UCLNLP/adversarial_qa huggingface dataset:
Chloroplast

The chloroplasts of plant and algal cells can orient themselves to best suit the available light. In low-light conditions, they will spread out in a sheet—maximizing the surface area to absorb light. Under intense light, they will seek shelter by aligning in vertical columns along the plant cell's cell wall or turning sideways so that light strikes them edge-on. This reduces exposure and protects them from photooxidative damage. This ability to distribute chloroplasts so that they can take shelter behind each other or spread out may be the reason why land plants evolved to have many small chloroplasts instead of a few big ones. Chloroplast movement is considered one of the most closely regulated stimulus-response systems that can be found in plants. Mitochondria have also been observed to follow chloroplasts as they move.

Question: Which shape indicates the presence of more light?
Answer: vertical columns

Question: Where in the plant could chloroplasts go if there's bright light?
Answer: along the plant cell's cell wall

Question: What do chloroplasts do under intense light?
Answer: seek shelter by aligning in vertical columns along the plant cell's cell wall or turning sideways so that light strikes them edge-on

Question: Which of the following does not have chloroplasts: plant cells, mitochondria, or algal cells?
Answer: Mitochondria

Question: If chloroplasts are flat, what are the light levels?
Answer: low-light conditions

Question: What do chloroplasts do in low light conditions?
Answer: maximizing the surface area to absorb light

Question: Why do chloroplasts seek shelter?
Answer: reduces exposure and protects them from photooxidative damage

Question: What negative result can happen to chloroplasts in really bright light?
Answer: photooxidative damage

Question: What do chloroplasts often lead?
Answer: Mitochondria

Question: Which shape minimizes surface area?
Answer: vertical columns

Question: If there isn't dim lighting, what form do chloroplasts take?
Answer: vertical columns

Question: How do chloroplast cells align?
Answer: vertical columns along the plant cell's cell wall or turning sideways so that light strikes them edge-on

Question: Why do chloroplasts spread out in a sheet?
Answer: maximizing the surface area to absorb light
Chloroplast

The alga Cyanophora, a glaucophyte, is thought to be one of the first organisms to contain a chloroplast. The glaucophyte chloroplast group is the smallest of the three primary chloroplast lineages, being found in only 13 species, and is thought to be the one that branched off the earliest. Glaucophytes have chloroplasts that retain a peptidoglycan wall between their double membranes, like their cyanobacterial parent. For this reason, glaucophyte chloroplasts are also known as muroplasts. Glaucophyte chloroplasts also contain concentric unstacked thylakoids, which surround a carboxysome - an icosahedral structure that glaucophyte chloroplasts and cyanobacteria keep their carbon fixation enzyme rubisco in. The starch that they synthesize collects outside the chloroplast. Like cyanobacteria, glaucophyte chloroplast thylakoids are studded with light collecting structures called phycobilisomes. For these reasons, glaucophyte chloroplasts are considered a primitive intermediate between cyanobacteria and the more evolved chloroplasts in red algae and plants.

Question: What is Cyanophora considered?
Answer: glaucophyte

Question: What else besides glaucophyte chloroplasts have cyanobacteria as their  parent?
Answer: red algae and plants

Question: what has the better chloroplasts
Answer: red algae

Question: what is a median of cyanobacteria and chloroplasts
Answer: glaucophyte chloroplasts

Question: What is found within a Cyanophora?
Answer: chloroplast

Question: This type of algae is considered to be the first to evolve to contain a chloroplast.
Answer: Cyanophora

Question: Glaucophyte chloroplasts are considered to be an intermediate between what?
Answer: cyanobacteria and the more evolved chloroplasts in red algae and plants

Question: The chloroplasts in red algae and plants evolved from this original group.
Answer: cyanobacteria

Question: What do glaucophyte chloroplast thylakoids have that cyanobacteria also have?
Answer: phycobilisomes

Question: Where are glaucophyte chloroplasts a primitive intermediate?
Answer: red algae and plants

Question: what kind of partition does glaucophytes have
Answer: peptidoglycan wall

