UCLNLP/adversarial_qa huggingface dataset:
Bird_migration

A similar situation occurs with waders (called shorebirds in North America). Many species, such as dunlin Calidris alpina and western sandpiper Calidris mauri, undertake long movements from their Arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in the same hemisphere, but others such as semipalmated sandpiper C. pusilla travel longer distances to the tropics in the Southern Hemisphere.

Question: Where is the alternate name for the creature in question?
Answer: North America

Question: what creature is mentioned second to last?
Answer: western sandpiper Calidris mauri

Question: what continent is mentioned second?
Answer: Arctic

Question: Where are they no longer chilling when in search of warmer temperatures?
Answer: Arctic breeding grounds

Question: What types go very far for increased temperatures, but not the farthest?
Answer: dunlin Calidris alpina and western sandpiper Calidris mauri

Question: what continent is mentioned first?
Answer: North America

Question: What types go the very farthest for increased temperatures?
Answer: semipalmated sandpiper C. pusilla

Question: what creature is mentioned last?
Answer: semipalmated sandpiper C. pusilla

Question: Where to the least-travel averse end up?
Answer: the Southern Hemisphere

Question: what type of bird is mentioned first?
Answer: waders
Bird_migration

Theoretical analyses show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20% will often be adaptive on aerodynamic grounds - a bird that loads itself with food to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently. However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms. An example is the migration of continental populations of Swainson's thrush Catharus ustulatus, which fly far east across North America before turning south via Florida to reach northern South America; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions, predation risk, or other factors.

Question: Which of the following is not one of the things that cause detours: predation risk, differential wind conditions, or theoretical analyses?
Answer: Theoretical analyses

Question: If a detour increases flight distance by 10%, is a bird more likely to detour or cross a long barrier?
Answer: detours

Question: What is Chicago known for?
Answer: wind

Question: What is the Swainson's thrush Catharus ustulatus' ultimate migratory destination?
Answer: northern South America

Question: What is it called when a bird flies a route that is not direct?
Answer: detours

Question: What does the Swainson's thrush Catharus ustulatus do after flying east?
Answer: turning south

Question: Aside from wind conditions or range expansion, what else might cause a bird to fly a longer distance than necessary when migrating?
Answer: predation risk

Question: If a detour increase flight distance by 50%, is a bird more likely to detour or cross a long barrier?
Answer: cross a long barrier

Question: What do you need to book if you want to fly to another location?
Answer: flight

Question: What do we take when placing a bet?
Answer: risk
Bird_migration

Within a population, it is common for different ages and/or sexes to have different patterns of timing and distance. Female chaffinches Fringilla coelebs in Eastern Fennoscandia migrate earlier in the autumn than males do.

Question: Countries that are located in a region opposite to the Western side of said region are given which descriptor?
Answer: Eastern

Question: Which sex of birds do not take longer to migrate in Autumn
Answer: Female

Question: The season that comes after summer is called?
Answer: autumn

Question: The migration period of these birds depend on what factors
Answer: different ages and/or sexes

Question: Miles and kilometers are measurements used to measure what concept?
Answer: distance

Question: The Latin word for unwed is which term?
Answer: coelebs

Question: When the coelebs decide to leave is called what?
Answer: timing

Question: What is it called when birds or other species move to other regions in response to the seasons?
Answer: migrate

Question: Timing of what can vary?
Answer: patterns

Question: The male birds migrate later depending on what
Answer: different ages

Question: How is the group divided?
Answer: ages and/or sexes
Bird_migration

Sometimes circumstances such as a good breeding season followed by a food source failure the following year lead to irruptions in which large numbers of a species move far beyond the normal range. Bohemian waxwings Bombycilla garrulus well show this unpredictable variation in annual numbers, with five major arrivals in Britain during the nineteenth century, but 18 between the years 1937 and 2000. Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra too are irruptive, with widespread invasions across England noted in 1251, 1593, 1757, and 1791.

