The European Union 6th Environmental Action Programme
TOWARDS A THEMATIC STRATEGY
ON THE SUSTAINABLE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Working Group 1 Supply of Resources
Final Report
October 20th, 2004
Patrice Christmann, EuroGeoSurveys
with the support of Maria Buitenkamp, European Environmental Bureau
and of Ute Seeling, Confederation of the European Private Forest Owners
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Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY....................................................................................................................1
1- INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 11
1.1 - ABOUT THE FORMULATION OF THE THEMATIC STRATEGY ON THE SUSTAINABLE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
......................................................................................................................................................... ...11
1.2 - ORGANISATION OF THE STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION ............................................................................12
1.3 - SCOPE OF THE RESOURCES STRATEGY.................................................................................................16
1.4 - PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................................20
2 - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................ 21
3 - ORIGIN OF THE STRATEGY EXERCICE...............................................................................21
4 - WORKING GROUP 1 ACTIVITIES........................................................................................... 23
4.1 - STAKEHOLDERS AND SECTORS REPRESENTED........................................................................................ 23
4.2 REPRESENTATION OF THE ECONOMIC SECTORS....................................................................................... 25
4.3 - STEERING COMMITTEE..................................................................................................................... 25
4.4 - ADVISORY FORUM...........................................................................................................................26
4.5 - COORDINATION WITH WORKING GROUP 2........................................................................................... 27
4.6 - MANDATE......................................................................................................................................27
4.7 - CONSTRAINTS ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE MANDATE...................................................................... 27
5 - CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................. 29
5.1 - DEFINITIONS OF CERTAIN TERMS USED IN THIS REPORT............................................................................29
5.1.1 - EU ..................................................................................................................................... 29
5.1.2 - COM2003572................................................................................................................... 29
5.1.3 - Low income countries......................................................................................................... 30
5.1.4 - Resources gaining and use................................................................................................. 30
5.1.5 - Waste...................................................................................................................................30
5.2 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.............................................................................................................31
5.3 - ONE THEMATIC STRATEGY BUT A NEED FOR DIFFERING POLICIES AND INSTRUMENTS ADAPTED TO THE DIVERSITY
OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES .....................................................................................................................34
5.4 - MULTI-FACETED IMPACTS..................................................................................................................36
5.4.1 - Sustainable Development Indicators initiatives................................................................. 36
5.4.2 - Sustainable use of resources ..............................................................................................38
5.4.2.1 - Land-use-planning and access to resources................................................................. 41
5.4.2.2 - Recycling and re-use.................................................................................................... 42
5.4.2.3 - Substitution...................................................................................................................43
5.4.2.4 - Sustainable management of biotic resources............................................................... 44
5.4.3 - Assessing the impacts the multiple interlinked dimensions of the environment............... 45
5.4.4 - Driving forces, Pressures, States and Impacts................................................................... 50
5.4.4.1 - Generic driving forces.................................................................................................. 50
5.4.5 - Sectoral driving forces, pressures, and impacts ................................................................61
5.4.5.1 - Agriculture ...................................................................................................................63
5.4.5.2 - Built-up areas............................................................................................................... 70
5.4.5.3 - Energy...........................................................................................................................73
5.4.5.4 - Mining.......................................................................................................................... 81
5.4.6 - Data, Indicators and knowledge issues ............................................................................. 90
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5.4.6.1 - Studies in preparation of the drafting of the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use
of Natural Resources ................................................................................................................. 91
5.4.7 - Resources for data acquisition and indicators development ...........................................103
5.4.8 - Absolute decoupling a realistic objective within the EU?..........................................105
5.4.9 - A growing dependence on imports impacts and security of supplies............................. 106
6 - INPUTS FOR THE FUTURE THEMATIC STRATEGY ON THE SUSTAINABLE USE OF
NATURAL RESOURCES ................................................................................................................ 116
6.1 - EXISTING EU POLICY, REGULATORY AND INSTRUMENTS FRAMEWORK RELEVANT TO SUSTAINABLE NATURAL
RESOURCES MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................................116
6.1.1 - Does this framework address the issues?
........................................................................ 121
6.2 - WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE? RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................ 123
6.2.1 - What are the priority resources that need to be targeted in a strategy for the sustainable
use of resources? .........................................................................................................................123
6.2.2 - What are the opportunities and potentials in quantitative terms - for lowering the
impacts of resource use? ............................................................................................................. 126
6.2.3 - How can the goal of effective decoupling be achieved, having the EU enjoying economic
growth while significantly reducing the negative impacts related to resource consumption?... 128
6.2.4 - What practical actions, policies and instruments are needed to achieve these goals and to
monitor progress, in the short-term 2 years, medium-term 5 years or within the long-term 25
years time frame set for the strategy? What are the likely costs and benefits of these actions? ................................................................................................................................................. .....130
6.2.5 - How should knowledge gathering and availability of data be improved and guaranteed? ................................................................................................................................................... ...133
6.2.5.1 - Research..................................................................................................................... 133
6.2.6 - How should knowledge gathering and availability of data be improved and guaranteed? ................................................................................................................................................... ...136
7 - CONCLUSIONS............................................................................................................................138
7.1 - OPINIONS OF THE STAKEHOLDERS ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS PROPOSED IN THE DRAFT FINAL REPORT........138
7.2 - A TIMELINE FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STRATEGY..................................................................... 160
7.3 - THEMATIC STRATEGY ON THE SUSTAINABLE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES............................................167
7.4 - MANDATE WORKING GROUP 1...................................................................................................... 167
7.5 - SUPPLY OF RESOURCES................................................................................................................... 167
7.6 - THEMATIC STRATEGY ON THE SUSTAINABLE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES............................................169
7.7 - WORKING GROUP 1.....................................................................................................................
169
7.8 - SUPPLY OF RESOURCES................................................................................................................... 169
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TABLE OF FIGURES
FIG. 1 ORGANISATION OF THE TWO WORKING GROUPS ON THE BASIS OF THE
LCA CONCEPT................................................................................................................................... 13
FIG. 2 - HIERARCHY OF MINERAL RAW MATERIALS RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.......................................................................................... 43
FIG. 3 VARIOUS FORMS OF CAPITAL AND THEIR LINKAGE.......................................... 47
FIG.
75
FIG. 14 MAP OF TEMPERATURES AT DEPTH OF 5,000 METRES .................................... 76
FIG. 15 - TOP-TWENTY OF MATERIALS BASED ON THEIR ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS, WEIGHTED EQUALLY................................................................................................ 99
FIG. 16 ECO-EFFICIENCY OF EU MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY ACIDIFYING
GASSES .............................................................................................................................................. 108
FIG. 17
ECO-EFFICIENCY OF EU MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY OZONE
PRECURSORS .................................................................................................................................. 108
FIG. 18 ECO-EFFICIENCY OF EU MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY EMISSIONS OF
INDIVIDUAL GREENHOUSE GASES ......................................................................................... 108
FIG. 19 ECO-EFFICIENCY OF EU MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY EMISSIONS OF
OZONE DEPLETING CHEMICALS .............................................................................................109
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FIG. 20 ECO-EFFICIENCY OF EU MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY MINERALS
CONSUMPTION INDEX ................................................................................................................. 109
FIG. 21 ECO-EFFICIENCY OF EU MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY ENERGY INPUTS
........................................................................................................................................................... ...109
FIG. 22 EXAMPLES OF GROWING EU DEPENDENCE ON MINERAL IMPORTS....... 111
FIG.
23 LOCATION OF KNOWN RESERVES OF 28 ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT
MINERAL RESOURCES, BROKEN DOWN PER INCOME GROUP OF THE HOSTING
COUNTRIES ......................................................................................................................................113
FIG. 24 DISTRIBUTION OF COMPLAINTS RECEIVED BY THE EUROPEAN
COMMISSION, PER SECTOR .......................................................................................................122
FIG. 25 - TENTATIVE TIME-LINE FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF EU RESOURCES
RELATED STRATEGIES, POLICIES, DIRECTIVES AND REGULATIONS........................ 161
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TABLE OF BOXES
BOX 1 PERIMETER OF WORKING GROUP 1 ACTIVITIES RELATED TO THE
MINERAL RESOURCES SECTOR.................................................................................................. 14
BOX 2 - NATURAL RESOURCES ARE OUR COMPLEX AND VULNERABLE LIFE
SUPPORTING SYSTEM ...................................................................................................................18
BOX 3 NATURAL RESOURCES GROUPS AND CATEGORIES............................................ 36
BOX 4 IMPLICATIONS OF A PROGRESSIVE REDUCTION OF INTRA-
GENERATIONAL INEQUITIES IN RESOURCES USE THE COPPER EXAMPLE..............54
BOX 5 EXCERPT OF THE CONCLUSIONS OF A REPORT ON VOLUNTARY
INITIATIVES SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE NON-ENERGY EXTRACTIVE
INDUSTRY PREPARED FOR DG ENTERPRISE .........................................................................59
BOX 6 - AGRICULTURE AND SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES THE EXAMPLE OF
BRITTANY FRANCE.......................................................................................................................65
BOX 7 CASE HISTORY DECOUPLING AT WORK IN THE MINING INDUSTRY ..........85
BOX 8 CONCLUSIONS FROM ZERO STUDY RESOURCE USE IN EUROPEAN
COUNTRIES ......................................................................................................................................95
BOX 9 - RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER MFA AND LCA STUDIES....................... 102
BOX 10 EXCERPT FROM COM2003669 ENFORCEMENT OF THE EU
ENVIRONMENT REGULATORY FRAMEWORK THE SITUATION ON 31122002.......122
BOX 11 - SYNTHESIS OF THE STAKEHOLDER RECOMMENDATIONS PRIORITY
RESOURCES.....................................................................................................................................124
BOX 12 - SYNTHESIS OF THE STAKEHOLDER RECOMMENDATIONS
OPPORTUNITIES AND POTENTIALS.........................................................................................126
BOX 13 - SYNTHESIS OF THE STAKEHOLDER RECOMMENDATIONS EFFECTIVE
DECOUPLING .................................................................................................................................. 128
BOX 14 - SYNTHESIS OF THE STAKEHOLDER RECOMMENDATIONS PRACTICAL
ACTIONS, POLICIES, INSTRUMENTS .......................................................................................130
BOX 15 - SYNTHESIS OF THE STAKEHOLDER RECOMMENDATIONS KNOWLEDGE
GATHERING AND DATA ...............................................................................................................136
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TABLE OF TABLES
TABLE 1 - BREAKDOWN OF THE WG1 STAKEHOLDERS, PER TYPE OF
ORGANISATION................................................................................................................................23
TABLE 2 - BREAKDOWN PER TYPE OF RESOURCES COVERED IN THE REPLIES
RECEIVED FURTHER TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE SUBMITTED TO WG1
STAKEHOLDERS...............................................................................................................................24
TABLE 3 - LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE STEERING COMMITTEE............................25
TABLE 4 SUMMARY OF THE CONCLUSIONS OF THE STUDY ON VOLUNTARY
INITIATIVES SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE NON-ENERGY EXTRACTIVE
INDUSTRY............................................................................................................................................59
TABLE 5 WATER RESOURCES USE IN EUROPE, BY USER AND BY SUPPLY
CATEGORY......................................................................................................................................... 62
TABLE 6 EUROPE AREAS AFFECTED BY SOIL EROSION SOIL LOSS IN
AGRICULTURAL LAND................................................................................................................... 64
TABLE 7 EU-15 LAND USE ESTIMATES .................................................................................
69
TABLE 8 - CUMULATED SURFACE AREA THERMAL SOLAR COLLECTOR SURFACE
AREA INSTALLED IN THE EUROPEAN UNION IN 2001 AND 2002 IN M2 FROM
EUROPEAN COMMISSION DG ENERGY AND TRANSPORT WEB PAGES ON NEW
AND RENEWABLE ENERGIES....................................................................................................... 75
TABLE 9 EU-15 DEPENDENCE ON MINERALS AND METALS IMPORTS OF
COVERAGE OF APPARENT CONSUMPTION BY EU PRODUCTION FROM DOMESTIC
EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES.........................................................................................................113
TABLE 10 - EU-30 MINE PRODUCTION OF SELECTED METALS AS WORLD
PERCENTAGES ...............................................................................................................................113
TABLE 11 SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAS MINERAL EXPORTING
COUNTRIES......................................................................................................................................114
TABLE 12 NON-EXHAUSTIVE LIST OF EU REGULATIONS, POLICIES,
AGREEMENTS, AND INSTRUMENTS HAVING AN IMPACT ON NATURAL RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................................120
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APPENDIXES
1 - List of the Working Group 1 stakeholders
2 - The Working Group 1 Mandate
3 Questionnaire to the Members
4 - Summarised compilation of the received written contributions
5 - Bibliography
clicking on the links will directly lead you to the relevant appendix
Note to the readers
The text of this report is the sole responsibility of the author. It neither necessarily reflects
the views of a specific stakeholder nor of the institutions of the European Union
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report concludes the multi-stakeholder Working Group Supply of Resources to the
EU economy activities, developed over nearly nine months from January to September
2004. It includes inputs and recommendations for the drafting by the European
Commissions services of its Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural
Resources, to be submitted to the European Parliament and Council by June 2005. Although, within the European Union, much significant achievements have been obtained in
the environmental domain, such as the cleaning of the waters of the river Rhine or the
reduction of CO2 emissions see figs. 16 to 21 for indicators whitnessing good
environmental performance on some important parameters, soil fertility is endangered in
many places, soils are lost due to accelerating erosion, groundwater recharge is impaired by
soil sealing and compaction, water quality is endangered by diffuse contamination by
numerous chemicals, some very persistant and potentially dangerous to ecosystems and to
human health. Air quality and atmosphere properties are threatened by ever growing
emissions from transport. In the areas of dense population or high intensity human activities,
biodiversity is reducing at a fast pace due to the combined effects of disappearance of
habitats, their fragmentation and pollution. The relentless developpment of built-up areas
pp. 70 ff. increasingly impairs the ability of soils to perform their essential natural functions. Floods and landslides hit built-up areas constructed where they should not have. Bird,
butterfly and plant species are disappearing at a fast pace, hinting at an unprecedented
man-made massive extinction. Our bodies are stained with chemicals which should not be
there, including carcinogens and endocrinian disruptors. If the European Union already progressed towards a better management of its natural
resources, this progress is challenged by many drivers pp.50 ff.. Consumer demand,
stimulated by marketing campaigns and governments drive for growth, is for more
consumption, more goods and lower prices. Individual and collective performance, be it of
private enterprises or states remains largely evaluated in view of uniquely economic criteria. Individual behaviours and choices are a key towards sustainable development. In quite a few
instances our behaviours are schizophrenic. While public support for the broad concept of
environmental protection grows, our individual and collective choices and behaviours, in
many instances, put even more pressures on our already fragile environment. Many of us
wish to enjoy the benefits and functions natural resources provide without caring much about
how and where these are produced and transformed. In most instances, the price tag
remains of much more importance than sustainable development considerations. However, sustainability issues meet a rising interest and support from governments, industry
and NGOs. An increasing number of companies, especially those subject to close scrutiny
from stock markets, insurance companies, regulatory authorities, medias and NGOs are
committed to sustainable development goals and thrive to reconcile economic,
environmental and social performance, through good management and technical ingenuity. However, it should not be forgotten that 98.8 of EUs enterprises are SMEs with a
maximum staff of 50 persons, having very limited resources, if any, to cope with the
increasingly complex pp. 117 ff. and sometimes contradictory regulatory and policy
framework related to sustainable development. The European Union institutions are strongly committed to sustainable development, one of
the objectives of the Treaty establishing the European Community and the subject of much
EU policy and regulatory work. This commitment is expressed in the policies an regulations
developed by the European institutions. Among these, the 6th European Environmental
Action Programme 2002-2012 foresees the preparation of seven Thematic Strategies
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which will consider the range of options and instruments required for dealing with a series of
complex issues that require a broad and multi-dimensional approach. The European
Commission will propose the necessary actions, involving where appropriate the European
Parliament and the Council.
One of these Thematic Strategies deals with the Sustainable
Use of Natural Resources, object of this report. Although some greening is taking place in certain areas within the EU figs. 16 to 21, the
implementation of existing EU resources and sustainable development related regulations is
not yet satisfactory pp. 121 ff.. The progress testified by these indicators is partly due to the
fact that an increasing amount of the production of the resources and goods we use is
imported from outside of the EU borders, increasingly from countries with comparatively low
social and environmental standards andor governance capacities. These countries will be
the homes of most of the additional 3 billion humans to be borne between now and 2050. On one hand the developing countries need economic development to offer a better future to
their population, developing the potentials of their human and enviromental assets. On the
the other hand, there is a huge risk for negative social and environmental impacts,
threatening the global environment and security. The developing world, facing many dire
short-term problems, has very little resources to address long-term, complex, sustainable
development issues. Europe has the political clout, the human, technical and financial
resources to provide the needed long-term support to strengthen the capacity of the
developing countries to attract the investments needed to progressively unleash the potential
of their assets and to manage their development in a more sustainable world. This requires a
long-term, stable, partnership. Much more attention needs to be given, over long periods of time, to help developing
countries to gradually increase social and environmental standards for their agricultural
production, as soil degradation, waste of water resources and loss of biodiversity continues
at an alarming rate while demand for agricultural products is rising with growing population
and welfare. There is an urgent need to help developing countries to create and maintain the
conditions, including the institutional capacities and the public governance, needed to make
a sustainable use of their natural assets soils, biomass, mineral and energetic resources,
the very basis for any sustainable development.
