The following are given passages.
Passage 1:
Henbury Meteorites Conservation Reserve
Henbury Meteorites Conservation Reserve is a protected area in the Northern Territory of Australia located in the locality of Ghan.Henbury craters are a result of one of the few impact events that have occurred in a populated area (few other examples are Kaali crater in Estonia and 2007 Carancas impact event in Peru).

Description
The reserve is located 125 km (78 mi) south west of Alice Springs and contains over a dozen craters, which were formed when a fragmented meteorite hit the Earth’s surface.Henbury is one of five meteorite impact sites in Australia with remaining meteorite fragments and one of the world's best preserved examples of a small crater field.
Henbury was the earliest documented example of impact cratering in Australia.

Meteorite impact craters
At Henbury there are 13 to 14 craters ranging from 7 to 180 m (23 to 591 ft) in diameter and up to 15 m (49 ft) in depth that were formed when the meteor broke up before impact. Several tonnes of iron-nickel fragments have been recovered from the site. The site has been dated to ≤4.7 thousand years ago based on the cosmogenic 14C terrestrial age of the meteorite and 4.2±1.9 thousand years ago using fission track dating.The craters are named for Henbury Station, a nearby cattle station named in 1875 for the family home of its founders at Henbury in Dorset, England. The craters were discovered in 1899 by the manager of the station, then went uninvestigated until interest was stirred when the Karoonda meteorite fell on South Australia in 1930. The first scientific investigations of the site were conducted by A.R. Alderman of the University of Adelaide who published the results in a 1932 paper entitled The Meteorite Craters at Henbury Central Australia. Numerous studies have been undertaken since.

Cultural significance
The Henbury crater field lies at the crossroads of several Aboriginal language groups, including Arrernte, Luritja, Pitjantjatjarra, and Yankunytjatjara. It is considered a sacred site to the Arrernte people and would have formed during human habitation of the area. J.M. Mitchell said that older Aboriginal people would not camp within a couple of miles of the Henbury craters.  An elder Aboriginal man who accompanied Mitchell to the site explained that Aboriginal people would not drink rainwater that collected in the craters, fearing the "fire-devil" would fill them with a piece of iron. The man claimed his paternal grandfather had seen the fire-devil and that he came from the Sun. An Aboriginal contact said of the crater field: tjintu waru tjinka yapu tjinka kurdaitcha kuka, which roughly translates in the Luritja language as "A fiery devil ran down from the Sun and made his home in the Earth. He will burn and eat any bad blackfellows." This indicates a living memory of the event.A different story was recorded by Charles Mountford  that attributed the largest crater's formation to an anthropomorphic lizard woman (called Mulumura) tossing soil out of the crater, forming its bowl-shape. The soil discarded by Mulumura explained the piles of meteoritic iron around the craters and the presence of ejecta rays (which are unique to terrestrial impacts but are now gone due to prospecting at the site). This probably relates to Dreaming stories about ancestral lizard beings from the area of Henbury station near the Finke River, just north of the crater field. The Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory give the Arrernte name for the crater field as Tatyeye Kepmwere (or Tatjakapara).
In 1980, the conservation reserve was listed on the now-defunct Register of the National Estate. The craters were listed as one item on the Northern Territory Heritage Register on 13 August 2003.

See also
Chambers Pillar
Ewaninga Rock Carvings Conservation Reserve
Rainbow Valley Conservation Reserve
Uluṟu-Kata Tjuṯa National Park
Watarrka National Park
West MacDonnell National Park
Passage 2:
Sant Martí d'Empúries
Sant Martí d'Empúries is an entity of the town of L'Escala. It is located next to the ruins of Empúries or Empòrion. Ancient Greeks established the settlement in the 6th century BC. It was the county seat until 1079 Empúries moved to Castelló d'Empúries place less exposed to attack.
Sant Martí d'Empúries is a staging point on the GR 92 long distance footpath, which roughly follows the length of the Mediterranean coast of Spain. Stage 5, to the north, takes a route behind the coast to the El Cortalet pond in the Parc Natural dels Aiguamolls de l'Empordà, a distance of 20.2 kilometres (12.6 mi). Stage 6, to the south, follows the coast to l'Escala and then takes an inland route across the Montgri Massif to reach the next staging point of Torroella de Montgrí, a distance of 20.0 kilometres (12.4 mi).

History
It was an inhabited place since the arrival of Greeks from Massalia, actual Marseille (France) in the 6th century BC. Greeks established a settlement there called it, Kypsela (Greek: Κύψελα). At the ancient times there is a possibility that there was a temple of Artemis on the island.It was Christianized by Saint Feliu, an African martyr who died in 304 in Girona. He was bishop between 516 and 693. Charlemagne mentions Ermenguer as first Count of Empúries in 812.
Passage 3:
Homewood, South Carolina
Homewood is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Horry County, South Carolina, United States, just north of Conway in the northeastern part of the state. It was first listed as a CDP in the 2020 census with a population of 1,693.Homewood is located at the junction of South Carolina Highway 319 and U.S. Highway 701. There is an elementary school in the community. Many of the inhabitants make a living from family farms, growing tobacco, corn, soybeans, and tomatoes.

Demographics
2020 census
Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.
Passage 4:
2010 United States tomato shortage
The 2010 United States tomato shortage was a shortage of tomatoes in the United States between March and April 2010 caused by unseasonably cold weather in Florida in January 2010 which destroyed 60-70% of the state's tomato crop. There was also a shortage of tomatoes over the new year holiday, caused by the Californian harvest finishing before the Florida harvest began.The shortage caused several fast food chains to stop offering tomatoes unless requested and supermarkets rationed their supplies.Prices for tomatoes in the Eastern United States reached prices several times the cost prior to the crop loss. Wholesale prices rose from around $7 for a 25 lb box to $30. During the shortage, more tomatoes were imported from Canada and Mexico.The total cost of the cold weather to Florida tomato producers was approximately $150 million, according to USDA calculations.The tomato shortage came to an end around late April 2010, as crops had recovered.

See also
2010 Indian Onion Crisis
Passage 5:
Kakisa Lake
Kakisa Lake is a large lake located in the Northwest Territories, Canada. It is fed by the Kakisa River, and near to the community of Kakisa. An outcropping of the Kakisa Formation occurs along the side of this lake.