Question: When was the last time non native birds came into England
Answer: 2000

Question: Who couldn't get sustenance?
Answer: Bohemian waxwings

Question: When were non native birds seen in England for the second time
Answer: 1593

Question: When was the fourth widespread invasion of Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra across England?
Answer: 1791

Question: When was the second widespread invasion of Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra across England?
Answer: 1593

Question: When was the most recent widespread invasion of Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra across England?
Answer: 1791

Question: When were non native birds seen in England for the first time
Answer: 1251

Question: How many arrivals in the century before 1937?
Answer: five

Question: When was the first widespread invasion of Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra across England?
Answer: 1251

Question: How many arrivals in the 20th century?
Answer: 18

Question: When was the third widespread invasion of Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra across England?
Answer: 1757
Bird_migration

It has been possible to teach a migration route to a flock of birds, for example in re-introduction schemes. After a trial with Canada geese Branta canadensis, microlight aircraft were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced whooping cranes Grus americana.

Question: Grus americana is a type of what?
Answer: whooping cranes

Question: The way that cranes had was described as thankfully taught by who?
Answer: US

Question: Is migration instinct or learned?
Answer: It has been possible to teach a migration route

Question: Microlight aircraft were used in the U.S. and where?
Answer: Canada

Question: A flock of birds with a way is it possible to teach what?
Answer: schemes

Question: Branta canadensis is also known as what?
Answer: Canada geese

Question: The attempt to get Whooping cranes to migrate back to the U.S. is an example of what type of ecological program?
Answer: re-introduction schemes

Question: What was once scarce or non-existent in the US before intervention?
Answer: Grus americana

Question: What type of group of bird was mentioned?
Answer: flock

Question: Canada geese are also know as what?
Answer: Branta canadensis

Question: What is a priority for migration routes?
Answer: to teach safe migration routes

Question: What can be an influence on the birds when teaching routes?
Answer: aircraft
Bird_migration

The timing of migration seems to be controlled primarily by changes in day length. Migrating birds navigate using celestial cues from the sun and stars, the earth's magnetic field, and probably also mental maps.

Question: Birds can see?
Answer: sun and stars

Question: Mental maps help birds to what?
Answer: navigate

Question: What else in the sky besides the Earth's heat source help birds find their way?
Answer: stars

Question: What is the one thing speculated about bird navigation?
Answer: mental maps

Question: What would a change in how long a day is affect birds?
Answer: migration

Question: What suggests that birds have a slightly complex brain?
Answer: mental maps

Question: Because of an alteration in what might a bird decide that it is time to migrate?
Answer: day length

Question: What feature of the solar system do birds use to navigate during migration?
Answer: sun and stars
Szlachta

Around the 14th century, there was little difference between knights and the szlachta in Poland. Members of the szlachta had the personal obligation to defend the country (pospolite ruszenie), thereby becoming the kingdom's most privileged social class. Inclusion in the class was almost exclusively based on inheritance.

Question: Poland's government was a?
Answer: kingdom

Question: Groups of students are taught together in what?
Answer: class

Question: Individuals in service to a monarch that have been formally knighted are?
Answer: knights

Question: Inclusion was based on inheritance almost what of the time?
Answer: almost exclusively

Question: A class based on inheritance is?
Answer: szlachta

Question: The polish word for movement is?
Answer: ruszenie

Question: What group was comparable to the nobility group with the personal obligation to defend Poland?
Answer: knights

Question: The word common would be translated to Polish as?
Answer: pospolite

Question: What kind of difference was there in knights and the szlachta in Poland?
Answer: there was little difference

Question: When was the 14 century knights in this story exactly?
Answer: Around
Szlachta

As some szlachta were poorer than some non-noble gentry, some particularly impoverished szlachta were forced to become tenants of the wealthier gentry. In doing so, however, these szlachta retained all their constitutional prerogatives, as it was not wealth or lifestyle (obtainable by the gentry), but hereditary juridical status, that determined nobility.