Question: what are not found on top of each other
Answer: thylakoids

Question: what is tiniest of chloroplast lineage
Answer: The glaucophyte
Chloroplast

The chloroplast double membrane is also often compared to the mitochondrial double membrane. This is not a valid comparison—the inner mitochondria membrane is used to run proton pumps and carry out oxidative phosphorylation across to generate ATP energy. The only chloroplast structure that can considered analogous to it is the internal thylakoid system. Even so, in terms of "in-out", the direction of chloroplast H+ ion flow is in the opposite direction compared to oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria. In addition, in terms of function, the inner chloroplast membrane, which regulates metabolite passage and synthesizes some materials, has no counterpart in the mitochondrion.

Question: Which of the chloroplast's membranes cannot really be correlated with a mitochondrial membrane at all?
Answer: inner chloroplast membrane

Question: Which is the relationship between the direction of ion flow in the thylakoid and ion flow across the mitochondrial membrane?
Answer: opposite

Question: Is it considered reasonable to compare the double membrane found in the chloroplast to the double membrane of the mitochondria?
Answer: This is not a valid comparison

Question: Where are thylakoids found in the cell?
Answer: chloroplast

Question: What processes are carried out by the inner membrane of the chloroplast's double membrane?
Answer: regulates metabolite passage and synthesizes some materials
Chloroplast

Plastid differentiation is not permanent, in fact many interconversions are possible. Chloroplasts may be converted to chromoplasts, which are pigment-filled plastids responsible for the bright colors seen in flowers and ripe fruit. Starch storing amyloplasts can also be converted to chromoplasts, and it is possible for proplastids to develop straight into chromoplasts. Chromoplasts and amyloplasts can also become chloroplasts, like what happens when a carrot or a potato is illuminated. If a plant is injured, or something else causes a plant cell to revert to a meristematic state, chloroplasts and other plastids can turn back into proplastids. Chloroplast, amyloplast, chromoplast, proplast, etc., are not absolute states—intermediate forms are common.

Question: What kind of states are chloroplasts in?
Answer: intermediate

Question: What was a chromoplast before it was changed?
Answer: Chloroplasts

Question: What can injury do to a plant?
Answer: revert to a meristematic state

Question: Flowers are colorful because of what?
Answer: chromoplasts

Question: What would cause a plant cell to revert?
Answer: If a plant is injured
Chloroplast

Apicomplexans are another group of chromalveolates. Like the helicosproidia, they're parasitic, and have a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast. They were once thought to be related to the helicosproidia, but it is now known that the helicosproida are green algae rather than chromalveolates. The apicomplexans include Plasmodium, the malaria parasite. Many apicomplexans keep a vestigial red algal derived chloroplast called an apicoplast, which they inherited from their ancestors. Other apicomplexans like Cryptosporidium have lost the chloroplast completely. Apicomplexans store their energy in amylopectin starch granules that are located in their cytoplasm, even though they are nonphotosynthetic.

Question: what type of organism is helicosproidia
Answer: green algae

Question: the apicomplexans were originally classified as related to what
Answer: helicosproida

Question: What are plasmodium and cryptosporidium?
Answer: Apicomplexans

Question: helicosproidia were once thought to belong to what group
Answer: chromalveolates

Question: Are apicomplexans green algae or chromalveolates?
Answer: chromalveolates

Question: Which of these is not a chromalveolate: Plasmodium or helicosproida?
Answer: helicosproida

Question: What type of molecule stores Apicomplexans' energy?
Answer: starch

Question: What group do helicosproidia belong to?
Answer: green algae

Question: the chloroplast in the helicosproidia are what
Answer: nonphotosynthetic
Chloroplast

Some dinophytes, like Kryptoperidinium and Durinskia have a diatom (heterokontophyte) derived chloroplast. These chloroplasts are bounded by up to five membranes, (depending on whether you count the entire diatom endosymbiont as the chloroplast, or just the red algal derived chloroplast inside it). The diatom endosymbiont has been reduced relatively little—it still retains its original mitochondria, and has endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, a nucleus, and of course, red algal derived chloroplasts—practically a complete cell, all inside the host's endoplasmic reticulum lumen. However the diatom endosymbiont can't store its own food—its starch is found in granules in the dinophyte host's cytoplasm instead. The diatom endosymbiont's nucleus is present, but it probably can't be called a nucleomorph because it shows no sign of genome reduction, and might have even been expanded. Diatoms have been engulfed by dinoflagellates at least three times.

