Please select the eligibility criteria that correspond to the clinical trial below.
Title: Cortical Pain Processing in Full Term Infants, After Giving Different Non-pharmacological Analgesia
Brief Summary: Minor painful procedures are frequently performed on newborn infants and non-pharmacological analgesia is commonly used. As more than one analgesic method may be applied simultaneously in clinical practice, the relative contribution and efficacy of analgesic components still needs to be further elucidated. In the present study neonatal cortical brain response during four types of non-pharmacological analgesia (oral glucose, expressed breastmilk, maternal holding plus oral glucose, maternal holding plus breastfeeding) will be studied. The aim is to assess the differential effect of oral solutions (glucose, breastmilk), when given alone or in combination with maternal relationship (holding, breastfeeding). The study will test the hypothesis that the mother-infant relationship would improve the analgesic effect of oral solutions.


Options:
A: Inclusion Criteria:

Infants who meet the following inclusion criteria will be eligible to participate in the study irrespective of race, religion, ethnicity, or gender:

* Admitted to the NICU immediately postpartum
* Gestational age 28 weeks or older
* No identified hearing disorder
* Do not have a diagnosed developmental disability (i.e. Down Syndrome)
* Do not have Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
* Medically cleared to participate in the study by nurse or neonatologist
* Parent or legal guardian able/willing to give consent \& complete the PBQ (Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire)

Exclusion Criteria:

* Admitted to the NICU at any time other than immediately postpartum
* Gestational age \<28 weeks old
* Has an identified hearing disorder
* Has diagnosed developmental disability (i.e. Down syndrome)
* Has Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
* Is not medically cleared to participate in the study by the nurse or neonatologist
* Parent or legal guardian unable/unwilling to give consent
B: Inclusion Criteria: Eligible subjects are infants currently in the NICU or Newborn Nursery at University of Massachusetts Memorial Hospital or at Magee Women's Hospital of UPMC and:

* Full-term infants (≥37 wks gestational age)
* Newborns at risk for NAS due to opioid-exposure in utero
* At-risk infants will be infants who present with confirmed meconium and/or urine toxicology report and/or documented medical record for opioids (e.g., methadone, buprenorphine/subutex, oxycodone, heroin); may also have prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines, barbiturates, amphetamines, cannabinoids, alcohol, nicotine and/or caffeine.

Exclusion Criteria: Eligible infants meeting the inclusion criteria above will be excluded from participation in the study if he/she:

* Born less than \<37weeks.
* Has a clinically significant congenital abnormality
* Has a clinically significant fetal anomaly
* Has hydrocephalus or intraventricular hemorrhage \>grade 2
* Has a seizure disorder not related to drug withdrawal
* Has a clinically significant cardiac shunt
* Has anemia (hemoglobin\<8g/dL)
* Requires mechanical respiratory support
* Has MRSA or infection at time of the study
C: Inclusion Criteria:

* birthweight 500 to 1250 grams
* postnatal age day 1 to day 10
* infant considered a candidate for methylxanthine therapy by clinical staff

Exclusion Criteria:

* dysmorphic features or congenital malformations that adversely affect life expectancy or neurodevelopment
* unlikely to comply with long-term follow-up
* prior treatment with a methylxanthine
D: Inclusion Criteria:

* Full term healthy infants, needing a heel-prick for metabolic screening;
* Informed consent obtained from parents.

Exclusion Criteria:

- Presence of sedation or analgesia (other than non pharmacological analgesia given during the experimental procedure)

Answer: D