In many cases their business environment
and infrastructure need to be much improved in order to attract private investment, while
further development is needed regarding the human, technological and material capacities of
public institutions to regulate and promote this investment. Conditionalities for support shall
include the need for transparency of public finance as well as the application of initiatives
such as the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative EITI and the Equator principles
see p. 58 and similar initiatives to fight corruption. While remarkable efforts are developed
in some sectors water, with the European Union Water Initiative the conservation of tropical
rainforests through programs such as ECOFAC, a programme fostering the sustainable
management and use of Central Africas rainforests, the current EU Development Policy still
ignores certain sectors such as the mineral resources sector, despite its considerable
importance and potential for many developing countries. EU supported programmes such as the Global Earth Observation programme GEO1 and
the Global Monitoring of Environment and Security GMES2 will in the coming years provide
new and better satellite data, and related services. They aim at harmonising GEO national
Earth Observation efforts
However, in the scientific and public policy making
implementation evaluation domains these services will only develop if qualified experts are
available to integrate space data with data from other sources such as aircraft airborne
geophysics, the field pedology, geology,geochemistry, ground geophysics and the
subsurface drill-holes, underground works and to turn all these data into information for the
sustainable use of natural resources such as energy not only fossil energies but also
renewable energies such as geothermal energy, minerals, soils, surface and groundwater. 1 Website www.earthobservations.org
2 Website www.europa.eu.intcommspace
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To make this possible, there are many constraints to be overcome, which have been
described in the recent Building an Information Capacity for Environment and Security
Report BICEPS Report3 These bottlenecks are particularly severe in developing countries
and they are unlikely to be overcome without sustained and coordined action from donors
such as the European Union. Real greening of the EU economy and sustainable development require that EU growth and
way of life be decoupled from negative social and environental impacts not only within the
EU but also in the countries gaining resources and producing goods exported to the EU,
especially those located in the developing world. The EU economy, and its ageing population, are becoming increasingly dependent from
foreign energy and minerals see table 9 resources while the EU has increasing difficulties
to access to its available domestic resources, especially mineral resources such as
construction materials and industrial minerals4, due to the very poor public acceptance of
mining and related activities pp 41 ff. Many of its domestic mineral resources are sterilised
due to a combination of poor land-use planning andor allocation of land for uses other than
resources gaining activities. At the same time, with the exceptions of water and forests, the
EU Development Policy pays little attention to building the capacities of the developing world
to better manage its natural resources, including soils, minerals and renewable energies. There is an need for long-term support, and commitment from the European Union, possibly
a fair return for all the benefits provided by the resources imported from these countries. Many obstacles have to be overcome by the future Thematic Strategy. Quality data is the basis to develop information and knowledge necessary for informed and
wise policy making. There is a need to develop public, freely accessible European data on
resources production trade economic, environmental and social impacts5, on the status of
the components of our natural environment and on the changes over time. Resources
intelligence capacities in Europe remain widely disseminated, uncoordinated, heterogeneous
and sometimes insufficient. The existing national capacities are threatened by budgetary
constraints. A striking example is in the minerals and metals sector where the last public,
freely downloadable, EU minerals statistical compendium and analysis has been published
in 1997 European Commission, 1997, while the United States government, via the Unitied
States Geological Survey USGS, allocates significant human and material resources 180
staff members with a 16.4 M budget in 2002 and regularly publishes freely available mineral
resources data and information6 Committee to review the U.S. Geological Survey Mineral
Resources Program, 2003. Data acquisition, sampling and analytical techniques need to be
harmonised throughout the EU if the different local, regional and national data sets are to be
consistent, comparable and interoperable, in line with the recent INSPIRE Directive
Proposal. The complexity and variability of the various components of our environment pp. 45 ff. and
of their linkages need to be underlined. The characteristics and linkages vary widely over
space and time, even at the local level for instance biodiversity, geology, groundwater
quality and quantity, natural hazards, soils. This means that aggregated national data, fail to
reflect the diversity of the local situations. Local knowledge of the environment is of utmost
importance to define the good status, for instance of soils and water.
It is necessary to
identify the vulnerabilities of some of these components and to design technically effective
and economically efficient impact prevention strategies. 3
4
Available here httpwww.gmes.infolibraryindex.php?direction0orderdirectoryCross-Cutting
20Studies20Documents
In average metallic minerals are much less abundant in the EU, although modern systematic exploration
which has never been undertaken in some regions may yield some good surprises. 5 Much valuable progress is made. Since 01102004 EuroStat trade data became freely accessible here
httpepp.eurostat.cec.eu.intportalpage?_pageid1090,1137397_dadportal_schemaPORTAL
and in 2004, DG Enterprise published the first ever Sustainable Development Indicators for the EU mining
industry see p. 82. Available here httpminerals.usgs.govminerals
6
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Data issues pp. 90 ff. are a limiting factor for the definition of the future Strategy, and
stable resources at the EU and national regional levels will need to be allocated to address
this situation. Progress is also needed in turning data into information and knowledge, as underlined by
some examples pp. 91 ff. EU wide coordination and more interdisciplinary work is required
to derive the kind of information and knowledge required for policy making, be it at local,
regional, national or the European level. The current situation as reflected in this report may lead to inadequate decisions and
inefficient use of budgetary and other resources, or to a blanketing application of the
precautionary principle, with the risk to penalise growth and jobs without achieving the
desired reduction of environmental impacts. This would be contrary to the objectives of the
stategy which is to achieve the growth and employment objectives of the Lisbonne agenda. How to progress towards decoupling? The use of renewable biotic resources as substitutes for non-renewable abiotic resources is
constrained by the availability of land and competing land uses see p. 79 for an example
related to biofuels. Research and innovation are to play a considerable role in support of the decoupling
objective pp. 133 ff.. There is a need for sustained, financed, public applied research to
o develop our knowledge of the environmental components and of their interaction as well
as of the impacts of anthropogenic pressures
o collect and disseminate data and information on material flows through the EU economy,
including in relation with trade, as well as on the related economic, environmental and
social impacts within the EU, and outside its borders
and to develop innovative technologies for better, more efficient production technologies, for
the reduction and the re-use of waste. The efforts and resources of different European Commission Directorate Generals need to
be harmonised and integrated, in support of the Strategy. The Chemicals, Development,
Industrial, Agriculture, Fisheries, Energy, Transport, Space, Research policies all have an
effect on how we use natural resources and how this use is sustainable now, and will be in
the future. Report structure
This report concludes about nine months of work on a voluntary basis, having involved over
50 stakeholders p. 23 ff., representing industry, employers, national authorities, academia
and research consultancies as well as NGOs. It also involved representatives of five
Directorates General of the European Commission. The stakeholders and the troika having
chaired the Working Group have worked on a voluntary basis, and had no specific resources
except those internal to the organisations they represent to perform their job. The purpose of this report is to provide the European Commission Steering Committee
members with the inputs resulting from the participation of the stakeholders to the activities
of Working Group 1. It reflects the contributions received from the 58 stakeholders having participated to the
Working Group 1 activities. In total, about 100 stakeholders participated to one, or to both,
Working Groups. Page 4
The commitment and the dedication of those who participated should be underlined. The
draft of this report, with the exception of this Executive Summary and of comparatively minor
changes in its text, has been made available to the Working Group members and to the
general public since August 26th, 2004. This report includes a bibliography and Internet links which can be used as possible starting
points by those interested in deepening the analysis of the issues related to the sustainable
use of natural resources. This report is structured as follows
o Chapter 1, in introduction first briefly recalls the importance of natural resources for
human development and puts the development of the Thematic Strategy on the
Sustainable Resources in perspective. It then details the organisation of the stakeholder
consultation and recalls the scope of the Thematic Strategy
o After due acknowledgements Chapter 2 of the inputs delivered by the many
contributors to this report, the Chapter 3 details the origins and the European policy
context of the Strategy development, comprising the conclusions of several European
Summits and the 6th European Action Programme
o Chapter 4 details the work of the Working Group 1, with a detailed breakdown of the
stakeholders and the sectors represented. It presents the Steering Committee. It briefly
recalls the activities of the Advisory Forum, the liaison with the activities of the Working
Group 2, the Mandate given to Working Group 1.
Finally it details the constraints faced
by the Working Group, constraints which need to be kept in mind while reading this
report and evaluating its recommendations
o Chapter 5, is a synthesis combining the Chairs own experience and recommendations
together with many of the inputs delivered by Working Group members. It
exposes the Conceptual Framework used for this work, with the definition of
certain terms
discusses the sustainable development concept and related issues,
summarises the efforts undertaken by some industries and companies to
integrate sustainable development ethics in their corporate strategies
elaborates on the need to develop one Thematic Strategy but with differing
policies and instruments adapted to the diversity of the natural resources
groups and categories and of the environmental components
presents some of the leading Sustainable Development Indicators initiatives
discusses the long-term sustainability of natural resources use, and related
issues such as land-use planning and access to the natural resources,
recycling and re-use substitution of the use of one resource group by
another
discusses the sustainable management of biotic resources
introduces the multiple interlinked components of our natural environment
discusses in some detail the driving forces and the resulting pressures related
to the EU way of life and of the EU economy, attempting to put these in
perspective in the global context and to highlight some important trends
illustrates and discusses on the basis of examples, the relations between the
following resources gaining activities
- agriculture
- built-up areas
- energy production
- mining
and sustainability issues as well as the pressures they exert on the
environment and the related impacts it also includes recommendations to
progress towards more sustainable practices
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discusses in some detail the existing data, indicators and knowledge issues
with a focus on two of the preparatory studies used by DG Environment for
the preparation of the Strategy. This detailed discussion highlights the need
for quantitative and qualitative improvement of the public data available to
measure our resources use including the resources we import as such or
hidden in manufactured goods and the related economic, environmental and
social impacts. The data and terminology issues are of utmost importance as
it is the basis on which information and knowledge is produced, inter alia in
support of policy making and regulatory development. There is a real need to
develop a multi-disciplinary, public, EU resources intelligence capacity,
building on existing capacities, with a stable funding, a recommendation on
which a large consensus exists among stakeholders
presents the current European organisation for the acquisition, centralization
and dissemination of environmental data, underlining the need for more
harmonisation of the existing organisation
presents the decoupling objectives laid out in the 6th European Environmental
Action Programme
discusses the issue of European growing dependence on resources imports,
especially in the energy and minerals metals sectors. It elaborates on the
comparatively poorly known and documented EU minerals and metals import
dependence, and on the related geopolitical issues, emphasising the need to
develop a genuine EU resource intelligence capacity as well as providing
support to developing countries wishing to develop their mineral potential, in
line with the sustainable development ethics, through a revision of the EU
Development Policy, which so far ignores the geology and the minerals
metals sectors although it did, up to the year 2000 provide some conditional
support to these sectors through the now discontinued Sysmin special
financing facility. o Chapter 6 presents inputs in support of the future Strategy. The main components of the
existing EU policy and regulatory framework impacting on natural resources
management practices are listed as well as some information about its comparatively
poor implementation. The list fills over 4 pages, a hint towards the complexity of this
framework and possibly one of the reasons for the implementation difficulties.
The rest of
the chapter summarises the oral and written recommendations delivered by the
stakeholders during the two meetings of the Working Groups. These recommendations
are organised in five boxes boxes 11 to 15 respectively on
priority resources can priority resources, requiring specific and the most
urgent attention be identified? How to prepare a list of these resources? opportunities and potentials what are the opportunities and potentials in
quantitative terms - for lowering the impacts of resource use? effective decoupling how can the goal of effective decoupling be achieved,
having the EU enjoying economic growth while significantly reducing the
negative impacts related to resource consumption? practical actions, policies, instruments what practical actions, policies and
instruments are needed to achieve these goals and to monitor progress, in
the short-term 2 years, medium-term 5 years or within the long-term 25
years time frame set for the strategy? What are the likely costs and benefits
of these actions? knowledge gathering and data how should knowledge gathering and
availability of data be improved and guaranteed? Page 6
This part of the report on oral and written recommendations from the stakeholders also
includes a specific subsection with recommendations from the Chair regarding research
needs. o Chapter 7 presents the conclusions of this report. These consist of the compilation of the
43 recommendations from the Chair flagged throughout this report by small yellow boxes
with the letter R for recommendations as well as of the stakeholder recommendations
included in the boxes 11 to 15 in Chapter 6. These recommendations were already
available in the Draft Final Report circulated on August 26th, 2004. This compilation was
sent to all the Working Group 1 stakeholders further to the second and last Advisory
Forum held on September 14th, 2004 in form of a questionnaire listing 101
recommendations. 24 stakeholders, i.e about half of the members of Working Group 1
submitted their views on each of the recommendations. Recommendations for the Strategy
This report includes recommendations
o from the Chair, within the main text body, flagged by the following symbol inserted just
before the recommendation
R
o from the other stakeholders, inserted in the boxes 11 to 15, in Chapter 6. More detailed
recommendations are available in Appendix 4 and in the individual contributions which
were received from the stakeholders. Due to the volume of the received contributions the
latter are not appended here, but they are available for download from the European
Commission webpages dedicated to the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of
Natural Resources7.
All these recommendations have been submitted to the Working Group stakeholders, asking
them to express their agreement, disagreement or neutrality as well as possible comments. 24 stakeholders about half of the Working Group members responded to this enquiry. Their responses are in the Conclusions chapter Chapter 7. There are additional unflagged recommendations disseminated across the report. Summarising conclusions from the Chair
N.B.
This text is a significantly revised version of the summarising conclusions
submitted to the stakeholders in the questionnaire circulated after the September 14th,
2004 Advisory Forum. 1 The implementation of following actions, already enshrined in EU policies, are
recommended as they would significantly contribute to the decoupling objective
o Effective implementation by all Member States of the existing resources and or
environment related EU policies and regulations. Together with their implementation,
their effectiveness should be monitored and evaluated
7
httpwww.europa.eu.intcommenvironmentnatresindex.htm
Page 7
o Application of the polluter pays principle, as enshrined in art. 174 of the Treaty and in
the recent Directive on Environmental Liability 200435CE
2
Progressive integration of externalities in the resources prices, including the
externalities generated by the inputs needed for their production and by resources related
transport. 3
A clear linkage should be established between the WSSD Implementation Plan the
international European Commission supported Global Earth Observation programme the EU
Global Management for Environment and Security Programme the INSPIRE Directive
Infrastucture for Spatial Information in Europe, the programming of FP7 and the Thematic
Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. These are all elements of a same
quest for Sustainable Development. Their seamless integration is of essence. 4 The Strategy should address a number of crucial points
o .Provide a clear definition of natural resources, not forgetting land as a critical and limited
resource
o Call for the development of projections of future resources demand by Member State, a
subject which will require significant research work
o Develop an inventory of EU resources, not omitting minerals and metals
o Develop a vision on access to domestic resources and of the related land-use planning
issues
o Document by means of quality statistics resources production and trade, identifying
countries of origin and monitor markets and players
o Generate data on materials flow and land-use intensity
o Generate public, freely accessible data, on eco-efficiency of domestically produced and
imported commodities, using the life-cycle approach
o Develop measures to improve eco-efficency of domestic and imported resources
o Inscribe geosciences and support to the sustainable development of the minerals and
metals sector in the EU Development Policy and provide support to developing countries
for the sustainable development and management of their full natural resources potential
o Monitor decoupling of environmental impacts from GDP and develop Sustainable
Development Indicators for the EU economy. 5
In addition to existing European Agencies such as the European Environmental
Agency and the European Space Agency, and to the Research Institutes of the Joint
European Research Centre, there is a need for a complementary Resources Agency or
several specialised Resources Agencies, such as an European Geological Agency, with a
stable funding to set standards, guidelines and frameworks for data collection, analysis,
processing and dissemination to provide scientific support to policy making and advice to
EU institutions. The Resources Agencyies should essentially be small-sized structures,
setting guidelines for harmonisation and interoperability together with the national and
regional authorities and in close liaison with the existing above mentioned EU agencies and
research institutes. The benefits would be
o quality controlled, harmonised, interoperable datasets required for the EU Monitoring of
the Environment including natural hazards
o the provision of EU resources intelligence and related data
o the provision of information and knowledge to the EU institutions,
o the provision of support to EU policy and legislative work in the natural resources sector
as well as the contribution to EU RTD programming. 6 Support to the sustainable use of natural resources, including in the developing countries,
and the development of public quality EU resources related statistics and indicators should
Page 8
be considered as a thematic priority of the forthcoming 7th Research Framework
Programme FP7. Innovation is needed to develop better data acquisition, processing and
modelling techniques to develop more energy and resources efficient processes,
renewable energies, waste minimisation and re-use, If we want to increase resource
efficiency then we have to increase and sustain our research ambitions. 7 A EU Natural Resources Framework Directive NRFD should be considered as a basis
for a sustainable natural resources policy. This could be a major objective for the Inception
Phase of the future Thematic Strategy. Based on the principles of knowledge gathering,
policy assessment and integration exposed in the COM2003572 Towards a Thematic
Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources it should provide a stable,
foreseeable overarching framework, simplifying and harmonising the various existing
resources related EU-policies and regulations. Some important components of this
Framework Directive already exist, such as the Water Framework directive, the recent
Environmental Liability Directive or the draft INSPIRE and REACH Directives. Some others
are in the making. One of the major issues to be tackled by the Directive is Security of
Supplies. The do nothing scenario could lead to severe economic problems for the
increasingly dependent EU. 8
The preparation of the NRFD is a major undertaking, with significant implications for
the future of the EU, which will require time and significant multi-stakeholder inputs. Great
attention should be paid to the applicability of this future Framework Directive, and to the
need to see Sustainable Development as a growth factor for the EU economy, not as an
unbearable burden, especially for SMEs and individuals. Based on the subsidiarity principle,
the Framework directive should concentrate on coordination and harmonisation of actions as
well as on the programming of existing EU instruments such as the Research Framework
Programme and the EU development aid programmes such as ALA, EDF, MEDA, TACIS. The stable funding of these activities is of essence.
It should address the following points
o resources statistics and intelligence
o development of public Material Flow Analysis MFA and Life Cycle Analysis LCA
databases
o development of Sustainable Development Indicators, to monitor decoupling
o security of supplies
o land-use planning mineral planning
o international development cooperation
o monitoring of imports for compliance with SD criteria
o ensure that GEO GMES will effectively cover all societal benefit areas including natural
phenomena, mineral resources, soils and that these programs will effectively integrate
the best available data sources whether from space, airborne, ground and subsurface
sources
o ensure that stable, coordinated, funded institutional expertise is available and maintained
to turn data into information and knowledge
o support data acquisition, processing, dissemination harmonisation and the
interoperability of the thematic datasets, especially of the georeferenced thematic data
o support research to develop new data acquisition techniques from all sources in
innovative resources gaining, efficient use of resources, eco-efficient production
technologies and minimisation of waste through the prevention of waste andor its
transformation into an usable by-product in ecotoxicology
o support the active dissemination of innovation. 9 In the longer term following issues will also need to be addressed
Page 9
o Assess the feasibility of an application of fair-trade principles on resources imports from
low-income countries, to finance a ring-fenced development aid instrument in support of
capacity building and institutional strengthening information and knowledge
development environmental data acquisition , support actions to populations concerned
by resources production activities
o The ring-fencing is a necessity to protect the instrument from the numerous pressing
short-term issues faced by developing countries and against short-term political
agendas
o The fight against corruption, due to its eminently disruptive effects, diametrically opposed
to sustainable development ethics needs to be continued at the international scale. Page 10
1
- INTRODUCTION
NOTE TO THE READER
due to the editing work done on this final report, the numbering sequence of the flagged
recommendations has changed. The first flagged recommendation has the number R 9,
the second R 2. These are not typing errors.
