UCLNLP/adversarial_qa huggingface dataset:
Gothic_architecture

Expansive interior light has been a feature of Gothic cathedrals since the first structure was opened. The metaphysics of light in the Middle Ages led to clerical belief in its divinity and the importance of its display in holy settings. Much of this belief was based on the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius, a sixth-century mystic whose book, The Celestial Hierarchy, was popular among monks in France. Pseudo-Dionysius held that all light, even light reflected from metals or streamed through windows, was divine. To promote such faith, the abbot in charge of the Saint-Denis church on the north edge of Paris, the Abbot Suger, encouraged architects remodeling the building to make the interior as bright as possible.

Question: Why is light featured in cathedrals?
Answer: clerical belief in its divinity

Question: Wha group liked Pseudo-Dionysius' writing?
Answer: monks

Question: Which of the following is not a type of religious building: Gothic cathedrals, hierarchy or Saint-Denis church?
Answer: Hierarchy

Question: What kind of exterior did the person in charge want it to be?
Answer: to make the interior as bright as possible

Question: When did Pseudo-Dioysius live?
Answer: sixth-century

Question: Which of the following is not a potential source of light: reflected from metals, belief or streamed through windows?
Answer: belief

Question: Who was doing the work on remodeling the Saint-Denis church?
Answer: architects

Question: Who was the one in charge to spread more faith in their religion?
Answer: the abbot in charge of the Saint-Denis church

Question: What type of printed work did Pseudo-Dionysius write?
Answer: book

Question: Why was light so important?
Answer: The metaphysics of light in the Middle Ages led to clerical belief in its divinity and the importance of its display in holy settings

Question: What was light linked with?
Answer: faith

Question: What kind of light was holy?
Answer: all light

Question: When did the focus on light start?
Answer: since the first structure was opened

Question: Even what kind of light did Psuedo-Dionysius consider great?
Answer: reflected

Question: Which of the following was not a religious figure: Abbot Suger, Pseudo-Dionysius, or France?
Answer: France

Question: What did the Abbot Suger want the Saint-Denis church to be like?
Answer: bright

Question: Since when would people consider light in Cathedrals to be as old as?
Answer: was opened
Gothic_architecture

The Palais des Papes in Avignon is the best complete large royal palace, alongside the Royal palace of Olite, built during the 13th and 14th centuries for the kings of Navarre. The Malbork Castle built for the master of the Teutonic order is an example of Brick Gothic architecture. Partial survivals of former royal residences include the Doge's Palace of Venice, the Palau de la Generalitat in Barcelona, built in the 15th century for the kings of Aragon, or the famous Conciergerie, former palace of the kings of France, in Paris.

Question: Where did the Parisian royalty used to reside?
Answer: Conciergerie

Question: What is special about the first mentioned palace?
Answer: is the best complete large royal palace

Question: Which was built later, the Palais des Papes or the Palau de la Generalitat?
Answer: Palau de la Generalitat

Question: Which palace was the first mentioned built for the kings of Navarre?
Answer: The Palais des Papes

Question: Which is not an area once ruled by kings: Navarre, Malbork, or Aragon?
Answer: Malbork

Question: Which is a city: Gothic, Barcelona, or Conciergerie?
Answer: Barcelona

Question: Where is that first mentioned palace located?
Answer: Avignon

Question: Which is not a palace: Olite, Paris, or Malbork?
Answer: Paris

Question: How close is the Avignon palace to the other one for the kings of Navarre?
Answer: alongside

Question: Which of the following is not the site of a castle: Avignon, Teutonic or Olite?
Answer: Teutonic

Question: Which of the following is a type of architecture: Gothic, Doge or Aragon?
Answer: Gothic
Gothic_architecture

Increasing military and cultural contacts with the Muslim world, including the Norman conquest of Islamic Sicily in 1090, the Crusades, beginning 1096, and the Islamic presence in Spain, may have influenced Medieval Europe's adoption of the pointed arch, although this hypothesis remains controversial. Certainly, in those parts of the Western Mediterranean subject to Islamic control or influence, rich regional variants arose, fusing Romanesque and later Gothic traditions with Islamic decorative forms, as seen, for example, in Monreale and Cefalù Cathedrals, the Alcázar of Seville, and Teruel Cathedral.

