The following are given passages.
Passage 1:
Robert Robinson Taylor
Robert Robinson Taylor (June 8, 1868 – December 13, 1942) was an American architect and educator. Taylor was the first African-American student enrolled at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and the first accredited African-American architect when he graduated in 1892. He was an early and influential member of the Tuskegee Institute faculty.
A native of Wilmington, North Carolina, Taylor remained in architectural practice in the American South for over forty years. He was part of what was possibly the nation’s first black architecture firm, Taylor and Persley, a partnership founded in July 1920 with Louis H. Persley. He designed many of the early buildings of the Tuskegee Institute, and at several other Historically black colleges and universities. As second-in-command to Booker T. Washington, the Tuskegee Institute's founder, Taylor was instrumental in both campus planning and inventing the school's industrial curriculum.

Early life
Robert Robinson Taylor was born on June 8, 1868, in Wilmington, North Carolina. His father, Henry Taylor, worked as a carpenter and businessman, born into slavery but freed in 1847 by his father and owner Angus Taylor. His mother, Emily Still, was the daughter of freedmen even prior to the Civil War. He left home for MIT in 1888, where he studied architecture. In June 1890 and again in September 1891, he was recommended for the Loring Scholarship, which he held for two consecutive academic years: 1890–1891 and 1892–1893.During his course of study at MIT, he talked in person on more than one occasion with Booker T. Washington. What Washington had in mind was for Taylor to develop the industrial program at Tuskegee and to plan and direct the construction of new buildings for the campus. At the MIT faculty meeting on May 26, 1892, Taylor was one of twelve students in Course IV, the architectural program, recommended for a degree. The class of 1892 was the largest on record since MIT's founding. After graduation Taylor did not head directly to Tuskegee. He finally accepted the Tuskegee offer in the fall or winter of 1892.

Career
Taylor's first building project on the Tuskegee University campus was the Science Hall (Thrasher Hall) completed in 1893. The new Science Hall was constructed entirely by students, using bricks made also by students under Taylor's supervision. The project epitomized Washington's philosophy of instilling in Tuskegee students, the descendants of former enslaved Africans, the value and dignity of physical labor.  It exemplified of the capabilities of African Americans in the building trades, and it underscored the larger potential of the manual training curricula being developed at Tuskegee. A number of other buildings followed, including the original Tuskegee Chapel, erected between 1895 and 1898, and The Oaks, built in 1899 as Tuskegee's presidential residence.From 1899 to 1902, he returned to Cleveland, Ohio, to work on his own and for the architectural firm of Charles W. Hopkinson. Upon his return to Tuskegee from Cleveland in 1902, he was architect and director of "mechanical industries" until his retirement in the mid-1930s. To develop a sound curriculum at Tuskegee, both Washington and Taylor drew inspiration from MIT as a model. Taylor's own admiration for MIT as a model for Tuskegee's development was conveyed in a speech that he delivered at MIT in 1911. Taylor cited examples to the 1911 US Congress in a paper to illustrate the kinds of rigorous ideas, approaches, and methods that Tuskegee had adopted from MIT and successfully applied within the context of a black educational institution.Taylor also designed buildings that were not at Tuskegee. These include Carnegie libraries at Wiley College in Marshall, Texas, and at Livingstone College in Salisbury, North Carolina. With his later partner, the black architect Louis H. Persley, he did large buildings at Selma University in Selma, Alabama, and the Colored Masonic Temple, which is also an office building and entertainment venue, in Birmingham, Alabama.He served for a period as vice-principal of Tuskegee, beginning in 1925. In 1929, under the joint sponsorship of the Phelps-Stokes Fund, the Liberian government, and Firestone Rubber, he went to Kakata, Liberia to lay out architectural plans and devise a program in industrial training for the proposed Booker Washington Institute – "the Tuskegee of Africa." Robert Taylor served on the Mississippi Valley Flood Relief Commission, appointed by President Herbert Hoover, and was chairman of the Tuskegee chapter of the American Red Cross.Following his retirement to his native Wilmington, North Carolina, in 1935, the governor of North Carolina appointed Taylor to the board of trustees of what is now Fayetteville State University. Moreover, in 1942, less than a decade after his retirement from Tuskegee, he wrote to the secretary of his MIT class indicating that he had just been released from treatment for an unspecified illness at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. "Thanks to a kind Providence and skillful physicians," he said, "I am much better now."

Personal life
In 1898, he married Beatrice Rochon Taylor. They had four children, one of whom, Robert Rochon Taylor, became a noted housing advocate in Chicago. Beatrice's younger sister was teacher and pharmacist Etnah Rochon Boutte. After Beatrice died in 1906, Robert remarried in 1912 to Nellie Chestnutt; they had one child.

Death
He died on December 13, 1942, while attending services in the Tuskegee Chapel, the building that he considered his most outstanding achievement as an architect. He was buried at the Pine Forest Cemetery in Wilmington, North Carolina.

Legacy
The Taylor School of Architecture and Construction Science at Tuskegee University is named for Taylor. The housing project in Chicago, Robert Taylor Homes, was named after his son, Robert Rochon Taylor, a civic leader and former Chairman of the Chicago Housing Authority.
The US Postal Service has a postage stamp with his likeness.His great-granddaughter, Valerie Jarrett, was a senior advisor to Former President Barack Obama.

Projects
Huntington Hall (1900)
Emery dormitories 4 buildings (1900)
Dorothy Hall (1901) Tuskegee Institute
Women's Trades Building (1901)
Carnegie Library (1901)
Administration Building (1902–03)
Rockefeller Hall (1903)
Men's residence Hall (1904)
Douglass Hall (1904)
Collis P. Huntington Memorial Building academic building(1904–05)
Tantum Hall (1907)
Milbank Agriculture Building (1909)
Tompkins Hall, dining facility (1910)
White Hall, women's dormitory (1910)
John A. Andrew Memorial Hospital (1913)
Laundry, now The George Washington Carver Museum (1915)
James Hall (1921)
Prince Hall Masonic Temple (1924)
Sage Hall (1927)
Wilcox Trade Buildings, architecture buildings (1928)
Logan Hall, old gym (1931)
Armstrong Science Building (1932)
Hollis Burke Frissell Library (1932)

See also
African-American architects
Robert Charles Bates, an early architecture teacher at Claflin University
Passage 2:
Helen Eugenia Hagan
Helen Eugenia Hagan (January 10, 1891 – March 6, 1964) was an American pianist, music educator and composer of African descent.

Life
Helen Eugenia Hagan was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, the daughter of John A. and Mary Estella Neal Hagan. She studied piano with her mother and then in the public schools of New Haven, Connecticut. Around the age of nine, she began playing organ for the Dixwell Avenue Congregational United Church in New Haven.She studied at Yale School of Music with pianist H Stanley Knight and composer Horatio Parker, graduating in 1912 with a bachelor's degree in music. In doing so, she became the first known African American woman to earn a Yale degree.She performed as soloist on her own Piano Concerto in C Minor in May 1912 with the New Haven Symphony Orchestra conducted by Parker. She received the Samuel Simmons Stanford scholarship to study in Paris, with Blanche Selva and Vincent d'Indy, and graduated from Schola Cantorum in 1914.Hagan returned to the United States as World War I began and began a career as a concert pianist, touring from 1915 to 1918. In 1918 she was music director (i.e. music department chair) at Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial State College. In early 1919 she left for France to entertain black troops of the American Expeditionary Forces, along with spirituals singer Joshua Blanton and the Rev. Henry Hugh Proctor, under the auspices of the YMCA. General John Pershing personally requested that Ms. Hagan entertain the troops.In 1920 Hagan married John Taylor Williams of Morristown, New Jersey but continued her concert career. They divorced ca. 1931.She had a music studio in Morristown for at least a decade and was the first African American woman admitted to the Morristown Chamber of Commerce. She taught at the Mendelssohn Conservatory of Music in Chicago and pursued a Masters of Arts degree from Teachers College, Columbia University. In the 1930s she served as dean of music at Bishop College in Marshall, Texas. She also continued to work as a choir director and church organist. She died in New York City after an extended illness.On September 29, 2016, a crowdfunded monument for Hagan's previously unmarked grave was unveiled at New Haven's Evergreen Cemetery, and the day was declared "Women Making Music Day" by New Haven mayor Toni Harp. The New Haven Symphony Orchestra's season opening concert that evening was performed in Ms. Hagan's honor.The only known video footage of Helen Hagen is in the 1954 New York Board of Education documentary Let Us Break Bread Together, where she is shown performing in a school context.