The original numbering used in the Draft Final
Report remains unchanged, and the numbering used here is consistent with the numbering
used in the Conclusions Chapter 7. 1.1 - About the formulation of the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable
Use of Natural Resources
Since the onset of humanity, man is using is using the wide range of functions natural
resources can provide for shelter, food, energy, health and numerous other purposes. The
capacity of Homo sapiens to use natural resources and transform them in an ever growing
number of goods distinguishes him from all other animal species. The history of civilizations
is closely linked with their control of access to resources and with the technologies they
developed to use the diversified functions natural resources provide. Natural resources are used for the specific functions they provide, and substitutes develop
where the same function can be provided by another resource, or resource mix, at better
conditions for instance greater availability andor a lower price. Natural resources gaining is driven by Societys demand for an ever growing number of
functions. No resource will be extracted, harvested, raised or fished activities collectively
designated in this report by resources gaining if there is not a use, and in many cases a
market, for these resources. Resources gaining activities and their economic, environmental
and social impacts widely depend from the demand formulated by consumers and the
businesses involved in the different resources using the supply chains. One of the problems is that many economic actors and many economists, consider natural
resources as free or non tradable. Classical economists do not assign any tradable value
to natural resources such as air, biodiversity, water, soils or rocks. They are there to be
taken for mans benefit. Resources gaining activities and the downstream industries are taking place in a highly
competitive global business environment, a situation which will have to be duly taken into
consideration in the formulation of the Strategy. The European Union cannot be considered
in isolation from the rest of the world. In fact, its wealth and well-being is largely conditioned
by its relations with the other regions and countries of the world and by the availability of
resources increasingly produced outside of its borders. The future Strategy needs to pay
special attention to maintaining, and even reinforcing an enabling, sustainable business
climate within the European Union and also in resources rich countries. There would be
slittle benefit to the global environment in an accelerating delocalisation of productive
resources related activities to countries with lower environmental and social standards. The Thematic Strategy cannot be written now, once for the next 25 years. Periodical re-
evaluations, and adaptations should be considered, especially to integrate new data,
information and knowledge which will become available with time see Timeline in fig.
25. Much new data and better knowledge will result from recent or forthcoming EU programmes
and regulations such as8 the RTD Framework Programmes, the Water Framework Directive,
8
A more detailed list of resources related EU policies, programmes and actions is given p. 117 ff. Page 11
the Soils Thematic Strategy once it will turn into a specific policy and related actions and
the other forthcoming Thematic Strategies under preparation within the 6th European Action
Programme. A sectoral approach is also suggested, focused on individual sectors, and on
the related drivers, pressures, states and impacts in order too identify the best responses. Another important point to be considered is that the success of the future strategy will
depend on how effectively the Commissions vision the Strategy will can be translated into
actions and ownership of the vision by consumers and business. This will condition the
successful implementation of the Strategy, or its failure. The latter, knowing the critical
importance of biodiversity, energy, minerals, soils and water for the future of the EU and for
the harmony of its relations with the rest of the world and the well-being of our descendants
could have dramatic consequences.
This Thematic Strategy will condition much of Europes
future. It should be kept in mind that 98.8 of EUs enterprises are SMEs with a maximum staff of
50 persons Calleja et al., 2004. A recent Survey in Wales9 estimates that smaller
businesses generate about 60 of commercial waste and are responsible for as much as
80 of pollution incidents. While larger corporations can invest into environmental
management, this may be much more difficult, for many smaller scale companies. Much
sustained support for SMEs, many of whom face great difficulties in implementing the
complex existing regulatory framework, and much work to modify consumer behaviour are
prerequisites for the successful implementation of the future Strategy. The way from a EU
society which on one hand has to remain competitive in an increasingly globalised world
where performance is judged on merely economic criteria to a society were triple bottomline
performance will be the basis whereby performance will be evaluated is a very long and
winding road no excuse for not starting this uneasy journey. Stakeholder involvement during the implementation phase of the Thematic Strategy on the
Sustainable Use of Natural Resources, to prepare decisions, monitor and evaluate their
implementation is one of the keys for the future success of the strategy. Another important issue is how to reconcile the issues of globalisation, of economic growth
and job creation in the EU, the stimulation of consumption in the EU and the limitation of
price escalation in consumer goods with the sustainable development paradigm. 1.2 - Organisation of the stakeholder consultation
This is the Final Report from the Chair of the Working Group 1 Supply of Resources WG
1 established by the European Commissions DG Environment. This report is the result of
an open stakeholder consultation, organised by DG Environment, which took place from
January to the end of September 2004. The stakeholder consultation was organised in two
working groups10, along the principle of Life Cycle Analysis LCA, as illustrated in fig. 1
Working Group 1 focused on the supply of resources11 to the EU economy i.e. from cradle
nature to gate supply of products to the economy
Working Group 2 focused on the use of resources by the EU economy i.e.
from gate
supply of products to the economy to grave final waste, after possible recycling phases. 9
10
11
Internet link httpwww.environment-
agency.gov.uknews778452?lang_eregionprojectstatusthemesubjectsearchforSMEtopic
areamonth
The set up of the Working Group, of the Advisory Forum and of the Steering Committee are detailed in
Chapter 2, pp. ff. Resources gaining is used throughout the text to designate the activities needed to supply the resources
needed by the EU economy. Page 12
A limitation of this approach is that, in reality, an effective LCA approach must be
holistic per se. For example, waste, which comes under WG2, is also a resource,
which comes under WG1. Even more important is the fact that a product, which,
although creating a negative environmental impact until the factory gate, may,
through the beneficial impacts it may have during its use andor end-of-life phases,
have an overall positive impact for the environment. This should be addressed by the
formulation of the future strategy.
E n v i r o n m e n t
S i n k s
S o u r c e s
U s e
S u p p l y
D i s p o s a l e m i s s i o n s
E x t r a c t i o n
WG 1
WG 2
Fig. 1 Organisation of the two working groups on the basis of the LCA concept
A Troika led each of the two Working Groups. It comprised a Chairperson and two Co-
Chairpersons. The two Troikas responded to a Steering Committee consisting of DG ENV
Chair and representatives from 4 other Commission Directorates General DG
Development DG DEV , DG Economic and Financial Affairs DG ECOFIN, DG Enterprise
DG ENT, DG Energy and Transport DG TREN. In compliance with its mandate, Working Group 1 focused its activities on the supply of
resources to the economy, i.e. on the activities necessary to extract in the case of minerals,
harvest in the case of biomass from agriculture, grazing or forestry, hunt or fish the
resources either directly used by mankind as food after more or less complex industrial
production and trading processes or to serve as input of an ever increasing range of
economic processes Box 2. In the case of biomass resources this report covers only the activities related to the activities
such as agriculture or fishing necessary to either directly produce food or to produce inputs
for the production of a wide range of products. On the basis of the LCA principles the
boundary between Working Group 1 and 2 is the point in the production process where the
resource becomes available, before transport, either for consumption food or
transformation into downstream products. Page 13
Box 1 Perimeter of Working Group 1 activities related to the mineral resources
sector
In the case of mineral resources all the workflows necessary to either produce a metal
or another usable semi-finished product were considered as relevant to Working
Group 1. In the mining industry several distinct workflows may be necessary to produce
a marketable product from a given geological reserve . These are
o mining this is the process, of varying complexity, necessary to extract the mineral or the
ore in case of metallic minerals, from the hosting geological formations by means of
surface open-pit mining, underground mining or in-situ leaching solution mining,
widely used in salt mining. Mining can be artisanal, involving no machinery at all, in the
see
case of
httpwww.casmsite.orgphotos.html , partly mechanised or involve state-of-the art
technologies such as robots, wireless underground and remote-control technologies and
intensive use of GPS technologies to optimise the use of heavy trucks in mining
operations partly automated, computer controlled processes for an European example
see httpwww.mining-technology.comprojectskiruna. small-scale mining
in developing
countries
o beneficiation the terms of processing or, in the case of metallic minerals, of ore
dressing are also used consists of a workflow of physical andor chemical or biological
processes required to turn the mined product into a marketable product. The processes
involved can be
very simple like the artisanal panning of gold ore, to produce a gold rich
concentrate or the production of cut blocks of ornamental stones such as
marble or granite
complex, involving energy intensive processes such as crushing and grinding
plus other physical andor chemical andor biological processes such as
granulometric classification, flotation, gravimetric methods, magnetic
separation, chemical or bacterial leaching, fractioned crystallisation. Innovative beneficiation technologies, frequently involving bacterial leaching, are
allowing to recover metals for instance cobalt, copper, gold from waste piles of
previous mining or beneficiation, thus allowing to turn waste into a resource. Several contributions to sustainability are generated at once including a
significative reduction of possible environmental impacts in case of leaching of
heavy metals from the waste material the generation of wealth thanks to the
recovery of a valuable resource the more efficient use of a non-renewable
resource. The nature and the complexity of the process is dictated by the local nature of the
mineral assemblage to be processed and by the technological skills of the mine
operator. metallurgy this is the workflow of physical biochemical processes used for the
production of metals after the beneficiation of the mined ore. Again the workflow can
be very simple such as the use of mercury by artisanal gold miners to produce an
amalgam from panned gold concentrates followed by the volatilisation of the mercury
and the recovery of almost pure gold. It can also be much more complex involving
state-of-the-art engineering and machinery such as flash-smelting technology or
hydrometallurgy. In addition to metallurgical reduction a complex metal refining
Page 14
process may also be required, for instance to produce copper, gold, platinum group
metals or uranium to the degree of purity required by the different markets of these
metals. The metallurgical stage is inexistent in the case of the production of
construction materials or industrial minerals.
The places where these three workflows take place can be separated by variable
distances, from nil to thousands of kilometres the latter case is quite frequent in the
case of aluminium or uranium production. The combination of the local nature of the
ore, of the mining, beneficiation and metallurgical processes implemented as well as
of the environmental conditions will define the nature of the environmental impacts
see the section on pressures, p. 44 for more details and bibliographic references. Due to the separation between WG 1 and 2 the WG1 concentrated on the cradle to
gate concept used by Life-Cycle Analysis specialists, but it is stressed that whilst the
WG 1 was evaluating the availability of information for this part of the supply chain a full
assessment for policy purposes would have to take WG1 and WG2 results jointly into
account. R 9
Moreover, it is recommended that the future Thematic Strategy considers individual key
economic sectors rather than two separate resources gaining and resources use
blocks. The separation between resource gaining and resource use is contrary to the
fact that the positive and negative impacts should be assessed throughout the complete
life cycle of given resources products couples. This report has been prepared on the basis of
o the European Commissions Communication to the European Council and to the
European Parliament Towards a Thematic Strategy on the sustainable use of natural
resources COM 2003 572, dated October 1st, 2003
o the oral and written contributions received from the stakeholders having participated to
the activities of WG 1.
The oral contributions have been made during four multi-
stakeholder meetings two Advisory forum Meetings and two meetings of the Working
Group 1, while the written contributions were received in reply to the questionnaire
prepared by the Chair at the beginning of the consultation and in reply to a second
questionnaire on all the main recommendations included in this report. The stakeholder
consultation procedure is detailed p. 23 ff. o meetings and discussions with third parties not having been formally involved in the
stakeholder consultation process
o the documents and datasets listed in the bibliography at the end of this report
o the troika members own experience and expertise. The conclusions of the report retrace all the recommendations flagged in the main body
of the text as well as the verbal or written recommendations made by the stakeholders
during the two Working Group meetings Boxes 11 to 15. Altogether these are 101
recommendations, some of similar nature, some contradictory. Further to the last
Advisory Forum meeting, on September 14th, the members of the Working Group 1 were
Page 15
invited to express their views on these recommendations, with the possibility to say for
each recommendation if they agree or not, or if they were neutral with no opinion. They
also had the possibility to comment on the recommendation andor on their reply. 24
stakeholders participated to this poll, i.e. about half of the Working Group 1 members. The results of this poll form the conclusions of this report, which has to be considered
with caution due to the bias in the population of the respondents, with a significant
overrepresentation of industry associations, and within this group, of mining industry
associations. Despite these reservations, a strong consensus emerged in support of
some recommendations, and sometimes against some of them. The comments provided
by the respondents are not reflected in this report, but they were transmitted to the
European Commission for their analysis. Due to the very broad subject and the complexity of the interlinked economic,
environmental and social issues related to natural resources management in the EU
economy, conflicting interests and contradictory views remain. It should also be noted that due to the very limited resources about 8 months available
for the total duration of the stakeholder consultation12 for this wide-ranging exercise, no
funds to access and use certain commercial sources of information, limited time of the
troika to identify and read resources related literature, linguistic obstacles13 it does not
attempt at representing an overview of the status of the current EU-wide natural
resources related data, information, knowledge and practices. R 2
Much relevant material and data is already available that should serve as a starting point
to formulate specific policies and actions in support of sustainable use natural resources
use. A thorough literature and data review compilation, including of some non-EU
literature, would certainly be helpful to more precisely set the priorities and engage future
actions. This is a considerable work, possibly to be organised by resources categories
air, land, minerals, soils, seas, forests, biodiversityecosystems.
It would require multi-
disciplinary expertise to assess the existing work for relevance and quality and identify
possible shortcomings. It is recommended to engage such work during the inception
phase of the future Thematic Strategy see Timeline p. . 1.3 - Scope of the Resources Strategy
According to the remit given, the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural
Resources shall cover all natural resources as defined in the Communication. Several
natural resources air, biodiversity, soils, water are already, or will soon wholly or
partially be the subject of new EU policies andor regulations see partial list p. 117 ff. aiming at reducing the pressures and the impacts affecting these resources. The
evaluation of the effectiveness of this new framework, in view of the security of supplies
and decoupling objectives of the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural
Resources, should be done periodically, together with the evaluations of the strategy.
The time scale of the future strategy is 25 years. Whatever the choices which will be made by the EU institutions in the definition of the
Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources, there need to be strong
links between the Strategy and key EU policies relating to economy, competitiveness,
employment, social development, technology, research and innovation, sustainable
12
13
This draft report has been written in June 2004, in the fifth month of the stakeholder consultation
In the EU valuable resources related literature and data are published in national languages. Page 16
production and consumption, trade, international cooperation and development, as well
as international environmental policies. The forthcoming Thematic Strategy on the
Sustainable Use of Natural Resources shall contribute to the delivery of the World
Summit on Sustainable Development EU commitments. The scope of the future Strategy has a wide remit and far-reaching implications due to
the complex and cross-cutting nature of both drivers and impacts, as illustrated in Box 1. Natural resources related issues are far more complex than the already complex issue of
green house gas emissions, which is only one of the diverse environmental pressures
related to resources gaining and use. The loss of fertile soils as a basis not only of
human food but also of the complete food chain, the loss of soil functions groundwater
recharge, natural decontamination the overexploitation and the contamination of water
resources are likely to represent an even greater threat for the sustainable future of the
European Union and of the rest of the world than the greenhouse gas emissions and the
climate change14. In the developing world the rapid urbanisation, the frequently limited
institutional resources and the often limited existence of good quality renewable water
resources could lead to much insecurity and destabilisation, while transferring the
complex European water resources management, treatment, distribution and sanitation
concepts appears economically unachievable. Innovative new concepts are urgently
needed to address vital needs without avoiding waste of the resource through the
development of unsustainable agricultural and industrial processes. R 3
The Strategy, through the assessment and the integration of the many, sometimes
redundant, overlapping andor contradictory, existing EU policies, programmes,
directives and regulations impacting on natural resources use see table 12 below,
should have among its priorities to provide a clear, logic, understandable and applicable
framework for the future, based on Sustainable Development principles. 14 In the last fifty years about 13 of all worldwide arable land was lost due to erosion, loss of organic matter,
contamination, salination and impairment of soil functions, mainly related to a series of anthropogenic pressures
intensive agriculture, overgrazing, deforestation, development of build-up areas, emissions from transport and
industry Wellmer et al., 1999. From 1950 to 2000 the world population grew by an unprecedented 3.5 bn, and
it is expected to grow by another 3 bn between 2000 and 2050 UN Population Division Data, 2003. Page 17
Box 2 - Natural resources are our complex and vulnerable life supporting
system
The natural environment we currently know is a still snapshot resulting from complex
dynamic interactions, at widely different scales, between the physical, chemical and
biological components of the environment some few examples solar eruptions,
changes of the position of the Earth magnetic pole, convectional movements in the
Earth mantle, microbial activity in soils. On any given place on Earth the natural
environment dramatically varied through the geological ages , and will continue to vary. Increasing anthropogenic pressures are adding to the complex equation of natural
drivers, and to their impacts on the individual components of the environment soils,
water, biodiversity, climate, biotic and abiotic resources . Evidence from past glacial, hot dry desertic, tropical humid and temperate climates can
be found in a single place.
Even within a few human generations changes can be
significant. Around the year 1000 of our era, some stretches of Greenland appeared
green and fertile, according to the writings of the Viking king Erik the Red. 123,000
years ago, during the interglacial period foregoing the last Ice Age, very recent scientific
evidence Andersen et al., 2004 shows that the average temperature was even 5
higher than today. Scientific evidence demonstrates that the environment is not static,
but highly dynamic and that living species either adapted to the changing conditions, or
disappeared. These dynamics are the result of numerous interacting interlinked
factors which are not yet fully understood. Anthropogenic effects are definitively one
new factors, but the determination of its weight and effects versus the other factors
remains a matter of research. Our environment is the support of life. Soils, water, air, minerals and biodiversity are all
fundamental, interacting components of the global life supporting system. Together
they build the natural capital, which man then turns, with increasing ingenuity, into
derived forms of capital such as social, institutional, physical and financial capital. The carrying capacity of our environment and its resilience to the impacts of human
activities is uncertain. There is an unquantifiable risk that one of its components may
fail to bear more pressures. Pressures, impacts and limits need to be assessed at all
levels, from global to local, knowing that there will be big variations in resilience and
absorptive capacity of the local ecosystems. It should also be noted that our environment is not static. It never was static, nor will it
be in the future. Life is adaptive and resilient, even to some extreme environments such
as the vicinity of black smokers, where hydrothermal brines come out of the ocean floor
at temperatures which can exceed 300 C. There have been at least 6 massive
extinctions of species in the last 500 million years, and each time even more diversified
and numerous animals and plants species developed. Hower this apparent resilience is definitively no excuse for a do nothing scenario in
response to current environmental degradation, in the EU and in other countries,
outside of its border, where resources are produced for export to the EU. Data, information and knowledge, and the willingness to act are the basis needed for a
sustainable Europe. The capacity to maintain, or even develop the resilience of natures
life supporting systems will condition much of our future.
