCF. 4 UK national registry 5 Environment Agency, PO Box 544, Rotherham, S60 1BY, United Kingdom, 03708 506 506 (UK), +44 (0) 114 282 5312 (outside UK). enquiries@environment-agency.gov.uk. 6 7 The UK’s ratification of the UNFCCC has been extended to the Overseas Territories of Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, the Falkland Islands and Gibraltar; and the Crown Dependencies of Guernsey, the Isle of Man and Jersey and the UK reports an inventory on this basis. 8 The UK’s base year for assessing emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O is 1990. The UK has chosen to use 1995 as the base year for emissions of the fluorinated HFCs, PFCs, SF6 and NF3. This is in line with most other EU Member States, and in accordance with Article 3.8 of the Kyoto Protocol. 420 8th National Communication GHGs covered by the Kyoto Protocol. UK GHG Inventory, 1990-2020 Carbon dioxide (CO2) accounted for the largest share of UK greenhouse gas emissions in 2020, making up 79.1% of the inventory. Methane (CH4) was the second largest with 12.6%, followed by nitrous oxide with 5.1%. Fluorinated greenhouse gases (F-gases) made up 3.1% of emissions. Comparing sectors, the largest contribution to greenhouse gas emissions is from the energy sector; in 2020 this contributed 76.3% to the total net emissions. Chapter 2 of the UK’s 8th National Communication contains more information on greenhouse gas emissions and trends, including a detailed breakdown of GHG emissions and trends by gas and by source sector, as well as information on uncertainties and changes to the emissions estimates since the UK’s 7th National Communication, and on the UK’s quality assurance and quality control processes. 3. Q uantified economy-wide emissions reduction targets The UK has committed to both international and domestic emissions reduction targets. Under the EU’s Convention pledge to the UNFCCC, the EU and its Member States, the UK and Iceland are jointly committed to achieving a 20% reduction of GHG emissions from 1990 9. The UK is also jointly committed to this target under the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol10, which entered into force on 31 December 2020. To reach this target, an effort sharing agreement distributed the effort required amongst EU Member States, which 11. The UK left the European Union on 31 January 2020; under 9 EU 2020 Convention pledge (2011) 10 Doha 11 Decision No 406/2009/EC

Annex 1: UKs Fifth Biennial Report to the UNFCCC 421 the terms of the Withdrawal Agreement, the UK remains committed to its shared targets and reporting with the EU under the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol. The Paris Agreement entered into force on 4 November 2016 and was ratified by the UK on 18 November 2016. Parties to the Paris Agreement are required to prepare, communicate and maintain successive Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). On 12 December 2020, the UK communicated its new NDC under the Paris Agreement. The NDC commits the UK to reducing economy-wide greenhouse gas emissions by at least 68% by 2030, compared to 1990 levels. At COP26 in November 2021, the UK announced that it intended to extend ratification of the Paris Agreement to include the UK’s Crown Dependencies. This section details the UK’s international 2020 targets. For information on the UK’s 2030 target under the Paris Agreement, see the UK NDC12. Under both the EU’s Convention pledge to the UNFCCC and the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, the EU and its Member States, the UK, and Iceland are jointly committed to achieving a 20% reduction of GHG emissions from 1990 levels by 2020.
More detail on the The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 as an international agreement in response to the threat of climate change. Countries that have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol are legally bound to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by an agreed amount. The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol was from 2008 to 2012. A single European Union Kyoto Protocol reduction target for greenhouse gas emissions of -8% compared to base- year levels was negotiated for the first commitment period, and a Burden Sharing Agreement allocated the target between Member States of the European Union. Under this agreement, the UK reduction target was -12.5% on base-year levels. The second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol applies from 2013 to 2020 inclusive. For this second commitment period the EU, the Member States and Iceland communicated an independent quantified economy-wide emission reduction target of a 20 percent emission reduction by 2020 compared with 1990 levels (base year) (‘the EU2020 target’). The EU2020 target is based on the understanding that it will be fulfilled jointly by the European Union, the Member States, the UK (including its relevant Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories) and Iceland. Under the terms of the Withdrawal Agreement, the UK remains committed to its shared target and reporting with the EU under the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol, including any further requirements for the conclusion of the true-up period. 3.2.1 EU 2020 Climate and Energy Package and the Kyoto Protocol Under the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol 2013 to 2020, the EU (and participating non-EU Member States) has a collective target to reduce its emissions by 20% relative to 1990 levels by 2020. In 2009 the EU established sub-targets through the 2020 climate and energy package13, which underpins the implementation of the 2020 target under the Convention. A 20% reduction of total GHG emissions from 1990 levels is equivalent to a 14% reduction compared to 2005 levels. This 14% reduction objective is divided between the Emissions Trading System (ETS) and Effort Sharing Decision (ESD) sectors. These two 12 The UK’s Nationally Determined Contribution communication to the service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/943618/uk-2030-ndc.pdf 13 EU 2020 Climate and Energy Package