Works
The Piano Concerto is the only work by Helen Hagan to survive. In 2014 Lola Perrin and the Ivory Duo Piano Ensemble made a transcription from the 1912 manuscript to create a performable version in a piano reduction. In 2022, pianist Samantha Ege recorded a two piano version on her album Black Renaissance Woman. Composer and Yale School of Music alum Soomin Kim has re-orchestrated the work based on the existing sources. The new version was first performed by the Yale Philharmonia and Samantha Ege on October 21, 2022.Her other compositions, including songs, piano pieces, a violin sonata (pre-1912), and string quartets, have all been lost. The New Haven Symphony Orchestra is an active advocate for Ms. Hagan's legacy and encourages anyone who might be in possession of a score or manuscript of her music to please contact the Symphony.
Passage 3:
Todd Duncan
Robert Todd Duncan (February 12, 1903 – February 28, 1998) was an American baritone opera singer and actor. One of the first African-Americans to sing with a major opera company, Duncan is also noted for appearing as Porgy in the premier production of Porgy and Bess (1935).

Early life
Duncan was born February 12, 1903, in Danville, Kentucky, to John and Lettie (Cooper) Duncan.  They were married in Danville 1901, he being born in Danville, and she born in Frankfort. John was a garage owner and Lettie was a music teacher.  He obtained his musical training at Butler University in Indianapolis with a B.A. in music followed by an M.A. from Columbia University Teachers College.

Career
In 1934, Duncan debuted in Pietro Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana at the Mecca Temple in New York with the Aeolian Opera, a black opera company.Duncan was George Gershwin's personal choice as the first performer of the role of Porgy in Porgy and Bess in 1935 and played the role more than 1,800 times.  He led the cast during the Washington run of Porgy and Bess at the National Theatre in 1936, to protest the theatre's policy of segregation. Duncan stated that he "would never play in a theater which barred him from purchasing tickets to certain seats because of his race." Eventually management would give into the demands and allow for the first integrated performance at National Theatre.  Duncan was also the first performer for the role of Stephen Kumalo in Kurt Weill's Lost in the Stars which opened on Broadway at the Music Box Theatre on October 30, 1949, and closed on July 1, 1950, after 281 performances.
In 1938, Duncan appeared on the London stage at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in C.B.Cochran's musical production The Sun Never Sets. The cast included fellow American Adelaide Hall, Leslie Banks, Edna Best and Stewart Granger. The musical was adapted by Pat Wallace and Guy Bolton from various stories written by Edgar Wallace and the show included original music by Cole Porter. Costumes were designed by Elizabeth Haffenden. One of the numbers Duncan sang was 'River God'. After the London run closed, Duncan and Adelaide Hall from the original cast toured Britain with the production.
Duncan taught voice at Howard University in Washington, D.C. from 1930 until 1945. While teaching at Howard, he continued touring as a soloist with pianists William Duncan Allen and George Malloy.  He had a very successful career as a concert singer with over 2,000 performances in 56 countries and two film roles. He retired from Howard and opened his own voice studio teaching privately and giving periodic recitals.
In 1945, he became the first African American to sing with a major opera company, and the first black person to sing in an opera with an otherwise white cast, when he performed the role of Tonio in Leoncavallo's Pagliacci with the New York City Opera.  In the same year he sang the role of Escamillo, the bullfighter, in Bizet's Carmen.  In 1954, Duncan was the first to record "Unchained Melody", a popular song with music by Alex North and lyrics by Hy Zaret.  The recording was made for the soundtrack of the obscure prison film Unchained, in which Duncan also played a minor character.  Following Duncan's version, the song went on to become one of the most recorded songs of the 20th century.
In his final interview, Todd Duncan spoke of his love for spirituals: "... spirituals are so deep inside of me, it's difficult for me to find words that are meaningful.  Spirituals are a part of whatever I am.  When I sing them my being sings them, not my throat.... It is very difficult for me to put into words something that is at the bottom of my very being."In addition to singing, Duncan was also a voice teacher. Among his notable pupils was operatic bass Philip Booth who was a mainstay at the Metropolitan Opera for two decades.

Honors and death
In 1978, the Washington Performing Arts Society presented his 75th birthday gala.  Duncan was awarded the George Peabody Medal of Music from the Peabody Conservatory of Music of Johns Hopkins University in 1984.  Other awards he received include a medal of honor from Haiti, an NAACP award, the Donaldson Award, the New York Drama Critics' Award for Lost in the Stars, and honorary doctorates from Valparaiso University and Butler University.
Duncan was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity.He died of a heart ailment at his home in Washington, D.C., February 28, 1998, survived by his wife, Gladys Jackson Duncan, and adopted son, Charles, a successful attorney.

See also
List of African American firsts
Passage 4:
Franklinton Elementary School (North Carolina)
Franklin County Schools is a PK–12 graded school district serving Franklin County, North Carolina, United States. Its 16 schools serve 7,769 students as of the 2022–23 school year. The administrative offices are located in Louisburg.

Student demographics
For the 2022–23 school year, Franklin County Schools had a total population of 7,769 students and 582.66 teachers on a (FTE) basis. This produced a student-teacher ratio of 14.87:1. That same year, out of the student total, the gender ratio was 52% male to 48% female. The demographic group makeup was: 37% White, 31% Black, 25% Hispanic, 6% Two or more Races, .6% Asian, .4% American Indian. For the same school year, 72% of the students received free and reduced-cost lunches.

Governance
The primary governing body of Franklin County Schools follows a council–manager government format with a seven-member Board of Education appointing a Superintendent to run the day-to-day operations of the system. The school system currently resides in the North Carolina State Board of Education's Third District.

Board of education
The seven members of the Board of Education are elected by district (five districts and two at-large seats) in staggered four-year terms with general elections being held during the North Carolina State Primary on even numbered years.  They generally meet on the second Monday of each month. The current members of the board are: Dr. Elizabeth Keith (District 3, Chair), Meghan Jordan (District 5), Bernard Hall (District 1), Tommy Piper (District 2), Debra Brodie (District 4), Rosemary Champion (At-large, Vice-Chair), and Paige Sayles (At-large).

Superintendent
Dr. Rhonda Schuhler currently serves as the Franklin County Schools Superintendent.

Member schools
Franklin County Schools has 16 schools ranging from pre-kindergarten to twelfth grade. Those 16 schools are separated into four high schools, four middle schools, and eight elementary schools.

High schools
Bunn High School (Bunn)
Franklin County Early College (Louisburg)
Franklinton High School (Franklinton)
Louisburg High School (Louisburg)

Middle schools
Bunn Middle School (Bunn)
Cedar Creek Middle School (Youngsville)
Franklinton Middle School (Franklinton)
Terrell Lane Middle School (Louisburg)

Elementary schools
Bunn Elementary School (Bunn)
Edward Best Elementary School (Louisburg)
Franklinton Elementary School (Franklinton)
Laurel Mill Elementary School (Louisburg)
Long Mill Elementary School (Youngsville)
Louisburg Elementary School (Louisburg)
Royal Elementary School (Louisburg)
Youngsville Elementary School [year-round] (Youngsville)

Athletics
According to the North Carolina High School Athletic Association, for the 2021-2025 conference realignment: Bunn, Franklinton and Louisburg high schools are all in the Big East Conference, with Bunn and Louisburg being Class 2A and Franklinton being Class 3A. The early college does not have any athletic teams, but students that attend the early college are eligible to try out for the high school team in their home district.