Question: Where is a diatom endosymbiont's food found?
Answer: in granules in the dinophyte host's cytoplasm

Question: What has a nucleus?
Answer: diatom endosymbiont

Question: What is a Durinskia?
Answer: dinophytes

Question: Which of the following is not a dinophyte: Kryptoperidinium, ribosomes, or Durinskia?
Answer: ribosomes

Question: Which of the following is a food source: starch, endosymbiont, or diatom?
Answer: starch

Question: Which of the following is not found inside the diatom endosymbiont: endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus or Krytoperidinium?
Answer: Kryptoperidinium

Question: What are diatoms also called?
Answer: heterokontophyte
Chloroplast

Photorespiration can occur when the oxygen concentration is too high. Rubisco cannot distinguish between oxygen and carbon dioxide very well, so it can accidentally add O2 instead of CO2 to RuBP. This process reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis—it consumes ATP and oxygen, releases CO2, and produces no sugar. It can waste up to half the carbon fixed by the Calvin cycle. Several mechanisms have evolved in different lineages that raise the carbon dioxide concentration relative to oxygen within the chloroplast, increasing the efficiency of photosynthesis. These mechanisms are called carbon dioxide concentrating mechanisms, or CCMs. These include Crassulacean acid metabolism, C4 carbon fixation, and pyrenoids. Chloroplasts in C4 plants are notable as they exhibit a distinct chloroplast dimorphism.

Question: For what reason is O2 added instead of CO2?
Answer: Rubisco cannot distinguish between oxygen and carbon dioxide very well

Question: An unknown organism that is in room with normal atmospheric conditions and a light source may perform what?
Answer: photosynthesis

Question: What has made the process of photosynthesis easier?
Answer: carbon dioxide concentrating mechanisms, or CCMs

Question: Why does photorespiration make photosynthesis much harder?
Answer: consumes ATP and oxygen, releases CO2, and produces no sugar

Question: Why would there be too much oxygen?
Answer: it can accidentally add O2 instead of CO2 to RuBP

Question: What have plants developed to improve photosynthesis?
Answer: carbon dioxide concentrating mechanisms

Question: What do pyrenoids improve?
Answer: efficiency of photosynthesis

Question: The primary reason plants photosynthesize is to produce an energy source, which is in the form of what compound?
Answer: sugar

Question: Why does adding oxygen to ribulose waste energy?
Answer: reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis

Question: Which chemical compound is often used as an energy source for cells, both in animals and plants?
Answer: ATP
Chloroplast

Endosymbiotic gene transfer is how we know about the lost chloroplasts in many chromalveolate lineages. Even if a chloroplast is eventually lost, the genes it donated to the former host's nucleus persist, providing evidence for the lost chloroplast's existence. For example, while diatoms (a heterokontophyte) now have a red algal derived chloroplast, the presence of many green algal genes in the diatom nucleus provide evidence that the diatom ancestor (probably the ancestor of all chromalveolates too) had a green algal derived chloroplast at some point, which was subsequently replaced by the red chloroplast.

Question: where do chloroplasts leave the genes they donate to an organism
Answer: host's nucleus

Question: what has green and red chloroplasts genes
Answer: diatoms

Question: what part of the chlorplast is left in the host
Answer: the genes

Question: what did the diatom ancester have before the red chloroplast
Answer: green algal derived chloroplast

Question: where are the diatom genes located
Answer: diatom nucleus
Chloroplast

Cyanobacteria are considered the ancestors of chloroplasts. They are sometimes called blue-green algae even though they are prokaryotes. They are a diverse phylum of bacteria capable of carrying out photosynthesis, and are gram-negative, meaning that they have two cell membranes. Cyanobacteria also contain a peptidoglycan cell wall, which is thicker than in other gram-negative bacteria, and which is located between their two cell membranes. Like chloroplasts, they have thylakoids within. On the thylakoid membranes are photosynthetic pigments, including chlorophyll a. Phycobilins are also common cyanobacterial pigments, usually organized into hemispherical phycobilisomes attached to the outside of the thylakoid membranes (phycobilins are not shared with all chloroplasts though).

