UCLNLP/adversarial_qa huggingface dataset:
Immune_system

Neutrophils and macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the body in pursuit of invading pathogens. Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, normally representing 50% to 60% of the total circulating leukocytes. During the acute phase of inflammation, particularly as a result of bacterial infection, neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called chemotaxis, and are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection. Macrophages are versatile cells that reside within tissues and produce a wide array of chemicals including enzymes, complement proteins, and regulatory factors such as interleukin 1. Macrophages also act as scavengers, ridding the body of worn-out cells and other debris, and as antigen-presenting cells that activate the adaptive immune system.

Question: Which, between neutrophils and macrophages, act as scavengers?
Answer: Macrophages

Question: Which, between neutrophils and macrophages, are involved in chemotaxis?
Answer: neutrophils

Question: Which of the following is not a type of chemical: enzymes, regulatory factors, or scavengers?
Answer: scavengers

Question: Which, between neutrophils and macrophages, are NOT the most abundant type of phagocyte?
Answer: macrophages

Question: Which of the following is a type of phagocyte: neutrophils, enzymes, or pathogens?
Answer: Neutrophils

Question: Which cells arrive to an infection first, neutrophils or pathogens?
Answer: pathogens

Question: Which, between neutrophils and macrophages, are found in the bloodstream?
Answer: Neutrophils

Question: Which, between neutrophils and macrophages, are NOT scavengers?
Answer: Neutrophils

Question: Which, between neutrophils and macrophages, do NOT take part in chemotaxis?
Answer: macrophages
Immune_system

Anti-inflammatory drugs are often used to control the effects of inflammation. Glucocorticoids are the most powerful of these drugs; however, these drugs can have many undesirable side effects, such as central obesity, hyperglycemia, osteoporosis, and their use must be tightly controlled. Lower doses of anti-inflammatory drugs are often used in conjunction with cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs such as methotrexate or azathioprine. Cytotoxic drugs inhibit the immune response by killing dividing cells such as activated T cells. However, the killing is indiscriminate and other constantly dividing cells and their organs are affected, which causes toxic side effects. Immunosuppressive drugs such as cyclosporin prevent T cells from responding to signals correctly by inhibiting signal transduction pathways.

Question: What type of drug sometimes causes blood glucose levels to be too high?
Answer: Glucocorticoids

Question: Which of the following is a class of drugs: glucocorticoids or T cells?
Answer: Glucocorticoids

Question: Which of the following is not a side effect: obesity, inflammation or osteoporosis?
Answer: inflammation

Question: What type of drug can cause bones to become more porous?
Answer: Glucocorticoids

Question: What type of drug might cause weight gain around the abdominal region?
Answer: Glucocorticoids

Question: Which of the following is not a drug: methotrexate, cytotoxic, or azathioprine?
Answer: Cytotoxic

Question: What type of drug could actually kill you due to bad side effects?
Answer: Cytotoxic drugs
Immune_system

Natural killer cells, or NK cells, are a component of the innate immune system which does not directly attack invading microbes. Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self." This term describes cells with low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I (major histocompatibility complex) – a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells. They were named "natural killer" because of the initial notion that they do not require activation in order to kill cells that are "missing self." For many years it was unclear how NK cells recognize tumor cells and infected cells. It is now known that the MHC makeup on the surface of those cells is altered and the NK cells become activated through recognition of "missing self". Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors (KIR) which essentially put the brakes on NK cells.

Question: Besides tumors, what can ruin a cell"?
Answer: virus

Question: What happens in cells that get viral infections?
Answer: low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I

Question: What are virus-infected cells considered?
Answer: compromised host cells

Question: What happens to the MHC makeup on the NK cells?
Answer: altered

Question: What do NK cells have trouble recognizing?
Answer: Normal body cells
Immune_system

The mechanisms used to evade the adaptive immune system are more complicated. The simplest approach is to rapidly change non-essential epitopes (amino acids and/or sugars) on the surface of the pathogen, while keeping essential epitopes concealed. This is called antigenic variation. An example is HIV, which mutates rapidly, so the proteins on its viral envelope that are essential for entry into its host target cell are constantly changing. These frequent changes in antigens may explain the failures of vaccines directed at this virus. The parasite Trypanosoma brucei uses a similar strategy, constantly switching one type of surface protein for another, allowing it to stay one step ahead of the antibody response. Masking antigens with host molecules is another common strategy for avoiding detection by the immune system. In HIV, the envelope that covers the virion is formed from the outermost membrane of the host cell; such "self-cloaked" viruses make it difficult for the immune system to identify them as "non-self" structures.