See also
List of school districts in North Carolina
Passage 5:
Sierra Linda High School
Sierra Linda High School is a high school located in the west part of Phoenix, Arizona, USA, administered by the Tolleson Union High School District. It had 1,787 students as of October 1, 2013, but currently holds about 1,867 as of the 2018–19 school year. It opened in 2008; due to facility issues, students attended the first semester of classes at La Joya Community High School, then moved into the campus in January 2009. Students of the 2012 cohort were the first graduating class, with approximately 355 students.
Passage 6:
Oblate Sisters of Providence
The Oblate Sisters of Providence (OSP) is a Catholic women's religious institute founded by Mother Mary Elizabeth Lange, and James Nicholas Joubert in 1829 in Baltimore, Maryland for the education of girls of African descent. It was the first permanent community of Black Catholic sisters in the United States. 
The Oblate Sisters were free women of color who sought to provide Baltimore's African American population with education and "a corps of teachers from its own ranks." The congregation is also a member of the Women of Providence in Collaboration.

History
Founding
James Nicholas Joubert was born in France, and working in Saint-Domingue, (Haiti), when he was forced by the Revolution to escape to the United States. Arriving in Baltimore, he entered St. Mary's Seminary to become a Sulpician priest. After his ordination, he was given charge of the black French-speaking Catholics of St. Mary's chapel. Finding he was making no headway as the children were having trouble reading and learning their catechism he had the idea of founding a school for the purpose of educating these children. In this he was encouraged by his two friends, Fathers Babade and Tessier.He was introduced to two women of African descent who kept a small private school and had a hope of consecrating their lives to God. Father Joubert made known to them his plans for a school for girls of African descent and they offered to be at his service. Father Joubert proposed that they also form a religious institute as well as conducting a school. This idea would become St. Frances Academy in 1828.With the approval of James Whitfield, Archbishop of Baltimore, a novitiate was begun. A little over a year later, on 2 July 1829, the first four sisters, Miss Elisabeth Lange from Santiago, Cuba, Miss Mary Rosine Boegues of Saint Domingue, Miss Mary Frances Balas of Saint Domingue, Miss Mary Theresa Duchemin of Baltimore made their vows.Sister Mary Lange was chosen superior, and Rev. Father Joubert was appointed director. Pope Gregory XVI approved the institute on 2 October 1831 under the title of Oblate Sisters of Providence. The sisters opened other Catholic schools for African American girls in the city as well as teaching adult women in evening classes and opened a home for widows. The sisters educated youth and nursed the terminally ill during the cholera epidemic of 1832. They provided a home for orphans and sheltered the elderly. The sisters took in washing, ironing and mending to care for the "children of the house". The organization did not consider "previous condition of servitude a liability for Oblate membership" and eight of the forty women who joined in the antebellum years (1828-1860) had been slaves.

Expansion
In 1871 the sisters vacated the motherhouse on Richmond St. because the city needed the property. A new location was found on a knoll on what was then the outskirts of the city and a new motherhouse was built on Chase St. The sisters continued to operate an orphanage as well as a day and boarding school within the convent walls.
Foreign missions began in 1900 when the Oblates opened their first mission in Havana, Cuba. The OSPs established seven missions in Cuba but left in 1961 when the regime of Fidel Castro made it impossible for them to continue their work. In 1903 a convent and school opened on Old Providence Island in the western Caribbean. Due to extremely harsh conditions, the mission closed after fifteen months.
By 1910 the sisters conducted schools and orphanages at Baltimore, Washington, Leavenworth, St. Louis, and Normandy, Missouri. Eventually the institute founded schools in eighteen states. Some missions only lasted a few years while others endured and changed with the needs of the community.

Modern era
By the 1950s there were over 300 Oblate Sisters of Providence teaching and caring for African American children. The Oblates had missions in the Dominican Republic and opened missions in Costa Rica in 1964, where they continue today.The motherhouse remained on Chase Street in Baltimore until a new motherhouse was built in 1961 at 701 Gun Rd. in southwest Baltimore County. It is called Our Lady of Mount Providence and remains the motherhouse today. Several missions operated on the motherhouse property including Mt. Providence Junior College from 1963–1966. 
The sisters began a Child Development Center and Reading and Math Center in 1972 on the motherhouse property. The sisters continue to operate St. Francis Academy on Chase Street in Baltimore.

Bill and Camille Cosby donations
In 2005, Camille Cosby (wife of Bill Cosby), an alumna of a school in Washington run by the Oblates, made a donation to the school to create an endowment that will pay the tuition for 16 students a year.The Cosbys made another donation in 2012 to assist St. Frances Academy in building a community center in East Baltimore. The community center was originally named after her and her husband, but his name was removed after the revelation of multiple sexual offenses.

Charism
"The original inspiration of the Oblate Sisters of Providence is that gift of the Spirit so evident in the life of Mother Mary Lange.  This charism enables us, with total trust in God's Providence, to bring joy, healing and the liberating, redemptive love of the suffering Jesus to the victims of poverty, racism, and injustice despite contradictions, prejudice and pain."Currently the institute has approximately eighty members. The Oblate Sisters continue in Baltimore, Maryland, Miami, Florida, Buffalo, New York, Alajuela and Siquirres, Costa Rica.

Motherhouse
The motherhouse houses the administrative offices, a health care unit, a novitiate (there is also a novitiate in Costa Rica), the Mother Lange Guild (supporting the cause for canonization of Mother Lange), and the Oblate Sisters of Providence Archives and Special Collections Library. Offices for the affiliated organizations of the National Oblate Sisters of Providence Alumni Association and Cojourners of the Oblate Sisters of Providence are also located at the Motherhouse.

See also
Oblate (religion)
Passage 7:
Robert Swirsky
Robert Swirsky (born December, 1962, Brooklyn, NY) is a computer scientist, author and pianist. In the early 1980s, he was one of the first regular contributors to the nascent computer magazine industry, including Popular Computing, Kilobaud Microcomputing, and Interface Age to Creative Computing.Swirsky holds bachelor's and master's degrees in computer science from Hofstra University, and is one of Hofstra's Alumni of Distinction. While there, he met VOIP pioneer Jeff Pulver who attended Hofstra as an undergraduate student. After graduating, Swirsky worked on projects ranging from aircraft avionics to one of the first all-software digital radio receivers for a VLF submarine application.
In 1989, Swirsky moved to California and joined Olivetti Advanced Technology's Unix group. He was a frequent speaker at Uniforum, Usenix, and other Unix shows, and hosted parties where he entertained people with song parodies about the Unix computer operating system, some of which were featured in a special Evatone Soundsheet issue of Interface Age magazine. He studied music and piano at Hofstra University with professor Morton Estrin.
After Olivetti, Swirsky went to Adobe Systems, where he was a member of the core PostScript team, and the team that developed the first versions of Photoshop for Microsoft Windows, including Win32s on Microsoft Windows for Workgroups 3.11. His work made him a participant in many industry standards committees, such as TWAIN, and he was a frequent speaker and contributor at ACM SIGGRAPH events. Before leaving Adobe in 1998, he worked with Will Harvey on HTML rendering technology.