Question: What is opposite poverty?
Answer: wealth

Question: What determined the quality of life of a szlachta?
Answer: wealth

Question: Not having hereditary juridical status, which determined nobility, did not stop these people from prospering.
Answer: non-noble gentry

Question: What status did gentry sometimes hold?
Answer: non-noble

Question: The szlachta did not automatically have this, though they always retained their constitutional prerogatives.
Answer: wealth

Question: What is a name for someone living in a rental?
Answer: tenants

Question: These people were noble but often found that a wealthy lifestyle was not unobtainable.
Answer: szlachta

Question: The wealthiest citizens often belonged to this class, which gave them financial, but not constitutional power.
Answer: non-noble gentry

Question: What is opposite richer?
Answer: poorer

Question: Who usually had a lower standard of living, gentry or szlachta?
Answer: szlachta

Question: What had a positive effect on the lifestyle of the gentry?
Answer: wealth

Question: What status would sometimes cause szlachta to become tenants of gentry?
Answer: impoverished
Szlachta

In 1374 King Louis of Hungary approved the Privilege of Koszyce (Polish: "przywilej koszycki" or "ugoda koszycka") in Košice in order to guarantee the Polish throne for his daughter Jadwiga. He broadened the definition of who was a member of the nobility and exempted the entire class from all but one tax (łanowy, which was limited to 2 grosze from łan (an old measure of land size)). In addition, the King's right to raise taxes was abolished; no new taxes could be raised without the agreement of the nobility. Henceforth, also, district offices (Polish: "urzędy ziemskie") were reserved exclusively for local nobility, as the Privilege of Koszyce forbade the king to grant official posts and major Polish castles to foreign knights. Finally, this privilege obliged the King to pay indemnities to nobles injured or taken captive during a war outside Polish borders.

Question: Under Louis, who could occupy a district office?
Answer: local nobility

Question: How did more people get the benefit of seeing how rich get richer here?
Answer: He broadened the definition of who was a member of the nobility

Question: Who kind of sounds like they may have been a bit spoiled by parents?
Answer: Jadwiga

Question: What privilege was lost?
Answer: Henceforth, also, district offices (Polish: "urzędy ziemskie") were reserved exclusively for local nobility, as the Privilege of Koszyce forbade the king to grant official posts and major Polish castles to foreign knights

Question: How did this affect the nation?
Answer: He broadened the definition of who was a member of the nobility and exempted the entire class from all but one tax

Question: In a bad situation, how could a noble make more money?
Answer: this privilege obliged the King to pay indemnities to nobles injured or taken captive during a war outside Polish borders

Question: How did the King limit his power?
Answer: the King's right to raise taxes was abolished; no new taxes could be raised without the agreement of the nobility

Question: Who would Jadwiga say is her father?
Answer: King Louis

Question: How does the King show his love for his child?
Answer: approved the Privilege of Koszyce

Question: Which class did Louis collect only one tax from?
Answer: the nobility

Question: What effect did this have on the coffers?
Answer: Finally, this privilege obliged the King to pay indemnities to nobles injured or taken captive during a war outside Polish borders

Question: How did Louis make sure his child would get the throne?
Answer: approved the Privilege of Koszyce

Question: What was done to secure the line of succession?
Answer: In 1374 King Louis of Hungary approved the Privilege of Koszyce (Polish: "przywilej koszycki" or "ugoda koszycka") in Košice in order to guarantee the Polish throne for his daughter Jadwiga

Question: How would the king need to raise a new tax?
Answer: the agreement of the nobility

Question: What did the nobility give in return?
Answer: guarantee the Polish throne for his daughter Jadwiga
Szlachta

On 3 May 1505 King Alexander I Jagiellon granted the Act of "Nihil novi nisi commune consensu" (Latin: "I accept nothing new except by common consent"). This forbade the king to pass any new law without the consent of the representatives of the nobility, in Sejm and Senat assembled, and thus greatly strengthened the nobility's political position. Basically, this act transferred legislative power from the king to the Sejm. This date commonly marks the beginning of the First Rzeczpospolita, the period of a szlachta-run "Commonwealth".