Question: What is not currently possible to be immunized against?
Answer: HIV

Question: What does the immune system create when it finds a non-self structure?
Answer: antibody

Question: What is the purpose of concealing epitopes?
Answer: evade the adaptive immune system

Question: What fails to identify self-cloaked viruses?
Answer: immune system
Immune_system

Chemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory tract secrete antimicrobial peptides such as the β-defensins. Enzymes such as lysozyme and phospholipase A2 in saliva, tears, and breast milk are also antibacterials. Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical barrier following menarche, when they become slightly acidic, while semen contains defensins and zinc to kill pathogens. In the stomach, gastric acid and proteases serve as powerful chemical defenses against ingested pathogens.

Question: What is the name of a hydrolase that destroys the cell walls of bacteria, found in tears?
Answer: lysozyme

Question: What antimicrobial material can women not produce?
Answer: semen

Question: What infection-protecting agent other than breast milk is made by women?
Answer: Vaginal secretions

Question: Which antimicrobial material comes out of your eyes?
Answer: tears

Question: What enzymes are in the stomach?
Answer: proteases

Question: What is in both semen and respiratory tract secretions?
Answer: defensins
Immune_system

Pattern recognition receptors are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with pathogens. Antimicrobial peptides called defensins are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found in all animals and plants, and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity. The complement system and phagocytic cells are also used by most forms of invertebrate life. Ribonucleases and the RNA interference pathway are conserved across all eukaryotes, and are thought to play a role in the immune response to viruses.

Question: What represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity?
Answer: Antimicrobial peptides called defensins

Question: Which one is involoved in yeast's immunity, ribonucleases or defensins?
Answer: Ribonucleases

Question: Which one is use to fight with flu, defensin or Ribonuclese?
Answer: Ribonucleases

Question: Which one is important in fighting flu, defensins or RNA interence?
Answer: RNA interference

Question: Which one is used to fight to HIV, defensins or RNA interference?
Answer: RNA interference
Immune_system

Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules. In immunology, self molecules are those components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system. Conversely, non-self molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (short for antibody generators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific immune receptors and elicit an immune response.

Question: What biologic study is interested in antigens and other non-self molecules?
Answer: immunology

Question: In a body, the ability to distinguish between molecules that are from the organism's own body and that of a foreign substance allows for the organism to stay healthy by initiating what type of action?
Answer: an immune response
Immune_system

The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as immunological memory, where each pathogen is "remembered" by a signature antigen. The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific "non-self" antigens during a process called antigen presentation. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by "memory cells". Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it.

Question: The presence of a spine classifies an organism under which category?
Answer: vertebrates

Question: A foreign substance that induces the production of antibodies is called?
Answer: Antigen

Question: Viruses and bacteria are examples of microorganisms that cause disease, commonly referred to as?
Answer: pathogens

Question: Clothes that are fitted to an individual are described as what?
Answer: tailored

Question: What is indexed?
Answer: pathogen

Question: Invertebrates are generally not expected to have which kind of defence against viruses or bacteria?
Answer: adaptive immune system
Immune_system

Larger drugs (>500 Da) can provoke a neutralizing immune response, particularly if the drugs are administered repeatedly, or in larger doses. This limits the effectiveness of drugs based on larger peptides and proteins (which are typically larger than 6000 Da). In some cases, the drug itself is not immunogenic, but may be co-administered with an immunogenic compound, as is sometimes the case for Taxol. Computational methods have been developed to predict the immunogenicity of peptides and proteins, which are particularly useful in designing therapeutic antibodies, assessing likely virulence of mutations in viral coat particles, and validation of proposed peptide-based drug treatments. Early techniques relied mainly on the observation that hydrophilic amino acids are overrepresented in epitope regions than hydrophobic amino acids; however, more recent developments rely on machine learning techniques using databases of existing known epitopes, usually on well-studied virus proteins, as a training set. A publicly accessible database has been established for the cataloguing of epitopes from pathogens known to be recognizable by B cells. The emerging field of bioinformatics-based studies of immunogenicity is referred to as immunoinformatics. Immunoproteomics is the study of large sets of proteins (proteomics) involved in the immune response.

Question: What helps design therapeutic antibodies?
Answer: predict the immunogenicity of peptides and proteins

Question: Doing what with large drugs limits their effectiveness?
Answer: administered repeatedly
Immune_system

Disorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and cancer. Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. In humans, immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic disease such as severe combined immunodeficiency, acquired conditions such as HIV/AIDS, or the use of immunosuppressive medication. In contrast, autoimmunity results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunology covers the study of all aspects of the immune system.