The Disney years
In 1998, Swirsky began working for Walt Disney Imagineering R&D as Director, Creative Technology, under Bran Ferren, developing electronic games and digital imaging systems. He developed technology to play interactive games synchronized with live television shows, and electronic toys including Disney's Magical Moments Pin. His digital photography projects included systems to synchronize picture-taking with ride vehicles, and active infrared badges to identify picture-takers.
Swirsky was a major technical contributor to ABC's Enhanced TV, an Emmy Award-winning technology that allowed television viewers to play along with game shows and sporting events, and to answer live polls during talk shows. His interactive media research also involved working with nerdcore rapper Monzy, then an intern at Walt Disney Imagineering, on a variety of cutting-edge display technologies, including the display of digital data on a spherical surface.
Swirsky continues to work as a consultant for the themed entertainment industry, including Disney.

3D photography
Swirsky is known for his work in 3D digital photography. He has developed algorithms for generating full-color anaglyph images from stereo pairs that can be viewed through red/cyan glasses. A popular freeware program, Callipygian 3D, is widely used and has been featured on TechTV's The Screen Savers show several times, with Swirsky demonstrating it. The popularity of anaglyph images from Mars, and of anaglyph movies like Spy Kids 3D, introduced new audiences to anaglyph technology. Swirsky's software played a major role in enabling people to create their own anaglyph images.

Production company
In 2003, Swirsky started a production company, Thrill Science, Inc. "Thrill Science"., to produce and distribute short films and related media for the portable media player market. The company has a 20-acre (81,000 m2) lot adjacent to Walt Disney World in Florida. The property, known as Swampworth, is used as a filming location for productions, and as a studio for Swirsky's other projects.

Code used in The Terminator
Some of Swirsky's computer code, from the May 1984 issue of 73 Magazine, was used in the movie The Terminator in a scene where COBOL code was briefly displayed.
Passage 8:
Emma Azalia Hackley
Emma Azalia Hackley, also known as E. Azalia Hackley and Azalia Smith Hackley (1867–1922), was a concert soprano, newspaper editor, teacher, and political activist. An African American, she promoted racial pride through her support and promotion of music education for African-Americans. She was a choir director and she organized Folk Songs Festivals in African American churches and schools. Hackley studied music for years, including in Paris under opera singer Jean de Reszke. She was a music teacher who taught Roland Hayes, Marian Anderson, and R. Nathaniel Dett. She founded the Vocal Normal Institute in Chicago.
She co-founded both the Imperial Order of Libyans and the Colored Women's League. She was a newspaper editor for the women's section of The Statesman and an author. Hackley published The Colored Girl Beautiful, a "how to" on becoming an accomplished and refined African American lady.

Early life
Born Emma Azalia Smith on June 29, 1867, in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, she was the daughter of Henry B. and Corilla (Carrilla) Smith. Her mother, formerly Corilla Beard, lived in Detroit and her father was from Murfreesboro. They moved south after their marriage. The daughter of an escaped slave, Corilla founded a school in Murfreesboro for former enslaved people and their children. She gave voice lessons at night. In 1870, the school was threatened and attacked by the Ku Klux Klan and other hostile groups during evening singing lessons. Concerned for the safety of their family, the Smiths moved to Detroit, Michigan, in 1870 or in the 1870s. Her father was a blacksmith. Corilla was a teacher and supported herself and the girls after the Smiths separated. Hackley had a younger sister named Marietta.Hackley learned to play the piano at age three and took voice and violin lessons as a child. She was the first African American student to attend public school there. She sang and played piano at high school dances, which contributed to the Smith family's income. She completed her education at Capital High School and a normal school at the same time, graduating with honors from the Washington Normal School in 1886. She received a teaching certificate in 1887 and taught at Clinton Elementary School in Detroit from that year to 1894.She continued her voice and violin lessons, and she also took French lessons. She sang for the Detroit Musical Society. She paid for her lessons by giving piano lessons. Hackley also gave voice recitals. Due to her very light skin color and auburn hair, many people suggested that she try to pass for white in order to further her musical career. She refused to deny her heritage and remained intensely proud of her roots throughout her life.

Marriage
She married Edwin Henry Hackley, an attorney and newspaper publisher from Denver, Colorado in 1894. After the marriage, she moved to Colorado with him. Edwin Henry Hackley, educated at the University of Michigan, was the first African American admitted to the Colorado bar. He co-founded The Statesman with Joseph D.D. Rivers.Hackley and her husband co-founded the Imperial Order of Libyans, to combat racial prejudice and foment equality. At the turn of the twentieth century, Edwin sold his interest in The Statesman and published the Statesman-cum-Denver Star with his wife.Her health suffered due to the high altitude and Hackley decided to move east for her health. In 1901 or 1905, Hackley separated from her husband and left Denver for Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Hackley lived with her husband in Philadelphia in 1910 and 1912. Her mother-in-law lived with them in 1910. At the time, Edwin worked as a letter carrier and she was a singer and a music teacher. There is no record of the Hackleys having divorced. She was identified as a married woman on her death certificate of 1922; Edwin H. Hackley was identified as her husband. Identified as a widower and a playwright, Edwin died in 1940. Hackley was on his birth certificate as his deceased wife.

Career
She received her bachelor's degree from the Denver School of Music in 1900. She was the first African American graduate. Trained in the bel canto vocal style, she was a concert soprano. While receiving her education, she was the assistant director of a large choir in Denver and was the choir director at her church.She promoted racial pride through music. She defined herself as a "race musical missionary". She wanted children to be inspired, stimulated, and trained at her concerts. The Denver Post acknowledged her efforts to draw African Americans into music and said that she was "one of the best vocalists in the city."She established the Colorado branch of the Colored Women's League and was the editor of the Statesman Exponent, the woman's section of The Colorado Statesman. She wrote articles about African American literature and music, including the influence of music on children and home life. Other topics include civil government, current events, and the importance of compiling facts on blacks. She also wrote about household economies and hygiene. In one column she wrote of the Colored Women's League:

In mapping out this program we have borne in mind the great need for thought and talk on the practical as well as cultural side of woman's life. Our first work will be toward the education and improvement of our Colored women and the promotion of their interests.
She held her first performance of a concert tour in Denver in 1901. In 1901, Hackley moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to continue her career as a notable choral director. She was the director of music at the Episcopal Church of the Crucifixion. In 1904, she founded and led the 100-member People's Choir, which became known as the Hackley Choral.She organized Folk Songs Festivals to present African American Spirituals. She introduced Black folk music to an international audience at the World Sunday School Convention in Tokyo. She held large community concerts with programs that included classical music, operatic arias, and African American spirituals performed by her and local performers. She financed the programs and provided training sessions for local performers about ten days before the concert.In Paris, she studied under Jean de Reszke, a well-known opera singer and vocal coach in 1905 and 1906. She trained artists such as Roland Hayes, Marian Anderson, and R. Nathaniel Dett.Hackley wrote newspaper and magazine articles and short books. She gave lectures at churches, colleges, and schools throughout the United States and Canada. Hackley raised funds by holding benefit concerts, which was used to provide foreign scholarships for African American classical musicians.In 1912, she formed the Vocal Normal Institute in Chicago, Illinois, which operated until 1916. She had intended for it to be her headquarters and a central location for the school that she could return to between her tours. Instead it put a strain on her. As a result, her health began to decline.She gathered recommendations that she had made during her lecture tours for Black woman to succeed. In 1916, Hackley published The Colored Girl Beautiful, a "how to" on becoming a refined African American lady. She defined beauty, duty, and career and leadership opportunities for black women. She was described as one of W. E. B. Du Bois's Talented Tenth by Lois Brevard, her biographer.She was driven by a philosophy to uplift people, which she did by delivering lectures inspired by the 19th-century New Thought spiritual movement. She also enjoyed giving music lessons to large audiences. Juanita Karpf wrote the book Performing Racial Uplift: E. Azalia Hackley and African American Activism in the Post-Bellum to Pre-Harlem Era.