See also
List of lakes in the Northwest Territories
Passage 6:
Taputapuatea
Taputapuatea is a commune of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean. The commune of Taputapuatea is located on the island of Raiatea, in the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands, themselves part of the Society Islands. At the 2017 census it had a population of 4,792. The commune was named after a large marae complex which was the religious center of eastern Polynesia for roughly 1000 years. The archaeological site of Taputapuatea marae is still today the most famous landmark of Raiatea, and it was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2017.Taputapuatea consists of the following associated communes:

Avera
Opoa
PuohineThe administrative centre of the commune is the settlement of Avera.
Passage 7:
States of Nigeria
Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal capital territory. Each of the 36 states is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares powers with the federal government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), is the capital territory of Nigeria, and it is in this territory that the capital city of Abuja is located. The FCT is not a state but is administered by elected officials who are supervised by the federal government. Each state is subdivided into local government areas (LGAs). There are 774 local governments in Nigeria. Under the constitution, the 36 states are co-equal but not supreme because sovereignty resides with the federal government. The constitution can be amended by the National Assembly, but each amendment must be ratified by two-thirds of the 36 states of the federation.

Current states and the Federal Capital Territory
Evolution of Nigerian states
Government
States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria.

Legislature
At the state level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives. It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list.

Executive
At the state level, the head of the executive is the governor, who has the power to appoint people to the state executive council, subject to the advice and consent of the state house of assembly (legislature). The head of a ministry at the state level is the commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the state.

Judiciary
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the state government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the state government. The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the state appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the state house of assembly.

Chronology
See also
List of Nigerian states by population
ISO 3166-2:NG
List of state governors of Nigeria

Notes
Sources
Gboyega Ajayi (2007). The military and the Nigerian state, 1966–1993: a study of the strategies of political power control. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press. ISBN 978-1-59221-568-3.
Solomon Akhere Benjamin (1999). The 1996 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria. Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research. ISBN 978-181-238-9.
Rotimi T. Suberu (1994). 1991 state and local government reorganizations in Nigeria. Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan. ISBN 978-2015-28-8.

External links
"New States of Nigeria". Statoids.
Headline News in Nigeria Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine StatesStates And Capital In Nigeria, Their Slogans & Current Governors A comprehensive list of all states in Nigeria and their current governors.
Passage 8:
Snappy Tomato Pizza
Snappy Tomato Pizza is a pizza chain that started in Fort Mitchell, Kentucky, and has over 60 locations in the US.  Its headquarters are in Burlington, Kentucky. The chain specializes in pizza, but also serves calzones, hoagies, salads, pasta, dessert and appetizers.

History
The first Snappy Tomato Pizza was opened by Robert Rotunda in Fort Mitchell in 1978. Rotunda went to a horse race and put all of his money on a horse named “Snappy Tomato.”  The horse won and Rotunda took all of his winnings and opened the first Snappy Tomato Pizza restaurant. In 1981 the company began franchising.  In 1993, Snappy Tomato Pizza was purchased by Charles H. Deters.
Snappy Tomato has bought two other pizza franchises.  Those two include a Cincinnati-based pizza franchise, "Spooners Pizza" in 1993, and seven Louisville, KY based franchises, "Pizza Magia" in 2005.
In July 2022, Tim Gayhart, Snappy Tomato Pizza's largest franchisee and area developer purchased the company from The Deters Company.

Locations
There are several dozen locations operating in the Greater Cincinnati area, and elsewhere in Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Tennessee.  Most stores are within the Southeastern United States.  However, in 2009 Snappy Tomato Pizza ventured out west and opened up in Clovis, New Mexico. There is also a subsidiary company headquartered in Redditch in the UK, with branches in England and Scotland.

See also
List of pizza chains of the United States
Passage 9:
Motru Coal Mine
Motru Coal Mine is an open-pit mining exploitation, one of the largest in Romania located in Motru, Gorj County. The legal entity managing the Motru mine is the National Company of Lignite Oltenia which was set up in 1997.The exploitation has two open pits Lupoaia, Roșiuța that produced 6.6 million tonnes of lignite in 2008. The mine has around 2,300 workers and is endowed with 13 bucket-wheel excavators, seven spreaders, two mixed machines and two deposits spreader. The total proven recoverable reserves of the mine amount to 108 million tonnes of lignite.
Passage 10:
Tathlina Lake
Tathlina Lake is a large, shallow lake, located in the Northwest Territories, Canada. An outcropping of the Kakisa Formation occurs along the side of this lake.
This turbid lake, the 15th largest in the Northwest Territories, is located at an elevation of 269 metres, and has an average depth of only 1 metre. Due to this shallow depth, it is considered vulnerable to changes in such variables as water level and temperature, ice thickness, and dissolved oxygen levels. It has also been subject to fish kills.
Commercial fishing for walleye (Sander vitreus) commenced in 1953. However, during the 1960s to 1990s it experienced poor harvests. It has been closed to commercial fishing since 2000.

See also

List of lakes in the Northwest Territories
Passage 11:
Sicilian pizza
Sicilian pizza (Italian: Pizza siciliana) is pizza prepared in a manner that originated in Sicily, Italy. Sicilian pizza is also known as sfincione (Italian: [sfinˈtʃoːne]; Sicilian: sfinciuni [sfɪnˈtʃuːnɪ]) or focaccia with toppings.
This type of pizza became a popular dish in western Sicily by the mid-19th century and was the type of pizza usually consumed in Sicily until the 1860s. It eventually reached North America in a slightly altered form, with thicker crust and a rectangular shape.Traditional Sicilian pizza is often thick crusted and rectangular, but can also be round and similar to the Neapolitan pizza. It is often topped with onions, anchovies, tomatoes, herbs and strong cheese such as caciocavallo and toma. Other versions do not include cheese.The Sicilian methods of making pizza are linked to local culture and country traditions, so there are differences in preparing pizza among the Sicilian regions of Palermo, Catania, Siracusa and Messina.

Variations
The sfincione (or sfinciuni in Sicilian language) is a very common variety of pizza that originated in the province of Palermo. Unlike  Neapolitan pizza, it is typically rectangular, with more dough, sauce and cheese. An authentic recipe often calls for herbs, onion, tomato sauce, strong cheese and anchovies. The sauce is sometimes placed on top of the toppings to prevent it from soaking into the thick dough.

