Please select the eligibility criteria that correspond to the clinical trial below.
Title: The Impact of Higher Dairy and Dietary Protein on the "Quality" of Hypoenergetic diet-and Exercise-induced Weight Loss in Pre-menopausal, Overweight and Obese Young Women
Brief Summary: Diets all share the same principle: eat less energy than you need. This results in weight loss. However, the weight loss is usually a combination of a loss of body fat and muscle mass. Additionally, one's bones may begin to weaken, albeit very slowly, while on a diet, which could have serious long-term consequences. Thus, the investigators believe that the goal of any weight loss strategy should be to lose body fat and spare muscle. The investigators reasoning is two-fold. 1) Fat is not only stored under the skin, but also in and around the internal organs. When this occurs, the organ itself may not function properly. Losing fat mass is a very good thing from a health standpoint, since fat is not just a storage site for extra energy. Scientists have now shown that 'extra' body fat itself can actually secrete substances and when these substances get into your blood, they cause many problems and may even contribute to the development of diabetes. 2) Sparing muscle as an individual loses weight is very important. Muscle is a very 'metabolically active' tissue and is, by analogy, like the body's furnace. Muscle burns fuel from the food individuals eat and also from stored fuels, like fat. Hence, it's easy to see why you don't want to lose muscle because you'd be losing one of your body's best fat burners. More importantly, muscle is also a big storage site and furnace for blood sugar. In people with diabetes (elevated blood sugar), a big part of the problem is with their muscles - they simply do not take up and store or burn enough sugar. For these reasons, your goal should be to lose fat and preserve muscle while dieting.

There are many different diets to choose from (e.g. high protein, low carbohydrate, high fat, high fiber, etc.). A diet that has been shown to be quite successful, however, is one that is higher in protein (but not excessive). Thus, in this study, the investigators are proposing to test whether a higher protein (with dairy) and calcium diet promotes body fat loss and muscle mass retention. The investigators believe that a diet higher in protein (with an emphasis on dairy), but still within accepted healthy ranges, with higher dietary calcium may result in greater loss of body fat and retention of muscle than a diet with a conventional amount of protein and adequate calcium or a conventional amount of protein with little calcium (i.e. low dairy). Based on previous research, the investigators think that people with low calcium intakes to begin with would stand to benefit the most. There is also a good reason to think that the high protein/high calcium diet may result in greater reductions in blood cholesterol and blood sugar, both of which would reduce a person's risk for heart disease and diabetes.

The investigators will test this diet in premenopausal women who are overweight or obese. The investigators believe that this group is a good one to target for several reasons. First, women of this age who are overweight or obese are, if they continue to carry this excess weight, are at serious risk for developing chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and possibly cancer at an early age. Second, these women will often begin to gradually consume less dairy because many perceive dairy foods as fattening. Thus, if the investigators proposals are correct the investigators will hopefully be able to equip health professionals with a tried and tested, palatable, dietary strategy in a population segment who, because of their age, would benefit greatly were their disease risk to be reduced.


Options:
A: Inclusion Criteria:

* Age: \> 18 years of age
* Women: Pre-menopausal (self-report) and \<50 years of age
* Men: \<50 years of age
* BMI (body mass index): 27-40 kg/m2 (need to lose \>10% body weight to achieve healthy BMI)
* Body weight stable for the last two months, and not actively on a weight loss plan
* No plans to move from the area over the next two years
* Available and able to participate in the evaluations and intervention for the study period
* Willing to accept random assignment
* To enhance study generalizability, people on medications not noted below as specific exclusions can
* participate if they have been stable on such medications for at least three months
* Ability and willingness to give written informed
* No known active psychiatric illness

Exclusion Criteria:

Subjects with the following conditions will be excluded (determined by self-report):

* Pregnant, lactating, within 6 months post-partum, or planning to become pregnant in the next 2 years
* Diabetes (type 1 and 2) or history of gestational diabetes or on hypoglycemic medications for any other indication
* Prevalent diseases: Malabsorption, renal or liver disease, active neoplasms, recent myocardial infarction (\<6 months)(patient self-report and, if available, review of labs from primary care provider)
* Smokers (because of effect on weight and lipids)
* History of serious arrhythmias, or cerebrovascular disease
* Uncontrolled hyper- or hypothyroidism (TSH not within normal limits)
* Medications: Lipid lowering, antihypertensive medications, and those known to affect weight/energy expenditure
* Excessive alcohol intake (self-reported, \>3 drinks/day)
* Musculoskeletal disorders precluding regular physical activity
* Unable to follow either of the two study diets for reasons of food allergies or other (e.g., vegan)
* Currently under psychiatric care, or taking psychiatric medications
* Inability to communicate effectively with study personnel
B: Inclusion Criteria:

* Healthy pre-menopausal females
* Body Mass Index (BMI) between 27-40 kg/m2
* Low dairy consumption (\~\<500 mg/d Ca2+)
* Sedentary lifestyle (i.e., exercise less than once/week)
* Regular menstrual cycle

Exclusion Criteria:

* Allergy to dairy protein
* Lactose intolerance
* Vegan diet
* Pregnant
* Taking vitamin or mineral supplements
* Have a gastrointestinal disease or condition
* Recent orthopedic injury
* Diagnosed with heart, kidney, liver or pancreatic disease
* Smoker
* Alcohol consumption of more than 2 drinks/day
C: Inclusion Criteria:

* age 18-70 years
* body mass index \> 27 kg/m2

Exclusion Criteria:

* history of cardiovascular symptomatology
* cholelithiasis
* urolithiasis
* insulin dependent diabetes
* pacemaker implantation
* pregnancy
* lactation
* vegetarianism
D: Inclusion Criteria:

* Employees of the Banco de Santander Group
* Age between 40-54 years.

Exclusion Criteria:

* Myocardial Infarction
* Angina pectoris
* Stroke, either transient or with sequelae
* Peripheral vascular disease
* Prior angioplasty or heart surgery
* Atrial fibrillation
* Other heart diseases

Subjects with the following conditions will also be excluded:

* Pregnancy
* Active treatment for any cancer
* Morbid obesity (BMI ≥40)
* Renal failure with creatinine clearance \<60 mL/min, as estimated by the Cockcroft and Gault formula
* Any disease that decreases life expectation to ≤6 years
* Pacemaker, implantable automatic defibrillator, or any implanted device that contraindicates MRI
* A chest CT in the previous year

Answer: B