Death
Hackley collapsed on stage while performing in San Diego in 1921 and was brought back to Detroit. She died on December 13, 1922, at the home of her sister, Mrs. Marieta Johnson, in Detroit, Michigan. She is buried at the Elmwood Cemetery in Detroit.A special collection, the E. Azalia Hackley Collection of African Americans in the Performing Arts, was founded in her name at the Detroit Public Library in 1943.

In popular culture
A portrait of Hackley, painted by Detroit artist Telitha Cumi Bowens, was included in the 1988/89 exhibit Ain't I A Woman at the Museum of African American History, Detroit. The exhibit featured a dozen prominent Black women from the state of Michigan, including the Honorable Cora M. Brown, Ethelene Jones Crockett, M.D., and teacher Fannie M. Richards.

See also
List of African American pioneers of Colorado

Notes
Passage 9:
Thurgood Marshall College
Thurgood Marshall College (Marshall) is one of the seven undergraduate colleges at the University of California, San Diego.  The college, named after Thurgood Marshall, the first African-American Supreme Court Justice and lawyer for the landmark 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education, emphasizes "scholarship, social responsibility and the belief that a liberal arts education must include an understanding of [one's] role in society." Marshall College's general education requirements emphasize the culture of community involvement and multiculturalism; accordingly Marshall houses the minors in Public Service and Film Studies for the campus. Significant academic programs and departments have come out of the college over many decades: Communication, Ethnic Studies, Third World Studies, African American Studies, Urban Studies & Planning, and Education Studies.
Founded as Third College in 1970 amid the student activism of the period, TMC's original aim was to help students understand their own community through a critical examination of diversity and community in the United States. Marshall College's required writing program is called Dimensions of Culture (DOC), and is a 3 quarter (1 year) sequence that explores race, identity, imagination, tradition, and the law in the United States. During President Obama's administration, the White House honored UC San Diego and Marshall College's Public Service minor and charter school outreach as exemplary community service institutions serving the United States.

Early history
In November 1965, the College III Preliminary Planning Committee released the first substantial report on what form UCSD's third college would take. The committee, comprising faculty members George Backus, Henry Booker, Gabriel Jackson, C.D. Keeling, and committee chair Andrew Wright, suggested that College III should focus itself on history and theory.
The Wright Committee report suggested that the college have a muse—namely Clio, the Greek muse of history. History was chosen by the committee because it mixed humanism with science—College III would be a sort of "common ground" between the science of Revelle and the humanities of Muir.
In a quiet act of rebelliousness (or perhaps it was just individuality), the committee planned that College III students would only have to take three courses per quarter to graduate in four years, as opposed to the four it took at the other UCSD colleges. Citing the three-course "full load" at UC Santa Cruz, the committee suggested that taking four courses in one quarter would "make the students ride off in all directions," and that three-in depth courses would be preferable.
The final note of the Wright Committee report described what the committee felt was needed in a College III Provost "a paragon of intellectual vitality, scholarly accomplishment, and administrative talent... sympathetic with the aims of College III, but independent enough... to be able to shape the College in important ways." They asked that a provost be appointed as soon as possible.
By 1967, College III had found its first provost, Armin Rappaport, a history professor at U.C. Berkeley. It was appropriate that the provost of a college with Clio as its muse would be a historian, and Rappaport was that. By the time May rolled around, College III was now "Third College."
However, with the swirling political changes of the late 1960s, the college of Clio and Rappaport was never to be. Once the controversy and battles among students, faculty, and administration commenced—featuring lively figures such as Herbert Schiller, Herbert Marcuse, and Angela Davis—the future of Third College would be in a turmoil that didn't fully clear until it finally received its official name, Thurgood Marshall College, in 1993.
Chancellor William J. McGill persuaded Dr. Joseph Watson to become the first operational provost of Third College during this very turbulent time in 1970. Provost Watson's term lasted eleven years as he then assumed a higher campus position as Vice Chancellor for Student Affairs.  Professor Faustina Solís then followed as the second college administrator and was also the university's first Latina provost. She served in that capacity from 1981 to 1988. Solís established public health coursework for undergraduates and medical students, following years of social work and health care for under-served populations. She was honored in 1990 when Thurgood Marshall Lecture Hall was renamed the Faustina F. Solís Hall.

Student activism
Naming controversy
At its inception, students pushed for the new college to be named "Lumumba-Zapata College" in honor of the legendary twentieth century revolutionaries Patrice Lumumba and Emiliano Zapata. Unable to get approval for this name from UC Administration, the college was renamed Third College. This name did also inspire the idea that the student body would be one-third white students, one-third black students, and one-third definable minority students. Third College took up much of the activism that the campus was lacking, and the naming controversy was a catalyst for this movement. However, UCSD failed to attract enough black students for this plan to reach fruition and the UC Regents would not allow large scale deviation from the University of California's admission guidelines.In the early 1990s, an attempt was made to name the college after Martin Luther King Jr., but failed when UCSD students objected to naming the college after someone who was charged with plagiarizing his doctoral dissertation. More to the point, King's family announced that they would rather see a full-fledged King College built in the South, and preferably in Atlanta.
In 1993 UCSD's Third College finally received its official name in honor of the famous lawyer and Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall. Before becoming the first African American Supreme Court Justice, Marshall argued the 1954 landmark civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education. Justice Marshall was widely known and recognized for his historic contributions to American life and dedication to breaking down barriers to education, civil rights, freedom of speech, women's rights, and the right to privacy. Today Thurgood Marshall College continues to honor the legacy of its namesake by promoting a curriculum and environment that empowers students to become both scholars and citizens.

DOC controversy
In the early 1990s, Thurgood Marshall College created a core freshman writing program that provided a critical examination of identity and diversity in American culture. The intellectual program was inspired by the University of Chicago and Columbia University's freshman humanities programs. The program, Dimensions of Culture (DOC), periodically generated heated debates among students, families, and alumni, based on difficult political issues.
In the spring of 2007, a new curriculum controversy arose pertaining to DOC as students at TMC began protesting against the administrators of the college. The Lumumba-Zapata Coalition (which had resurfaced with the addition of graduate students) along with other students claimed that DOC had lost some of its original messages, protesting against what they termed a "new and diluted" core writing requirement with a decreased focus on race and the ethnic significance of the individual within society. The protests, including picketing, began with the controversial non-renewal of two DOC Teaching Assistants’ contracts for the subsequent year. Others believed that the coalition was pushing an agenda of political indoctrination that conflicted with the academic goals of the Dimensions of Culture Program and the sensibility of a science oriented campus.
The protests had mixed effects. In response to the complaints in regards to the curriculum a new committee was set up to review and change the curriculum accordingly with an emphasis on hiring tenured faculty to teach DOC. Student positions with voting rights were included on the permanent committee so an equitable curriculum will be created reflecting full community input from both students and faculty. Thurgood Marshall College Student Council (TMCSC) issued a report recommending that DOC have an upper division course which also sparked the public service course. In August 2009, Co-Director of the DOC Program, Robert Horwitz stated, "Various criticisms were leveled at DOC in the last few years, and faculty and student investigations concluded that changes needed to be made. Those changes have been implemented and have resulted in a new DOC.”

College programs
Minors
Thurgood Marshall College has created more academic departments and programs than any other college at UCSD, including Third World Studies, Ethnic Studies, Education Studies, African American Studies Minor, and Urban Studies and Planning. TMC is now home to two UCSD Minors: the Public Service Minor and the Film Studies Minor.
The Public Service Minor encourages students to understand the history and practices of public service and to work towards the development of civic skills. Those skills and practices are essential cornerstones of participation in a democratic society regardless of one's chosen profession. The coursework for the minor emphasizes the history and emergence of the non-profit sector as a national institution distinct from the private and public spheres. The practicum aspects of the minor couples with the traditional academic work encourages students to see the connection between the deeds of charitable service and the historic worth of citizens participation in the common public franchise.The Film Studies Minor provides students an exciting opportunity to examine the many facets of American and International cinema. Students interested in exploring cinema as a multidimensional art medium will engage in the analysis of cinematic works of various forms. Study of film genres, history, theories, directors, cultural perspectives and more allow students to gain a robust understanding of cinema as a historical and contemporary means of expression. The interdisciplinary nature of the minor provides investigation of cinematic art through its connection to related fields such as Communication, Literature, Sociology and Visual Arts. Students pursuing the Film Studies Minor exhibit a wide range of interests; from those who plan graduate study in film to those who simply wish to understand better this powerful and influential medium.