Question: Which of the following is not an autoimmune disorder: rheumatoid arthritis, lupus or HIV/AIDS?
Answer: HIV/AIDS

Question: What can happen when the human body's germ-resistant system is weakened?
Answer: recurring and life-threatening infections

Question: What type of substances can cause immunodeficiency?
Answer: immunosuppressive medication

Question: What type of insulin-related disease is caused by autoimmune disease?
Answer: diabetes mellitus type 1

Question: Which of the following is not contagious: HIV or severe combined immunodeficiency?
Answer: severe combined immunodeficiency
Immune_system

Gamma delta T cells (γδ T cells) possess an alternative T cell receptor (TCR) as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ (αβ) T cells and share the characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and NK cells. The conditions that produce responses from γδ T cells are not fully understood. Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs, such as CD1d-restricted Natural Killer T cells, γδ T cells straddle the border between innate and adaptive immunity. On one hand, γδ T cells are a component of adaptive immunity as they rearrange TCR genes to produce receptor diversity and can also develop a memory phenotype. On the other hand, the various subsets are also part of the innate immune system, as restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as pattern recognition receptors. For example, large numbers of human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules produced by microbes, and highly restricted Vδ1+ T cells in epithelia respond to stressed epithelial cells.

Question: What produced receptor diversity?
Answer: γδ T cells

Question: Which of the following is not a type of immunity: innate, epithelial, or adaptive?
Answer: epithelial

Question: Which of the following is not a type of T cell: adaptive, helper, or cytotoxic?
Answer: adaptive

Question: Which of the following is not a type of receptor: CD4+, helper T, or CD8+?
Answer: helper T
Steam_engine

A steam turbine consists of one or more rotors (rotating discs) mounted on a drive shaft, alternating with a series of stators (static discs) fixed to the turbine casing. The rotors have a propeller-like arrangement of blades at the outer edge. Steam acts upon these blades, producing rotary motion. The stator consists of a similar, but fixed, series of blades that serve to redirect the steam flow onto the next rotor stage. A steam turbine often exhausts into a surface condenser that provides a vacuum. The stages of a steam turbine are typically arranged to extract the maximum potential work from a specific velocity and pressure of steam, giving rise to a series of variably sized high- and low-pressure stages. Turbines are only efficient if they rotate at relatively high speed, therefore they are usually connected to reduction gearing to drive lower speed applications, such as a ship's propeller. In the vast majority of large electric generating stations, turbines are directly connected to generators with no reduction gearing. Typical speeds are 3600 revolutions per minute (RPM) in the USA with 60 Hertz power, 3000 RPM in Europe and other countries with 50 Hertz electric power systems. In nuclear power applications the turbines typically run at half these speeds, 1800 RPM and 1500 RPM. A turbine rotor is also only capable of providing power when rotating in one direction. Therefore, a reversing stage or gearbox is usually required where power is required in the opposite direction.[citation needed]

Question: What happens to the used steam after it has passed the turbine discs?
Answer: exhausts into a surface condenser that provides a vacuum

Question: If you weren't using reduction gearing, what would you be using a steam turbine for?
Answer: large electric generating

Question: What causes the spinning motion?
Answer: Steam

Question: What turbines run double the speed of nuclear power?
Answer: electric

Question: Do turbines move faster in the USA or Europe?
Answer: USA

Question: Since the static discs do now rotate, what is their function?
Answer: redirect the steam flow onto the next rotor stage

Question: In what region do turbines run at 1500 RPM?
Answer: Europe

Question: Turbines can only rotate in one direction due to the arrangement of the discs, so how would you provide power in another direction?
Answer: a reversing stage or gearbox

Question: Which of the following is not mounted on a drive shaft, rotors or stators?
Answer: rotors

Question: What will increase how well the turbines run?
Answer: high speed

Question: Which country uses 1500 RPM in their nuclear turbines?
Answer: Europe
Steam_engine

The historical measure of a steam engine's energy efficiency was its "duty". The concept of duty was first introduced by Watt in order to illustrate how much more efficient his engines were over the earlier Newcomen designs. Duty is the number of foot-pounds of work delivered by burning one bushel (94 pounds) of coal. The best examples of Newcomen designs had a duty of about 7 million, but most were closer to 5 million. Watt's original low-pressure designs were able to deliver duty as high as 25 million, but averaged about 17. This was a three-fold improvement over the average Newcomen design. Early Watt engines equipped with high-pressure steam improved this to 65 million.

