UCLNLP/adversarial_qa huggingface dataset:
Data_compression

Lossy data compression is the converse of lossless data compression. In these schemes, some loss of information is acceptable. Dropping nonessential detail from the data source can save storage space. Lossy data compression schemes are designed by research on how people perceive the data in question. For example, the human eye is more sensitive to subtle variations in luminance than it is to the variations in color. JPEG image compression works in part by rounding off nonessential bits of information. There is a corresponding trade-off between preserving information and reducing size. A number of popular compression formats exploit these perceptual differences, including those used in music files, images, and video.

Question: When an mp3 is made from a WAV, what is missing in the resulting file?
Answer: nonessential detail

Question: Which of the following is easier for people to notice: changes in luminance or changes in color?
Answer: luminance

Question: When comparing a compressed image to a similar, lossless one, which kind of lost data would be more readily noticeable in the former file?
Answer: subtle variations in luminance

Question: What data compression algorithm do AIFFs NOT employ?
Answer: Lossy data compression

Question: The primary benefit of lossy data compression is to do what exactly?
Answer: save storage space

Question: If you allow increased size, what benefit can you gain?
Answer: preserving information

Question: Which of the following is not a type of media: images, schemes or video?
Answer: schemes

Question: If this quality is important, why would choosing lossy data compression NOT be an option?
Answer: preserving information
Data_compression

Video data may be represented as a series of still image frames. The sequence of frames contains spatial and temporal redundancy that video compression algorithms attempt to eliminate or code in a smaller size. Similarities can be encoded by only storing differences between frames, or by using perceptual features of human vision. For example, small differences in color are more difficult to perceive than are changes in brightness. Compression algorithms can average a color across these similar areas to reduce space, in a manner similar to those used in JPEG image compression. Some of these methods are inherently lossy while others may preserve all relevant information from the original, uncompressed video.

Question: What will take up more space, a single image or a minute long video?
Answer: Video

Question: What type of perspective do the algorithms try to use when encoding similarities?
Answer: human

Question: What is coded in smaller sizes by video compression algorithms?
Answer: spatial and temporal redundancy

Question: What are done with the differences?
Answer: storing

Question: What's easier to perceive than changes in color?
Answer: changes in brightness

Question: Which of the following is easier for humans to perceive: small differences in color or in brightness?
Answer: brightness

Question: What is the word used in this passage and also used for canvases?
Answer: frames

Question: What standard image format is mentioned here?
Answer: JPEG

Question: What do differences allow to happen in still frames?
Answer: Similarities can be encoded

Question: What do video algorithms do to colors?
Answer: average

Question: Which of the following is not a means of encoding similarities: only storing differences between frames, small differences in color, or using perceptual features of human vision?
Answer: small differences in color

Question: Is it easier to notice color differences or brightness adjustments?
Answer: changes in brightness

Question: What is eliminated by compression algorithms?
Answer: spatial and temporal redundancy
Data_compression

If the data to be compressed is analog (such as a voltage that varies with time), quantization is employed to digitize it into numbers (normally integers). This is referred to as analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion. If the integers generated by quantization are 8 bits each, then the entire range of the analog signal is divided into 256 intervals and all the signal values within an interval are quantized to the same number. If 16-bit integers are generated, then the range of the analog signal is divided into 65,536 intervals.

Question: What can be done with data?
Answer: be compressed

Question: Analog to digital is abreviated to what in the passage?
Answer: A/D

Question: In the abreviation used, A/D what does the D stand for?
Answer: digital

Question: When data is digitized what do they call the numbers?
Answer: integers

Question: In the abreviation used. A/D, what does the A stand for?
Answer: analog

Question: What is the end result to the signal with numbers that are 8 bits?
Answer: all the signal values within an interval are quantized to the same number

Question: How can the signal be changed?
Answer: the integers generated

Question: What is the difference between the singals?
Answer: If 16-bit integers are generated, then the range of the analog signal is divided into 65,536 intervals

Question: What changes as the intergers are increased?
Answer: analog signal

Question: How is analog data compressed?
Answer: quantization

Question: What is the difference between the data waves?
Answer: If the data to be compressed is analog (such as a voltage that varies with time), quantization is employed to digitize it into numbers (normally integers)

Question: How does the data differ?
Answer: If the integers generated by quantization are 8 bits each, then the entire range of the analog signal is divided into 256 intervals and all the signal values within an interval are quantized to the same number
Data_compression

Latency results from the methods used to encode and decode the data. Some codecs will analyze a longer segment of the data to optimize efficiency, and then code it in a manner that requires a larger segment of data at one time to decode. (Often codecs create segments called a "frame" to create discrete data segments for encoding and decoding.) The inherent latency of the coding algorithm can be critical; for example, when there is a two-way transmission of data, such as with a telephone conversation, significant delays may seriously degrade the perceived quality.