Morehouse/Spelman/Xavier Student Exchange Program
The Morehouse/Spelman Student Exchange Program was officially launched in the fall quarter of 1989. This formal exchange program with two distinguished Historically Black Colleges was developed by Thurgood Marshall College and is open to all UCSD undergraduates. Morehouse College and Spelman College are both located in Atlanta, Georgia.
Xavier University in New Orleans became the third historic Black college to have this exchange with Marshall College in 2016.

Marshall partnership schools
Then Thurgood Marshall College Provost Cecil Lytle and Sociology Professor Bud Mehan were instrumental in founding the Preuss School at UCSD, which opened in 1999 on campus despite strong opposition. The project was seen by faculty as a deviation from UC San Diego's focus on science and medicine. However, providing the impetus for the founding of The Preuss School reflected the social justice oriented mission of Marshall College. Between 2007 and 2012 Preuss has consistently been listed among the top 50 American high schools by both Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report.After Preuss was established successfully, the idea and structure of the UCSD-supported charter school model was expanded to Gompers Preparatory Academy. Based on educational theories, the successes of Preuss should be able to be recreated in a different environment, which was why Gompers was selected.  Gompers was historically one of the most dangerous and low performing schools in the district, and yet has been transformed into an academically rigorous school with 100% graduation rate with the transition to the charter school model.The College maintains strong links to both charter schools by providing them with hundreds of undergraduate tutors and mentors every year from all six colleges. In addition, the College's Provost is a Preuss School Board Member.

Artist in residence
The artist-in-residence program, begun in 2006, brings to campus leading performers and visual artists from San Diego and Southern California to UC San Diego. Each artist is featured for one year and given the opportunity to develop new showcase work, which often goes on to fuller production off campus. Marshall College is the first college at UCSD to commission public art on campus, and has contributed in the creation of a vibrant campus community. Allan Havis, a professor from the Theatre Department, launched these programs during his term as college provost from 2006 to 2016.

Student life
Student involvement
Marshall College is home to an eclectic mix of student-led organizations, programs to facilitate students' success, and opportunities to give back to the Marshall community.

Student organizations
ACT (Active Community at TMC)
Commuter Board
CAUSE (Cultural Association Uniting Students through Education)
Graduation Committee
Judicial Board
LC3 (Leadership Committee for Cultural Celebration)
MAC (Marshall Activities Committee)
Marshall Memos
MSC (Marshall Spirit Crew)
Marshallpalooza Committee
SCORE (Student Committee on Residential Engagement)
TMCSC (Thurgood Marshall College Student Council)
TMTV (Thurgood Marshall Television)
TRES (Transfer and Re-Entry Student Organizations)

Student programs
Dine-with-a-Prof
Each One Reach One
Marshall Mentor Program
Transfer Connect & Success

Leadership Development
Dean's Office Internship
Lift as You Climb
Orientation Leaders (OL)
Resident Advisors (RA)
Resident Life Interns
Passage 10:
Robert Khayat
Robert Conrad Khayat (born April 18, 1938) was the 15th Chancellor of the University of Mississippi. He also played American football as a placekicker, guard, and center for Ole Miss and in the National Football League (NFL) for the Washington Redskins during the 1960, 1962 and 1963 seasons. He was appointed Chancellor in 1995.

Early years
Khayat was born in Moss Point, Mississippi, to Lebanese parents. He attended Moss Point High School and the University of Mississippi. He received both bachelor of arts and Juris Doctor degrees from the University of Mississippi. He also played football for the Ole Miss Rebels football team from 1957 to 1959. He also received an LL.M. degree from Yale University.

Professional football career
Khayat was selected by the Cleveland Browns in the 1960 NFL Draft. He was then traded to the Washington Redskins in April 1960. He played for the Redskins during the 1960, 1962, and 1963 seasons. Following the 1960 season, he was named to the Pro Bowl squad. He appeared in a total of 40 NFL games and kicked 38 field goals and 90 extra points.His brother Eddie Khayat also played and coached in the NFL.

Later years
Khayat later became a lawyer and taught law at the University of Mississippi School of Law.He was appointed chancellor in 1995. In one of his first acts as chancellor, Khayat arranged for a $5.4 million gift from Jim and Sally Barksdale to establish an honors college at the university. In 1996, with enrollment declining, Khayat retained the public relations firm, Burson-Marsteller, to conduct a survey of public perception — including university symbols. When The New York Times reported on the review, which included the Confederate Flag and other Old South symbols, a media frenzy ensued.
On January 6, 2009, Khayat announced his retirement effective June 30, 2009. He was succeeded by Daniel Jones on June 15, 2009.
Khayat's memoir, The Education of a Lifetime, was published on September 10, 2013.
Passage 11:
Yeni Həyat, Khachmaz
Yeni Həyat (also, Yeni-Khayat) is a village and municipality in the Khachmaz Rayon of Azerbaijan.  It has a population of 3,503.
Passage 12:
Fort Wagner
Fort Wagner or Battery Wagner was a beachhead fortification on Morris Island, South Carolina, that covered the southern approach to Charleston Harbor. It was the site of two American Civil War battles in the campaign known as Operations Against the Defenses of Charleston in 1863, in which United States forces took heavy casualties while trying to seize the fort.

Construction
Named for deceased Lt. Col. Thomas M. Wagner, Fort Wagner measured 250 yards (230 m) by 100 yards (91 m), and spanned an area between the Atlantic on the east and an impassable swamp on the west. Its walls, composed of sand and earth, rose 30 feet (9.1 m) above the level beach and were supported by palmetto logs and sandbags. The fort's arsenal included fourteen cannons, the largest a 10-inch (250 mm) Columbiad that fired a 128-pound shell. It was a large structure capable of sheltering nearly 1,000 of the fort's 1,700-man garrison and provided substantial protection against naval shelling. The fort's land face was protected by a water-filled trench, 10 feet (3.0 m) wide and 5 feet (1.5 m) deep, surrounded by buried land mines and sharpened palmetto stakes.  The fort itself was supported by defenses throughout Morris Island.

History
The First Battle of Fort Wagner, occurred on July 11, 1863. Only 12 Confederate soldiers were killed, as opposed to 339 losses for the U.S. side.The Second Battle of Fort Wagner (pictured in Glory (1989 film)), a week later, is better known. It was the Union attack on July 18, 1863, led by the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, one of the first major American military units made up of black soldiers. Colonel Robert Gould Shaw led the 54th Massachusetts on foot while they charged, and was killed in the assault.Although a tactical defeat, the publicity of the battle of Fort Wagner led to further action for black U.S. troops in the Civil War, and it spurred additional recruitment that gave the Union Army a further numerical advantage in troops over the South.Union forces besieged the fort after the unsuccessful assault. By August 25, Union entrenchments were close enough to attempt an assault on the Advanced Rifle Pits, 240 yards in front of the Battery, but the attempt was defeated. A second attempt, by the 24th Massachusetts Infantry, on August 26 was successful. After enduring almost 60 days of heavy U.S. shelling, the Confederates abandoned it on the night of September 6–7, 1863, withdrawing all operable cannons and the garrison.The main reason the fort was abandoned was a concern about the loss of the garrison due to artillery fire and the threat of imminent assault.  On September 6, the garrison commander, Colonel Keitt, wrote to his superiors, "The garrison must be taken away immediately after dark, or it will be destroyed or captured. It is idle to deny that the heavy Parrott shells have breached the walls and are knocking away the bomb-proofs. Pray have boats immediately after dark at Cummings Point to take away the men. I say deliberately that this must be done or the garrison will be sacrificed. I am sending the wounded and sick now to Cummings Point, and will continue to do so, if possible, until all are gone. I have a number of them now there. I have not in the garrison 400 effective men, including artillery. The engineers agree in opinion with me, or, rather, shape my opinion. I shall say no more." A council of war in Charleston on the 4th had already reached the same conclusion, and the evacuation was carried out as planned.Within twenty years of the Civil War, the remnants of the fort had been washed away by erosion on Morris Island. A group of three ex-servicemen traveled to the fort in May 1885 and reported that the entire fort and approaches to it had washed away into the ocean.The fall of Battery Wagner would have considerable strategic significance. With its loss and that of Fort Gregg, Morris Island too fell to the United States. Although Charleston remained in the hands of the rebels its port was effectively closed.  At the end of the year Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles could report that "the commerce of Charleston has ceased."  The impact also showed directly in rebel customs receipts, which fell drastically from 1863 to 1864.  The labors and sacrifices of the United States forces during the storms and siege had in the end shut down a vital lifeline to the rebellion.

