UCLNLP/adversarial_qa huggingface dataset:
Force

What we now call gravity was not identified as a universal force until the work of Isaac Newton. Before Newton, the tendency for objects to fall towards the Earth was not understood to be related to the motions of celestial objects. Galileo was instrumental in describing the characteristics of falling objects by determining that the acceleration of every object in free-fall was constant and independent of the mass of the object. Today, this acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the Earth is usually designated as  and has a magnitude of about 9.81 meters per second squared (this measurement is taken from sea level and may vary depending on location), and points toward the center of the Earth. This observation means that the force of gravity on an object at the Earth's surface is directly proportional to the object's mass. Thus an object that has a mass of  will experience a force:

Question: How fast is the speed of an objects fall?
Answer: 9.81 meters per second squared

Question: Why do objects fall to the ground?
Answer: gravity

Question: When an object plummets, where is its target location?
Answer: Earth

Question: What factor of objects in free-fall did Galileo find had no bearing on their acceleration?
Answer: mass

Question: 9.81 meters per second squared refers to what constant?
Answer: acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the Earth

Question: Gravity can be classifed as what type of object?
Answer: a universal force

Question: Acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the Earth requires which location as a reference?
Answer: the center of the Earth

Question: What is measured from sea level?
Answer: acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the Earth

Question: At which altitude is it most accurate to say that acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the earth is 9.81 meters per second squared?
Answer: sea level

Question: Who thought gravity was something it was not?
Answer: Galileo

Question: What descends to the surface of the planet?
Answer: objects

Question: What motion state are objects in, when their acceleration stays the same?
Answer: free-fall

Question: Who discovered objects were not in free fall?
Answer: Isaac Newton

Question: What umbrella does gravity fall under?
Answer: universal force
Force

It was only the orbit of the planet Mercury that Newton's Law of Gravitation seemed not to fully explain. Some astrophysicists predicted the existence of another planet (Vulcan) that would explain the discrepancies; however, despite some early indications, no such planet could be found. When Albert Einstein formulated his theory of general relativity (GR) he turned his attention to the problem of Mercury's orbit and found that his theory added a correction, which could account for the discrepancy. This was the first time that Newton's Theory of Gravity had been shown to be less correct than an alternative.

Question: Who made predictions of a planet disrupting Mercury's orbit?
Answer: astrophysicists

Question: What was found to be flawed after Einstein disproved the existence of Vulcan?
Answer: Newton's Theory of Gravity

Question: What is the profession that investigates planetary orbits?
Answer: astrophysicists

Question: How was the theory of general relativity abbreviated?
Answer: GR

Question: What isn't there?
Answer: Vulcan

Question: What was GR able to refute the existence of while it corrected the calculation for something else?
Answer: Vulcan

Question: What was GR able to correct the calculation for?
Answer: orbit of the planet Mercury

Question: What was one of the forces of nature that Newton theorized about?
Answer: Gravity

Question: Einstein created a way of thinking called a?
Answer: theory

Question: GR was more correct than what?
Answer: Newton's Law of Gravitation
Force

The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons. Its most familiar effect is beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity. The word "weak" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 1013 times less than that of the strong force. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed, which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 1015 kelvins. Such temperatures have been probed in modern particle accelerators and show the conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang.

Question: What causes uniformity between two forces?
Answer: temperatures in excess of approximately 1015 kelvins

Question: What keeps things on earth?
Answer: gravity

Question: What do kelvins measure?
Answer: temperatures

Question: What causes beta decay?
Answer: weak force

Question: What results in breakdown?
Answer: decay

Question: Other than the Big Bang, what happens at temperatures in excess of 1015 kelvins?
Answer: electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable

Question: How do we know that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable?
Answer: A consistent electroweak theory
Force

However, attempting to reconcile electromagnetic theory with two observations, the photoelectric effect, and the nonexistence of the ultraviolet catastrophe, proved troublesome. Through the work of leading theoretical physicists, a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics. This final modification to electromagnetic theory ultimately led to quantum electrodynamics (or QED), which fully describes all electromagnetic phenomena as being mediated by wave–particles known as photons. In QED, photons are the fundamental exchange particle, which described all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the electromagnetic force.[Note 4]