422 8th National Communication • A 21% r eduction in emissions from sectors covered by the EU ETS compared to 2005 levels, which includes emissions from the power and industrial sectors, and since 2012 has included international aviation within the European eduction in emissions from ESD sectors compared to 2005 levels, including buildings, agriculture, waste and transport not covered by the EU ETS. The ESD target is distributed between Member States, and participating non-EU Member States, to reflect national circumstances, requirements for economic growth and scope for further emissions reductions. Each Member State has a national emission target for non- ETS sectors for 2020, which have been translated into binding quantified Annual Emission Allocations (AEAs) for the period 2013–2020. Member State (and participating non-EU Member State) emissions from the traded sector are managed centrally by the Union and are not counted towards individual targets, as set out in the EU’s joint fulfilment agreement for the Doha Amendment. Therefore, only the ESD sectors and a subset of LULUCF emissions are counted towards EU Member State targets under the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. the distinction between EU and UK international targets for 2020. All 2020 targets have been set using Global Warming Potential values from the IPCC’s fourth Assessment Report (AR4). argets under the Effort Sharing Directive and Kyoto Protocol Under the ESD, the UK has a target of reducing its total emissions to around 16% below the 2005 level by 2020 for non-ETS sectors. The UK’s Annual Emission Allocations (AEAs) 14, and subsequently adjusted in 201315 to ensure consistency with the enlarged EU Emission Trading System (EU ETS) scope for 2013-2020. In August 2017, the AEAs for 2017-2020 were updated 16 to ensure consistency with the latest international guidelines and methodologies for reporting emissions. The UK’s AEAs follow a declining path from 358.7 MtCO2e in 2013, to 350.9 MtCO2e in 2020, giving an allocated emission level for the entire commitment period of 2,830.5 MtCO2e17. 14 European Commission Decision 2013/162/EU 15 Initial AEA calculations were revised in Commission Decision 2013/634/EU due to changes in the scope of the EU 16 Commission Decision (EU) 2017/1471 of 10 August 2017 amending Decision 2013/162/EU to revise Member States’ annual emission allocations for the period from 2017 to 2020 (notified under document C(2017) 5556): 17 do?languageCode=en&esdRegistry=GB&esdYear=&search=Search&currentSortSettings=

Annex 1: UKs Fifth Biennial Report to the UNFCCC 423 The initial allocated emissions total for the non-ETS sectors in the UK (2,743.4 MtCO2e) was used to calculate the UK’s Assigned Amount for the second commitment period (CP2) of the Kyoto Protocol. The calculation of the UK’s Assigned Amount is set out in UK’s Initial Report for the second commitment period, and results in an Assigned Amount of 2,744,937,332 assigned amount units (AAUs) where one AAU is equivalent to one tCO AAUs for CP2 were issued to the UK Registry in 2021. For the Kyoto Protocol, the UK’s base year for assessing CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions is 1990, and the UK has chosen to use 1995 as the base year for emissions of the F HFCs, PFCs, SF6 and NF3. This is in line with most EU Member States, and in accordance with Article 3.8 of the Kyoto Protocol. geographical, aviation and LULUCF coverage. Target year or period 2020 2020 (Second commitment Emissions reduction target 20% reduction on base year 20% cut in greenhouse gas Base year 1990 1990, but subject to flexibility rules.
1995 or 2000 1990 for overall emission reduction target; 2005 for targets broken Aviation and shipping Aviation in the scope of the EU international shipping excluded, EU ETS domestic aviation ESD CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, EU ETS CO2, N2O, CF4 and Sectors included Energy (including Transport), waste, aviation in the scope of Transport (except aviation), agriculture (except forestry) and industry sectors, aviation (Annex 1 GWPs used IPCC AR4 IPCC AR4 IPCC AR4 18 UK Kyoto Protocol Initial Report for the second commitment period (2017) reports/initial_reports_under_the_kyoto_protocol/second_commitment_period_2013-2020/application/zip/