Question: What was the secret to producing the best results?
Answer: high-pressure steam

Question: What was used to figure out how well an engine was performing?
Answer: its "duty"

Question: What was the expected outcome of using duty?
Answer: to illustrate how much more efficient his engines were over the earlier Newcomen designs
Steam_engine

Lead fusible plugs may be present in the crown of the boiler's firebox. If the water level drops, such that the temperature of the firebox crown increases significantly, the lead melts and the steam escapes, warning the operators, who may then manually suppress the fire. Except in the smallest of boilers the steam escape has little effect on dampening the fire. The plugs are also too small in area to lower steam pressure significantly, depressurizing the boiler. If they were any larger, the volume of escaping steam would itself endanger the crew.[citation needed]

Question: What is for safety?
Answer: The plugs are also too small in area

Question: What acts as an alarm?
Answer: steam

Question: How does the fire get suppressed?
Answer: manually

Question: Who has to make changes when the lead melts and steam escapes?
Answer: operators

Question: What needs to happen first to trigger a warning?
Answer: water level drops

Question: Why doesn't steam escape dampen fires?
Answer: The plugs are also too small in area

Question: What would be in danger if the plugs were bigger?
Answer: crew

Question: How much does the temperature increase when water level drops?
Answer: significantly
Steam_engine

Trevithick continued his own experiments using a trio of locomotives, concluding with the Catch Me Who Can in 1808. Only four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray was used by the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway. In 1825 George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway. This was the first public steam railway in the world and then in 1829, he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened in 1830 making exclusive use of steam power for both passenger and freight trains.

Question: Which of Salamanca or Catch Me Who Can was invented first?
Answer: Catch Me Who Can

Question: Which locomotive was developed four years after the first public steam railway?
Answer: The Rocket

Question: What was the Catch Me Who Can?
Answer: locomotive

Question: What made its debut twenty-two years after tests run by Trevithick?
Answer: Liverpool and Manchester Railway

Question: Which railways opened five years after the first public stream railway?
Answer: Liverpool and Manchester Railway

Question: What was special of Middleton Railway?
Answer: edge railed rack and pinion

Question: Who created the locomotive developed four years before the Salamanca?
Answer: Trevithick

Question: The Rainhill Trials were won by The Rocket twenty one years after tests by whom?
Answer: Trevithick
Steam_engine

Steam engines frequently possess two independent mechanisms for ensuring that the pressure in the boiler does not go too high; one may be adjusted by the user, the second is typically designed as an ultimate fail-safe. Such safety valves traditionally used a simple lever to restrain a plug valve in the top of a boiler. One end of the lever carried a weight or spring that restrained the valve against steam pressure. Early valves could be adjusted by engine drivers, leading to many accidents when a driver fastened the valve down to allow greater steam pressure and more power from the engine. The more recent type of safety valve uses an adjustable spring-loaded valve, which is locked such that operators may not tamper with its adjustment unless a seal illegally is broken. This arrangement is considerably safer.[citation needed]

Question: What part of the boiler can't be adjusted by the user?
Answer: safety valves

Question: What does the valve prevent?
Answer: the pressure in the boiler does not go too high

Question: What mechanism were older valves?
Answer: a simple lever

Question: Why would an engine driver close the valve and allow more steam pressure to build up?
Answer: more power from the engine

Question: What part of the more modern safety valves is adjustable?
Answer: spring

Question: Why are the modern safety valves safer than the old style?
Answer: operators may not tamper

Question: What would an engine driver have to do to adjust the more modern type of valve?
Answer: seal illegally is broken
Steam_engine

Other components are often present; pumps (such as an injector) to supply water to the boiler during operation, condensers to recirculate the water and recover the latent heat of vaporisation, and superheaters to raise the temperature of the steam above its saturated vapour point, and various mechanisms to increase the draft for fireboxes. When coal is used, a chain or screw stoking mechanism and its drive engine or motor may be included to move the fuel from a supply bin (bunker) to the firebox. See: Mechanical stoker

Question: The act of adding fuel to a fire is called?
Answer: stoking

Question: What kind of pump brings water to the boiler
Answer: injector

Question: The chamber of a boiler where fuel is burned is called?
Answer: firebox

Question: The amount of energy needed to transform a liquid into a gas is called?
Answer: heat of vaporisation

Question: What else do condensers do besides circulation of the water
Answer: recover the latent heat

Question: What is the name for a tool that condenses vapor?
Answer: condensers

Question: The gaseous form of water is commonly called?
Answer: steam

Question: What fossil fuel is mentioned in this process
Answer: coal