54th Massachusetts
The most famous regiment that fought for the Union in the battle of Fort Wagner was the 54th regiment, which was one of the first African-American regiments in the war. The 54th was controversial in the North, where many people supported the abolition of slavery but still treated African Americans as lesser or inferior to whites. Though some claimed blacks could not fight as well as whites, the actions of the 54th Massachusetts demonstrated once again the fallacy in that argument, as this was not the first time blacks ever fought in war or even for the United States.
William Carney, an African American and a sergeant with the 54th, is considered the first black recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions at Fort Wagner in recovering and returning the unit's American flag to Union lines. After the battle, the Confederates buried the regiment's commanding officer, Colonel Shaw, in an unmarked mass grave with the African-American soldiers of his regiment as an insult to him. Instead, his family considered it an honor that Shaw was buried with his men.
Morris Island is smaller than 1,000 acres and is subject to extensive erosion by storm and sea. Much of the site of Fort Wagner has been eroded away, including the place where the Union soldiers were buried. However, by the time that happened, the soldiers' remains were no longer there because soon after the end of the Civil War, the Army disinterred and reburied all the remains, including presumably those of Shaw, at the Beaufort National Cemetery in Beaufort, South Carolina, where their gravestones were marked as "unknown"..   The number missing presumed dead at Battery Wagner was 391, among the 10 regiments involved. 54th with the most at 146.  100 NY with 119, 48th NY with 112. The number of unknowns at Beaufort on their Civil monument 1870s is 174 unknowns.  These unknowns collected from three Southern states. Sites include East Florida,  Millen and Lawton Georgia  and Hilton Head.  Two Confederate POW sites included. Given the missing at Morris island is  more than double the total unknowns at Beaufort National Cemetery, it appears many bodies were not removed and were lost to the shifting sea.

In popular culture
This fort plays a major part in the film Glory. The final scene portrays Shaw and the men of the 54th Massachusetts leading the attack and storming the fort unsuccessfully.
In the book Magnus Chase and the Ship of the Dead, a character named T.J. dies charging the battlements at Fort Wagner.

Preservation
Although the Atlantic Ocean consumed Fort Wagner in the late 1800s and the original site is now offshore, the Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 118 acres (0.48 km2) of historic Morris Island, which had gun emplacements and other military installations during the war.
Passage 13:
James Meredith
James Howard Meredith (born June 25, 1933) is an American civil rights activist, writer, political adviser, and United States Air Force veteran who became, in 1962, the first African-American student admitted to the racially segregated University of Mississippi after the intervention of the federal government (an event that was a flashpoint in the civil rights movement). Inspired by President John F. Kennedy's inaugural address, Meredith decided to exercise his constitutional rights and apply to the University of Mississippi. His goal was to put pressure on the Kennedy administration to enforce civil rights for African Americans. The admission of Meredith ignited the Ole Miss riot of 1962 where Meredith's life was threatened and 31,000 American servicemen were required to quell the violence - the largest ever invocation of the Insurrection Act of 1807.In 1966, Meredith planned a solo 220-mile (350-kilometer) March Against Fear from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi; he wanted to highlight continuing racism in the South and encourage voter registration after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He did not want major civil rights organizations involved. The second day, he was shot by a white gunman and suffered numerous wounds. Leaders of major organizations vowed to complete the march in his name after he was taken to the hospital. While Meredith was recovering, more people from across the country became involved as marchers. He rejoined the march and when Meredith and other leaders entered Jackson on June 26, they were leading an estimated 15,000 marchers, in what was the largest civil rights march in Mississippi. During the march, more than 4,000 African Americans registered to vote, and it was a catalyst to continued community organizing and additional registration.
In 2002 and again in 2012, the University of Mississippi led year-long series of events to celebrate the 40th and 50th anniversaries of Meredith's integration of the institution. He was among numerous speakers invited to the campus, where a statue of him commemorates his role. The Lyceum-The Circle Historic District at the center of the campus has been designated as a National Historic Landmark for these events.

Early life and education
Meredith was born in 1933 in Kosciusko, Mississippi, the son of Roxie (Patterson) and Moses Meredith. He is of African-American, English Canadian, Scots and Choctaw heritage. His family nickname was "J-Boy". European traders intermarried with some Choctaw during the colonial period. In the 1830s, thousands of Choctaw chose to stay in Mississippi and become United States citizens when most of the tribe left their traditional homeland for Indian Territory during the federally imposed removal. Those in the state had unions with European Americans and African Americans (some of whom were enslaved), adding to the multi-racial population in the developing territory.Meredith completed 11th grade at Attala County Training School (which was segregated as "white" and "colored" under the state's Jim Crow laws) and completed 12th grade at Gibbs High School in St. Petersburg, Florida. He graduated from high school in 1951. Then, Meredith enlisted in the United States Air Force. He served from 1951 to 1960.Afterward Meredith attended Jackson State University for two years, achieving good grades.

University of Mississippi
Challenge to the University
In 1961, inspired the day before by U.S. President John F. Kennedy, Meredith started to apply to the University of Mississippi, intending to insist on his civil rights to attend the state-funded university. It still admitted only white students under the state's culture of racial segregation, although the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional, as they are supported by all the taxpayers.
Meredith wrote in his application that he wanted admission for his country, race, family, and himself. He said,