Question: what codes the data
Answer: codecs

Question: Data goes in what directions?
Answer: two-way

Question: what do codecs do
Answer: used to encode and decode the data

Question: What is the degradation of data when there is two-way transmission of data an example of?
Answer: Latency

Question: The opposite of decoding is?
Answer: encoding

Question: a frame is a
Answer: data segments

Question: Who encodes and decodes the data?
Answer: codecs

Question: What is performed upon segments of data?
Answer: encoding and decoding

Question: what software optimizes data coding
Answer: codecs

Question: Codecs and what can code?
Answer: algorithm
Data_compression

Today, nearly all commonly used video compression methods (e.g., those in standards approved by the ITU-T or ISO) apply a discrete cosine transform (DCT) for spatial redundancy reduction. The DCT that is widely used in this regard was introduced by N. Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974. Other methods, such as fractal compression, matching pursuit and the use of a discrete wavelet transform (DWT) have been the subject of some research, but are typically not used in practical products (except for the use of wavelet coding as still-image coders without motion compensation). Interest in fractal compression seems to be waning, due to recent theoretical analysis showing a comparative lack of effectiveness of such methods.

Question: What does the C in "DCT" stand for?
Answer: cosine

Question: What, between DCT and DWT, is implied to often be used in practical products?
Answer: DCT

Question: What does the D in "DCT" stand for?
Answer: discrete

Question: Which is not a last name, Rao or Methods?
Answer: methods

Question: Which is not a person: Ahmed, DCT, or Rao?
Answer: DCT

Question: Which is not a last name, Rao or Wavelet?
Answer: wavelet

Question: Which is not a last name, Rao or Coders?
Answer: coders

Question: What is a drawback of fractal compression?
Answer: typically not used in practical products

Question: Which is not a body that approves standards for video compression: ITU-T, Natarajan, or ISO?
Answer: Natarajan

Question: Which is not a method of video compression: matching pursuit, DWT, or ISO?
Answer: ISO
Data_compression

In lossy audio compression, methods of psychoacoustics are used to remove non-audible (or less audible) components of the audio signal. Compression of human speech is often performed with even more specialized techniques; speech coding, or voice coding, is sometimes distinguished as a separate discipline from audio compression. Different audio and speech compression standards are listed under audio coding formats. Voice compression is used in internet telephony, for example, audio compression is used for CD ripping and is decoded by the audio players.

Question: What suggest lossy audio compression loses data?
Answer: remove non-audible (or less audible) components of the audio signal

Question: What is speech coding used for
Answer: internet telephony

Question: What is lossy used in
Answer: CD ripping

Question: Psychoacoustics are used to change a audio signal in what way?
Answer: to remove non-audible (or less audible) components

Question: Human speech is compressed using what?
Answer: speech coding, or voice coding

Question: How is music from a burned CD listened to?
Answer: decoded

Question: What is voice coding use for
Answer: internet telephony

Question: Compression of human speech is only addressed as what rarely?
Answer: is sometimes distinguished as a separate discipline from audio compression

Question: What might the audio players be designed to do?
Answer: decoded

Question: How can a recorded speech be enhanced?
Answer: voice coding

Question: What could be considered a good example of sound compression?
Answer: internet telephony

Question: What types of recordings can be enhanced?
Answer: audio and speech

Question: Separate from audio compression is what considered?
Answer: speech coding, or voice coding

Question: What is psychoacoustics used on?
Answer: audio signal

Question: What kind of a audio device is talked about in this scenario?
Answer: internet telephony, for example, audio compression is used for CD ripping and is decoded by the audio players

Question: Why might it be a good idea to remove data in audio signals?
Answer: remove non-audible (or less audible) components of the audio signal

Question: Speech coding and voice coding are considered to be what?
Answer: specialized techniques

Question: What utility might the speech compression have?
Answer: internet telephony
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Whitehead did not begin his career as a philosopher. In fact, he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education. Early in his life he showed great interest in and respect for philosophy and metaphysics, but it is evident that he considered himself a rank amateur. In one letter to his friend and former student Bertrand Russell, after discussing whether science aimed to be explanatory or merely descriptive, he wrote: "This further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic, onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter." Ironically, in later life Whitehead would become one of the 20th century's foremost metaphysicians.