Question: Which theory was developed later, electromagnetic or QED?
Answer: QED

Question: Which phenomenon actually exists, the photoelectric effect or ultraviolet cascades?
Answer: photoelectric

Question: What is trying to be brought together?
Answer: electromagnetic theory

Question: What helped discover new findings?
Answer: quantum mechanics

Question: Photons have features associated with both particles and what else?
Answer: wave

Question: What was a problem?
Answer: nonexistence of the ultraviolet catastrophe
Force

For certain physical scenarios, it is impossible to model forces as being due to gradient of potentials. This is often due to macrophysical considerations that yield forces as arising from a macroscopic statistical average of microstates. For example, friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potentials between the atoms, but manifests as a force model that is independent of any macroscale position vector. Nonconservative forces other than friction include other contact forces, tension, compression, and drag. However, for any sufficiently detailed description, all these forces are the results of conservative ones since each of these macroscopic forces are the net results of the gradients of microscopic potentials.

Question: What determines the model of forces?
Answer: gradient of potentials

Question: What can not be done?
Answer: model forces
Force

The development of fundamental theories for forces proceeded along the lines of unification of disparate ideas. For example, Isaac Newton unified the force responsible for objects falling at the surface of the Earth with the force responsible for the orbits of celestial mechanics in his universal theory of gravitation. Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces were unified through one consistent theory of electromagnetism. In the 20th century, the development of quantum mechanics led to a modern understanding that the first three fundamental forces (all except gravity) are manifestations of matter (fermions) interacting by exchanging virtual particles called gauge bosons. This standard model of particle physics posits a similarity between the forces and led scientists to predict the unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces in electroweak theory subsequently confirmed by observation. The complete formulation of the standard model predicts an as yet unobserved Higgs mechanism, but observations such as neutrino oscillations indicate that the standard model is incomplete. A Grand Unified Theory allowing for the combination of the electroweak interaction with the strong force is held out as a possibility with candidate theories such as supersymmetry proposed to accommodate some of the outstanding unsolved problems in physics. Physicists are still attempting to develop self-consistent unification models that would combine all four fundamental interactions into a theory of everything. Einstein tried and failed at this endeavor, but currently the most popular approach to answering this question is string theory.:212–219

Question: What physicist worked alone other than Einstein?
Answer: Isaac Newton

Question: Who worked as a team?
Answer: Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell

Question: A device that protects against electromagnetic charges is named after what physicist?
Answer: Michael Faraday

Question: What unification model did Albert Einstein work on but was not successful?
Answer: develop self-consistent unification models that would combine all four fundamental interactions into a theory of everything

Question: Unsolved problems in physics have prevented the formulation of what overarching construct?
Answer: Grand Unified Theory
Force

The concept of inertia can be further generalized to explain the tendency of objects to continue in many different forms of constant motion, even those that are not strictly constant velocity. The rotational inertia of planet Earth is what fixes the constancy of the length of a day and the length of a year. Albert Einstein extended the principle of inertia further when he explained that reference frames subject to constant acceleration, such as those free-falling toward a gravitating object, were physically equivalent to inertial reference frames. This is why, for example, astronauts experience weightlessness when in free-fall orbit around the Earth, and why Newton's Laws of Motion are more easily discernible in such environments. If an astronaut places an object with mass in mid-air next to himself, it will remain stationary with respect to the astronaut due to its inertia. This is the same thing that would occur if the astronaut and the object were in intergalactic space with no net force of gravity acting on their shared reference frame. This principle of equivalence was one of the foundational underpinnings for the development of the general theory of relativity.