Page 18
The externalities caused by the combination of poor knowledge and practices,
inadequate policies, lack of regulations and enforcement can be mind boggling. In
2003, within the framework of WELCOME, a research project on risk based
management for megasites EU 5th RTD Programme H. Rijnaarts wrote Large scale
contaminated sites megasites with considerable groundwater damage and soil
contamination exist all over the EU and accession states posing risks for surrounding
surface water and groundwater systems. It is estimated that megasites involve 30-50
of all costs associated with the remediation of contaminated soils and groundwater in
Europe, totalling some 100-1,000 billion in the next decade. In the EU, the main resources related pressures cf. pp. 50 ff. on the environment are
related to
o intensive large-scale agriculture, including stock rearing potential impacts erosion, loss
of soil organic matter diffuse continuous pollution of soils and of water resources
including coastal areas , loss of biodiversity, depletion of water resources, emissions of
Green House effect Gases GHG and of acid rains generating gas
o transport potential impacts depletion of non-renewable energy resources, air pollution,
emissions of GHG, direct impacts due to emission of particulates, platinum group
elements in road dust, contribution to the development of built-up areas
o the development of built-up areas potential impacts sealing of soils and impairment of
natural soil functions, fragmentation of habitats, diffuse pollution
o energy production depletion of non-renewable energy resources, air pollution, emissions
of GHG, water consumption
o production processes potential impacts depletion of non-renewable energy resources,
air and water pollution, emissions of GHG
In many cases it is not the activities themselves that create the mentioned pressures, but
the way they are performed. In addition the EU way of life, requiring growing imports of resources15, generates
increasing impacts beyond the EU borders, including in developing countries with almost
no resources to cope with the complex institutional and practical local consequences of
the environmental pressures and the social impacts generated by their exports see table
11 with statistics on mineral exporting developing countries and the DG Development
website for Statistics on trade between the EU and the countries from the ACP region. The question whether extractive industries are a blessing or a curse for developing
countries triggered a vivid, and ongoing debate among economists, environmentalists
and development specialists. For an overview of this debate see Stevens, 2003 Weber-
Fahr, 2002. The best thing the EU, and other rich countries can do, is to help these
countries develop their governance capacities and provide sustained technical
assistance to help addressing the issues, avoiding developing countries doing some of
the errors now rich Nations did in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. EUs external impacts form a set of important and complex issues that need much more
consideration.
A lot more work on these issues is necessary than what could be achieved
by the Working Group and this report, which just scratches the surface. Despite the constraints, the stakeholders endeavoured to identify important trends,
issues and to formulate recommendations that they consider of importance for the
15
see for instance Moll et al., 2003 pp. 9 and the related statistics table A on the European Commission
webpages dedicated to the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources available here
httpwww.europa.eu.intcommenvironmentnatres
Page 19
formulation of the Strategy. Their contributions are synthesised in the boxes 11 to 15. A
summarised compilation of the individual written contributions is included in Appendix 4. The original unedited Working Group 1 stakeholder contributions can be downloaded
from the European Commissions DG Environment website
httpwww.europa.eu.intcommenvironmentnatrespdfcontributions.zip
1.4 - Procedure
This report is a component of a multi-stakeholder consultation procedure, one of the
steps towards the preparation by the European Commission of its proposal for the
European Council and the European Parliament for the Thematic Strategy on the
Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. This multi-stakeholder consultation in two working groups started during late January
2004, following a plenary meeting in November 2003.. A first , still incomplete, draft of
this report was submitted to WG 1 stakeholders on June 21st, 2004. Written comments
were received from many stakeholders and separate meetings and contacts took place
especially with the representatives of the mineral industry. This led to the production of a
second version of this report, labelled Draft Final Report and dated August 26th, 2004. The main body of this report does not reflect the position of any individual stakeholder
except where explicitly mentioned having participated to this EU-level stakeholder
consultation, nor of the European Commission. The contributions of individual
stakeholders during the two Working Group meetings are synthesised in Boxes 11 to 15. The written contributions submitted by the stakeholders further to the initial questionnaire
are synthesised in Appendix 4. The original unedited and unabridged written
contributions are available for download from the NAT RES website. The core objective of the stakeholder consultation is to contribute to the formulation of
the thematic strategy on the sustainable use of natural resources here after named the
Thematic Strategy. The multi-stakeholder work showed
o the need for effective implementation of the existing resources related EU directives and
regulations, assessing and removing the obstacles on the way to their implementation
o the need to refine the objectives of the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of
Natural Resources
o the need to improve resources related data, information and knowledge and access
thereto
o the need to undertake from cradle to grave life cycle assessments of given resources
products couples
o the need to act on demand and consumption patterns to improve the sustainable use of
resources
o the importance of research and technological developments to
o better understand the impacts of resources gaining and use on the economic and social
sphere as well as on the various environmental components and to better understand the
functioning of natural systems
o integrate the reduction of environmental impacts at the early stage of the design of new
processes and products
o develop monitoring and remediation technologies and make better use of natural
resources and prevent the generation of waste
o turn waste flows into resources flows
Page 20
o the need to integrate all relevant EU policies in such a way as to provide the basis for a
homogeneous sustainable natural resource management and to provide guidance and
incentives within the EU itself andor in its relations with the rest of the world
o the need to develop and implement specific instruments in support of sustainable natural
resource use where appropriate. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2 -
This report concludes eight months of work on a voluntary basis, having involved over 50
stakeholders as well as representatives of five Directorates General of the European
Commission. The stakeholders and the troika having chaired the Working Group have
worked on a voluntary basis, and had no specific resources except those internal to the
organisations they represent to perform their job. The Chair expresses its thanks to Frans Vollenbroek, DG Environment, Unit Sustainable
production and consumption, Chairperson of the Steering Committee for the support he
provided, through fruitful discussions and provision of some of the background material.
Thanks too to Marianne Klingbeil, Head of the Unit, and Klaus Koegler, Deputy Head of
Unit, for their active support. Special thanks go to the two Co-Chairs, Mrs. Maria Buitenkamp and Ute Seeling, who
provided much support during the meetings and in between, through their support for the
preparation of this report. Many thanks too to the participating stakeholders, many of
them having invested much efforts in participating to meetings, replying to questionnaires
and providing background material inputs to this report.
The number and the quality of
the written and oral contributions were very helpful for the preparation of this new
version. They also are an indicator of the importance and of the relevance of the future
Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. ORIGIN OF THE STRATEGY EXERCICE
3 -
Successive decisions taken during EU-summits are at the base of the 6th European
Environmental Action Programme and, more specifically, of the launching by the
European Commissions DG Environment of the drafting of the EU Thematic Strategy on
the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. The relevant EU Presidency Conclusions are
o the Conclusions of the 1998 Cardiff Summit, where the importance of environment
and sustainable development were recognised and where it was decided to integrate
the environment in the text of the Treaty on the European Union Communities and in
all aspects of the EU policies A healthy environment is central to the quality of life. Our economies must combine prosperity with protection of the environment. That is why the Amsterdam Treaty emphasises the integration of environmental
protection into Community policies, in order to achieve sustainable development. o the Conclusions of the 2000 Lisbon Summit, setting a new strategic goal for the
EU to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in
the world capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and
greater social cohesion, and The shift to a digital, knowledge-based economy
will be capable of improving citizens quality of life and the environment. o the Conclusions of the 2001 Göteborg Summit further defined the EU strategy for
sustainable development, recalling its place as a fundamental objective of the
Treaties, and explicitly adding the environmental dimension to the Lisbon economic
and social objectives
Page 21
A Strategy for sustainable development
19. Sustainable development - to meet the needs of the present
generation without compromising those of future generations - is a
fundamental objective under the Treaties. That requires dealing with
economic, social and environmental policies in a mutually reinforcing way. Failure to reverse trends that threaten future quality of life will steeply
increase the costs to society or make those trends irreversible. The European
Council welcomes the submission of the Commissions communication on
sustainable development which includes important proposals for curbing such
trends. 20. The European Council agrees a strategy for sustainable development
which completes the Unions political commitment to economic and social
renewal, adds a third, environmental dimension to the Lisbon strategy and
establishes a new approach to policy making. The arrangements for
implementing this strategy will be developed by the Council.
Clear and stable objectives for sustainable development will present
21. significant economic opportunities. This has the potential to unleash a new
wave of technological innovation and investment, generating growth and
employment. The European Council invites industry to take part in the
development and wider use of new environmentally friendly technologies in
sectors such as energy and transport. In this context the European Council
stresses the importance of decoupling economic growth from resource use. o the Conclusions of the 2003 Brussels Summit recalled the Lisbon and Göteborg
objectives The promotion of sustainable growth and the creation of more and better
jobs must remain firmly at the top of the Unions agenda. This can be done by
pursuing growth and stability-oriented macroeconomic policies, pressing ahead with
economic reforms, taking decisive action to increase employment and modernise the
European social model, and implementing the sustainable development strategy
adopted at Göteborg. At the same time, and despite recent progress, this reform
agenda must now also address more effectively the challenges from ageing
populations if it is to secure the long-term sustainability of public finances. The Conclusions of the Cardiff, Lisbon and Göteborg summits are the political
foundations on which the 6th European Environmental Action Programme EAP 6 was
developed. EAP 6, published in 2002, sets four environmental areas to be tackled during
the 2001-2010 period
o Climate Change
o Nature and Biodiversity
o Environment and Health and quality of life
o Natural Resources and Waste
It involves the definition of seven thematic strategies on
o Clean Air For Europe CAFE
o Soil protection
o Sustainable use of pesticides
o Protection and conservation of the marine environment
o Waste prevention and recycling
o Sustainable use of natural resources
o Urban environment
It sets five strategic avenues to be explored, to meet the EUs environmental objectives
Page 22
o Effective implementation and enforcement of environmental legislation necessary to set
a common baseline for all EU countries
o Integration of environmental concerns environmental problems have to be tackled were
their source is and this is frequently in other policies
o Use of a blend of instruments all types of instruments have to be considered, the
essential criterion for choice being that it has to offer the best efficiency and
effectiveness possible in the light of sustainable development
o Stimulation of participation and action of all actors from business to citizens, NGOs and
social partners through better and more accessible information on the environment and
joint work on solutions
o Helping customers make informed choices, giving the customer relevant and
understandable information about a products environmental credentials. In its 2003 Environment Policy Review European Commission 2003, COM2003745,
the European Commission recalls the importance of the future Thematic Strategy on the
Sustainable Use of Natural Resources, the need to intensify efforts towards a more
sustainable use of resources, the need for the European Unions institutions to provide a
predictable regulatory environment, by setting long-term targets to be reached gradually
to allow economic actors and industry to anticipate changes and to adjust their business
plans to them.
Finally, it recalls that environmental policies should be based on
knowledge and the best available scientific evidence. WORKING GROUP 1 ACTIVITIES
4 -
4.1 - Stakeholders and Sectors represented
The breakdown of the stakeholders per type of participating organisation is given in table
1
o 22 industry associations representing specific economic interests make up the largest
single stakeholder group 38 of the total. Out of these 15 represented various
branches of the minerals and metals industries. Certain sectors such as agriculture and
commercial fisheries were not represented. o 10 of the stakeholders are NGOs representing broad economic sectors such as energy
or private forests. o 9 are NGOs representing the civil society
o 9 are representatives of central government or administrations
o 7 are representing public service bodies with RTD activities related to natural
resources
o 5 are consultants
o the remaining 28 are smaller groups . The remaining 28 consisted of smaller, diversified groups representing industrial
groups, unions, academia research, European institutions, regional municipal
administrations, international organisations, a professional interest groupNGO and a
RTD organisation. Several of the participating organisations represent very large stakeholder groups, either
from Industry and Business or from environmental and nature conservation NGOs. Page 23
Organisation type
Number of
participants
of total
participants
Academia Research
Consultancy
European Institution
Government Administration
Government Administration
International organisation
Government Administration regions
and municipalities
Industry
Industry association
NGO private sector
NGO professional sector
NGO Public sector - RTD
NGO Envionment
Public service RTD
RTD organisation
Union
Total
2
3
2
5
1
1
3
22
6
1
1
5
4
1
1
58
3
5
3
9
2
2
5
38
10
2
2
9
7
2
2
Table 1 - Breakdown of the WG1 stakeholders, per type of organisation
Out of these 58 stakeholders, 31 submitted a total of 44 written contributions during the
initial consultation process January to May 2004. Out of the 31 contributors, 19
submitted formal replies to the questionnaire which has been sent on February 4th, 2004
to all stakeholders. The other contributions received concerned either a specific natural resource or they
were of a generic nature, broadly addressing several categories of natural resources. The breakdown per type of resources covered in the replies to the questionnaire is
given in Table 2. The received replies are widely focused on the mineral resources sector 53 of the
replies, reflecting the unbalanced composition of the stakeholder group. 16 of the
replies 3 replies concerned forests and their derived products wood and paper and
11 2 replies of the replies concerned the energy sector. Water and halieutic
resources were respectively covered by only 1 reply. Page 24
Resource
Biomass fish
Energy oil and
gas
Forests, wood,
paper
Generic
Minerals
Minerals
Construction
materials
Minerals iron,
steel
Minerals
Industrial
minerals
Minerals
Potash
Water
Total
Replies to the
questionnaire
received
Replies to the
questionnaire
received as of
total
5
11
16
11
26
11
5
5
5
5
1
2
3
2
5
2
1
1
1
1
19
Table 2 - Breakdown per type of resources covered in the replies received further to the questionnaire
submitted to WG1 stakeholders
4.2 - Representation of the economic sectors
Certain important economic sectors such as agriculture and fisheries were not
represented by their main professional organisations but by some specific stakeholders
such as landowners, sports associations anglers or the foods sector, despite the
relevance of these sectors regarding their intensity of use of certain categories of
resources listed page 36.
These absences are certainly not the result of any actions of the European Commission,
who invited the participation of all potentially interested parties via the NAT RES website. 4.3 - Steering Committee
The stakeholder consultation was led by a Steering Committee chaired by Frans
Vollenbroek, DG Environment Unit G4 Sustainable production and consumption. In addition to the members of the troikas leading each of the two Working Groups it
comprised representatives from 5 General Directorates of the European Commission. The list of the Steering Committee Members is given in Table 3 below. The Steering Committee met four times
Page 25
o on January 27th, 2004 first Steering Committee meeting, to review and validate the
mandates of the two Working Groups
o on May 18th, 2004 second Steering Committee meeting, to discuss the progress of the
stakeholder consultation and to define milestones for the period up to September 2004
o on July 14th 2004, to discuss progress of work
o on September 2nd 2004, to discuss the draft reports and prepare for the final advisory
Forum. Name
Franciscus Frans
Vollenbroek
Organisation
European
Commission
DG for EC officials
DG
Environment,
Sustainable production
and consumption
Status
Chairperson of
Steering Committee
the
Chairperson, WG 2
Chairperson, WG 1
Co-chairperson, WG 1
Co-chairperson, WG 1
Co-chairperson, WG 2
Bill Duncan
Patrice
Christmann
Maria Buitenkamp
Ute Seeling
Esa Hyvärinen
Maria Gafo
Gomez-Zamalloa
Caroline Raes
Jeremy Wall
Tom Simpson
Antonia
Buchbinder
ASSURRE
EuroGeoSurveys
EEB
CEPF
CEPI
European
Commission
European
Commission
European
Commission
European
Commission
European
Commission
Simon Le Grand
European
Commission
DG Transport and
energy, Clean Transport
and sustainable
development
DG Enterprise,
Environmental aspects
of enterprise policy
DG Enterprise, Forest-
based industries
DG Enterprise, Mining
quarrying and minerals
DG Economic and
Financial Affairs,
Environment, transport
and energy policies
DG Development,
Environment, rural
development
Claude Thevenot
UNESDA
Co-chairperson, WG 2
Table 3 - List of the members of the Steering Committee
4.4 - Advisory Forum
The Advisory Forum, chaired by the European Commission DG Environment met
twice. The first meeting took place on November 14th, 2003, prior to the launch of the
stakeholder consultation, to discuss the Communication 2003572 Towards a Thematic
Strategy on the Sustainable Use of the Natural Resources and to prepare the
stakeholder consultation. Minutes of this meeting have been prepared by DG Environment and can be downloaded
from the NAT RES website
httpwww.europa.eu.intcommenvironmentnatresindex.htm. Page 26
The second and last meeting of the Advisory Forum took place on September 14th, 2004. It discussed the drafts of the two Working Group reports, as well as some of the key
recommendations included in this report. 4.5 - Coordination with Working Group 2
Several informal meetings between the Chairpersons of the two Working Groups took
place to exchange views and information, to discuss the progress of Work and to
prepare consolidated recommendations. The Chair and one of the Co-chairs also
participated to the second meeting of WG 2. 4.6 - Mandate
The Troikas of each Working Group, in close liaison, prepared drafts of the mandates of
the Working Groups. The draft mandates were submitted to the Steering Committee and
validated during the first Steering Committee meeting, on January 27th, 2004. The Commission finally defined the mandates. The mandate of WG1 is included in
Appendix 2.
The questionnaire that was appended to it is included in Appendix 3. 4.7 - Constraints on the implementation of the mandate
Several constraints had significantly impact on the stakeholder consultation
o the imbalance in the areas of professional activity andor expertise represented in
the stakeholder group see table 1 p. 23. Stakeholders from the minerals and metals
sectors were more widely represented than other sectors. This imbalance raised strong
concern from the participating representatives of the EU industry. o the short time 8 months, from January to September 2004 allocated by DG
Environment to the stakeholders to work on a subject as broad as this one. This has to
be compared with the diversity and complexity of interrelated economic, environmental
and social issues the lack andor dissemination of data and information, the
uncertainties related to projections into the future. o the lack of specific resources to engage this work. There is an overwhelming amount
of data and literature on natural resources and their use, of which only a limited amount
could be used see bibliography, Appendix 5. In addition much data and information is
only accessible against payment. Such data and information could not be accessed. o the unavailability of the strategy proposals from the six other Thematic Strategies
cf.
list p. 22 to be developed under EAP6. As these strategies will have a strong impact
on the future sustainable use of air, soils, homogeneity and consistence will have to be
achieved between these strategies and the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of
Natural Resources, which will have to integrate all their elements related to natural
resources production and use.
WG1 could only access to the preparatory documents,
including those made available further to specific multi-stakeholder consultation
processes. The necessary harmonisation and integration will need to be addressed by
the European Commission
o the limitations of existing scientific evidence although data and information are
apparently plentiful and can increasingly be accessed for free on the Internet, they
remain sketchy, dispersed, disparate and sometimes inconsistent. In quite a few
instances the quality and meaning of the data appears questionable, and inconsistency
exists in the thesauri of terminology used by different authors.