Siracusa
In the province of Siracusa, especially in Solarino and Sortino, the pizzòlu is a kind of round stuffed pizza.

Catania
In the province of Catania the traditional scacciata is made in two different ways: a first layer made of dough covered, within the city, by a local cheese (tuma) and anchovies or, in the region around Catania, by potatoes, sausages, broccoli, and tomato sauce. In both cases a second layer of dough brushed with eggs covers everything. Also in the region of Catania, in Zafferana Etnea and in Viagrande a typical pizza siciliana is a fried calzone stuffed with cheese and anchovies.

Messina
In the province of Messina, the traditional piduni is a kind of calzone stuffed with endive, toma cheese, tomato and anchovies. There is also the focaccia alla messinese, prepared with tomato sauce, toma cheese, vegetables and anchovies.

United States
In the United States, "Sicilian pizza" is used to describe a typically square variety of cheese pizza with dough over an inch thick, a crunchy base, and an airy interior. It is derived from the sfinciuni and was introduced in the United States by the first Italian (Sicilian) immigrants. Sicilian-style pizza is popular in Italian-American enclaves throughout the northeastern United States, including Massachusetts, Rhode Island,  Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and also Michigan (which would influence Detroit-style pizza). In some parts of coastal Massachusetts and New Hampshire, it is also known as "beach pizza" because of its prevalence along the Route 1A corridor. A similar dish, perhaps often overlapping or confused with sfincione, is tomato pie.

Gallery
See also
Passage 12:
Fort Mitchell, Kentucky
Fort Mitchell is a home rule-class city in Kenton County, Kentucky, United States. The population was 8,702 at the 2020 census. It is part of the Cincinnati metropolitan area.

History
Fort Mitchell was the site of one of seven Civil War fortifications built for the Defense of Cincinnati. The community was named for General Ormsby M. Mitchel, a professor at Cincinnati College (now the University of Cincinnati) who designed the fortifications.Fort Mitchell was chartered as a city in 1910. It annexed South Ft. Mitchell (inc. 1927) in 1967 and Crescent Park in 1999.

Geography
Fort Mitchell is located at 39°2′50″N 84°33′36″W (39.047221, -84.559993).According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.1 square miles (8.0 km2), all land.

Demographics
2010 census
At the 2010 census, there were 8,207 people, 3,530 households, and 2,033 families living in the city. The population density was 2,581.8 inhabitants per square mile (996.8/km2). There were 3,744 housing units at an average density of 1,195.0 per square mile (461.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.87% White, 0.99% African American, 0.10% Native American, 0.80% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.47% from other races, and 0.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.85% of the population.
Of the 3,446 households 28.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.2% were married couples living together, 9.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.4% were non-families. 35.6% of households were one person and 11.3% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 3.05.
The age distribution was 23.9% under 18, 9.9% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.4 males.
The median household income was $46,335 and the median family income  was $63,910. Full-time male workers had a median income of $41,358 versus $29,873 for females. The per capita income for the city was $29,229. As of the 2000 census, about 2.6% of families and 3.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.7% of those under age 18 and 2.4% of those age 65 or over.

2000 census
At the 2000 census there were 8,089 people, 3,530 households, and 2,033 families living in the city. The population density was 2,581.8 inhabitants per square mile (996.8/km2). There were 3,744 housing units at an average density of 1,195.0 per square mile (461.4/km2).  The racial makeup of the city was 96.87% White, 0.99% African American, 0.10% Native American, 0.80% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.47% from other races, and 0.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.85%.Of the 3,530 households 28.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.2% were married couples living together, 9.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.4% were non-families. 35.6% of households were one person and 11.3% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 3.05.
The age distribution was 23.9% under the age of 18, 9.9% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% 65 or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.4 males.
The median household income was $46,335 and the median family income  was $63,910. Males had a median income of $41,358 versus $29,873 for females. The per capita income for the city was $29,229. About 2.6% of families and 3.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.7% of those under age 18 and 2.4% of those age 65 or over.

Culture
The world's only ventriloquist museum, the Vent Haven Museum, is in Fort Mitchell.

Education
Fort Mitchell is home to the Beechwood Independent School District, a public K-12 institution and Blessed Sacrament is a Catholic K-8 institution.  Beechwood High School was ranked #333 on the U.S. News & World Report 2015 list of best high schools nationwide.

Notable people
A. M. Edwards, lawyer and statesman who served as Secretary of Guam from 1960 to 1961 (buried in Fort Mitchell)
Ryan Poston, murder victim (born in Fort Mitchell)
Passage 13:
Federalism
Federalism is a combined and compound mode of government that combines a general government (the central or "federal" government) with regional governments (provincial, state, cantonal, territorial, or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system, dividing the powers between the two. Federalism in the modern era was first adopted in the unions of states during the Old Swiss Confederacy.Federalism differs from confederalism, in which the general level of government is subordinate to the regional level, and from devolution within a unitary state, in which the regional level of government is subordinate to the general level. It represents the central form in the pathway of regional integration or separation, bounded on the less integrated side by confederalism and on the more integrated side by devolution within a unitary state.Examples of a federation or federal province or state include Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Iraq, Malaysia, Mexico, Micronesia, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States. Some characterize the European Union as the pioneering example of federalism in a multi-state setting, in a concept termed the "federal union of states".

Overview
Etymology
The terms "federalism" and "confederalism" share a root in the Latin word foedus, meaning "treaty, pact or covenant". Their common early meaning until the late eighteenth century was a simple league or inter-governmental relationship among sovereign states based on a treaty. They were therefore initially synonyms. It was in this sense that James Madison in Federalist No.39 had referred to the new US Constitution as "neither a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition of both" (i.e. as constituting neither a single large unitary state nor a league/confederation among several small states, but a hybrid of the two). In the course of the nineteenth century United States, the meaning of federalism would come to shift, strengthening to refer uniquely to the novel compound political form established at the Philadelphia Convention, while the meaning of confederalism would remain at a league of states.