Question: What styles influenced the styles used in the region?
Answer: Gothic traditions with Islamic decorative forms

Question: What is attributed to Islamic influence in architecture?
Answer: arch

Question: Between Cefalu and Alcazar, which are cathedrals?
Answer: Cefalù

Question: What area of interest is being explained in the article?
Answer: decorative forms

Question: Between Romanesque and Sicily, what was fused with Islamic decorative forms?
Answer: Romanesque

Question: Between the Alcazar of Seville, and the Teruel, which one is a cathedral?
Answer: Teruel

Question: Of the Norman conquest of Islamic Sicily, and the Crusades, which one happened first?
Answer: Norman conquest of Islamic Sicily

Question: What religious group lost in Spain?
Answer: Muslim

Question: What kind of building displays details of the styles created in this time period?
Answer: Cathedrals

Question: Of the conquest of Islamic Sicily, and the Crusades, which one happened last?
Answer: Crusades

Question: Many of what combine to create new styles?
Answer: cultural contacts
Botany

Systematic botany is part of systematic biology, which is concerned with the range and diversity of organisms and their relationships, particularly as determined by their evolutionary history. It involves, or is related to, biological classification, scientific taxonomy and phylogenetics. Biological classification is the method by which botanists group organisms into categories such as genera or species. Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy. Modern taxonomy is rooted in the work of Carl Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings have since been revised to align better with the Darwinian principle of common descent – grouping organisms by ancestry rather than superficial characteristics. While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so. The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress.

Question: What is the job title of the people that are concerned with the taxonomy of plants?
Answer: botanists

Question: Which of the following is not a taxonomic term: genera, group or species?
Answer: group

Question: Which of the following is not a method of grouping organisms: physical characteristics, revisions, or ancestry?
Answer: revisions

Question: How were organisms grouped together before we had an understanding of molecular phylogenetics?
Answer: shared physical characteristics

Question: What are considered to be botanical organisms?
Answer: algae, fungi, and plants

Question: Which of the following is not a type of organism: algae, plants or phylogenetics?
Answer: phylogenetics

Question: Which genetic molecule is investigated in a certain type of phylogenetics in order to determine evolutionary history?
Answer: DNA

Question: What is the most specific grouping in biological classification schemes?
Answer: species
Botany

The root system and the shoot system are interdependent – the usually nonphotosynthetic root system depends on the shoot system for food, and the usually photosynthetic shoot system depends on water and minerals from the root system. Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots. Stolons and tubers are examples of shoots that can grow roots. Roots that spread out close to the surface, such as those of willows, can produce shoots and ultimately new plants. In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it. In fact it is possible to grow an entire plant from a single leaf, as is the case with Saintpaulia, or even a single cell – which can dedifferentiate into a callus (a mass of unspecialised cells) that can grow into a new plant. In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots. Roots are often adapted to store food such as sugars or starch, as in sugar beets and carrots.

Question: What does each system do to the other for survival?
Answer: depends on

Question: What comes from the shoot?
Answer: food

Question: Which of the following is not a type of connective tissue: xylem, leaf, or phloem?
Answer: leaf

Question: What can shoots produce?
Answer: new plants

Question: What vehicle is used to provide what each system needs from the other?
Answer: conductive tissues

Question: Which of the following is not an example of a type of shoot: stolons, willows, or tubers?
Answer: willows

Question: What do plants need to grow?
Answer: resources

Question: How are roots related to the sun?
Answer: nonphotosynthetic

Question: Which types of cells can shoots produce?
Answer: shoots or roots

Question: What is needed to produce a new plant?
Answer: a single leaf

Question: What can each system do regarding the other?
Answer: regrow it

Question: Which of the following is not a type of plant: sugar beets, roots, or willows?
Answer: roots
Botany

Species boundaries in plants may be weaker than in animals, and cross species hybrids are often possible. A familiar example is peppermint, Mentha × piperita, a sterile hybrid between Mentha aquatica and spearmint, Mentha spicata. The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra-specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids. Angiosperms with monoecious flowers often have self-incompatibility mechanisms that operate between the pollen and stigma so that the pollen either fails to reach the stigma or fails to germinate and produce male gametes. This is one of several methods used by plants to promote outcrossing. In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals. These species are said to be dioecious when referring to vascular plant sporophytes and dioicous when referring to bryophyte gametophytes.