The resulting information
and knowledge is still sketchy in many fields, due to the complex economic, social and
Page 27
environmental linkages of human activities, the interactions between the various
components of our environment and the complex impacts of man-made anthropogenic
pressures on these components. Throughout the history of mankind the rhythm of
technological innovation continuously increased. In many cases new technologies and
products were, and are being marketed before their impacts are well understood. As an
example, over 23,000,000 organic and inorganic substances are registered in the CAS
registry httpwww.cas.orgEOregsys.html, the world largest chemical substances
database, with 4,000 new substances being added each day. Over 7 million substances
are commercially available chemicals and 232.000 are on national or international
inventories and regulatory lists. The rate of innovation increasingly exceeds the capacity of institutions to assess their
impacts, adding to uncertainty. The current status of knowledge of soils well illustrates the uncertainty with regard to the
scientific database, but also shows the need to harmonise data generation
methodologies and the complexity of European scale data harmonisation. This is
illustrated by the numerous documents which were produced during the recent
stakeholder consultation on
the future EU Soils Thematic Strategy, see
httpforum.europa.eu.intPublicircenvsoillibrary for an overview of the issues . Nevertheless, it should be noted that recent forthcoming EU policies and regulations16, if
effectively implemented and monitored, are likely to already contribute to significant
decoupling between resources gaining and use within the EU on one hand, and their
impact on the EU environment on the other hand. However, as the EU increasingly
imports goods and resources from the rest of the world, including from countries with
much lower environmental and social standards and less governance capacities, the
negative impacts of the EU use of resources is likely to grow especially in developing
countries. The monitoring of the effectiveness of these regulations and policies in regard of the
objectives of the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources will be
an important, and continuous, component of the strategy, requiring indicators, data and
resources. Any new EU policy regulatory work impacting on resources gaining and use
should be preceded with a thorough, assessment of the related pre-existing policies and
resources, associating the concerned stakeholders. R 4
Particular care should be taken to not develop policies and regulations promoting
delocalisation of resources gaining activities to countries where lower environmental and
social standards would distract from progressing towards global sustainable
development objectives. R 5
There is a need to significantly enhance the coordination and integration of European
research capacities related to Sustainable Development, bringing together, with a stable
financing, the knowledge gathering and delivery capacities necessary to address the
identified knowledge gaps. If we want to increase resource use efficiency, then we need
to increase and sustain our research ambitions. 16
A limited list of existing and forthcoming i.e.
at various stage within the formulation or co-decision
processes policies and regulations with impacts on resources gaining and use is given pp. 117
Page 28
Knowledge gathering is recognised by COM2003572 as one of the three pillars of the
future Thematic Strategy, in line with Article 174 of the Treaty of Nice on the European
Community which underlines the importance of data, information and knowledge in
support of environment policy making17. A broad spectrum of competences would have to work together, to
o develop multilingual thesauri of common terminology
o assess existing data and data acquisition sampling techniques and develop harmonised
methodologies
o identify quality problems and gaps in thematic and geographic coverage
o develop and populate the required databases
o transform data into useful information and applicable knowledge, for instance by
developing models and integrating data to predict consequences of human actions
o deliver the predictions in ways e.g. context-adaptive decision support that assure
effective application of the collated and refined knowledge at relevant scales. This requires bringing together diverse necessary competences such as economists,
statisticians, LCA specialists, resources specialists, geoscientists, pedologists,
agronomists, biologists and microbiologists, engineers and laboratory specialists,
representatives from industry andor economic sectors. R 6
Although much research has been done at the level of EU Member States and the level of
the European Commission, especially on soils, water and their interface18, the integration of
research results into policy making and daily practice remains an issue to be improved. How
can data and findings from research appropriately be used as a basis for policy making and
assessment and integration in support of the future Thematic Strategy? However, as expressed by some stakeholder, the need to coordinate and integrate the EU
research capacities should not hold up progress on setting general principles and targets
and to identify rapid actions that serve the decoupling objective. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
5 -
5.1 - Definitions of certain terms used in this report
5.1.1 - EU
Unless otherwise specified, the term EU used in this report designates the 25 Member
States of the European Union, and their joint institutions, after the enlargement of the
Union on May 1st, 2004. 17
18
Art 174 excerpt In preparing its policy on the environment, the Community shall take
account of - available scientific and technical data, environmental conditions in the various regions of the
Community. Examples EUGRIS - the European Groundwater and Contaminated Land Information System lists
66 different projects related to water, soils and contaminated land. The project database can be accessed
here httpwww.eugris.orgindex.asp.
The European Joint Research Centre in Ispra, Italy has a team doing
research on soils
Page 29
5.1.2 - COM2003572
It designates the European Commissions Communication to the Council and the
European Parliament entitled Towards a Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of
Natural Resources - COM 2003 572. 5.1.3 - Low income countries
This expression is used in compliance with the World Bank definition. It designates
countries with a per capita gross national income GNI of a maximum of 755 US dollars
per year. 5.1.4 - Resources gaining and use
The good functioning of the EU economy requires the use of a wide range of resources,
gained from the environment either for direct consumption e.g. food or to enter
downstream economic and industrial processes. Some do not appear as direct inputs for
productive processes land, soils, air but they are nevertheless used, at least for a
certain period of time, for the productive purpose. Some resources may be used
temporarily while others are consumed. The former can be reclaimed andor recycled like
land, soils, water, certain metals and minerals, air and subsurface space. The latter are
not recoverable due to a dispersive use e.g. phosphate in fertilisers, water used for the
irrigation of fields. The resources gaining activities are very diversified mining minerals, exploitation of oil
and gas fields, of flow resources, harvesting vegetal biomass, breeding herding
livestock, fishing halieutic resources, hunting game, pumping water, tillage soils. In addition to gaining a specific natural resource they also may use various quantities of
other natural resources such as land, soils, water or subsurface space. The simplifying term resources gaining is used throughout this report to designate all
these activities. 5.1.5 - Waste
The generation of waste related to resource gaining activities, whether in gaseous, liquid
or solid form, is one of the most important sources of possible environmental impacts. The nature and importance of these waste streams, the nature and the duration of the
pressures they may cause on the environment, the size of the impacted area, the nature
of the potentially impacted environmental component for instance is it a shallow
unprotected aquifer of great importance for local water supply, or is it a deeper aquifer,
protected by a thick impervious clay formation, in a loosely populated area? all need to
be understood on the basis of scientific evidence. Waste is not equal to waste, and tons
of waste A cannot be compared with tons of waste B. Some small amounts of highly
hazardous waste can cause impacts for a very long time while some large waste streams
can be reclaimed for specific uses and cause only short-term visual disturbance. Old
quarrying sites can even become valuable biotopes19 Some material accruing during
mining andor beneficiation andor metallurgical operations, although unused in the
production of the products normally marketed by mining companies can become a
useful by-product for instance for road construction. Therefore, unless posing specific
eco-toxicity problems, rocks dumped in mining operations as well as residues from
19
Example of
a quarrying
site which became a Natura 2000
site
httpwww.jncc.gov.ukProtectedSitesSACselectionn2kformsUK0012585.pdf
Page 30
beneficiation andor metallurgy should be considered as by-products, which could be
used as substitutes for some construction minerals, such as sand and gravel. After
careful assessment of their environmental harmlessness and determination of their
physico-chemical properties to assess their suitability for possible applications, the use
of these materials should be promoted as substitutes for primary construction materials
and not be considered as a worthless waste. An extremely contrasted example underlining the varying nature of waste is highly
radioactive nuclear waste from nuclear power plants as opposed to overburden from an
iron ore mine. The former is generated in quite small quantities, but due to the long half-
life period of certain of the radionucleides it contains, it needs to be stored in a way that
none of this material escapes into the environment for tens of thousands of years.
The
latter is generated in quite significant volumes in certain cases, but as they in most cases
do not include any significant quantity of ecotoxic chemical elements iron ore mining
waste dumps, once landscaped and covered with earth, will rapidly merge with the
surrounding natural environment and be usable for new purposes such as agriculture,
forestry or nature conservation. R 7
Therefore the ecological rucksack, hidden flow and total material requirement
indicators used by some Material Flow Analysis experts, such as Moll et al. 2001,
cannot be used as proxies for possible environmental impacts. A precise understanding
o of the nature of the waste and of all other emissions, including those related to the inputs
needed fo production purposes, as well as of the local regional environmental
conditions
o of the bonding of the toxic substances to waste particles such as minerals and the
probability, or not, of later desorption release in the environment of the toxic substance
s is needed before any scientifically based statement on an ecological footprint can be
issued. In case some potentially toxic substance would be present in the waste, it also
needs to be known if it is bioaccessible bioavailable.
In addition, it should be noted than in an increasing number of cases the amount of
waste generated by industries is rapidly decreasing due to the combined effect of the
use of better technologies and of the re-use of waste, that is being efficiently turned
into by-products used for an increasingly wide number of purposes. Very recently Galos
2004 described how in Poland, between 1994 and 2002 solid waste emissions from
the mining industry descreased from 108 Mt. to 87 Mt, while in the same time the
quantity of this waste turned into an effectively used by-product rised from 53 Mt to 72Mt.
This means that over 80 of what would have been considered as a hidden flow is now
a resource. 5.2 - Sustainable Development
Its widest known definition was given in 1987 by the Norwegian Prime Minister, Dr. Gro
Harlem Brundtland, who chaired the Committee preparing the first World Summit on
Sustainable Development. In its report, Our Common Future, WCED, 1987 it states
that Sustainable Development is development which meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs WCED,
1987. It implies two equally important specific concepts intra-generational equity the
requirement to meet the needs of the present and inter-generational equity the
requirement to not compromise the satisfaction of the needs of the future generations. Page 31
However it does not specify what the levels of the needs of the present are.
The ones
of a rich inhabitant, or the ones of a poor habitant of this planet? The reply which the European Union will give to this question is of importance to setting
the objectives of the future natural resources strategy. Ideally, sustainable development should be development generating optimal economic
and social returns without impairing the long-term life-supporting capacities of
ecosystems or reducing the chances of future generations to satisfy their own needs. Sustainable development has three pillars the economic, environmental and social
pillars. A successful and socially acceptable policy has to be built on the integration of
these three pillars, and possibly of a fourth pillar, governance, described just below. A fourth pillar governance, is needed to foster the integration of the three other pillars. Governance needs to be developed at the level of the individuals through education and
effectively implemented regulations, of small20 and large businesses, and at the level of
the States and of their institutions, including their Services of General Interest. Governance requires informed knowledge, based on facts and scientifically reliable data. This in turn requires research and many tools, including education, training and
support21, GIS based decision-aiding systems, carefully leveraged incentives for best
practice and effectively implemented regulations. The balance of incentives and
regulations affects the outcome of governance. Incentives and regulations need subtle
implementation to avoid perverse effects including pre-emptive actions and the export of
problems and jobs. Governance requires political commitment and the availability of the
human, material and financial resources to develop data, information and knowledge. A growing number of companies are integrating governance, based on sustainable
development ethics, in their corporate strategies. These companies endorse the
principles of corporate social and environmental responsibility. They realise that there is
a strong business case for sustainable development
o using less resources to produce, using these resources more efficiently improves
financial returns
o Improving the social and environmental performance of the company and the perception
of a sector also significantly reduces risks such as social unrest, high turnover of
qualified staff, poor employee morale, lawsuits related to social or environmental issues,
loss of brand image, threat of new regulation. o they receive better ratings from rating agencies22 listing companies with high Sustainable
Development standards and tracking their market performance . This in turn fosters
investors trust
o the reduction of risks also gives better access, and under more favourble terms, to
finance and insurance. These companies communicate actively their Sustainable Development performance,
using indicators and reporting guidelines such as these developed by the Global
Reporting Initiative GRI. Their Sustainable Development performance reports can be
accessed via the Internet
20
21
22
in the EU, on the basis of the figures of the European Commission Joint Research Centre report by
Calleja ²al., 2004, 51.3 of all EU-15 enterprises have less than 50 employees, 32.4 of the total having
less than 10 employees. special attention ought to be given to smaller industries and businesses, which may have particular
difficulties in integrating sustainable development principles in their everyday practices
such as Vigeo in France www.vigeo.fr or the Dow Jones Sustainability Index
httpwww.sustainability-indexes.com
Page 32
httpwww.globalreporting.orgguidelinescompanies.asp. The GRI Guidelines are widely
acknowledged as the reference sustainability reporting guidelines. On 110804, 507 companies worldwide including 24 minerals industry companies from
the metallic minerals and precious minerals metals sectors, as well as 9 constructions
materials producers engaged in the mining of sector specific mineral resources reported
their Sustainable Development Performance using the GRI Guidelines. 4 of these mining
companies and 3 retail companies reported in full compliance with the Guidelines. The
reporting companies represent a significant percentage of the Western world mineral
production of diamonds, construction materials cement and metals. GRI reporters
represented, for instance, about 40 of the worlds copper 2003 and about 40 of the
worlds gold mining production 2003, while they were about 15-20 of the world
bauxite, alumina and aluminium production 2002 data23. Some other mining companies
report their Sustainable Development using their own reporting standards. The GRI has recently issued its draft of a metals and mining supplement for public
comments24. It will significantly improve the reporting of participating mining companies,
who for instance, will publish their payments to national, regional and local authorities. The European extractive industry has developed its own sustainable development
indicators selected amongst others from the GRI catalogue.
In 2002 it embarked on an
annual European wide reporting exercise for all companies of the sector in order to
promote the reporting and to demonstrate the performance of the sector. The first results
are available on the Commission website
httpeuropa.eu.intcommenterprisesteelnon-energy-extractive-industrysd-
indicators.htm
httpwww.europa.eu.int
In 1999 the PEFC programme for the endorsement of forest certification25 was
established to promote the independent third party certification of environmentally
appropriate, socially beneficial and economically viable management of forests. This is
achieved through nationally or regionally multistakeholder developed, independent third
party forest certification schemes, based on the criteria, indicators and operational level
guidelines PEOLG developed by the Ministerial Conference on the protection of forests
in Europe MCPFE, an ongoing process. However, the high achievements and commitment to Sustainable Development ethics by
a growing number of companies cannot mask the practices of some poorer performers,
and severe distortions remaining in the global competition. While good performers thrive
to reconcile business performance, innovation and sustainable development, others are
far from undertaking such efforts. Despite the progress made on the integration of sustainable development ethics and
Corporate social responsibility in management practices, for many companies the search
for competitiveness in the global economic competition implies the continuous search for
lower costs of the production factors. Business is under pressure of real-time financial
markets requiring rapid economic returns, who still widely measure performance on the
basis of short-term financial returns. Triple-bottom line accounting still has a long way to
go, before it will be the standard by which performance will be generally measured,
although signals of hope exist and progress is made.
In this context social and
environmental externalities are still likely to be disregarded by some companies. It may
23
24
25
all data about share of world production from GRI reporters has been compiled from the Raw Materials
Database, a commercial mine production database from Raw Materials Group, Sweden controlling
companies by commodity and from the GRI database accessed on the Internet. Available here httpwww.globalreporting.orgguidelinessectorsMining.pdf. www.pefc.org
Page 33
also prove difficult for many small-scale enterprises difficult to address complex long-
term sustainability issues. The delicate question of balance between short-term returns and long-term integration of
sustainability ethics in global business and industry is of great importance for the future
of the EU, since it can be argued on one hand that without a healthy, competitive,
economy the EU will not be in a position to allocate the resources necessary for
environmental improvements, sufficient jobs to foster social cohesion and development
and also to help developing countries to face a better future. On the other hand, its future
will much depend on the availability of fertile soils, of the good quality water resources
much depending on the end-uses, of clean air to breath and of a series of social
factors. The EU also has itself committed to contribute to sustainable development in the rest of
the world, which in practical terms means for example making sure that imports and
exports of resources contribute to that end, and that developing countries are assisted
with resource efficiency technology and capacity building. Good development
cooperation and fair trade will also contribute to international stability and safety. Sustainable development does not develop by the sole virtue of its merits, it is an
objective which needs long-term commitment from all stakeholders to be attained. Moreover, a sustainable European Union can only exit for any lasting period in a
sustainable world. Sustainable development is definitively a global issue. How can the future EU Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources
address this, rewarding the good performance while addressing the sustainability issues
caused by poorer performers, some of which are based in non-EU countries, or
registered in tax havens or not listed on any major Western stock market? How can it
avoid the possible risks of a possible race to the social and environmental bottom
related to international competition? How to achieve sustainable development knowing
that many customers demand more products for a lesser price and that many in this
world remain deprived of access to natural resources and even the most basic services?
5.3 - One Thematic Strategy but a need for differing policies and
instruments adapted to the diversity of the natural resources
Natural resources are far from forming a homogeneous group, to which a single specific
policy and instrument could be designed to foster their sustainable use. The economic,
environmental and social impacts, their magnitude and geographic location, the
techniques used for their production and the stakeholders concerned vary widely from
resource to resource and according to local conditions see p. 45 ff. for more details. Identifying these parameters and the relevant stakeholders is of importance to develop
appropriate policies and instruments for a strategy with the aim of decoupling growth
from environmental degradation. R 8
Therefore the future Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources
should concentrate on defining overall objectives, setting priorities, and providing guiding
principles to be applied to such a diversified ensemble as natural resources. Specific
subsets of the Thematic Strategy will then need to be developed to specifically address
the issues related to specific resources such as biodiversity, energy, minerals, soils, and
water. Examples of such specific subsets, addressing water related issues within the EU
Page 34
are the recent Water Framework directive, or the forthcoming Soils and Clean Air for
Europe Thematic Strategies. It should be noted that this is the first time that an EU wide strategy will address the
mineral resources mining sector, subject of much EU ruling largely related to
environmental issues, but not of a much needed holistic, strategic, approach. The generation of optimal economic and social returns with the simultaneous reduction
of environmental impacts requires understanding of the issues related to each individual
resource, and its interactions with other resources. The Driving Forces, Pressure, States, Impacts, Response methodology DPSIR
methodology26 applied at the level of individual resources is a useful methodology to
identify the issues and design appropriate actions, providing that the effectiveness of the
responses can be evaluated. This requires a very large amount of knowledge and of
data on individual processes and flows as well as stable human and material resources
distributed throughout the EU. For the purpose of developing the Thematic Strategy it is necessary to identify strategic
segments, defined by specific resources, impacts and issues, which the strategy
components will have to specifically address. For the purpose of the stakeholder consultation five broad groups of resources were
defined Appendix 3, using only two criteria renewability of the resource group and its
abiotic biotic character. For the purpose of drafting the Thematic Strategy this initial
classification can be simplified into only three resources groups Box 3. Each group includes several categories of resources, which can be considered as
macro-level strategic segments, knowing that strong interrelations exist between the
various categories and groups, which altogether form the global ecosystem. 26
For details on the DPSIR methodology see for instance the European Environmental Agency
website httpglossary.eea.eu.intEEAGlossaryDDPSIR
Page 35
Box 3 Natural resources groups and categories
A Non-renewable abiotic resources
o land, soils27 and superficial formations, minerals, subsurface space
B Renewable abiotic resources
o surface water, groundwater28, seawater, atmosphere, wind, sun, tide,
geothermal
C Renewable but extinguishable biotic resources
o biomass from grazing, biomass from harvest, biomass from forestry, biomass
from hunting, biomass from fishing, land-based biodiversity, sweet-water based
biodiversity, marine biodiversity, soils biodiversity
However, a further segmentation of the mineral resources category, and possibly of
some of the other categories, is necessary to develop the Thematic Strategy on the
Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. It is needed to correctly identify the specific
issues and to design the policies and regulations specifically addressing them. For the European minerals industry the three strategic segments are
o the construction minerals segment
o the industrial minerals segment
o the metals mining segment. This segmentation is conformable to the definitions produced by the Raw Materials
Supply Group of DG Enterprise in its Report Sustainable Development Indicators for the
EU non-energy extractive industry in 2001 see page 37. A fourth segment, artisanal small-scale mining, needs to be considered if mining is
considered in its global context. More on segmentation is on page 81.
