Please select the eligibility criteria that correspond to the clinical trial below.
Title: Effect of Intermittent Versus Continuous Energy Restriction on Compensatory Mechanisms Activated During Weight Reduction
Brief Summary: Obesity has become a global epidemic with huge public health implications. Although clinical significant weight loss can be achieved by a combination of diet and behavioral modification, strong metabolic adaptations, with increased appetite and suppressed energy expenditure, are activated, which compromise weight loss maintenance and increase the risk of relapse. The aim of this project is to compare the effects of intermittent versus continuous energy restriction on the compensatory responses previously described using two low calory diets, with a similar macronutrient distribution. More specifically, this study will analyze, in the short-term, if an intermittent energy restricted diet is associated with less appetite and low reduction in energy expenditure when compared with a continuous energy restricted diet. This project can bring large practical benefits concerning the design of weight loss programs to minimize weight relapse.


Options:
A: Inclusion Criteria:

* Waist circumference \>102cm
* BMI \>30 kg/m2

Exclusion Criteria:

* Personal history of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, eating disorders
* use of medications which may affect energy metabolism, gastrointestinal function, body weight or appetite (e.g. domperidone and cisapride, anticholinergic drugs, androgenic medications, metoclopramide, orlistat, diuretic medications
* use of prescribed glucose-lowering/antidiabetic medication
* recent weight change in past 3 months,or does not habitually eat breakfast
* uncontrolled asthma, current fever, upper respiratory infections
* current intake of \> 140g alcohol/week
* current smokers of cigarettes/cigars/marijuana
* current intake of any illicit substance
* experience claustrophobia in confined spaces
* has donated blood within past 3-months
* unable to comprehend study protocol
B: Inclusion Criteria:

1. The volunteer (male or non-pregnant female, any ethnicity) must be \>18 years of age.
2. The volunteer must either have a body mass index of 25.0-35.0 kg/m2 or the combination of a body mass index of 18.5-24.9 kg/m2 and two or more previously or currently measured symptoms of the metabolic syndrome (fasting glucose≥110 mg/dL, triglycerides≥150 mg/dL, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol\<40 mg/dL in males or \<50 mg/dL in females, systolic blood pressure≥130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure≥85 mmHg, or waist circumference≥40 inches in males or ≥36 inches in females \[glucose and cholesterol levels may be self-reported\]).
3. The volunteer has not routinely participated in caloric restriction (deliberate limitation of caloric intake of \<80% than the FDA-recommended daily caloric intake) within the last 2 years, has not participated in extended fasting (\>12 hours at a time) for at least a year, and does not deliberately skip meals as a routine dietary practice.

Exclusion Criteria:

1. Body mass index \<18.5 or \>35 kg/m2.
2. Current active cancer treatment, treatment with immunosuppressive medications, or solid organ transplantation within 1 year.
3. Presence of immunosuppressive disease, myocardial infarction, peripheral vascular disease, or stroke within the past year.
4. Use of insulin.
5. Although it is unlikely fasting will harm the pregnant or lactating woman, the dietary restrictions placed on the participant for the duration of the study may conflict with dietary recommendations for pregnant or lactating women. Women of child bearing potential, therefore, will meet an exclusion if they become pregnant.
C: Inclusion Criteria:

* Women and men aged 35 to 65 years
* Overweight or obese (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 ≤ 40 kg/m2 )
* German speaking
* Non- smoker
* Provision of written informed consent

Exclusion Criteria:

* Not able to understand and sign the informed consent form in person
* Already diagnosed diabetes
* HbA1c ≥ 6.5 % and/or fasting plasma glucose \> 125 mg/dl
* History of cancer within the past 10 years
* Risk of bleeding disorders (e.g. Marcumar intake)
* Current or history of eating disorders (bulimia, anorexia, binge-eating)
* Pregnant or lactating during the past 12 months
* Increased or decreased thyroid-stimulating hormone in baseline blood check
* Already diagnosed hepatic dysfunction and/or increased or decreased γ-GT, GPT and/or GOT in baseline blood check
* Already diagnosed kidney dysfunction and/or increased or decreased creatinine, urea and/or uric acid in baseline blood check
* Medications that might affect the endpoints of the study e.g. immunosuppressive medication (cortisol, antibody treatment), hormone replacement therapy, medication for fat metabolism (e.g. statine, fibrate)
* Participation in another intervention study shorter than three months ago
D: Inclusion Criteria:

* adult (18-50 years old)
* obese healthy volunteers (30\<BMI\<40 kg/m2)
* weight stable on the last three months (\<2kg), not currently dieting to lose weight and with an inactive lifestyle

Exclusion Criteria:

* history of endocrine/cardiovascular/pulmonary/kidney disease
* anaemia
* milk intolerance
* depression or other psychological disorders
* eating disorders
* drug or alcohol abuse within the last two years
* current medication known to affect appetite or induce weight loss
* a planned surgery during the study period
* participating in another research study

Answer: D