Question: Who benefited most from the commonwealth?
Answer: the nobility's

Question: ___ constrained thepower of the ruler.
Answer: Act of "Nihil novi nisi commune consensu"

Question: What was done in the 16th century?
Answer: King Alexander I Jagiellon granted the Act of "Nihil novi nisi commune consensu"

Question: The king's power was checked by what group?
Answer: the nobility

Question: What was the intention of the Act?
Answer: transferred legislative power from the king to the Sejm

Question: Who had to approve the anything new by King Alexander?
Answer: any new law

Question: Laws were then made by what?
Answer: the Sejm

Question: An old Slavic word for "gathering" inspired the name of __
Answer: Sejm

Question: What is the latin version of the Act?
Answer: Nihil novi nisi commune consensu

Question: Who wouldn't be able to pass anything without the Sejm?
Answer: king
Szlachta

In Ruthenia the nobility gradually gravitated its loyalty towards the multicultural and multilingual Grand Duchy of Lithuania after the principalities of Halych and Volhynia became a part of it. Many noble Ruthenian families intermarried with Lithuanian ones.

Question: What was appealing about Lithuania?
Answer: multicultural and multilingual

Question: Why did Grand Duchy of Lithuania become a famous place for noble Ruthenian families to get intermarried?
Answer: after the principalities of Halych and Volhynia became a part of it

Question: Was Halych Lithuanian or Ruthenian?
Answer: Lithuania

Question: How many languages did Lithuanian speak?
Answer: multilingual

Question: What happened to Grand Duchy of Lithuania after the principalities of Halych and Volhynia became a part of it?
Answer: multicultural and multilingual

Question: How did Ruthenia become influenced by Lithuania?
Answer: Halych and Volhynia became a part of it

Question: How were the social norms of Lithuanian determined?
Answer: multicultural

Question: What did the noble Ruthenians show to Lithuanians?
Answer: loyalty

Question: Was Volhynia Ruthenian or Lithuanian?
Answer: Lithuanian
Szlachta

In the late 14th century, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vytautas the Great reformed the Grand Duchy's army: instead of calling all men to arms, he created forces comprising professional warriors—bajorai ("nobles"; see the cognate "boyar"). As there were not enough nobles, Vytautas trained suitable men, relieving them of labor on the land and of other duties; for their military service to the Grand Duke, they were granted land that was worked by hired men (veldams). The newly formed noble families generally took up, as their family names, the Lithuanian pagan given names of their ennobled ancestors; this was the case with the Goštautai, Radvilos, Astikai, Kęsgailos and others. These families were granted their coats of arms under the Union of Horodlo (1413).

Question: What was the prior occupation of the nobles?
Answer: labor on the land and of other duties

Question: How were the fighting forces reshaped?
Answer: comprising professional warriors

Question: What compensation did the nobles get?
Answer: land that was worked by hired men

Question: Who changed the Army in the 14th century?
Answer: Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Question: How did Vytautas improve the Grand Duchy's military?
Answer: he created forces comprising professional warriors

Question: How was the land kept fertile while the warriors were fighting?
Answer: worked by hired men

Question: What is the name of the Grand Duchy?
Answer: Vytautas the Great

Question: Who are bajorai?
Answer: professional warriors

Question: Whose names were the new noble families' names related to?
Answer: their ennobled ancestors

Question: What were Radviolos and Astikai?
Answer: noble families
Szlachta

Until the death of Sigismund II Augustus, the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, monarchs could be elected from within only the royal family. However, starting from 1573, practically any Polish noble or foreigner of royal blood could become a Polish–Lithuanian monarch. Every newly elected king was supposed to sign two documents—the Pacta conventa ("agreed pacts")—a confirmation of the king's pre-election promises, and Henrican articles (artykuły henrykowskie, named after the first freely elected king, Henry of Valois). The latter document served as a virtual Polish constitution and contained the basic laws of the Commonwealth:

Question: In 1500, who was eligible to become a Polish-Lithuanian monarch?
Answer: royal family

Question: Which of the following is NOT a dynasty: Henrican or Jagiellonian?
Answer: Henrican

Question: How would one determine what their rights were in this land?
Answer: Polish constitution

Question: Who was elected later, Henry of Valois or Sigismund II Augustus?
Answer: Sigismund II Augustus

Question: How could someone prove a King was not doing as he said he would?
Answer: the Pacta conventa

Question: Monarchs could be elected from within only the royal family until when?
Answer: 1573

Question: Who was the last king not freely elected?
Answer: Sigismund II Augustus

Question: When Augustus died, what was the only rule about the monarchy?
Answer: royal blood

Question: After 1573, who could be elected as monarch?
Answer: practically any Polish noble or foreigner of royal blood

Question: What served as an inauguration ritual?
Answer: sign two documents
Szlachta

According to heraldic sources 1,600 is a total estimated number of all legal ennoblements throughout the history of Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the 14th century onward (half of which were performed in the final years of the late 18th century).