424 8th National Communication Target UK target under the EU Effort Sharing UK target under the Kyoto Protocol (second Target year or period 2013-2020 2020 (Second commitment period 2013-2020) Emission target 16% reduction on 2005 emission levels for non-ETS sectors (excluding LULUCF) 2,744,937,332 AAUs over commitment period; 20% reduction on base year levels by 2020, jointly 2, CH4 and N2O, 1995 for F-gases. UK’s base year estimate of the reported Kyoto basket of greenhouse gases for the second commitment period Geographical coverage UK and Gibraltar For the second commitment period, this includes the a. Crown Dependencies (Guernsey, Isle of Man and b. Overseas Territories (Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands and Gibraltar only. Other Overseas Territories are not included as they are not signed up to the Aviation and shipping Aviation and international shipping excluded. Domestic aviation included. International aviation Domestic shipping included. International shipping 2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6. CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6, NF3. Sectors included Transport (except aviation), buildings, non- ETS industry, agriculture (except forestry) and Annex A of Kyoto Protocol (Energy including Transport, Industrial Processes and Product Use, agriculture, waste), LULUCF according to Kyoto Protocol accounting rules for CP2. Included in UK ESD sectors and KP-LULUCF. 3.2.3 UK t argets under the EU Emissions Trading Scheme and Kyoto Protocol The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) was established in 2003 by Directive 2003/87/ EC and is the largest ETS in the world. It is currently in Phase III (2013-2020). The EU ETS incentivises participants from the EU Member States and participating non-EU Member States (Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and the United Kingdom as of 31 January 2020) to reduce emissions by placing a cap on total EU GHG emissions from the power and industrial sectors and enabling trading of allowances to ensure emissions reductions are delivered cost efficiently. The Phase III cap reduces the number of available allowances by 1.74% each year to deliver an overall reduction of 21% below 2005 verified emissions by 2020. Since the beginning of phase 3 of the EU ETS (2013-2020), the cap on emissions is set for the EU (and participating non-EU Member States) as a whole. A UK Emissions Trading Scheme (UK ETS) replaced the UK’s participation in the EU ETS on 1 January 2021. ifferences in scope between targets and IPCC reporting requirements The scope of UK GHG emissions reporting varies according to the differing requirements under the Convention. For aviation, the scope of the EU ETS is largely additional to the IPCC inventory and the Kyoto Protocol coverage, as the EU ETS includes CO from flights between EU Member States, emissions which are otherwise included in the inventory as ‘Memo International Aviation Bunkers’ and not counted towards national emissions totals. Domestic aviation and shipping within the UK are included within all The UK’s contribution to the EU target only applies to the UK and, of its Overseas Territories, Gibraltar. As the UK’s Crown Dependencies and its other Overseas Territories that have

Annex 1: UKs Fifth Biennial Report to the UNFCCC 425 signed up to the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol are not in the EU, the EU targets do not apply to these regions. Geographical coverage under the Kyoto Protocol includes all UK Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies that have signed up to the Convention, excluding Bermuda for the Second Commitment Period (CP2). LULUCF is excluded from the EU ESD and EU Convention targets but is included in the IPCC inventory and in accordance with Articles 3.3, 3.4 and 3.7 under the Kyoto Protocol. The UK has domestic targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions under the Climate Change Act 2008 (CCA)19. The CCA established a long-term legally binding framework to reduce emissions, initially committing the UK to reducing emissions by at least 80% below base year emissions by 2050. In June 2019, following the IPCC’s Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C and advice from the independent Climate Change Committee (CCC), the CCA was amended to commit the UK to achieving a 100% reduction in emissions (to The CCA also introduced carbon budgets, which set legally binding limits on the total amount of GHGs the UK can emit for a given five-year period and must be set 12 years in advance of The first six carbon budgets cover the period 2008-37, with the seventh carbon budget (covering 2038-42) due to be set by mid-2026. The UK’s performance against its 2050 target and carbon budgets is assessed through the UK’s net carbon account, measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e). The UK GHG inventory is the basis for calculating the UK’s net carbon account. Performance against a carbon budget is assessed against the earliest UK GHG inventory that covers the whole of the carbon budget period, which is published two years after the carbon budget period in question ends. For example, the sixth carbon budget will be assessed in 2039 based on the The net carbon account also includes the UK’s net purchases/sales of international carbon units, if any. Carbon units can include allowances issued under cap-and-trade systems, and international carbon credits issued under international schemes. While the UK intends to meet its targets through reducing emissions domestically, it reserves the right to use such voluntary cooperation under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. This could occur through linking the UK ETS to another emissions trading system, or by using international emissions The net carbon account for each carbon budget is calculated according to rules set out in Carbon Accounting Regulations20.
19 20