This report provides explanations about the characteristics of each of these three
segments. More details about this SDI initiative are given. 5.4 - Multi-faceted impacts
5.4.1 - Sustainable Development Indicators initiatives
Further to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and to the subsequent popularisation
of the sustainable development concept, various national and international organisations
started to develop specific indicator systems to measure the progress towards
sustainable development made by the nations or specific groups, such as enterprises. Examples of sustainable development indicators systems are
27
28
Soils are difficult to place in this classification as they are at the interface between the abiotic
geosphere and the biosphere. They are a biotic resource of considerable richness and complexity. Soils can
also locally be a renewable resource e.g. alluvial deposition by seasonal floods. The Thematic strategy on
Soils considers soils as a non-renewable resource. Groundwater is locally a non-renewable resource, due to the lack of natural recharge of certain
aquifers
Page 36
o the Sustainable Development Indicators for the EU non-energy extractive
industry, developed by the multi-stakeholder Raw Materials Supply Group,
chaired by the European Commissions DG Enterprise
o the UN Commission on Sustainable Development CSD Indicator Framework29,
which recognises governance institutional as a fourth pillar of Sustainable
Development
o the World Bank World Development Indicators WDI30, published every year. WDI 2004 includes approx. 800 indicators in 87 tables, organised in six sections
World View, People, Environment, Economy, States and Markets, and Global
Links.
The GRI, with the support of relevant stakeholders, also developed subsets of
sustainability indicators tailored to specific sectors of the economy. So far indicators
subsets are of available for following sectors
29
30
31
httpwww.un.orgesasustdevnatlinfoindicatorsisd.htm
www.worldbank.orgdatawdi2004
www.globalreporting.org
32 European Parliament Report on Corporate Social Responsibility Final A5-01332003,
April 2003
33 The report is downloadable from
www.europa.eu.intcommenterprisesteelnon-energy-extractive-industrysd-indicators.htm
34
Nowadays, in many countries further to existing regulations or of voluntary agreements by mining
enterprises,, mining sites including waste dumps and tailings are environmentally rehabilitated at the end of
the mining operations. Therefore in many cases the land used by mining is only temporarily used for this
purpose. After the end of the mining operations land can be used for other purposes, including in some cases
the development of natural reserves of flora andor fauna. Example all operating and future sites in the UK
require rehabilitation following extraction. Since 1974, over 89,000 hectares of mineral working in England
have been returned to beneficial use. Since 1981, all new sites, and since 1995, older sites, also require a
period of aftercare usually for 5 years Simpson T., 2004, personal contribution.
Page 37
o automotive
o financial services social performance
o tour operators
o telecommunications
with the following subsets in preparation
o financial services social performance
o mining35
o public agency36
o tourism. Work is also advanced on the standardisation of construction sustainability indicators in
ISOTC 59SC 17 Sustainability in Building Construction
httpwww.iso.chisoenstdsdevelopmenttechprogworkprogTechnicalProgrammeProje
ctDetailPage.TechnicalProgrammeProjectDetail?csnumber40436
R 10
A sustainable development indicators system, documenting the impacts of the production
and use of natural resources, populated with the necessary data, is an indispensable
dashboard instrument to monitor the effects of the implementation of the future Thematic
Strategy and the progress towards decoupling. The respective merits and feasibility of such a system should be compared with other
indicator systems, such as the systems developed by
o Eurostat and the European Topic Centre on Waste and Material Flows ETC-
WMF, see page 91, based on Material Flow Analysis MFA Moll et al., 2003
o the Centre of Environmental Science CML of the University of Leiden
Netherlands, combining material flows and Life Cycle Analysis LCA data see
page 96 Van der Voet et al., 2003
o the UN Commission on Sustainable Development indicators framework.
o the Global Reporting Initiative sustainable development indicators system. 5.4.2 - Sustainable use of resources
Can the use of non-renewable resources be sustainable? No simple answer can be given to this question. There is a widespread fear that non-
renewable resources, especially energy and mineral resources, may become exhausted
in some near future. This fear, epitomised by the Club of Rome and the book of
Meadows et al. 1972 Limits of Growth, is widely unfounded. If the availability to the
EU economy of the minerals and energy it requires cannot be taken for granted, it will
not depend on the physical availability of the resource but on a series of more complex
issues such as
35 a draft can be downloaded from the GRI website
www.globalreporting.orgguidelinessectorsmining.asp and is available for public comment up to
August 23rd, 2004
36
sector
public agency includes public authorities and organisations at the various levels of the public
Page 38
o international demand
o price
o access to these resources which can be restricted by one or several factors such as the
existence of an area of high environmental ecological, recreational or cultural value, of
existing infrastructure or built-up areas
o technologies available for exploration, exploitation, processing and transport
o geopolitics,
o willingness of investors to finance the exploration and the development of mines, plants
and infrastructure
o availability of quality detailed geoscientific data, generally to be produced by public
bodies such as Geological Survey outlining prospective areas
o investment climates in resource rich countries, conditioned by the existence of a stable,
predictable regulatory framework. The long-term availability of minerals and metals has been recently discussed by several
authors Tilton, 2001 Wellmer, 2001. Even more recently, Crowson 2003, one of the
most reputed international mineral resources economists, wrote There does not appear
to be any prospect of imminent shortages for nearly all mineral products. Over the past
fifty years, and probably for much longer, cumulative additions to reserves have grown
more rapidly than production. The historic production of minerals has not exhausted
global reserves in the way that individual ore deposits become depleted, but it has
changed the form and nature of the global stock. However, minerals essentially metallic and precious minerals, like oil and like it for
geological reasons, are geographically unevenly distributed. Their long-term availability
much depends of the capacity of the States where the reserves are located see fig. 23
below to create and maintain the incitative conditions required to attract the necessary
investments. In this context the importance of reserves located in less developed countries will grow. Many of these countries have a yet unknown potential as they are only very partially
explored and even less mined.
Long-term supply to the markets will much depend of the
accessibility of these reserves. Much of the analysis and comment made by C. Van der
Linde 2004 on Energy Supply Security and Geopolitics related to oil and gas are
applicable to the mining industry and to the mineral resources supply security of the EU,
a subject which so far has not been considered in EU policy making, although there are
serious reasons of concern and a potential of disruption of the EU economy. In the energy sector, on the basis of the data published in the 2001 Edition of World
Energy Outlook37 the remaining reserves reserve growth38 represent over 40 years of
consumption at the average rate of 35 bn barrels year forecast for the period 2000-
2020. Reserves of coal, gas and uranium are wide. However, as for minerals, the
availability of energy will much depend on the willingness to invest the huge amounts
required to exploit new deposits, and build the new production and transport facilities
required, many being located in countries where political stability can be problematic.
Europes dependence on oil imports will rise significantly in the period up to 2020, the
horizon chosen in the World Energy Outlook forecasts. From 52.5 in 1997 it will rise to
79 by 2020 North America 58. As global demand increases and new exploitations face higher costs caused by
economic, social and ecological restraints, resource prices may go up in the medium
37
38
Available here
Reserve growth refers to the additional reserves usually discovered as oilfieds are developed and
exploited. Page 39
and long term. Higher resource prices are a powerful incentive for innovation in more
resource efficient technologies, for the reduction and waste and for the use of more
abundant, possibly renewable, substitutes.
However, higher resources prices may make
these even more unaffordable for the poorer countries, which in quite many cases
cannot afford to use for their own needs the resources they produce example
phosphate in Togo or Senegal, almost entirely exported as concentrate, phosphoric acid
or fertilisers. There is an emerging European Energy Policy, underlined by the publication of a Green
Book on security of supply39. Nothing similar exists for the mineral resources sector,
although our computers, and almost every conceivable high tech hardware, from leisure
to space and defence, would not exist without the gallium, germanium, indium, lithium,
rare earth elements and other strategic metals they contain, many unavailable from
existing EU mines. R 11
The Thematic Strategy ought to address the security of supplies issues in the mineral
resources sector, as well as the support that should be given to developing countries to
develop and manage their mineral resources sector in a more sustainable way. These
are long-term issues of considerable importance for EUs growth. The availability of
minerals in twenty years will be a consequence of decisions taken now. This should not
be underestimated and it is recommended to engage multi-stakeholder work, including
with representatives of the developing world such the ACP General Secretariat and of
other regional organisations, in line with the article 46 of the Plan of Implementation of
the 2000 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development
46. Mining, minerals and metals are important to the economic and social development
of many countries. Minerals are essential for modern living. Enhancing the contribution of
mining, minerals and metals to sustainable development includes actions at all levels to
o Support efforts to address the environmental, economic, health and social impacts and
benefits of mining, minerals and metals throughout their life cycle, including workers
health and safety, and use a range of partnerships, furthering existing activities at the
national and international levels among interested Governments, intergovernmental
organisations, mining companies and workers and other stakeholders to promote
transparency and accountability for sustainable mining and minerals development
o Enhance the participation of stakeholders, including local and indigenous communities
and women, to play an active role in minerals, metals and mining development
throughout the life cycles of mining operations, including after closure for rehabilitation
purposes,
o in accordance with national regulations and taking into account significant transboundary
impacts
o Foster sustainable mining practices through the provision of financial, technical and
capacity-building support to developing countries and countries with economies in
transition for the mining and processing of minerals, including small-scale mining, and,
where possible and appropriate, improve value-added processing, upgrade scientific and
technological information and reclaim and rehabilitate degraded sites. 39
Towards a European strategy for the security of energy supply Available here
httpeuropa.eu.intcommenergy_transportenlpi_lv_en1.html
Page 40
5.4.2.1 - LAND-USE-PLANNING AND ACCESS TO RESOURCES
The availability of the resources humanity will need in the future will much depend on
o the accessibility to the land where concentrations i.e. deposits of the desired mineral
exist. o the availability and price of energy. Knowing that neither fossil energy deposits nor mineral deposits can be moved, they
need to be exploited where they do occur. Therefore geological information, to locate
energy and mineral resources is needed as a basis for land-use planning40, taking into
account the location of the deposits. Land-use planning needs to safekeep the access to
mineral resources, or to prevent mining where it is not acceptable. Among its unique characteristics, mining is characterised by a very long hysteresis
between the initial decision to explore for a given resource and the possible start of the
production of a new mine. This period averages ten years in many cases, even in sand
gravel. Longer periods 20 years and more are not that uncommon This is due to the
necessity to explore mostly in several stages and, hopefully discover a new deposit
this time is short or inexistent in the case of construction minerals. Then comes the
period of prefeasibility and feasibility studies, and then the possible construction of the
new mining and ancillary facilities which may include energy and transport
infrastructures. This hysteresis is related to the technical, economic and sometimes political risks on one
hand and the industrys capital intensity on the other hand. It is also related to the
obligation to fulfil all the regulatory requirements related to the various stages of the
mining project. The development of a new mineral resources exploitation project, even for sand and
gravel, is not something which can be achieved in a fortnight. The time necessary to
obtain the required mining rights and to prepare for mining is mostly about 10 years and
investment decisions are mostly made on the basis of accessible reserves allowing 20 to
60 years41 of exploitation.
Even in the construction materials sector, investment required
to start a new production facility can be very high. Recent cement production facilities
quarry plant infrastructure require investments in the range of 150 - 200 M. The
investment required for the start of a large scale copper production facility in Chile open-
pit mining of a porphyry copper, beneficiation and metallurgical plant, infrastructure can
be in the range of 2 bn . Decisions in the mining industry are very long-term decisions
with long payback periods, requiring stable and foreseeable conditions, including the
guaranteed access to the resource providing that all environmental prerequisites are
met. Barring the access to local reserves, i.e. to land, for the purpose of environmental
protection, will promote, where feasible, the use of recycled materials42 andor of
40
41
42
there are also many other uses of geoscientific data in land-use planning, related to soils, ground
water, natural hazards, geothermal potential and underground cavities
For instance, in the case of the lime and cement industries investment decisions will only be taken
with a secure access to reserves for a period of 30 to 60 years. The use of recycled construction materials and of secondary materials is already widespread in the EU. Vandermeulen 2003 indicates that a total of over 160 Mt of secondary materials where used for
construction purposes in a zone consisting of the Netherlands, Denmark, Belgium, Germany, the United
Kingdom and Norway. These materials would otherwise may have been considered for dumping in
landfills construction and demolition waste, asphalt waste ashes from coal fired thermal plants municipal
solid waste incineration MSWI fly and bottom ashes, slags from the steel and metallurgical industries blast
furnace slag, steel slag, phosphorous slag. The recycling percentage of these materials is respectively about
Page 41
substitutes. In many cases however, as society will continue to require the benefits of the
functions minerals and metals provide, the main consequence will be a shift resources
gaining activities further away from areas where these resources are demanded. The
latter situation will increase the demand for transport, and the generation of related
emissions and externalities. There is also a significant risk that these activities will be
shifted to countries with less stringent environmental standards. In total, related negative
impacts and externalities are likely to offset any initially intended environmental benefit. Several recent scientific publications address the mineral resources land-use planning
andor transport issues in Europe Martins et al. 2000, Nielsen 2004, Van Der Meulen
2003, 2004, Wagner 2001. R 12
A detailed, GIS-based inventory, of either available or extractable mineral reserves
throughout the EU is a necessity to serve as a basis for policy making and planning
purpose at EU, national, regional and local levels. 5.4.2.2 - RECYCLING AND RE-USE
The resources we use are mostly used either to support our lives water and food or to
generate physical capital whose functions will in many cases remain available for our
descendants e.g. houses, physical infrastructure. Some physical capital has a life
span of decades, or even hundreds of years. Nevertheless, some resources are
irremediably dispersed during their use, like phosphate or potash in fertilisers dispersed
in fields, or water used for irrigation, of which a large part is evaporated. Many metals have long transit times through the economy before eventually becoming
available for recycling. As an example, gold produced at the time of the Pharaohs is still
in use. Iron steel in buildings may remain in use for centuries. Rare and precious metals in
computers will become potentially recyclable after an average period of three years. Providing that prices are incitative and technologies are available many types of waste,
but not all, can be recycled to recover metals andor other valuable resources. Biowaste
can be an interesting source of biogas methane, and hence a source of energy. This
needs to be taken into consideration when assessing resources availability, as it
considerably increases the availability of many but not all - minerals and metals. Not all resources can be recycled. Some are dispersed during their use phase, like water
used for irrigation or fertilisers used in agriculture. Some others are dispersed in small
quantities in materials from where it is economically impossible to recover them, like
tantalum in cellular telephones or zinc as zinc oxide in skin cream or paints. In some cases, recycling is not possible for the same use than the original one concrete
cannot be recycled to produce new concrete. Many alloys loose some of their specific
properties during the recycling process, thus the recycled product cannot be used for the
same applications than the original one. 95 85, 75, 50, 40 and 15. The lower percentage correspond to countries which are important
exporters of aggregate to other EU countries Germany, Norway and the UK. Page 42
Limitations to recycling are the costs of collecting and processing the waste material,
including the externalities emissions generated during transport, maintenance costs of
public transport infrastructure related to transport, emissions related to the recycling
process related to the collection, the transportation and the processing of scrap
material. Very little quality open data is available about the recycling of some metals,
making comparisons between recycling and primary production very .difficult. Recent events such as the closure in 2003 of the Noyelles-Godault Metaleurop lead and
zinc recycling plant show the fragility of the EU metals recycling industry, which faces
escalating social and environmental costs. These costs affect the financial performance
of recycling companies and are an obstacle to the development of recycling. In addition,
developing countries with a strong growth like China, India or Russia implemented
policies to keep all their scrap material within their countries, drying up sources of supply
of great importance to the EU economy. An alternative for recycling can be repair, reuse and upgrading of products or spare
parts. Some companies have a lot of experience with this, including with market barriers
because of standards prescribing the use of new materials.
5.4.2.3 - SUBSTITUTION
Public policies can also promote, through the use of different instruments, the
development of the use of substitutes. Wellmer 2001 describes fig. 2 how the
Swedish authorities promoted the substitution of the use of a rare non-renewable
resource, fossil fuel as energy, by the use of triple pane window glass, made of an
abundant resource, silica energy and some nearly as abundant other minerals. Solar
water heating panels made essentially from sand and iron ore, both abundant resources,
are good substitutes for the use of fossil fuels.