Origin
In the narrow sense, federalism refers to the mode in which the body politic of a state is organized internally, and this is the meaning most often used in modern times. Political scientists, however, use it in a much broader sense, referring instead to a "multi-layer or pluralistic concept of social and political life."The first forms of federalism took place in ancient times, in the form of alliances between states. Some examples from the seventh to second century B.C. were the Archaic League, the Aetolic League, the Peloponnesian League, and the Delian League. An early ancestor of federalism was the Achaean League in Hellenistic Greece. Unlike the Greek city states of Classical Greece, each of which insisted on keeping its complete independence, changing conditions in the Hellenistic period drove many city states to band together even at the cost of losing part of their sovereignty. Subsequent unions of states included the first and second Swiss Confederations (1291–1798 and 1815–48), the United Provinces of the Netherlands (1579–1795), the German Bund (1815–66), the first American union known as the Confederation of the United States of America (1781–89), and second American union formed as the United States of America (1789–1865).

Political theory
Modern federalism is a political system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments. The term federalist describes several political beliefs around the world depending on context. Since the term federalization also describes distinctive political processes, its use as well depends on the context.In political theory, two main types of federalization are recognized:

integrative, or aggregative federalization, designating various processes like: integration of non-federated political subjects by creating a new federation, accession of non-federated subjects into an existing federation, or transformation of a confederation into a federation
devolutive, or dis-aggregative federalization: transformation of a unitary state into a federation

Reasons for adoption
According to Daniel Ziblatt, there are four competing theoretical explanations in the academic literature for the adoption of federal systems:

Ideational theories, which hold that a greater ideological commitment to decentralist ideas in society makes federalism more likely to be adopted.
Cultural-historical theories, which hold that federal institutions are more likely to be adopted in societies with culturally or ethnically fragmented populations.
"Social contract" theories, which hold that federalism emerges as a bargain between a center and a periphery where the center is not powerful enough to dominate the periphery and the periphery is not powerful enough to secede from the center.
"Infrastructural power" theories, which hold that federalism is likely to emerge when the subunits of a potential federation already have highly developed infrastructures (e.g. they are already constitutional, parliamentary, and administratively modernized states).Immanuel Kant noted that "the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils" so long as they possess an appropriate constitution which pits opposing factions against each other with a system of checks and balances. In particular individual states required a federation as a safeguard against the possibility of war.Proponents for federal systems have historically argued that the power-sharing inherent in federal systems reduces both domestic security threats and foreign threats. Federalism allows states to be large and diverse, mitigating the risk of a tyrannical government through centralization of powers.

Examples
Many countries have implemented federal systems of government with varying degree of central and regional sovereignty. The federal government of these countries can be divided into minimalistic federations, consisting of only two sub-federal units or multi-regional, those that consist of three to dozens of regional governments. They can also be grouped based on their body polity type, such as emirate, provincial, republican or state federal systems. Another way to study federated countries is by categorizing them into those whose entire territory is federated as opposed to only part of its territory comprising the federal portion of the country. Some federal systems are national systems while others, like the European Union are supra national.
In general, two extremes of federalism can be distinguished: at one extreme, the strong federal state is almost completely unitary, with few powers reserved for local governments; while at the other extreme, the national government may be a federal state in name only, being a confederation in actuality. Federalism may encompass as few as two or three internal divisions, as is the case in Belgium or Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The governments of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, India, and Mexico, among others, are also organized along federalist principles.
In Canada, federalism typically implies opposition to sovereigntist movements (most commonly Quebec separatism). In 1999, the Government of Canada established the Forum of Federations as an international network for exchange of best practices among federal and federalizing countries. Headquartered in Ottawa, the Forum of Federations partner governments include Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan and Switzerland.

Europe vs. the United States
In Europe, "federalist" is sometimes used to describe those who favor a common federal government, with distributed power at regional, national and supranational levels. The Union of European Federalists advocates for this development within the European Union, ultimately leading to the United States of Europe. Although there are medieval and early modern examples of European states which used confederal and federal systems, contemporary European federalism originated in post-war Europe; one of the more important initiatives was Winston Churchill's speech in Zürich in 1946.In the United States, federalism originally referred to belief in a stronger central government. When the U.S. Constitution was being drafted, the Federalist Party supported a stronger central government, while "Anti-Federalists" wanted a weaker central government. This is very different from the modern usage of "federalism" in Europe and the United States. The distinction stems from the fact that "federalism" is situated in the middle of the political spectrum between a confederacy and a unitary state. The U.S. Constitution was written as a replacement for the Articles of Confederation, under which the United States was a loose confederation with a weak central government.
In contrast, Europe has a greater history of unitary states than North America, thus European "federalism" argues for a weaker central government, relative to a unitary state. The modern American usage of the word is much closer to the European sense. As the power of the U.S. federal government has increased, some people have perceived a much more unitary state than they believe the Founding Fathers intended. Most people politically advocating "federalism" in the United States argue in favor of limiting the powers of the federal government, especially the judiciary (see Federalist Society, New Federalism).
The contemporary concept of federalism came about with the creation of an entirely new system of government that provided for democratic representation at two governing levels simultaneously, which was implemented in the US Constitution. In the United States implementation of federalism, a bicameral general government, consisting of a chamber of popular representation proportional to population (the House of Representatives), and a chamber of equal State-based representation consisting of two delegates per State (the Senate), was overlaid upon the pre-existing regional governments of the thirteen independent States. With each level of government allocated a defined sphere of powers, under a written constitution and the rule of law (that is, subject to the independent third-party arbitration of a supreme court in competence disputes), the two levels were thus brought into a coordinate relationship for the first time.
In 1946, Kenneth Wheare observed that the two levels of government in the US were "co-equally supreme". In this, he echoed the perspective of American founding father James Madison who saw the several States as forming "distinct and independent portions of the supremacy" in relation to the general government.

Constitutional structure
Division of powers
In a federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually outlined in the constitution. Almost every country allows some degree of regional self-government, but in federations the right to self-government of the component states is constitutionally entrenched. Component states often also possess their own constitutions which they may amend as they see fit, although in the event of conflict the federal constitution usually takes precedence.
In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers. Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition. Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level, a condition originally granted in exchange for the Kingdom of Bavaria's agreement to join the German Empire in 1871. The constitutions of Germany and the United States provide that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states. The Constitution of some countries, like Canada and India, state that powers not explicitly granted to the provincial/state governments are retained by the federal government. Much like the US system, the Australian Constitution allocates to the Federal government (the Commonwealth of Australia) the power to make laws about certain specified matters which were considered too difficult for the States to manage, so that the States retain all other areas of responsibility. Under the division of powers of the European Union in the Lisbon Treaty, powers which are not either exclusively of Union competence or shared between the Union and the Member States as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent States.