Question: What are Newton's laws about?
Answer: Motion

Question: How is the velocity changing for a free-falling object?
Answer: constant acceleration

Question: What did the principle of inertia do for general relativity?
Answer: one of the foundational underpinnings

Question: What type of motion is constant, does not have constant velocity, but may still be subject to inertia, as exemplified by the Earth and other planets?
Answer: rotational

Question: Based on the passage, if a person is on a train traveling 60 miles per hour and the person is sipping a drink, what state would the person observe that their drink is in?
Answer: stationary

Question: In general, what do objects in motion do?
Answer: continue in many different forms of constant motion
Force

Since then, and so far, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory that best explains gravity. In GR, gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own inertia in straight lines through curved space-time – defined as the shortest space-time path between two space-time events. From the perspective of the object, all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever. It is only when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of space-time can be observed and the force is inferred from the object's curved path. Thus, the straight line path in space-time is seen as a curved line in space, and it is called the ballistic trajectory of the object. For example, a basketball thrown from the ground moves in a parabola, as it is in a uniform gravitational field. Its space-time trajectory (when the extra ct dimension is added) is almost a straight line, slightly curved (with the radius of curvature of the order of few light-years). The time derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as "gravitational force".

Question: Is the path traveled through gravity straight or curved?
Answer: straight

Question: What is the force of gravity noted as?
Answer: The time derivative of the changing momentum of the object

Question: How do things move within gravity?
Answer: freely
Force

The strong force only acts directly upon elementary particles. However, a residual of the force is observed between hadrons (the best known example being the force that acts between nucleons in atomic nuclei) as the nuclear force. Here the strong force acts indirectly, transmitted as gluons, which form part of the virtual pi and rho mesons, which classically transmit the nuclear force (see this topic for more). The failure of many searches for free quarks has shown that the elementary particles affected are not directly observable. This phenomenon is called color confinement.

Question: What cannot be seen?
Answer: elementary particles affected

Question: What is a label for the intangible?
Answer: color confinement

Question: Is a strong force acted upon elementary particles indirectly or directly?
Answer: directly

Question: What type of situation is a color confinement known as?
Answer: phenomenon

Question: What transmit the nuclear force?
Answer: the virtual pi and rho mesons

Question: What is clearly impacted?
Answer: elementary particles
Force

Torque is the rotation equivalent of force in the same way that angle is the rotational equivalent for position, angular velocity for velocity, and angular momentum for momentum. As a consequence of Newton's First Law of Motion, there exists rotational inertia that ensures that all bodies maintain their angular momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced torque. Likewise, Newton's Second Law of Motion can be used to derive an analogous equation for the instantaneous angular acceleration of the rigid body:

Question: Angular velocity is what kind of equivalent to velocity?
Answer: rotation

Question: Who discovered the laws that describe rotational inertia?
Answer: Newton

Question: What word describes the speed of an object?
Answer: momentum

Question: Angular momemtum is what kind of equivalent to momemtum?
Answer: rotation

Question: What force maintains angular momentum without an unbalanced torque?
Answer: rotational inertia
Force

This means that in a closed system of particles, there are no internal forces that are unbalanced. That is, the action-reaction force shared between any two objects in a closed system will not cause the center of mass of the system to accelerate. The constituent objects only accelerate with respect to each other, the system itself remains unaccelerated. Alternatively, if an external force acts on the system, then the center of mass will experience an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the external force divided by the mass of the system.:19-1

Question: What is a function of division mentioned in the article?
Answer: the magnitude of the external force divided by the mass of the system

Question: How is the system affected if there is an action-reaction force shared between any two objects in the closed system?
Answer: remains unaccelerated

Question: What kind of systems are discussed in the article?
Answer: closed system of particles

Question: What decreases the acceleration magnitude experienced by the center of mass of the system when an external force acts on it?
Answer: mass of the system
Force

Tension forces can be modeled using ideal strings that are massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and unstretchable. They can be combined with ideal pulleys, which allow ideal strings to switch physical direction. Ideal strings transmit tension forces instantaneously in action-reaction pairs so that if two objects are connected by an ideal string, any force directed along the string by the first object is accompanied by a force directed along the string in the opposite direction by the second object. By connecting the same string multiple times to the same object through the use of a set-up that uses movable pulleys, the tension force on a load can be multiplied. For every string that acts on a load, another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load. However, even though such machines allow for an increase in force, there is a corresponding increase in the length of string that must be displaced in order to move the load. These tandem effects result ultimately in the conservation of mechanical energy since the work done on the load is the same no matter how complicated the machine.