Question: What is your chosen profession called?
Answer: career

Question: What is a person who is just learning?
Answer: amateur

Question: What is abstract theory with basis in reality?
Answer: metaphysic

Question: Whitehead communicated?
Answer: letter

Question: Bertrand Russel was a what to Whitehead?
Answer: friend and former student

Question: What is the love of wisdom?
Answer: philosophy

Question: In undergrad, Whitehead studied?
Answer: philosophy

Question: What is talking about a topic with another called?
Answer: discussing
Alfred_North_Whitehead

In fact, Whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it. A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it; that is to say, if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity (i.e. it was not related to any other entity), it could not be said to really exist. Relations are not secondary to what a thing is, they are what the thing is.

Question: what phrase is in the bracket?
Answer: i.e. it was not related to any other entity

Question: The act of complying with rules or standards is called?
Answer: conform

Question: What if an entity has no effect?
Answer: it could not be said to really exist

Question: what is the third word in the first paragraph ?
Answer: Whitehead

Question: An action performed in response to an event or stimuli is called?
Answer: reaction

Question: The production of more complex chemical compounds from simpler reactants is called?
Answer: synthesis

Question: What has to happen for something to exist?
Answer: reaction

Question: The end product of a reaction being greater than the initial products is said to be the what of the starting reactants?
Answer: sum

Question: what was the last word in the passage?
Answer: is

Question: What is said to be defined as how it relates to what is around it?
Answer: any entity

Question: what is the second word in the first paragraph?
Answer: fact

Question: An object thats importance or relation comes after a primary object is said to be?
Answer: secondary
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Wieman's words proved prophetic. Though Process and Reality has been called "arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century," it has been little-read and little-understood, partly because it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – "that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus." Whitehead questioned western philosophy's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works, but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions.

Question: A text or narrative telling a fictional story about a character that can be read by a person is called a?
Answer: novel

Question: hy did few people read Process and Reality?
Answer: partly because it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – "that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus."

Question: Why might someone have called Wieman a fortune teller?
Answer: he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems

Question: What did Wieman predict?
Answer: Though Process and Reality has been called "arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century," it has been little-read and little-understood

Question: What did Process and Reality examine?
Answer: western philosophy's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works

Question: Who was able to guess at some truths that occurred in the 21st century?
Answer: Wieman

Question: The individual that worked on Order Out of Chaos was?
Answer: Isabelle Stengers

Question: An American philosopher born in the 18th century that proposed theocentric naturalism was?
Answer: Wieman

Question: What would support that people may not like Process and Reality?
Answer: it has been little-read and little-understood

Question: Why might this book be offensive to Americans?
Answer: Whitehead questioned western philosophy's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works, but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions

Question: What did Whitehead examine in his book Process and Reality?
Answer: western philosophy's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works

Question: The works and beliefs of Socrates and Thales are classified under?
Answer: western philosophy

Question: In what way was Whitehead's examination of western philosophy's most dearly held assumptions a good thing?
Answer: in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions

Question: An adjective relating to metaphysics is?
Answer: metaphysical
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Alfred North Whitehead was born in Ramsgate, Kent, England, in 1861. His father, Alfred Whitehead, was a minister and schoolmaster of Chatham House Academy, a successful school for boys established by Thomas Whitehead, Alfred North's grandfather. Whitehead himself recalled both of them as being very successful schoolmasters, but that his grandfather was the more extraordinary man. Whitehead's mother was Maria Sarah Whitehead, formerly Maria Sarah Buckmaster. Whitehead was apparently not particularly close with his mother, as he never mentioned her in any of his writings, and there is evidence that Whitehead's wife, Evelyn, had a low opinion of her.