Where every component state of a federation possesses the same powers, we are said to find 'symmetric federalism'. Asymmetric federalism exists where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do. This is often done in recognition of the existence of a distinct culture in a particular region or regions. In Spain, the Basques and Catalans, as well as the Galicians, spearheaded a historic movement to have their national specificity recognized, crystallizing in the "historical communities" such as Navarre, Galicia, Catalonia, and the Basque Country. They have more powers than the later expanded arrangement for other Spanish regions, or the Spain of the autonomous communities (called also the "coffee for everyone" arrangement), partly to deal with their separate identity and to appease peripheral nationalist leanings, partly out of respect to specific rights they had held earlier in history. However, strictly speaking Spain is not a federation, but a system of asymmetric devolved government within a unitary state.
It is common that during the historical evolution of a federation there is a gradual movement of power from the component states to the centre, as the federal government acquires additional powers, sometimes to deal with unforeseen circumstances. The acquisition of new powers by a federal government may occur through formal constitutional amendment or simply through a broadening of the interpretation of a government's existing constitutional powers given by the courts.
Usually, a federation is formed at two levels: the central government and the regions (states, provinces, territories), and little to nothing is said about second or third level administrative political entities. Brazil is an exception, because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite, encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities. Each state is divided into municipalities (municípios) with their own legislative council (câmara de vereadores) and a mayor (prefeito), which are partly autonomous from both Federal and State Government. Each municipality has a "little constitution", called "organic law" (lei orgânica). Mexico is an intermediate case, in that municipalities are granted full-autonomy by the federal constitution and their existence as autonomous entities (municipio libre, "free municipality") is established by the federal government and cannot be revoked by the states' constitutions. Moreover, the federal constitution determines which powers and competencies belong exclusively to the municipalities and not to the constituent states. However, municipalities do not have an elected legislative assembly.
Federations often employ the paradox of being a union of states, while still being states (or having aspects of statehood) in themselves. For example, James Madison (author of the US Constitution) wrote in Federalist Paper No. 39 that the US Constitution "is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both. In its foundation, it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national..." This stems from the fact that states in the US maintain all sovereignty that they do not yield to the federation by their own consent. This was reaffirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people.

Bicameralism
The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states. One method, known as 'intrastate federalism', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions. Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole. A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment, as is the case in the senates of the United States and Australia, where each state is represented by an equal number of senators irrespective of the size of its population.
Alternatively, or in addition to this practice, the members of an upper house may be indirectly elected by the government or legislature of the component states, as occurred in the United States prior to 1913, or be actual members or delegates of the state governments, as, for example, is the case in the German Bundesrat and in the Council of the European Union. The lower house of a federal legislature is usually directly elected, with apportionment in proportion to population, although states may sometimes still be guaranteed a certain minimum number of seats.

Intergovernmental relations
In Canada, the provincial governments represent regional interests and negotiate directly with the central government. A First Ministers conference of the prime minister and the provincial premiers is the de facto highest political forum in the land, although it is not mentioned in the constitution.

Constitutional change
Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution. As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self-governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent. An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three-quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect. In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole, but also by separate majorities in each of a majority of the states or cantons. In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a double majority.
Some federal constitutions also provide that certain constitutional amendments cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state. The US constitution provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent. In Australia, if a proposed amendment will specifically impact one or more states, then it must be endorsed in the referendum held in each of those states. Any amendment to the Canadian constitution that would modify the role of the monarchy would require unanimous consent of the provinces. The German Basic Law provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system.

Other technical terms
Fiscal federalism – the relative financial positions and the financial relations between the levels of government in a federal system.
Formal federalism (or 'constitutional federalism') – the delineation of powers is specified in a written constitution, which may or may not correspond to the actual operation of the system in practice.
Executive federalism refers in the English-speaking tradition to the intergovernmental relationships between the executive branches of the levels of government in a federal system and in the continental European tradition to the way constituent units 'execute' or administer laws made centrally.
Gleichschaltung – the conversion from a federal governance to either a completely unitary or more unitary one, the term was borrowed from the German for conversion from alternating to direct current. During the Nazi era the traditional German states were mostly left intact in the formal sense, but their constitutional rights and sovereignty were eroded and ultimately ended and replaced with the Gau system. Gleichschaltung also has a broader sense referring to political consolidation in general.
defederalize – to remove from federal government, such as taking a responsibility from a national level government and giving it to states or provinces

In relation to conflict
It has been argued that federalism and other forms of territorial autonomy are a useful way to structure political systems in order to prevent violence among different groups within countries because it allows certain groups to legislate at the subnational level. Some scholars have suggested, however, that federalism can divide countries and result in state collapse because it creates proto-states. Still others have shown that federalism is only divisive when it lacks mechanisms that encourage political parties to compete across regional boundaries.Federalism is sometimes viewed in the context of international negotiation as "the best system for integrating diverse nations, ethnic groups, or combatant parties, all of whom may have cause to fear control by an overly powerful center." However, those skeptical of federal prescriptions sometimes believe that increased regional autonomy can lead to secession or dissolution of the nation. In Syria, for example, federalization proposals have failed in part because "Syrians fear that these borders could turn out to be the same as the ones that the fighting parties have currently carved out."