Question: where are cyanobacterial pigments located
Answer: outside of the thylakoid membranes

Question: What directional attributes do Psychobilisomes use when attaching to the thylakoid membrane?
Answer: hemispherical

Question: What connotates a two-celled membrane?
Answer: gram-negative

Question: Which of the following is not found within chloroplasts: thylakoids or gram-negative bacteria?
Answer: gram-negative bacteria

Question: Which of the following is not a pigment: phycobilins, thylakoids, or cyanobacteria?
Answer: Cyanobacteria

Question: what does cyanobacteria hold
Answer: peptidoglycan cell wall

Question: What mixture of bacteria can implement photosynthesis?
Answer: diverse phylum

Question: What shapes are Phycobilins shaped?
Answer: hemispherical
Chloroplast

In addition to chlorophylls, another group of yellow–orange pigments called carotenoids are also found in the photosystems. There are about thirty photosynthetic carotenoids. They help transfer and dissipate excess energy, and their bright colors sometimes override the chlorophyll green, like during the fall, when the leaves of some land plants change color. β-carotene is a bright red-orange carotenoid found in nearly all chloroplasts, like chlorophyll a. Xanthophylls, especially the orange-red zeaxanthin, are also common. Many other forms of carotenoids exist that are only found in certain groups of chloroplasts.

Question: What is a group of yellow-orange pigments found?
Answer: photosystems

Question: What is a common version of carotenoid?
Answer: β-carotene

Question: What is a chloroplast that carotenoid is found in?
Answer: chlorophyll a. Xanthophylls

Question: What does a carotenoids do to change from green?
Answer: their bright colors
Chloroplast

One of the main functions of the chloroplast is its role in photosynthesis, the process by which light is transformed into chemical energy, to subsequently produce food in the form of sugars. Water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are used in photosynthesis, and sugar and oxygen (O2) is made, using light energy. Photosynthesis is divided into two stages—the light reactions, where water is split to produce oxygen, and the dark reactions, or Calvin cycle, which builds sugar molecules from carbon dioxide. The two phases are linked by the energy carriers adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+).

Question: What is instrumental to photosynthesis?
Answer: chloroplast

Question: What has an important role in photosynthesis?
Answer: chloroplast

Question: What chemicals are transformed to create food in photosynthesis?
Answer: Water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2

Question: What is the output of photosynthesis?
Answer: sugar and oxygen (O2)
Chloroplast

In the helical thylakoid model, grana consist of a stack of flattened circular granal thylakoids that resemble pancakes. Each granum can contain anywhere from two to a hundred thylakoids, though grana with 10–20 thylakoids are most common. Wrapped around the grana are helicoid stromal thylakoids, also known as frets or lamellar thylakoids. The helices ascend at an angle of 20–25°, connecting to each granal thylakoid at a bridge-like slit junction. The helicoids may extend as large sheets that link multiple grana, or narrow to tube-like bridges between grana. While different parts of the thylakoid system contain different membrane proteins, the thylakoid membranes are continuous and the thylakoid space they enclose form a single continuous labyrinth.

Question: What else is a fret known as?
Answer: helicoid stromal thylakoids

Question: Which is greater, the minimum number of thylakoids a granum contains, or the angle at which helices ascend?
Answer: angle

Question: What do you find in a thylakoid?
Answer: different membrane proteins

Question: Which of the following is not a common shape for helicoids: large sheets, circular, or tube-like bridges?
Answer: circular

Question: What is not unusual?
Answer: grana with 10–20 thylakoids

Question: Which is greater, the maximum number of thylakoids a granum contains, or the angle at which helices ascend?
Answer: thylakoids
Chloroplast

The division process starts when the proteins FtsZ1 and FtsZ2 assemble into filaments, and with the help of a protein ARC6, form a structure called a Z-ring within the chloroplast's stroma. The Min system manages the placement of the Z-ring, ensuring that the chloroplast is cleaved more or less evenly. The protein MinD prevents FtsZ from linking up and forming filaments. Another protein ARC3 may also be involved, but it is not very well understood. These proteins are active at the poles of the chloroplast, preventing Z-ring formation there, but near the center of the chloroplast, MinE inhibits them, allowing the Z-ring to form.