Fig. 2 - Hierarchy of mineral raw materials resources management for sustainable development
From Wellmer et al., 2001
On top of the hierarchy are the most valuable non-renewable resources, fossil fuels, who
should be used with restraint. Just below are those deposits formed by highly localised
geological enrichment processes, such as metallic ores deposits. Below again are the
bulk materials, such as construction raw materials like aggregates, clays, hard rocks and
lime. From the geological perspective, they are available in almost infinite quantities,
although their geographic distribution is highly uneven. This group also includes the
Page 43
elements available in sea water, which are equally available in huge quantities iodine,
magnesium, potassium, and sodium. Finally, at the bottom of the hierarchy come waste
and residues from the use of the groups higher in the hierarchy, such as tar, fly ashes
from coal-fired thermal plants, red muds from the alumina industry or slags from
metallurgy. This hierarchy could easily be generalised, to include renewable and flow resources. Flow resources would be below bulk material, as they are abundant and renewable. The
positioning of renewable biologic resources is much more delicate, as they are
extinguishable. Wood in the Sahel, although renewable, is a scarce and fragile resource. This would place it on top of the hierarchy as it could be easily extinguished. Wood in
Europe is an abundant resource, which is unlikely to be extinguished if well managed. It
could be placed at the same level than bulk raw materials, but only when taking
management and harvesting criteria such as given in or PEFC into account. R 13
Within the group of renewable biotic resources, the guiding principle should be to
substitute the use of threatened species, or species which can not be sustainably grown
due to local constraints. This is for instance the case of tropical wood species grown on
very poor ferralitic soils derived from laterite, a common feature in wide stretches of the
tropical regions of the humid intertropical areas. These soils are much to poor in
nutrients to be able to generate significative wood yields over an extended period,
without intensive fertilisation and development of the problems related to fertilisers. Here
substitution by wood from temperate forests such as oak, larch Larix europea or black
locust Robinia pseudoacacia, which can be sustainably grown, offers a satisfactory
alternative. But also innovatively processed European softwood, which can have a very
high durability grade is an alternative. In any case, application of FSC or PEFC criteria
and similar standards for biotic resources would help guarantee that resource use does
not contribute to the further decline of species or ecosystems. In that way, sustainably
produced and harvested biotic resources could be a viable substitution for the use of
some energy-intensive non renewable materials. However, proper LCA has to be applied
before any policy recommendation for substitution in done. Policy making and regulations can be very effective to promote the use of the groups
lower in the hierarchy, and this should be considered for other sectors. In favourble
cases the use of waste can generate several benefits at once reduced the demand for
rarer resources, increase the lifetime of the reserves of the former and turn potentially
harmful waste into a valuable resource. Substitution could be promoted and the future
Thematic Strategy for instance by support to technological innovation and by tax
incentives disincentives promoting the use of resources low in the above hierarchy. 5.4.2.4 - SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF BIOTIC RESOURCES
The renewable, but extinguishable biotic resources need to be properly managed in
order to be protected and safeguarded to deliver their life support functions, services and
products also in the future. As EU guidelines on biological agriculture show, it is possible
to design general management criteria for a certain sector.
The internationally developed
certification systems take into account economic, environmental and social criteria and
involved a wide range of stakeholders in setting these criteria for sustainable forest
management. A similar but less well-known initiative was the Marine Stewardship Council
where for example Unilever has been actively involved. The resources strategy should
support such initiatives and integrate them. Page 44
The EU needs to set and apply criteria for the sustainable management of all natural
resources, making labelling of all products and materials from these resources
mandatory. This means that all producers need to fulfil certain minimum criteria and
show this on their products. Certification and labelling for those who apply the highest standards for example FSC
and PEFC in forestry, biological agriculture, MSC in fishing also needs to be
encouraged with effective instruments such as economic incentives and green public
procurement. 5.4.3 - Assessing the impacts the multiple interlinked
dimensions of the environment
One of the objectives of the Resources Strategy will be understanding and mapping the
links between the use of resources and their environmental impacts in order to identify
where action is needed COM2003572. However, to establish the causal linkages
between, the production and the different uses of a single resource, on one hand, and
the related environmental impacts or, better, sustainability impacts on the other hand is
difficult due to limited available knowledge, information an, sometimes, even data see
an example p. 62 on water resources use. The debate on these linkages is sometimes
rather based on emotions and on the wrong interpretation of data than on hard science
itself.
However scientific evidence, including in the social and economic spheres, is
needed to identify where action is needed and feasible. For example, a huge effort has been recently undertaken by the Mining, Minerals and
Sustainable Development project43 to chart the linkages and the issues related to mining
and sustainable development. About 5,000 stakeholders from all over the world and from
any possible stakeholder group for or against mining participated to this two years long
project. No other sector of the economy went that far to investigate the linkages between
the sector and sustainable development. Some inspiring studies do also exist in other
sectors such as fisheries44 and initiatives to reconcile business and industry with
sustainable development exist in almost every thinkable sector.
However, much remains to be done until the examples of good practices percolate down
to the individual customers and the individual businesses and production facilities. Mandatory labelling can significantly contribute to influence consumer choices and
behaviour. Our natural environmental comprises four different, closely interrelated and interwoven
spheres all definitions below are derived from the Webster online dictionary
o the atmosphere, consisting of the gaseous envelope of the Earth
o the biosphere, comprising all the living organisms
o the geosphere, comprising the solid part of the Earth, i.e. soils the outmost
veneer of the Earths landmasses, the crust and the upper part mantle from the
Webster dictionary
o the hydrosphere, the aqueous envelope of the Earth, including the Ocean, all
lakes, streams and underground waters as well as the water in the atmosphere
and closely interrelated natural components
43
44
Project website httpwww.iied.orgmmsd
UK Cabinet Office - Prime Ministers Strategy Office 2004. Available here
httpwww.number-10.gov.uksufishpdfNetBenefits.pdf
Page 45
o air,
o biodiversity made of all the living species
o land, which is the veneer at the surface of continental landmasses on which man
live
o soils, which result from the interaction between all four spheres. It is the most
complex and diverse of all four media as its nature is conditioned by many local
factors geology, topography, surface and groundwater characteristics, climate
and biodiversity
o water continental surface water and groundwater sea and oceanic saline waters. Surface water and aquifer systems groundwater are frequently interconnected
o geology the detailed nature of the subsurface, and the geometry of its individual
formations, conditions the nature and location of most vital natural resources
soils, water, minerals including hydrocarbons, geothermal energy. It also
conditions the possible use of the subsurface for infrastructure developments
networks, parkings, tunnels, storage facilities . Finally it conditions the
vulnerability of certain resources groundwater, soils to anthropogenic risks and
the exposure of man-made structures to natural hazards. Together they form the global life supporting system.
Together with the climate, the local
quality and quantity of each of these components determines the carrying capacity of the
environment and strongly influences the extent of the local biodiversity and biomass. R 14
As hinted at by the full connecting lines in fig. 3, trade-offs can be implemented between
all forms of man-made capital, but only to a very limited extent between these and
natural capital. Environmental components can be protected, impacts can be
remediated, but some components like non-renewable resources or biodiversity cannot
be restored. Damages due to loss of fertile soils, of water resources, of biodiversity can
be irremediable. Even remediation, while technically feasible, may be economically
unfeasible, due to its high costs and the lack of appropriate financial provisions. The risk
of irreversible environmental damage being dependent on a number of local factors,
detailed GIS-based knowledge of the components of the local environment is a
necessity. This has to been kept in mind when political choices will be made. Another element of uncertainty is the carrying capacity of our environment and its
resilience from the impacts of human activities.
Fig. 4 lists some of the pressures text in black that can be generated by resources
gaining activities, and the possible resulting environmental impacts. Following these constraints we can already draw a conclusion that we believe will be
shared by many of the stakeholders
Page 46
Life
Life
Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural
capital
capital
capital
capital
supporting
supporting
sytems
sytems
Social
Social
Social
Social
capital
capital
capital
capital
Institutions
Institutions
Institutions
Codes
Codes
Codes
Standards
Standards
Standards
Law
Law
Law
Data
Data
Data
Knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge
Technologies
Technologies
Technologies
A
A
A
d
d
d
d
d
d
e
e
e
d
d
d
v
v
v
a
a
a
u
u
u
e
e
e
l
l
l
Financial
Financial
Financial
Financial
capital
capital
capital
capital
Physical
Physical
Physical
Physical
capital
capital
capital
capital
Fig. 3 Various forms of capital and their linkage
Red connecting lines these forms of capital can be substituted
Black dashed discontinuous lines limited substitutability
Page 47
RESOURCE GAINING USE
RESOURCE GAINING USE
Environmental impacts to be assessed
Environmental impacts to be assessed
on the basis of
on the basis of
local conditions
local conditions
the threat to life supporting systems
the threat to life supporting systems
their spatial distribution
their spatial distribution
their intensity and distribution
their intensity and distribution
the vulnerability importance of the
the vulnerability importance of the
impacted systems
impacted systems
social and economic benefits
social and economic benefits
Fig. 4 The multi-faceted environmental impacts of resources gaining use
Page 48
Finally environmental impacts will result from the complex local interlinkages between a
series of factors, including the above natural components
o climatology,
o topography,
o geology,
o soils
o hydrography
o groundwater
o biodiversity in soils and on the surface
o existence and probability of natural risk factors such as avalanches, landslides,
rock fall, underground cavities, swelling clays, floods, earthquakes, volcanic
activity
o the nature, intensity, geographic extent and duration of man-made pressures
They may also be a consequence of the economic and or cultural value of elements
such as buildings, infrastructure, landscape, monuments, trees or any other elements of
particular cultural value. R 15
These factors need to be well investigated, documented and understood if economically
optimal impact prevention strategies are to be designed and implemented. Ignoring local
conditions may lead to unnecessary expenditure in environmental protection or to high
cost to mitigate or remediate the effects of the impacts. The data describing these
conditions forms an essential component of sensible land-use planning. Although this
investigation work, and the resulting knowledge, is to be performed locally, under the
responsibility of local, regional andor national authorities there is much scope to develop
European Union wide data acquisition, analytical and data processing procedures and
common thesauri of technical terms involved. The European Commission has an
important role to play, well in line with the INSPIRE directive project and the GMES
program to set the overarching guiding norms and to make this harmonisation possible. Therefore generic one size fits all protection strategies based on a blanketing
application of the precautionary principle could be unnecessarily expensive curtail
innovation and growth, and fail to address specific conditions.
This needs to be
recognised by the future Thematic Strategy. Indeed, a wild bird species may be an important resource for sustainable harvest in one
part of Europe, and even common enough to be a pest of agriculture e.g. some
waterfowl, but rare enough to require protection and contribute to tourism e.g. for
birdwatching elsewhere. There is therefore a need to be flexible enough to
accommodate local conditions, within general principles. Detailed, high-quality GIS-
based land-use planning encompassing the mentioned subsurface and dynamic
parameters are a prerequisite for the sustainable use of natural resources and one of the
keys towards an effective decoupling between growth and impacts. It is the sum of local impacts that causes global impacts, such as global warming or
losses of ecosystems. The Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources will also have to
address, in a robust and evidence-based manner, the growing amount of resources used
by the EU economy imported, inter alia from developing countries, which frequently have
only very limited resources to develop the necessary governance and resources
Page 49
management capacities see table 11 for data to have an overview of the Gross National
Income of the main minerals exporting developing countries nor the capacities to
develop and maintain an incitative framework for the development of private sector
investment. Many of these countries face very short-term45 dire problems curtailing their
capacity to develop long-term sustainable development strategies. In addition these
strategies have a horizon which is well beyond political agendas. This is further detailed
in the section on the EU growing dependence from imports p. 106 ff. 5.4.4 - Driving forces, Pressures, States and Impacts
5.4.4.1 - GENERIC DRIVING FORCES
R 16
This section highlights some major drivers, which will shape the global environment,
including the EU environment. These drivers should be taken into consideration for the
design of the Thematic Strategy, since it addresses a 25 year period
Demographic trends. in 2050, the world population is expected to be 8.9 billion, a nearly
50 increase from the year 2000 figure of 6 billion UN Population Division, 2003. The
population increase will mostly take place in the developing world, with the population of low
income countries growing by 1 billion, up to nearly 1.7 billion. In comparison, the European
continents population will shrink by 90 million, down to 632 million inhabitants, representing
only 7 of the world population. In addition, Europes population average age is expected to
be about 48 years, the oldest population on Earth, while the average age of the population in
the low-income countries will be 27 years. This means that at the scale of the global
environment, demographic trends may well offset most tangible progress made by Europe in
decoupling growth from environmental impacts. On the basis of projections from the World Resources Institute www.wri.org some of the
foreseen trends are
o demand for fishery products is likely to increase by nearly 40 in 10 years
o demand for forest products is likely to increase by 20-30
o consumption of nitrogen-based fertilisers is expected to increase by over 50 in the
next 20 years.
All of these demands will add consequent pressures to freshwater, marine, and forest
ecosystems. A simulation for copper demand is presented below, p. 54 ff. The current world is far from achieving intra-generational equity in resource use, one of
the objectives of sustainable development. The example from the mineral resources
sector presented in box 4 hints at the difficulties to produce enough resources to even
slightly reduce intra generational inequity, by 2050, if the reference taken is the current
level of EU per capita resources consumption. 45
short-term means the present, and the immediate future tentatively year. Medium-term is tentatively set
at five years, a period within which scenarios can be built with high probability of realisation. Long-term is
the strategic horizon set in the Communication Towards the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of
Natural Resources. Probability is lower, as the future will be shaped by many interacting factors. Only
scenarios can be developed.
They need to be updated about every 5 years in view of the new realities and of
the trends.. Page 50
Even a relatively modest growth of the developing world consumption of resources will have
significant impacts on the global markets and on the environment, as already highlighted by
the rapid growth of Chinas metal consumption fig. 6 and by its gloomy environmental
record The Economist, 2004. Indications are that growing consumer numbers in India will
soon have a similar impact on the demand for minerals and metals. The competition for
access to water, fertile soils as well as to minerals and metals, especially rare metals used
for high-technology industrial applications, may lead to international tensions over the next
decades, a recurring pattern throughout history. It may also lead to innovation, prosperity
and a more stable world. On the other hand, the rarefaction of resources, whether real or artificial, may bring in some
benefits, at least for the more affluent parts of this planet. As resources may become less
abundant, their price will escalate.
This will trigger imagination, innovation, the development
of new services and products for the global markets and of the the use of substitutes. Poverty on the basis of World Bank data46, poverty developed over the 1987 1998 period,
the population living on less than 2 per day having increased from 2.5 to 2.8 billion. Poverty
is frequently a powerful driver for environmentally destructive behaviours, since any movable
natural asset is likely to be exploited with no regard for the natural systems and
sustainability, for the poor may have no choice but to satisfy their most immediate vital
needs. Therefore, the fight against poverty, through the EU development policy, will have an
important impact on the way natural resources are gained in developing countries. R 17
A component of the future Thematic Strategy should be to support developing countries in
fostering more sustainable resources gaining activities. EUs development aid, although the
largest international source of grants, represented a modest 0.35 in 200347, far from
reaching the initial commitment of 0.7 of the EU GNI, taken at the UN. Support is provided
in certain resources management areas agriculture, forests and water48. Although the
mineral resources received some limited resource management capacity building support
through the Sysmin instrument, this instrument has been discontinued and no new sectoral
capacity building projects are programmed within the Country Strategy Papers defining the
country-level priorities for the programming of the 9th European Development Fund. Knowledge Awareness - Ignorance and poor environmental performance are fostered by
a series of factors such as
o poor awareness of environmental issues, of existing regulations, of sources of
knowledge and support
o lack of scientific knowledge backed by reliable data
o lack of transparent and easy accessible good quality information
o
o fragmentation of the European research area
o limited integration of sensitisation to sustainability issues in educational curricula starting
at the youngest age
o too much or to little information
46
47
48
World Bank Poverty Net www.worldbank.orgpovertydatatrendsincome.htm
OECD Development Assistance Committee webpapges
httpwww.oecd.orgdocument220,2340,fr_2649_33721_31504022_1_1_1_1,00. html
with the recent essential European Water Initiative launched at the Johannesburg World summit on
Sustainable Development www.euwi.net
Page 51
o personal disinterest for sustainable development issues which citizens wrongly or not
feel unable to address at their individual levels
o ordinary egoism
o corruption and bad governance
o lack of financial incentives with respect to sustainable performance
o lack of access to knowledge and limited institutional capacities in the developing
countries. In addition, a growing number of persons are living in cities and have a very
limited exposure to resources gaining activities, and very limited interest for
these activities. What is the percentage of persons who have at least some
understanding of the production processes in agriculture, forestry or mining
and of the related business environments? The fight against ignorance and awareness raising is a long-term undertaking,
to be targeted inter alia at children through education, and or at all the
components of the supply chain starting with the customer, whose purchasing
choices are of importance, to the various businesses implied in the value-
adding chain down to the initial resource producer. The latter category of
action should be, of course, focused, on value adding chains generating
particularly high impacts. R 18
The final choice of the customer is of utmost importance, as well as the
sustainability ethics of the businesses involved in the supply chain. If the sole
criteria of the consumer is ever more product for an ever cheaper price there
is no doubt that businesses will need to maintain their profitability through
production cost reduction strategies. They can be based on more efficient
production processes49 and innovation, but they can also be based on shifting
the production, through direct delocalisation andor via subcontractors
sometimes a cascade of subcontractors to countries offering a convenient
mix of stability, low labour costs, low taxes and permissive environmental
standards or good but ineffective standards. The Thematic Strategy should
address this.
The preamble of the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade currently applicable
within the framework of the WTO recognises the right for a country to protect the
environment Article 5.4 - In cases where a positive assurance is required that products
conform with technical regulations or standards, and relevant guides or
recommendations issued by international standardising bodies exist or their completion
is imminent, Members shall ensure that central government bodies use them, or the
relevant parts of them, as a basis for their conformity assessment procedures, except
where, as duly explained upon request, such guides or recommendations or relevant
parts are inappropriate for the Members concerned, for, inter alia, such reasons as
national security requirements the prevention of deceptive practices protection of
human health or safety, animal or plant life or health, or the environment fundamental
climatic or other geographical factors fundamental technological or infrastructural
problems.50
49
50
but the flexibility here can be reduced for instance by the need to amortise existing production equipment
before investing into newer, more efficient, technologies
Source httpwww.wto.orgenglishdocs_elegal_e17-tbt.doc
Page 52
Cost reduction and sustainability can be reconciled by technological innovation and good
management, allowing for a more efficient use of all inputs needed by production processes,
by the reduction of waste, by a better qualification and motivation of a companys personnel. Page 53
Box 4 Implications of a progressive reduction of intra-generational inequities
in resources use the copper example
Figure 5 in this box compares the current per capita apparent copper consumption of
different regions. The apparent consumption is calculated as follows production imports
of refined metal, semi-finished products and metal in alloys or concentrates exports
ditto - changes in stocks. Imports or exports of metal contained in manufactured goods
such as cars or machinery are not included. Current apparent consumption of copper in Africa is about 0.2 kg per capita, in Asia except
Japan, Taiwan and Southern Korea it is about 1.6 kg, while in the richer part of the world it
is about 10.5 kg per capita. The very conservative hypothesis taken here is that between now and 2050 the following
developments will occur a modest growth of copper consumption in the developing world,
related to the development of much-needed infrastructure, and a quite hypothetical
stagnation at current levels of the copper consumption in rich countries the current trend is
about plus 2 per annum. Due to the demographic trends even this prudent scenario
shows a very important increase of the demand for copper, with an almost doubling of the
production needed by 2050. Such a scenario requires discovering and putting into
production about three times the current copper production capacity of the world largest
copper producer, Chile. Even this conservative scenario represents a significant challenge for the mineral industry
and the downstream sectors, as it will require investments in exploration and mine
development.