See also
Notes and references
Sources
External links

P.-J. Proudhon (1863), The Principle of Federation.
Passage 14:
Chumak (company)
Chumak (Ukrainian: Чумак) is a Swedish-Ukrainian food processing company located in Kakhovka, Kherson Oblast. It is today one of Ukraine's biggest food processing companies and has commercial offices in Kyiv, Minsk and Moscow. Among its products are ketchup, mayonnaise, pasta, salad dressings, cooking sauces, canned vegetables, marinated vegetables, tomato juice and sunflower oil. Chumak is the largest tomato processing company in Central and Eastern Europe. The company currently (2010) employs about 1200 people and has a revenue of about 48 million Euros.
The company was founded in 1996, first under the name South Food, Inc, by the two young Swedish entrepreneurs Johan Bodén and his nephew Carl Sturén. They soon got financial help from Hans Rausing of Tetra Pak who got 66,7% of the company. The latter sold his share of the company in early 2008 to the Swedish investment company East Capital (22,2%) and the Ukrainian investment bank Dragon (44,5%). As of 2013, Chumak was the second largest producer of ketchup in Ukraine, with a share of 25.00%.Kakhovka was occupied by Russian troops during the first days of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Chumak, being at thet time number two on the Ukrainian market, halted production and moved its headquarters to Kyiv.
Passage 15:
Tumaraa
Tumaraa is a commune of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean. The commune of Tumaraa is located on the island of Raiatea, in the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands, themselves part of the Society Islands. At the 2017 census it had a population of 3,721, making it the least populous commune on Raiatea.Tumaraa consists of the following associated communes:

Fetuna
Tehurui
Tevaitoa
VaiaauThe administrative centre of the commune is the settlement of Tevaitoa. The tallest mountain on Raiatea - Mont Temehani - is located within Tumaraa.
Passage 16:
Pizza Hut
Pizza Hut is an American multinational restaurant chain and international franchise founded in 1958 in Wichita, Kansas by Dan and Frank Carney.
The chain, headquartered in Plano, Texas, operates 17,639 restaurants worldwide as of 2020. It is owned by Yum! Brands, Inc.

History
Pizza Hut was launched on May 31, 1958, by two brothers, Dan and Frank Carney, both Wichita State students, as a single location in Wichita, Kansas. Six months later they opened a second outlet, and within a year they were operating six locations.One early employee was future Pro Football Hall of Fame head coach Bill Parcells, who had worked for the company while a college student and football player at Wichita State University. Parcells was considering a franchise for a career (as well as law school), but instead chose to enter coaching, eventually becoming a head coach in the National Football League.
The brothers began franchising in 1959. The iconic Pizza Hut building style was designed in 1963 by Chicago architect George Lindstrom and was implemented in 1969.PepsiCo acquired Pizza Hut in November 1977. On May 30, 1997, PepsiCo spun off Pizza Hut, along with Taco Bell and Kentucky Fried Chicken, into a new company named Tricon Global Restaurants, Inc. The company assumed the name of Yum! Brands on May 22, 2002.The first Pizza Hut restaurant east of the Mississippi River was opened in Athens, Ohio, in 1966 by Lawrence Berberick and Gary Meyers.In August 1994, Pizza Hut and the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO) announced PizzaNet, a pilot program in the Santa Cruz area that allowed consumers to use their own computer to order pizza delivery from a local Pizza Hut restaurant, with connection being made over the Internet to a central Pizza Hut server in Wichita, Kansas.  The PizzaNet application software was developed by SCO's Professional Services group. PizzaNet was based on the first commercially licensed and bundled Internet operating system, SCO Global Access.On March 31, 2011, Priszm, owner of Pizza Hut in Canada, went into bankruptcy protection in Ontario and British Columbia.In 2015, the oldest continuously operating Pizza Hut, which was the restaurant located in the Pizza Hut in the Aggieville District of Manhattan, closed.The company announced a rebrand that began on November 19, 2014, in an effort to increase sales, which had dropped in the previous two years. The menu was expanded to introduce various items such as crust flavors and 11 new specialty pizzas, and the company's employee uniforms were redesigned. In 2017, Pizza Hut was listed by UK-based company Richtopia at number 24 in the list of 200 Most Influential Brands in the World.On June 25 and 27, 2019, it was reported that Pizza Hut was bringing back the logo and the red roof design that was used from 1976 until 1999.On August 7, 2019, Pizza Hut announced its intention to close about 500 of its 7,496 dine-in restaurants in the US, by the middle of 2021.On August 18, 2020, it was announced that Pizza Hut would be closing up to 300 restaurants after the bankruptcy of NPC International, one of its largest franchisees. In March 2021, Flynn Restaurant Group acquired NPC's 937 Pizza Hut locations.

Concept
Pizza Hut is split into several different restaurant formats: the original family-style dine-in locations; storefront delivery and carry-out locations; and hybrid locations that have carry-out, delivery, and dine-in options. Some full-size Pizza Hut locations have a lunch buffet, with "all-you-can-eat" pizza, salad, desserts, and breadsticks, and a pasta bar. Pizza Hut has other business concepts independent of the store type.In 1975, Pizza Hut began testing concepts with Applegate's Landing. with restaurants that featured had Colonial-style exteriors and eclectic interiors that included a truck with a salad bar in the bed. The chain offered much of the same pizza and pasta dishes, with some additions like hamburgers and bread pudding. Applegate's Landing went defunct in the mid-1980s except for one location in McPherson, Kansas that closed in late 1995.

An upscale concept was unveiled in 2004, called "Pizza Hut Italian Bistro". At 50 U.S. locations, the Bistro is similar to a traditional Pizza Hut, but with a menu that included previously unseen items, such as penne pasta, chicken pomodoro, and toasted sandwiches. Instead of black, white, and red, Bistro locations feature a burgundy and tan motif. In some cases, Pizza Hut has replaced a red roof location with the new concept. Pizza Hut Express locations are fast food restaurants that offer a limited menu with many products not seen at a traditional Pizza Hut. These stores are often paired in a colocation with WingStreet in the US and Canada, or other sibling brands such as KFC or Taco Bell and found on college campuses, food courts, theme parks, bowling alleys, and within stores such as Target.
Vintage locations featuring the red roof, designed by architect Richard D. Burke, can be found in the United States and Canada; several exist in the UK, Australia, and Mexico. In his book Orange Roofs, Golden Arches, Phillip Langdon wrote that the Pizza Hut red roof architecture "is something of a strange object – considered outside the realm of significant architecture, yet swiftly reflecting shifts in popular taste and unquestionably making an impact on daily life. These buildings rarely show up in architectural journals, yet they have become some of the most numerous and conspicuous in the United States today."In 2014, Curbed.com reported, "Despite Pizza Hut's decision to discontinue the form when they made the shift toward delivery, there were still 6,304 traditional units standing as of 2004, each with the shingled roofs and trapezoidal windows signifying equal parts suburban comfort and strip-mall anomie." This building style was common in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The name "red roof" is somewhat anachronistic now since many locations have brown roofs. Dozens of these restaurants have closed or been relocated or rebuilt.Many of the older locations with the red roof design serve beer or have a full bar, music from a jukebox, and in some cases an arcade. In the mid-1980s, the company moved into other formats, including delivery or carryout and the fast food "Express" model.