Question: What makes a string ideal?
Answer: massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and unstretchable

Question: What is the relationship between string number and tension force?
Answer: For every string that acts on a load, another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load

Question: What happens to the work for an intricate machine?
Answer: the work done on the load is the same

Question: What does increasing the string length let you do?
Answer: increase in force

Question: What machines allow for an increase in force?
Answer: movable pulleys
Force

In modern particle physics, forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as a mathematical by-product of exchange of momentum-carrying gauge bosons. With the development of quantum field theory and general relativity, it was realized that force is a redundant concept arising from conservation of momentum (4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics). The conservation of momentum can be directly derived from the homogeneity or symmetry of space and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force. Thus the currently known fundamental forces are considered more accurately to be "fundamental interactions".:199–128 When particle A emits (creates) or absorbs (annihilates) virtual particle B, a momentum conservation results in recoil of particle A making impression of repulsion or attraction between particles A A' exchanging by B. This description applies to all forces arising from fundamental interactions. While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the accurate result of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of Feynman diagrams. In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see world line) traveling through time, which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram. Matter and anti-matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram. World lines of particles intersect at interaction vertices, and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex.

Question: Virtual particle exchange causes what effect on gauge bosons at an adjacent vertex?
Answer: absorbed

Question: The symmetry of space leads to what?
Answer: conservation of momentum

Question: In a Feynman diagram, a straight line up and to the right normally represents what?
Answer: matter particle

Question: Recoil of particle A is due to what?
Answer: momentum conservation
Force

It is a common misconception to ascribe the stiffness and rigidity of solid matter to the repulsion of like charges under the influence of the electromagnetic force. However, these characteristics actually result from the Pauli exclusion principle.[citation needed] Since electrons are fermions, they cannot occupy the same quantum mechanical state as other electrons. When the electrons in a material are densely packed together, there are not enough lower energy quantum mechanical states for them all, so some of them must be in higher energy states. This means that it takes energy to pack them together. While this effect is manifested macroscopically as a structural force, it is technically only the result of the existence of a finite set of electron states.

Question: What is the result of the deficiency?
Answer: higher energy states

Question: What needs a citation?
Answer: these characteristics actually result from the Pauli exclusion principle

Question: If some electrons are in higher energy states, it is because of what?
Answer: the electrons in a material are densely packed together

Question: What is the real problem?
Answer: Pauli exclusion principle

Question: What does being a fermion dictate?
Answer: they cannot occupy the same quantum mechanical state as other electrons

Question: How rare is the misconception that solid matter is rigid because of like charges?
Answer: common
Force

The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the 17th century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late Medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus. Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion early in the 17th century. He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent that was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their velocity unless acted on by a force, for example friction.

Question: What did Aristotle think about moving objects?
Answer: carried an innate force of impetus

Question: What did Galileo do to the work of Aristotle?
Answer: corrected

Question: What metal item did Galileo use for his experiments?
Answer: cannonballs
Force

The notion "force" keeps its meaning in quantum mechanics, though one is now dealing with operators instead of classical variables and though the physics is now described by the Schrödinger equation instead of Newtonian equations. This has the consequence that the results of a measurement are now sometimes "quantized", i.e. they appear in discrete portions. This is, of course, difficult to imagine in the context of "forces". However, the potentials V(x,y,z) or fields, from which the forces generally can be derived, are treated similar to classical position variables, i.e., .

Question: An Austrain physicist that won a nobel prize for his work in quantum physics is?
Answer: Schrödinger

Question: Objects that function or are related to the laws and work set by Sir Isaac Newton are described as?
Answer: Newtonian

Question: A branch of science that studies the nature of matter and energy, and includes Newton's 1st law is called?
Answer: physics

Question: In the English alphabet, what is the last letter?
Answer: z

Question: Elements of an equation or even a study that can vary or change are called?
Answer: variables