426 8th National Communication Target year or period 2008-12 2013-17 2018-22 2023-27 2028-32 2033-37 2e 2,782 MtCO2e 2,544 MtCO2e 1,950 MtCO2e 1,725 MtCO2e 965 MtCO2e Excluded Excluded Excluded Excluded Excluded Included 4. P rogress in achievement of quantified, economy-wide emission 4.1 M itigating actions and effects Chapter 3 of the UKs Eighth National Communication provides a comprehensive overview of the UK’s policies, plans and proposals to meet our emissions reduction targets. These are organised by sector and cover all greenhouse gas emissions. In addition to the explanatory in Chapter 3 of the UKs Eighth National Communication. Chapter 3 also covers enabling policies and proposals which seek to mitigate and manage the economic and social consequences of the transition as well as maximise the opportunities, including green jobs, green investment and local climate action. The UK has made considerable efforts to embed decision-making on climate change across the UK Government. The ‘Embedding net zero’ section 3.18 of Chapter 3 of the UKs Eighth National Communication sets out the institutional arrangements and how we monitor, report and track our progress to our net zero target. missions reduction international targets Under both the EU’s Convention pledge to the UNFCCC and the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, the EU and its Member States (and participating non-EU Member States) are jointly committed to achieving a 20% reduction of GHG emissions from 1990 levels by 2020. More detail on the EU’s Convention pledge target is given in Chapter 3 of the UK’s Fifth 21 The UK Government is planning to bring forward legislation to include nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) in scope of carbon budgets, and will seek to do this in time to be included in Carbon Budget 3. Annex 1: UKs Fifth Biennial Report to the UNFCCC 427 this chapter, geographical coverage used to calculate GHG emissions and trends is aligned ntribution to EU 2020 EU ESD In October 2021 the European Commission confirmed for each participating country their performance against the EU Effort Sharing Decision (ESD) for 201922. UK greenhouse gas emissions for 2019 under the ESD were confirmed to be 329.1 MtCO2e23, 24.9 MtCO2e below the UK’s annual limit for 2019 of 354.1 MtCO2e, meaning that the UK met its seventh annual target in the period. Provisional estimates indicate that UK greenhouse gas emissions for 2020 under the Effort Sharing Decision will also be below the annual emissions limit, by 2e. The UK is therefore on track to meet all its annual targets under the EU 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Total greenhouse gas emissions excl. LULUCF and NF3 (A) 566.5 524.0 503.5 482.8 470.5 460.3 449.2 402.1 Total verified emissions from stationary installations under the EU ETS (B) 225.3 197.9 175.9 147.4 136.8 128.9 118.6 104.6 CO2 emissions from civil aviation (C) 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.5 0.6 Total ESD emissions (D = A – B – C) 339.5 324.4 326.0 333.9 332.1 329.9 329.1 296.9 Annual emissions allocation (E) 358.7 354.2 349.7 345.2 360.4 357.2 354.1 350.9 Difference (E – D) 19.3 29.8 23.7 11.3 28.4 27.4 24.9 54.1 he geographical coverage for the ESD is the UK and Gibraltar. Under the terms of the Withdrawal Agreement, the UK remains committed to its targets under the EU ESD due to its shared target with the EU under the Kyoto Protocol. D emissions are calculated as total greenhouse gas emissions for the UK and Gibraltar minus NF3 and LULUCF emissions, minus verified emissions from stationary installations under the EU ETS, minus CO2 emissions from civil aviation. D emissions for 2020 are provisional and subject to change, pending completion of the EU review and compliance process in 4.2.2 UK co ntribution to EU 2020 EU ETS Member State (and participating non-EU Member State) emissions from the traded sector are managed centrally by the European Union and are not counted towards individual Member State targets, as set out in the EU’s joint fulfilment agreement for the Doha Amendment. rogress towards Kyoto Protocol first commitment period (2008-2012) The UK met its emissions reductions target for the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. Under the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol (2008-12), the EU and its Member States, Iceland and Norway collectively made a commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions across the EU by 8% on 1990 levels by 2012. As part of this, the UK 22 Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2021/1876 of 20 October 2021 on greenhouse gas emissions covered by Decision No 406/2009/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council for the year 2018 for each Member TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32021D1876&qid=1642152861255 23 ESD dataset 2021, EEA 24

428 8th National Communication undertook to reduce total greenhouse gas emissions by 12.5% below base year levels over the five-year period 2008-1225. 4.2.4 UK progress towards Kyoto Protocol Second commitment period Parties submitted ‘initial reports’ to facilitate the calculation of their allocated emission units permitted under their Kyoto targets.26 The UK’s initial report translates the UK’s targets for the non-traded sectors into Assigned Amount Units (AAUs).27 Particular rules for the accounting of the LULUCF sectors are used (KP-LULUCF), and some minor LULUCF sources are also As of 28 October 2020, 147 Parties have deposited their instrument of acceptance (including the UK), therefore the threshold for entry into force of the Doha Amendment has been met29. figures for the UK’s progress against its targets under the Doha Amendment, which show the UK is on track to meet its target.