Question: Which is more likely to cross breed, animals or plants?
Answer: plants

Question: What ingredient of pasta is commonly cross bred?
Answer: wheat

Question: Where can this be seen?
Answer: In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals

Question: What is not able to produce cross-species offspring?
Answer: animals

Question: How do the boundaries influence plant life?
Answer: The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra-specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids

Question: For what reason do plants have a lot of mixed species?
Answer: boundaries in plants may be weaker

Question: What is the informal name for the plant that spearmint and Mentha aquatica make?
Answer: peppermint

Question: What is a cross breeding of two plants that is done on purpose by humans to create something new called?
Answer: a sterile hybrid

Question: What makes it easier to cross breed a plant?
Answer: Species boundaries in plants may be weaker

Question: What is the difference in animals and plants?
Answer: Species boundaries in plants may be weaker than in animals, and cross species hybrids are often possible

Question: How does this work in the iwld?
Answer: This is one of several methods used by plants to promote outcrossing

Question: What is it called when plants cross breed on their own instead of in a purposeful fashion?
Answer: outcrossing

Question: How does this work in practice?
Answer: A familiar example is peppermint, Mentha × piperita

Question: What is a common characteristic of an angiosperm?
Answer: self-incompatibility mechanisms
Botany

Plant physiology encompasses all the internal chemical and physical activities of plants associated with life. Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism. The energy of sunlight, captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration, is the basis of almost all life. Photoautotrophs, including all green plants, algae and cyanobacteria gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis. Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues. Respiration is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain, essentially the opposite of photosynthesis.

Question: What top-of-the-food-chain group uses respiration to release energy?
Answer: animals

Question: Where does the oxygen that we breathe come from?
Answer: carbon compounds

Question: What is not a type of Photoautotroph?
Answer: fungi

Question: Who releases the energy back into the environment in a different form?
Answer: Heterotrophs

Question: What absorbs the chemical and physical energy from the environment?
Answer: Photoautotrophs, including all green plants, algae and cyanobacteria

Question: What holds the photosynthetic energy?
Answer: carbon compounds

Question: Something captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration gives plants energy through what?
Answer: photosynthesis

Question: Something captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration is the reason we have?
Answer: almost all life

Question: Something captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration is used by all what?
Answer: green plants, algae and cyanobacteria

Question: What do heterotrophs turn oxygen into?
Answer: carbon
Botany

Plants synthesize a number of unique polymers like the polysaccharide molecules cellulose, pectin and xyloglucan from which the land plant cell wall is constructed. Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress. Lignin is also used in other cell types like sclerenchyma fibers that provide structural support for a plant and is a major constituent of wood. Sporopollenin is a chemically resistant polymer found in the outer cell walls of spores and pollen of land plants responsible for the survival of early land plant spores and the pollen of seed plants in the fossil record. It is widely regarded as a marker for the start of land plant evolution during the Ordovician period. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the Ordovician and Silurian periods. Many monocots like maize and the pineapple and some dicots like the Asteraceae have since independently evolved pathways like Crassulacean acid metabolism and the C4 carbon fixation pathway for photosynthesis which avoid the losses resulting from photorespiration in the more common C3 carbon fixation pathway. These biochemical strategies are unique to land plants.

Question: What are the cells that are a great part of wood?
Answer: sclerenchyma fibers

Question: When did land plants become land plants?
Answer: during the Ordovician and Silurian periods

Question: Corn is different from the Asteraceae as it is a?
Answer: monocots

Question: In what cells is the product of vascular land plants secondarily used?
Answer: sclerenchyma fibers

Question: What fibers are used a lot in wood?
Answer: sclerenchyma

Question: Daisies evolved as __
Answer: dicots

Question: What produces that which is a major constituant of wood?
Answer: Vascular land plants

Question: Where are the pathways like Crassulacean acid metabolism and the C4 carbon fixation found uniquely?
Answer: land plants

Question: Why are C4 pathways used?
Answer: avoid the losses resulting from photorespiration