Question: What kind of governance structure did Poland have?
Answer: Kingdom

Question: What suggests the number of nobles are not that high?
Answer: total estimated number of all legal ennoblements throughout the history of Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the 14th century onward

Question: Many what happened?
Answer: legal ennoblements

Question: What suggests there was a large increase in ennoblements in a short amount of time?
Answer: half of which were performed in the final years of the late 18th century

Question: What suggests it took 400 years for the first 800 ennoblements?
Answer: 1,600 is a total estimated number of all legal ennoblements throughout the history of Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the 14th century onward (half of which were performed in the final years of the late 18th century)

Question: What type of governance structure did Poland have?
Answer: Kingdom

Question: Poland had relations with what culture?
Answer: Lithuanian

Question: What might be a requirement for the legal ennoblements?
Answer: were performed

Question: The informative content is what in nature?
Answer: heraldic

Question: What classification did Poland's governance structure have?
Answer: Kingdom

Question: What suggests Poland had foreign lands?
Answer: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Szlachta

In 1454 King Casimir IV granted the Nieszawa Statutes (Polish: "statuty cerkwicko-nieszawskie"), clarifying the legal basis of voivodship sejmiks (local parliaments). The king could promulgate new laws, raise taxes, or call for a levée en masse (pospolite ruszenie) only with the consent of the sejmiks, and the nobility were protected from judicial abuses. The Nieszawa Statutes also curbed the power of the magnates, as the Sejm (national parliament) received the right to elect many officials, including judges, voivods and castellans. These privileges were demanded by the szlachta as a compensation for their participation in the Thirteen Years' War.

Question: What official received the right to elect that begins with the letter c?
Answer: castellans

Question: what is the last group mentioned?
Answer: the szlachta

Question: What gave the sejmiks their importance?
Answer: The king could promulgate new laws, raise taxes, or call for a levée en masse (pospolite ruszenie) only with the consent of the sejmiks

Question: What letter does the king's name start with?
Answer: Casimir

Question: What was being clarified of voivodship sejmiks?
Answer: legal basis

Question: What could the king promulgate?
Answer: new laws, raise taxes, or call for a levée en masse

Question: Why were the sejmiks important?
Answer: The king could promulgate new laws, raise taxes, or call for a levée en masse (pospolite ruszenie) only with the consent of the sejmiks

Question: what is the first period in time mentioned?
Answer: 1454

Question: What was the importance of the sejmiks?
Answer: The king could promulgate new laws, raise taxes, or call for a levée en masse (pospolite ruszenie) only with the consent of the sejmiks

Question: what was the second to last group mentioned?
Answer: castellans

Question: What number was the king in birth order?
Answer: IV

Question: what is the last event mentioned?
Answer: Thirteen Years' War

Question: what is the third to last group mentioned?
Answer: voivods
Szlachta

The sovereignty of szlachta was ended in 1795 by Partitions of Poland, and until 1918 their legal status was dependent on policies of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia or the Habsburg Monarchy.

Question: What country did the Habsburg Monarchy rule over?
Answer: Poland

Question: Who did the Kingdom of Prussia rule over?
Answer: Poland

Question: What is the name of one ruler that ruled over szlachta?
Answer: Habsburg

Question: The Russains had authority over the?
Answer: szlachta

Question: The szlachta were lorded over by?
Answer: the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia or the Habsburg Monarchy

Question: Until when did szlachta were sovereign?
Answer: 1795

Question: What could be implemented?
Answer: policies

Question: Which is one king that ruled over szlachta in the text?
Answer: Habsburg

Question: The szlachta lost?
Answer: sovereignty