Products
In North America, Pizza Hut has notably sold:

Pan pizza, baked in a pan with a crispy edge;
"Stuffed crust" pizza, with the outermost edge wrapped around a cylinder of mozzarella cheese;
"Hand-tossed", more like traditional pizzeria crusts;
"Thin 'N Crispy", a thin, crisp dough which was Pizza Hut's original style;
Dippin' Strips pizza, a pizza cut into small strips that can be dipped into a number of sauces;
The P'Zone, a calzone with a marinara dipping sauce that comes in plain, Supremo, Meaty, and pepperoni
The Bigfoot pizza, its largest product
The Priazzo, a pie like pizza stuffed with pizza ingredientsThe "stuffed-crust" pizza was introduced on March 26, 1995. By the end of the year, it had become one of their most popular lines.

Regional differences are seen in the products and bases. The company has localized to Southeast Asia with a baked rice dish called Curry Zazzle.On May 9, 2008, Pizza Hut created "The Natural" pizza, which featured natural ingredients and was sold in Seattle, Denver and Dallas. This was discontinued on October 27, 2009, in the Dallas market.Pizza Hut developed a pizza to be delivered to the International Space Station in 2001. It was vacuum-sealed and about 6 in (15 cm) in diameter to fit in the station's oven. It was launched on a Soyuz and eaten by Yuri Usachov in orbit.In the 2010s, the chain saw a downturn in profits. In 2015, the franchise stated it would be pumping more capital into its London branches. Pizza Hut is installing cocktail bars in its London branches as part of a £60 million bid to win back "the Nando's generation".In January 2019, Pizza Hut announced it had expanded beer delivery to 300 locations across the U.S., with plans to expand to 1,000 locations by the middle of the year.In March 2019, Pizza Hut announced the return of the P'Zone after a hiatus of several years.In March 2020, Pizza Hut Hong Kong announced that it had partnered with furniture retailer IKEA on a joint venture. IKEA launched a new side table called SÄVA, which was designed to resemble a pizza saver. The table would be boxed in packaging resembling a pizza box, and the building instructions included a suggestion to order a Swedish meatball pizza from Pizza Hut, which would contain the same meatballs served in IKEA restaurants. A 2021 menu addition, designed to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the introduction of stuffed-crust-pizza, was "nothing but the stuffed crust," a ring of dough filled with cheese.

WingStreet
WingStreet is the name used for Pizza Hut's chicken wing menu.

In 2003, Yum! launched WingStreet in combination with existing Pizza Hut franchises. The chain predicted aggressive growth, adding more than 4,000 locations by 2010. In 2012, Pizza Hut opened a standalone pilot store in Denton, Texas. The store was unsuccessful in collecting sales and closed the following year.Restaurants with WingStreet sections on their menus sell breaded and traditional buffalo wings for take-out and delivery. Their sauces include original Buffalo (in mild, medium, and hot levels of spiciness), sweet chili, spicy garlic, honey barbecue, and garlic Parmesan, as well as cajun and lemon pepper dry rubs. They also offer sauce-free "naked" wings.

International
Pizza Hut's international presence under Yum! Brands includes:

Canada and Mexico in North America
Japan, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, China, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, European Union, Qatar, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, Myanmar, and Macau in Asia 
EgyptPizza Hut's China operations are part of the Yum! spinoff Yum China. Pizza Hut was one of the first American franchises to open in Iraq.

China
In China, Pizza Hut (simplified Chinese: 必胜客; traditional Chinese: 必勝客; pinyin: Bìshèng Kè) used an altered business model, offering a fine-dining atmosphere with knives and forks and using an expanded menu catering to Chinese tastes. By 2008, Pizza Hut operated restaurants and delivery locations. That year, the company introduced "Pizza Hut Express", opening locations in Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Hangzhou. The 160 restaurants were in 40 Chinese cities in 2005. As of 2015, Pizza Hut had 1,903 restaurants in China.Savio S. Chan (陳少宏, Pinyin: Chén Shàohóng) and Michael Zakkour, authors of China's Super Consumers: What 1 Billion Customers Want and How to Sell it to Them, stated middle-class Chinese perceive Pizza Hut as "akin to fine dining", though Pizza Hut was "China's largest and most successful foreign casual-dining chain".

Australia
Pizza Hut expanded to Australia in 1970, opening its first dine-in restaurant in Belfield in April 1970. In 2016, private equity firm Allegro Funds and a local management team bought the master franchise agreement for Pizza Hut in Australia from Yum! Brands. In June 2023, Allegro sold Pizza Hut Australia to US franchise operator Flynn Restaurant Group. As of June 2023, there are about 260 Pizza Hut stores in Australia.

Pakistan
Pizza Hut Pakistan (Urdu: پیزاہٹ پاکستان) is the Pakistani franchisee of Pizza Hut. It is owned by MCR (Pvt) Ltd and is headquartered in Karachi, Pakistan. The first outlet was opened in Karachi in 1993. Currently, Pizza Hut has a presence in 23 major cities.

Mongolia
"Tavan Bogd Foods Pizza" LLC officially opened Pizza Hut on July 14, 2014 in Mongolia. They currently work under three concepts: Restaurant, Delivery, and Express, and provide products and services in 13 areas.

Ethiopia
In 2018, Pizza Hut officially opened in Ethiopia.

Former markets
Russia – Pizza Hut began operating in Russia in 1991, when food supplies dwindled during the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, prompting Russian President Boris Yeltsin to call Pizza Hut deliveries. Pizza Hut suspended operations in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Later some restaurants re-opened operations under rebranded new trademark PitstsaN (ПиццаН).
Panama – In 2022, the Pizza Hut chain ceased its operations in Panamanian lands after re-reporting economic losses.