And important development and sustainability issues will remain as, by far,
intra-generational equity tll would not be achieved. The recent development in Chinas economy fig. 6 and in India clearly hint at the fact that
the real demand growth trends are likely to outgrow the figures given in the above scenario. In the long term this scenario, may be challenged by technology shifts with substitutions
occurring for certain uses of copper. In the recent years plastic piping tend to replace copper
pipes in buildings, fiber glass tends to replace copper wire in telecommunications networks,
aluminium substitutes copper in some overland electricity transmission lines. Nevertheless,
the growth of copper consumption goes on, unabated. The impossible scenario is that by 2050, the whole world would be able to use even nearly
as much copper than we Europeans appear to do today. Even a 5 kg capita year average
copper use would, in 2050, require the production of over 400 Mt copperyear, over 25 times
the current production. Page 54
2050 Copper consumption per capita - a perspective
Figures above the bars are current and forecast apparent consumptions
Data sources World Mining and Minerals Yearbook, UN
10.7
10.5
World copper consumption
2000 14.8 Mt 89 primary
2050 27.1 Mt requiring to put
discover and put into production
3 times the current production of
Chile
3.0
1.6
1.6
0.2
Africa
Asia
EU
USA
Fig. 5 A scenario for copper demand in 2050
China 1990 - Changes in selected metals demand 1990-2000
Source Clifford L., Rio Tinto 2002
12,0
10,0
8,0
6,0
4,0
2,0
0,0
a
t
i
p
a
c
r
e
p
g
k
n
i
n
o
i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
c
t
n
e
r
a
p
p
A
-
u
C
d
n
a
m
e
d
d
l
r
o
w
l
a
t
o
t
f
o
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Al
Cu
Fe traded iron ore
Fig.
6 - China consumption of selected minerals and minerals 1990-2000
2 000
2 050
1990
1995
2000
Page 55
Innovation the ever accelerating pace of innovation has already been highlighted page
28. New technologies and new products will be developed which are likely to generate
significant shifts in the nature and the quantities of natural resources which the EU
economy, and the rest of the world, will require. Some of these innovations are likely to
greatly contribute to a better and healthier environment, while others may generate
negative impacts. Again, governance capacities will be needed to assess these impacts.
Moreover, these capacities need to be verifiably industry independent to avoid the
possible consequences of too close links between regulatory supervisory organisations
and their clients. Innovation played a great role in allowing a significant reduction of many commodity
prices throughout the XXth century, as exemplified by the drop of the average price of 12
essential mineral commodities in the United States throughout the XXth century,
although with significant fluctuations Sullivan et al., 2000 see fig. 7. It is also one of
the driving forces at the source of the already decoupling of the EUs economic growth
from the series of environmental pressures documented in fig. 16 to 21.
Fig. 7 Composite price index of 12 mineral commodities, in 1997 constant US
from Sullivan et al., 2000
Development of innovative environmental technologies and active support to their
dissemination is of considerable importance for the Thematic Strategy, and this is
recognised by the European Commission in the COM2002122 and the COM2003131
and through the related Environmental Technologies Action Plan ETAP51 on the
Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. Within the ETAP framework, four Commission
internal Issue Groups were created. The Issue Group on Sustainable Production and
Consumption did work to identify obstacles hindering the dissemination of innovative
environmental technologies and came forward with sectoral analysis52, with an
51
52
ETAP website www.europa.eu.intcommenvironmentetap
The sectoral analysis of mining nevertheless includes some unjustified generalising statements about
mining related impacts e.g. - The mining process itself affects the water environment mainly through
disruption of pre-existing hydrological pathways Comment This happens only under certain local
conditions. An open-pit located well-above an aquifer is unlikely to have a major effect on that aquifer,
except if pollutants migrate though the open-pit into an unprotected aquifer - .which MAY happen in
relation to certain type of ores for instance acid drainage, a significant environmental problem in relation
with open pit mining of SOME sulphide ores under CERTAIN climatic conditions. The problematic ores
are mostly iron sulphide pyrite copper and gold ores. Lead sulphide or zinc sulphide ores do not cause the
same problem. This problem is inexistent in iron ores or in sand and gravel quarrying, due to the completely
different mineralogical nature of the ore. Detailed information on some of the impacts related to specific ore
Page 56
assessment of future production consumption trends, an identification of some issues
and proposals on how to address them. This work is published by the Joint Research
Centres Institute for Prospective Technological Studies53 with analysis and
recommendations related to following resources gaining or use industries
o cement
o iron and steel
o non-ferrous metals aluminium, copper and lead
o mining
o pulp and paper
o plastics
o the construction sector
o refineries. A series of cross-cutting issues are also addressed in this report
o biotechnology
o eco-design
o products-services and waste management.
Verifiable voluntary initiatives should be encouraged. 54
55
56
57
www.equator-principles.com
httpwww.publishwhatyoupay.orgeiti
The EITI initiative is supported by the EU Parliament and the Commission, with the development
of a draft Directive on the harmonisation of transparency requirements with regard to information about
issuers whose securities are admitted to trading on a regulated market .COM2003138. It may come into
force in 2005
Source httpwww.iso.chisoeniso9000-14000pdfsurvey12thcycle.pdf
Page 58
Box 5 Excerpt of the conclusions of a report on voluntary initiatives
sustainable development in the non-energy extractive industry
prepared for DG Enterprise Prevot et al., 2000
The Commission and industry could contribute to sustainable development
practices in mining regions through a focus on the development of the national
SME sector and through adopting a long term vision of the regional economic
impact
a
Institutional capacity building
o bring assistance to enforcement capabilities, where regulatory frameworks are
already developed this would seem to be particularly called for in eastern European
countries
o bring assistance to setting up the regulatory framework where it needs to be
enhanced i.e. this would seem to be the case in context of the Romanian incident. b Assistance to sustainable development of the national artisanal and SME sector
particularly in remote areas, through
o Technical and economical integration of SSMs and collateral activities into a cluster
of SMEs
o Social and environmental assistance including a focus on child labour and gender
equity issues
o Support and assistance to monitoring and enforcement by national technical
administrative authorities at local and national levels
o Promotion of innovative and sector-adapted HSE measures. c To introduce a long-term perspective in the evolution of the region during
and after mining. This is part of the equity issue. While the debate on rent sharing
between the decentralised communities and the central state is a fiscal problem
that in some but not all instances is outside the responsibility of the mining
company, it cannot be ignored and local initiatives, such as tri-sector partnerships
may even facilitate consensus solutions. Some practical examples have been
recorded in the report. Page 59
Issues
Diverging
public views
of
environmenta
l
performance
Underlying stakes
legacy
of
abandoned mine
sites in EU
accession
countries
Available Instruments
inventory underway
industries initiatives in
industrial
minerals
cement,
aggregates
in
re-mining
Eastern Europe
liability
of
operators
EU
assistance
IPPC
accession
funds
unequal reporting
by Companies
fear of engaging
in public debates
Guidelines
Berlin
UNEP
private auditing of
firms reporting
closure
post
timing
uniform standards
not applicable
site specificity
constraints on
SME
promotion of best
environment
in all
practice
phases of mining
exploration, active
operations and
closure
risk assessment
microeconomic
impact
SME
Cluster
development
health and safety
issues
Industry
implementati
on of new
Directives
waste,
landfill,
hazardous
substances
Prevention
and
risk
management
precautionary
principle
Social
sustainability
technical adaptation
committee
subsidiarity
principle
IPPC
abatement
targets
through by-laws or
voluntary
agreements
technical
IPPC
EMS
EU
assistance
EIA
EMAS
ISO 14 000
Vacuum in RD 5th
PCRD
national
various
liabilities regimes
sharing of mining
taxes local, regional,
national
OHAS 18001
Suggestions
more
proactive
exchanges with public
authorities more VI to
be encouraged. adoption of orphan
sites by
industry
incentives? - engaging in debates
on
stakeholders
expectations
Communities, labour,
NGO
- specific legislation? set
agreed
indicators at industry
level
benchmarking at EU
level
third party certification
post closure vision
of
data bank of site
specific agreements
EU framework for
validating voluntary
and
agreements
reporting
Global
Mining
Initiative Global
Reporting Initiative
industry codes of
practice i.e. Australia,
Canada, GMI.. enhancing
RD
through EU-industry
co-operation
voluntary
assessment
risks
post closure economic
vision to be developed
with
localregional
stakeholders
social
Committees
dialogue
local Foundations
voluntary initiatives to
be encouraged
Page 60
International
sustainability
-communities
-bio-diversity.
macroeconomic
impact of mining
in
third world
countries
EU dimension life-
cycle analysis
EU and national
recycling incentives
sustainable
development or
sustainable
use? social licence to
operate
Vacuum
in
addressing jointly EU
third world
and
countries
development issues
in mining
approaches
NS
already developed in
voluntary initiatives
from
the private
sector
Suggested EU-South
public
sector
development debate
in co-operation with
private
sector
promotion of the three
pillars of sustainable
by
development
public assistance
Table 4 Summary of the conclusions of the Study on Voluntary Initiatives Sustainable Development in the
Non-Energy Extractive Industry Prevot et al., 2000
These initiatives have the advantage of flexibility and offer the possibility to be tailor-made and address specific
local situations. In its study on voluntary initiatives and the mining sector Greene 2002 underlines the
importance and value of multi-stakeholder initiatives, if maximal sustainable returns are to be obtained Industry-
led schemes such as those designed and implemented by associations as requirements for their members may
be more effective, at least in the short term, in attracting support and uptake from a substantial segment of an
industry. On the other hand, programs conceived, designed andor implemented by multi-stakeholder groups or
with the active involvement of stakeholders will build greater credibility, and in the long run may well be
necessary to create the conditions for substantial improvements in terms of industry performance.. R 20
However, the global impact of the good industry performers may be challenged by the
activities of poorer performers. This may particularly be the case of companies listed in tax
havens or coming from countries with poor environmental and social governance standards. More international action is required to address such situations and to support the
development of governance capacities in the developing world. 5.4.5 - Sectoral driving forces, pressures, and impacts
This section illustrates, on the basis of a few examples, the relations between the following
resources gaining activities
o agriculture
o built-up areas
o energy production
o mining58
and sustainability issues as well as the pressures they exert on the environment and the
related impacts. For reasons of time not all sectors could be covered, nor is the following
overview comprehensive. Readers should be aware that there are huge amounts of
disseminated data, information and knowledge available on the topics touched here, and
that it was well beyond the scope and the resources available while writing this report to
identify and compile them. This would require significant full-time efforts of a
multisciplinary team. 58
Additional sections on fishing, forestry and water will be added in the final version if the time
available makes this possible. Page 61
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It is suggested to undertake some59 compilation in the first implementation phase of the
strategy, while preparing sectoral strategies. Resources related transport should be
included in this compilation. There are many problems with data. The existing data is still heterogeneous due to
significantly differing data acquisition, analytical and data processing procedures within
single countries and throughout Europe and incomplete some areas are covered by
detailed datasets while others are not. Even basic data may be missing. Some
references are given in the Bibliography appendix 5, but the purpose of this report was
not to attempt to an in-depth literature survey. Table 5 below shows that at the EU-level even such a basic indicator as surface and
groundwater abstractions at national levels is highly incomplete Eurostat, 2003b. In
some domains, like soils, indicators still have to be developed and agreed upon between
stakeholders to measure the good biological, physical and chemical status of soils. A
difficult subject due to the heterogeneous nature of soils at all scales across Europe and
due to the many possible conflicting uses of land and soils. Nevertheless a necessity due
to the ecological value of soils. Despite these limitations, some facts and trends are already well documented.
59
A comprehensive compilation would be impossible. Page 62
Table 5 Water resources use in Europe, by user and by supply category in M m3
From Wieland, 2003 - Eurostat
5.4.5.1 - AGRICULTURE
The term agriculture used in this report includes all the activities of cultivating land or
raising stock. As source of food agriculture is vital to the EU. It is also at the base of a highly diversified
agri-business industry and as such an important contributor to the EU economy. It also
has a critical role in the conservation of landscapes and of biodiversity. Without
agriculture, most open ground throughout the EU would through natural processes over
time become forests. Many plant species, related to open spaces meadows, hedges
would disappear. Sustainable agricultural activities in Mediterranean regions are
important to reduce the risk of wildfires, avoiding the colonization of open space by easily
flammable shrubs and, later on, trees. The availability of good quality fertile soils coupled with a mild climate and locally
abundant resources is an important element, although possibly overlooked by some
policy makers, of the long-term EU competitiveness in a world where closely interrelated
water and food issues are likely to become increasingly critical in the next decades. For
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an introduction to these issues see for instance the report on World Water and Food to
2025 Rosegrant M., 200260. This is one more good reason to carefully manage these
highly valuable assets, whose value may have been grossly understated by many
economists and decision makers. 42.5 of the EU-15 landmass is used by agriculture table 7. If agriculture is the source
of many benefits, poor agricultural practices, many times driven by intensification and the
search for higher productivity as well as poor consideration for the particular constraints
resulting from the nature of the local environment including its third dimension,
subsurface, can cause extensive pressures on various environmental components. They
can cause diffuse, large-scale, impacts for very long periods of time and cause important
externalities. The impacts can be multiple since air, biodiversity soils and water can be seriously
affected by agricultural practices. Their nature and extent much depends on local
conditions, which again widely vary from place to place throughout the EU.
A
summarised description of the kind of pressures which can result from large-scale
intensive agriculture is given in box 6, below. In France, the Environment Institute, IFEN,
estimates that litter from stock taking activities is the single biggest waste output of the
economy IFEN, 2002, with a weight about three times as high than waste from the
construction industry. The same institute reports the presence of traces of over 200
chemical species used in pesticides, or related to their breakdown, in water and soils,
with a high variability in their spatial distribution.
. Box 6 - Agriculture and sustainability issues the example of Brittany France
All data from official reports Bretagne Environnement, 2003 and Conseil Scientifique
de la Conférence Régionale de lEnvironnement Bretagne, 2003
Brittany represents about 5 of the French landmass and is Frances economically
most important agricultural area. It saw its agricultural output multiplied by 9 in 30
years. Initially, its production level was low, and Brittany a comparatively poor region. It
now produces 53 of the French pork, 35 of the chicken for meat, 46 of the
turkey. In about 30 years, the share of farms over 50 ha.
in size grew from 3.6 of the
total to 59 of the total. Ammonia emissions of Brittany represent 18 of the French total and are a source of
acid rains that can generate environmental pressures at a distance of several hundred
kilometres. In ten years 1985-1995 the average organic matter of soils decreased by
0.6, a trend with possible severe sustainability consequences if it is maintained over a
long period. In the early fifties the soils were, in average, deficient in phosphorus 150
mg P2O5. The average is now about 400 mg P2O5. The use of copper and zinc
additives in animal fodder translated into the quality of the manure which is dispersed in
the fields and in the copper and zinc values recorded in the upper part of soil profiles in
areas intensively manured. The biological activity in soils is decreasing. In 1995, the dry weight of animal manure produced in Brittany was estimated at 6.34
Mt. This is several times more than the 1998 dry weight of household waste water
sludge 0.89 Mt recovered in waste water treatment plants from the whole French
population61 Data source Centre Régional de Compétences sur le traitement Physico-
60
61
Available here httpwww.ifpri.orgpubsbookswater2025water2025.pdf
In 1997, it was estimated that about 50 of the household waste water was recovered and processed in a
waste water plant
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chimique et Thermique des Boues Urbaines et Industrielles62. The use of organic
matter recovered from animal manure to restore the fertility of soils cannot be
considered as a way to restore the organic matter content of soils, since this exogenic
organic matter can be contaminated by antibiotics, steroids and other persistent
organic pollutants which are not removed in the composting processes. Doing
systematic analysis of batches of organic matter for these substances raise a series of
technical problems and would be very costly due to the large variety of organic
chemicals to be analysed. The manure problem leads to wide-spread euthrophication of surface waters and soils
due to high nitrate and phosphate levels. It also is an important cause of algal bloom in
coastal areas. In addition to the environmental pressures, the intensification of agriculture in Brittany
did not translate well into economic performance the per capita added-value per active
person in Brittany is in the 18th position, out of 22 French mainland regions, and many
farmers are highly indebted. So far, for many, the way out is to further intensify the
production although organic farming and better agricultural practices are developing. The table 6 below Eurostat 2003b shows that accelerated soil erosion, which also has
other causes than agriculture such as the development of built-up areas, is already
important in many EU countries. However intensive agriculture can be compatible with
the prevention of soil erosion Grimm M. et al. 200363 if good practices are applied such
as terracing in hilly areas and ground covering plants protection of soils during the rainy
periods. Table 6 Europe areas affected by soil erosion Soil loss in agricultural land
From Eurostat 2003b
Some examples of possible impacts related to intensive agriculture are
62
63
Website httpwww.enstimac.frhebergescrcbouesMidi-Pyrenees1.html
Downloadable here
httpforum.europa.eu.intircDownLoadkleyASJ_mqGDZx2T8rQ1DcHj0b6HtEm9xuQGZMZqhUvzTCCuHlB
ZrTcR5R978bRspjTGuEP07ESF_ErosR6.pdf
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o deep ploughing and overturning of the ploughed earth can cause important losses of
soil organic matter through oxidation, which in turn translates into loss of fertility and of
permeability
o overgrazing, removal of hedges, tillage practices ploughing in parallel with the slope
line and the choice of cultures leaving the soil unprotected by vegetation at the time of
the rainiest periods of the year are among the factors significantly contributing to
accelerated soil erosion soil loss
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o application of manure from intensive farming andor sewage sludge as a remedy to
the loss of organic matter can cause worrying problems of contamination of soils and
water with a wide range of heavy metals and chemicals, including endocrinian disruptors. It should be banned unless the safety of each individual batch can be proven
o the use of heavy agricultural machinery and deep ploughing can promote the loss
of soil structure and soil sealing, which in turn compromises the capacity of soils to
play their role of natural pollution filters and of essential media for the recharge of
aquifers. Soil sealing is also increasing flood hazards, as rainwater absorption by soils is
impaired
o the application of chemical fertilisers and of pesticides can lead to the loss of soil
fertility and contamination of surface water as well as of groundwater. There is a strong,
ongoing, reduction of phosphoric and potassic fertiliser use since the all-time high of
1979. However, for nitrogen fertilisers the all-time high was only in 1988, and the
decrease since is much less important than for phosphate and potash.