Question: Where is that which is widely regarded as a marker for the start of land plant evolution?
Answer: the outer cell walls of spores and pollen

Question: Corn evolved as a __
Answer: monocots

Question: Tomatoes could not be commercially grown if this polymer was not present.
Answer: Sporopollenin

Question: Are more monocots or dicots mentioned?
Answer: monocots
Botany

Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently. Some euphorbias have leafless, rounded bodies adapted to water conservation similar to those of globular cacti, but characters such as the structure of their flowers make it clear that the two groups are not closely related. The cladistic method takes a systematic approach to characters, distinguishing between those that carry no information about shared evolutionary history – such as those evolved separately in different groups (homoplasies) or those left over from ancestors (plesiomorphies) – and derived characters, which have been passed down from innovations in a shared ancestor (apomorphies). Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor. The results of cladistic analyses are expressed as cladograms: tree-like diagrams showing the pattern of evolutionary branching and descent.

Question: what are cladograms?
Answer: tree-like diagrams

Question: what shows pattern of evolutionary branching and descent?
Answer: cladograms

Question: What can be a plants defense?
Answer: spine

Question: What is good for desert living?
Answer: leafless, rounded bodies

Question: What is inherited?
Answer: plesiomorphies

Question: what are tree like diagrams?
Answer: cladograms

Question: what are apomorphies?
Answer: a shared ancestor

Question: what is convergent evolution?
Answer: plants may resemble one another
Botany

Virtually all staple foods come either directly from primary production by plants, or indirectly from animals that eat them. Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be used by animals. This is what ecologists call the first trophic level. The modern forms of the major staple foods, such as maize, rice, wheat and other cereal grasses, pulses, bananas and plantains, as well as flax and cotton grown for their fibres, are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among wild ancestral plants with the most desirable characteristics. Botanists study how plants produce food and how to increase yields, for example through plant breeding, making their work important to mankind's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations. Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people. When applied to the investigation of historical plant–people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany.

Question: What might pose a danger to plants?
Answer: pathogens

Question: How do people provide food security for future generations?
Answer: study how plants produce food and how to increase yields

Question: What form the base of most food chains?
Answer: plants

Question: How have these grains come to be?
Answer: are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among wild ancestral plants with the most desirable characteristics

Question: How can more food be created?
Answer: making their work important to mankind's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations

Question: How do plants affect people?
Answer: When applied to the investigation of historical plant–people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany

Question: How is this categorized?
Answer: the first trophic level

Question: How do plants contribute to production of meat?
Answer: indirectly from animals that eat them

Question: How is food produced?
Answer: directly from primary production by plants, or indirectly from animals that eat them

Question: Why do people breed plants?
Answer: increase yields

Question: What is one way that animals benefit from photosynthesis?
Answer: they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be used by animals

Question: Where does food production begin?
Answer: Plants and other photosynthetic organisms

Question: How did most of our food crops come to be?
Answer: prehistoric selection
Botany

The discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming, who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities, and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today. The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements. Clements is credited with the idea of climax vegetation as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of ecosystems to biology. Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle, Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943) produced accounts of the biogeography, centres of origin, and evolutionary history of economic plants.

Question: Who did Raunkiær mentor?
Answer: Eugenius Warming

Question: The man who made a system for describing plant life instructed which scientist?
Answer: Eugenius Warming

Question: What profession did the person who came after Warming have?
Answer: botanists

Question: Who originally had the idea behind how plant life forms are viewed today?
Answer: Warming

Question: When did Nikolai Vavilov enter into the world?
Answer: 1887

Question: What is the first name of the person credited with the idea of climax vegetation?
Answer: Frederic

Question: When did Nikolai Vavilov cease to exist?
Answer: 1943

Question: If an environment has reached maximum complexity of plants it is in what state?
Answer: climax vegetation

Question: In relation to Vavilov, when did Candolle conduct his work?
Answer: earlier

Question: The mentor of of the man who pioneered plant ecology provided a method for what?
Answer: describing plant life forms

Question: Who was the person who produced what we use to understand plants?
Answer: Christen C. Raunkiær

Question: What is the first name of the man who pioneered the idea of ecosystems?
Answer: Arthur