Question: What do the proteins NOT want to form?
Answer: filaments

Question: What happens in the process of division?
Answer: the proteins FtsZ1 and FtsZ2 assemble into filaments, and with the help of a protein ARC6, form a structure called a Z-ring within the chloroplast's stroma
Chloroplast

In land plants, chloroplasts are generally lens-shaped, 5–8 μm in diameter and 1–3 μm thick. Greater diversity in chloroplast shapes exists among the algae, which often contain a single chloroplast that can be shaped like a net (e.g., Oedogonium), a cup (e.g., Chlamydomonas), a ribbon-like spiral around the edges of the cell (e.g., Spirogyra), or slightly twisted bands at the cell edges (e.g., Sirogonium). Some algae have two chloroplasts in each cell; they are star-shaped in Zygnema, or may follow the shape of half the cell in order Desmidiales. In some algae, the chloroplast takes up most of the cell, with pockets for the nucleus and other organelles (for example some species of Chlorella have a cup-shaped chloroplast that occupies much of the cell).

Question: What is a shape mentioned for Chloroplasts other than a net, a cup, lens-shaped, twisted bands, half the cell, and ribbon-like spiral?
Answer: star-shaped

Question: What is a shape mentioned for Chloroplasts other than a net, cup, lens-shaped, twisted bands, star-shaped, and ribbon-like spiral?
Answer: half the cell

Question: What is a shape mentioned for Chloroplasts other than a cup, lens-shaped, twisted bands, star-shaped, half the cell, and ribbon-like spiral?
Answer: net

Question: What are examples of the kind of chloroplasts associated with single chloroplast algae?
Answer: net (e.g., Oedogonium), a cup (e.g., Chlamydomonas), a ribbon-like spiral around the edges of the cell (e.g., Spirogyra), or slightly twisted bands at the cell edges

Question: What are two examples of algae species that have two chloroplasts?
Answer: Zygnema, or may follow the shape of half the cell in order Desmidiales

Question: What species has chloroplasts near the edge of cells?
Answer: Sirogonium

Question: What shape is the chloroplasts in Desmidiales?
Answer: half the cell
Chloroplast

Plastoglobuli (singular plastoglobulus, sometimes spelled plastoglobule(s)), are spherical bubbles of lipids and proteins about 45–60 nanometers across. They are surrounded by a lipid monolayer. Plastoglobuli are found in all chloroplasts, but become more common when the chloroplast is under oxidative stress, or when it ages and transitions into a gerontoplast. Plastoglobuli also exhibit a greater size variation under these conditions. They are also common in etioplasts, but decrease in number as the etioplasts mature into chloroplasts.

Question: What is formed when lipids disolved in a volatile solution is subjected to a body of water?
Answer: lipid monolayer

Question: What is the main component of a plastoglobulus?
Answer: lipids

Question: Where are plastoglubli located more than in chloroplasts before they are geontoplasts?
Answer: etioplasts

Question: How many layers of lipids surround a plastoglobulus?
Answer: monolayer

Question: What is the name for a chloroplast after it gets old and changes form?
Answer: gerontoplast

Question: What would be observed about plastoglobuli in a chloroplast that is under oxidative stress?
Answer: greater size variation

Question: What is the term for an immature chloroplast?
Answer: etioplasts

Question: What organelle is only found in plants which they use to photosynthesize?
Answer: chloroplast

Question: Plants that are often grown in the dark will likely have which type of organelle instead of the typical organelle that conducts photosynthesis?
Answer: etioplasts

Question: Which macromolecule is commonly composed of amino acids, attached in long chains?
Answer: proteins