Question: What did Whitehead when he wanted to remember something?
Answer: writings

Question: Who was less successful?
Answer: Alfred Whitehead

Question: What was his mother's last name at birth?
Answer: Buckmaster

Question: Who did Whitehead not write about?
Answer: Maria Sarah Whitehead

Question: Alfred's mother's maiden name
Answer: Buckmaster

Question: Which direction is part of Alfred Whitehead's name?
Answer: North

Question: Who did Alfred like better
Answer: Alfred Whitehead

Question: Who lived with Alfred Whitehead?
Answer: Evelyn

Question: What name is missing from the father's name that is in the son's name?
Answer: North

Question: Who was Whitehead's partner in life?
Answer: Evelyn

Question: Who was Alfred North Whitehead's mother?
Answer: Maria Sarah Whitehead

Question: Who did Alfred Whitehead choose to live with?
Answer: Evelyn

Question: Who was Alfred Whitehead's father?
Answer: Thomas Whitehead
Alfred_North_Whitehead

In higher organisms (like people), these two modes of perception combine into what Whitehead terms "symbolic reference", which links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it. By way of illustration, Whitehead uses the example of a person's encounter with a chair. An ordinary person looks up, sees a colored shape, and immediately infers that it is a chair. However, an artist, Whitehead supposes, "might not have jumped to the notion of a chair", but instead "might have stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful color and a beautiful shape." This is not the normal human reaction; most people place objects in categories by habit and instinct, without even thinking about it. Moreover, animals do the same thing. Using the same example, Whitehead points out that a dog "would have acted immediately on the hypothesis of a chair and would have jumped onto it by way of using it as such." In this way symbolic reference is a fusion of pure sense perceptions on the one hand and causal relations on the other, and that it is in fact the causal relationships that dominate the more basic mentality (as the dog illustrates), while it is the sense perceptions which indicate a higher grade mentality (as the artist illustrates).

Question: What is a student given as feedback on schoolwork?
Answer: grade

Question: What type of person doesn't automatically categorize objects?
Answer: artist

Question: Which of the following is not explicitly described as beautiful: color, shape or habit?
Answer: habit

Question: What creates symbolic reference with causal relations?
Answer: pure sense perceptions

Question: Which is not a last name, Whitehead or Infers?
Answer: infers

Question: What step of the thought process would an organism with higher grade mentality use before recognizing an object?
Answer: mere contemplation

Question: Which is not a last name, Whitehead or Animals?
Answer: animals

Question: What do higher organisms utilize to place objects in categories?
Answer: habit and instinct

Question: What does Whitehead use as an example of symbolic reference?
Answer: chair

Question: Which of the following is an organism: instinct, dog, or chair?
Answer: dog
Alloy

Conversely, most heat-treatable alloys are precipitation hardening alloys, which produce the opposite effects that steel does. When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than normal, during the diffusionless transformation, and then harden as they age. The solutes in these alloys will precipitate over time, forming intermetallic phases, which are difficult to discern from the base metal. Unlike steel, in which the solid solution separates to form different crystal phases, precipitation hardening alloys separate to form different phases within the same crystal. These intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in crystal structure, but tend to behave heterogeneous, becoming hard and somewhat brittle.

Question: What is an example of something that is not a precipitation hardening alloy?
Answer: steel

Question: Heat causes something to be?
Answer: softer than normal

Question: What is something that does not seems homogeneous in crystal structure?
Answer: steel

Question: Precipitation hardening alloys behave differently from?
Answer: steel

Question: What type of alloys get harder as they get older?
Answer: precipitation hardening alloys

Question: Why do the crystal structures of precipitation hardening alloys end up getting brittle?
Answer: tend to behave heterogeneous

Question: The solid solution separates, what material allows this further?
Answer: hardening alloys

Question: What happens after the alloy gets softer?
Answer: harden

Question: What aspect of precipitation hardening alloys make them seem homogenous in their crystal structures?
Answer: separate to form different phases within the same crystal

Question: What happens when you heat steel up to form a solution?
Answer: the solid solution separates to form different crystal phases

Question: The most treatable alloys give what specific result?
Answer: When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than normal, during the diffusionless transformation, and then harden as they age

Question: Alloys are made of?
Answer: metal

Question: What type of alloys do not form different crystal phases?
Answer: precipitation hardening alloys

Question: The most heat-treatable alloys are decided but only?
Answer: Conversely