Nobody handpicked me...I believed, and believe now, that I have a Divine Responsibility... I am familiar with the probable difficulties involved in such a move as I am undertaking and I am fully prepared to pursue it all the way to a degree from the University of Mississippi.
He was twice denied admission. During this time, he was advised by Medgar Evers, who was head of the state chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
On May 31, 1961, Meredith, with backing of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, filed suit in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi, alleging that the university had rejected him only because of his race, as he had a highly successful record of military service and academic courses. The case went through many hearings, after which the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled that Meredith had the right to be admitted to the state school. The state appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which supported the ruling of the appeals court.On September 13, 1962, the District Court entered an injunction directing the members of the Board of Trustees and the officials of the University to register Meredith. The Democratic Governor of Mississippi, Ross Barnett, declared "no school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your governor".  The state legislature quickly created a plan. They passed a law that denied admission to any person "who has a crime of moral turpitude against him" or who had been convicted of any felony offense or not pardoned. The same day it became law, Meredith was accused and convicted of "false voter registration," in absentia, in Jackson County. The conviction against Meredith was trumped up: Meredith both owned land in northern Mississippi and was registered to vote in Jackson, where he lived. "Later the clerk testified that Meredith was qualified to register and vote in Jackson [where he was registered]."
On September 20, the federal government obtained an injunction against enforcement of this Act and of the two state court decrees that had barred Meredith's registration. That day Meredith was rebuffed again by Governor Barnett in his efforts to gain admission, though university officials were prepared to admit him. On September 28, the Court of Appeals, en banc and after a hearing, found the Governor in civil contempt and ordered that he be arrested and pay a fine of $10,000 for each day that he kept up the refusal, unless he complied by October 2. On September 29, Lieutenant Governor Paul B. Johnson Jr. (elected Governor on November 5, 1963) was also found in contempt by a panel of the court, and a similar order was entered against him, with a fine of $5,000 a day.Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy had a series of phone calls with Governor Barnett between September 27 to October 1. Barnett reluctantly agreed to let Meredith enroll in the university, but secretly bargained with Kennedy on a plan which would allow him to save face.
Barnett committed to maintain civil order. Robert Kennedy ordered 127 U.S. Marshals as well as 316 deputized U.S. Border Patrol and 97 Federal Bureau of Prisons officers to accompany Meredith during his arrival and registration. On September 29, President Kennedy issued a proclamation commanding all persons engaged in the obstruction of the laws and the orders of the courts to "cease and desist therefrom and to disperse and retire peaceably forthwith", citing his authority under 10 U.S.C. § 332, § 333, and § 334 to use the militia or the armed forces to suppress any insurrection, domestic violence, unlawful combination, or conspiracy.

Rioting at the University
On the evening of September 29, the day after State Senator George Yarbrough withdrew the State Highway Police, a riot broke out. Whites opposing integration had been gathering at the campus and began fighting with federal agents. Despite the Kennedy administration's reluctance to use force, it ordered the nationalized Mississippi National Guard and federal troops to the campus. In the violent clashes which followed, two civilians were killed by gunshot wounds, and white rioters burned cars, pelted federal agents and soldiers with rocks, bricks and small arms fire, and damaged university property.

Enrollment
The day after the riots, on October 1, 1962, after federal and state forces took control, Meredith became the first African-American student to enroll at the University of Mississippi. Meredith's admission is regarded as a pivotal moment in the history of civil rights in the United States.
Many students harassed Meredith during his two semesters on campus, but others accepted him. According to first-person accounts, students living in Meredith's dorm bounced basketballs on the floor just above his room through all hours of the night. Other students ostracized him: when Meredith walked into the cafeteria for meals, the students eating would turn their backs. If Meredith sat at a table with other students, all of whom were white, the students would immediately get up and go to another table. He persisted through harassment and extreme isolation to graduate on August 18, 1963, with a degree in political science.

Education and activism
Meredith continued his education, focusing on political science, at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria. He returned to the United States in 1965. He attended law school through a scholarship at Columbia University and earned an LL.B (law degree) in 1968.In 1966, Meredith organized and led a solo, personal March Against Fear for 220 miles from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi, beginning on June 6, 1966. Inviting only black men to join him, he wanted to highlight continuing racial oppression in the Mississippi Delta, as well as to encourage blacks to register and vote following passage of the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized federal oversight and enforcement of rights. Governor Paul Johnson promised to allow the march and provide State Highway Police protection. Meredith wanted blacks in Mississippi to overcome fear of violence.Despite police, on the second day, Meredith was shot and wounded by Aubrey James Norvell, a white man whose motives were never determined, and who pleaded guilty at trial. Meredith was quickly taken to a hospital. Leaders of major organizations rallied at the news and vowed to complete the march in Meredith's name. They struggled to reconcile differing goals, but succeeded in attracting more than 10,000 marchers from local towns and across the country by the end.Meredith recovered from his wounds and rejoined the march before it reached Jackson on June 26, when 15,000 marchers entered the city in what had become the largest civil rights march in state history. During the march, more than 4,000 black Mississippians registered to vote. Continued community organizing was catalyzed by these events, and African Americans began to enter the political system again. Black voters in Mississippi have established a high rate of voter registration and voting participation.

Political career
In 1967, while living and studying in New York, Meredith decided to run as a Republican against incumbent Adam Clayton Powell Jr., a multi-term Democrat, in a special election for the Congressional seat in Harlem. He withdrew from the race and Powell was re-elected. Meredith said later of his campaign, "The Republican Party [of New York] made me an offer: full support in every way, everything." He had full access to top New York Republicans.After returning to Mississippi to live, in 1972 Meredith ran for the US Senate against Democratic senator James Eastland, who had been the incumbent for 29 years in what had operated as a one-party state. Following provisions of a new state constitution in 1890 that made voter registration extremely difficult, African Americans had been effectively disenfranchised and the Republican Party had been crippled. Meredith conceded that he had little chance of winning unless Governor George Wallace of Alabama entered the presidential race and split the white vote.An active Republican, Meredith served from 1989 to 1991 as a domestic adviser on the staff of United States Senator Jesse Helms. Faced with criticism from the civil rights community for working for the avowed segregationist, Meredith said that he had applied to every member of the Senate and House offering his services, and only Helms' office responded. He also wanted a chance to do research at the Library of Congress.In 2002, officials at the University of Mississippi celebrated the 40th anniversary of Meredith's historic admission and integration of the institution with a year-long series of events. Of the celebration, Meredith said,

It was an embarrassment for me to be there, and for somebody to celebrate it, oh my God. I want to go down in history, and have a bunch of things named after me, but believe me that ain't it.
He said he had achieved his main goal at the time by getting the federal government to enforce his rights as a citizen. He saw his actions as "an assault on white supremacy." In 2003, he was far more proud that his son Joseph Meredith graduated as the top doctoral student at the university's graduate business school.

Legacy and honors
In 2002, the University of Mississippi honored the 40th anniversary of Meredith's admission with numerous events.
In 2006, a statue of him was dedicated on campus in his honor.
In 2012, the University commemorated the 50th anniversary of the historic admission, featuring a range of speakers, artists, lectures and events during the year.
That year Meredith received the Harvard Graduate School of Education 'Medal for Education Impact' and was the school's convocation speaker. Meredith said it was the first award in 50 years he had accepted.

Cultural depictions
In 2011 miniseries The Kennedys, he was portrayed by Matthew G. Brown in episode five of the series, Life Sentences.

Political viewpoint
A highly independent man, Meredith has identified as an individual American citizen who demanded and received the constitutional rights held by any American, not as a participant in the Civil Rights Movement. There have been tensions between him and leaders of major organizations of the movement. When interviewed in 2002, the 40th anniversary of his enrollment at University of Mississippi, Meredith said, "Nothing could be more insulting to me than the concept of civil rights. It means perpetual second-class citizenship for me and my kind."Meredith was a supporter of the unsuccessful 1967 gubernatorial bid of ex-Mississippi Governor (and avowed segregationist) Ross Barnett, as well as the 1991 gubernatorial campaign of Louisiana State Representative and ex-Klansman David Duke.In a 2002 interview with CNN, Meredith said of his efforts to integrate Ole Miss, "I was engaged in a war. I considered myself engaged in a war from Day One. And my objective was to force the federal government—the Kennedy administration at that time—into a position where they would have to use the United States military force to enforce my rights as a citizen."

Personal life
On March 14, 1956, Meredith married Mary June Wiggins. She later worked as a high school English teacher. They had three sons, James, John and Joseph Howard Meredith.  Mary June Meredith died of heart failure in December 1979.
In 1982, Meredith married Judy Alsobrooks in Gary, Indiana. She had one son, Kip Naylor, from a previous marriage. Jessica Howard Meredith was born to their union.  The couple live in Jackson, Mississippi.

Works
In 1966, his memoir, Three Years in Mississippi, was published by the Indiana University Press.
He has self-published several books on politics and society.

See also
List of African-American pioneers in desegregation of higher education
List of civil rights leaders
School integration in the United States

Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the first African American student at the university Robert Khayat was educated at?



Answer: James Howard Meredith James Meredith