Advertising
United States
Pizza Hut's first television commercial was produced in 1965 by Bob Walterscheidt for the Harry Crow agency in Wichita, and was entitled "Putt-Putt to the Pizza Hut". The ad looks just like an old movie and is set in fast motion. It features a man in a business suit and tie, played by Ron Williams, who was then a production manager for Wichita's ABC affiliate KAKE-TV, as he orders take-out, leaves his house, and gets into his 1965 Mustang JR to drive to Pizza Hut, where he is chased by a variety of townspeople, portrayed by neighborhood kids, Walterscheidt and his daughter, and various employees for Harry Crow and KAKE-TV. He goes inside Pizza Hut to pick up his pizza and drives home. People eat all the pizza before the man who ordered it can get any, which makes the man very upset, so he calls Pizza Hut again. The ad first aired on November 19, 1966, during halftime of the Notre Dame vs. Michigan State "Game of the Century", and dramatically increased sales for the franchise. "Putt-Putt to the Pizza Hut" ran on TV for eight years and was nominated for a Clio Award.Until early 2007, Pizza Hut's main advertising slogan was "Gather 'round the good stuff". From 2008 to 2009, the advertising slogan was "Now You're Eating!" From 2009 to 2012, the advertising slogan was "Your Favorites. Your Pizza Hut" From 2012 to 2016, the advertising slogan was "Make it great", a variation of the 1987–1995 slogan "Makin' it great!". From 1995 to 1999, the slogan was "You'll love the stuff we're made of". The advertising slogan is currently "No one outpizzas the hut".Pizza Hut does not have an official international mascot, but at one time, a series of commercials in the U.S. aired, titled "The Pizza Head Show". These commercials ran from 1991 to 1999 and was created by Walter Williams, creator of the Mr. Bill sketches from Saturday Night Live in the late 1970s - upon which the ad campaign was based. The ads featured a slice of pizza with a face made out of toppings called "Pizza Head". In the 1970s, Pizza Hut used the signature red roof with a jolly man named "Pizza Hut Pete". Pete was on the bags, cups, balloons, and hand puppets for the kids. In Australia during the mid to late 1990s, the advertising mascot was a delivery boy named Dougie, with boyish good looks, who upon delivering pizza to his father, would hear the catchphrase "Here's a tip: Be good to your mother". Adding to the impact of these advertisements, the role of Dougie was played by famous Australian soap opera and police drama actor Diarmid Heidenreich.Pizza Hut sponsored the film Back to the Future Part II (1989) and offered a free pair of futuristic sunglasses, known as "Solar Shades", with the purchase of Pizza Hut pizza. Pizza Hut also engaged in product placement within the film, having a futuristic version of their logo with their trademarked red hut printed on the side of a mylar dehydrated pizza wrapper in the McFly family dinner scene, and appear on a storefront in Hill Valley in the year 2015.The 1990 NES game Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Arcade Game came with a coupon for a free pizza. The game included Pizza Hut product placement in the form of background advertisements and pizza that would refill the character's life.
In 1995, Donald Trump and his ex-wife Ivana Trump appeared in a commercial. The last scene of the commercial showed Ivana asking for the last slice, to which Donald replied, "Actually, dear, you're only entitled to half", a play on the couple's recent divorce.In 1995, Ringo Starr appeared in a Pizza Hut commercial that teased to a Beatles reunion, but featured three members of The Monkees. A commercial with Rush Limbaugh dates from the same year, in which he boasts "nobody is more right than me," yet he states for the first time he will do something wrong, which was to participate in Pizza Hut's then "eating pizza crust first" campaign regarding their stuffed-crust pizzas.In 1999, the announcer says, "The best pizzas under one roof" in the Big New Yorker pizza commercial seen on the PlayStation Pizza Hut Demo Disc 1. Also, in 1999, the game Crazy Taxi for Sega Dreamcast featured Pizza Hut as one of the locations to which players were able to drive and drop off customers. However, in the game's 2010 re-release for Xbox Live and PlayStation Network, all of the product placement, including the Pizza Hut locations, were removed and replaced with generic locations.Early 2007 had Pizza Hut move into several more interactive ways of marketing to the consumer. Using mobile-phone SMS technology and their MyHut ordering site, they aired several television commercials (commencing just before the Super Bowl) containing hidden words that viewers could type into their phones to receive coupons. Other innovative efforts included their "MySpace Ted" campaign, which took advantage of the popularity of social networking, and the burgeoning user-submission marketing movement via their Vice President of Pizza contest.

United Kingdom
In 1996, as part of Pizza Hut's global advertising strategy using celebrities, Formula One driver Damon Hill and BBC motorsport commentator Murray Walker advertised the stuffed-crust pizza, which parodies Walker's extravagant style.Talk show host Jonathan Ross co-starred in an ad with American model Caprice Bourret. They advertised the new stuffed-crust pizza, with Jonathan Ross saying "stuffed cwust" due to his rhotacism.Following England's defeat to Germany on penalties in the semifinals of Euro '96, Gareth Southgate, Stuart Pearce, and Chris Waddle featured in an advertisement, which shows Southgate wearing a paper bag over his head in shame as his penalty miss allowed England to lose the shootout. Waddle and Pearce, who both missed in a shootout vs West Germany at World Cup '90, are ridiculing him, emphasizing the word "miss" at every opportunity. After Southgate finishes his pizza, he takes off his paper bag, heads for the door, and bangs his head against the wall. Pearce responds with, "this time he's hit the post".

Russia
Former Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev starred in a 1997 Pizza Hut commercial with his granddaughter Anastasia Virganskaya to raise money for the Perestroyka Archives. The ad "obviously exploited the shock value of having a former world leader appear... [and] played on the fact that Gorbachev was far more popular outside Russia than inside it". It was filmed on a multi-million budget with a cinematic quality, including mounting cameras on the Kremlin and shutting down Red Square to get the establishing shots of the square, and dialogue entirely in Russian with English subtitles, to show Pizza Hut as a global brand compared to its American rivals.In recent years, Pizza Hut has had various celebrity spokespeople, including Jessica Simpson, the Muppets, Damon Hill, and Murray Walker.
In 2000, Pizza Hut paid for their logo to appear on a Russian Proton rocket, which launched the Russian Zvezda module.

Pasta Hut
On April 1, 2008, Pizza Hut in America sent emails to customers advertising their pasta items. The email (and similar advertising on the company's website) stated: "Pasta so good, we changed our name to Pasta Hut!" The name change was a publicity stunt held on April Fools' Day, extending through the month of April, with the company's Dallas headquarters changing its exterior logo to Pasta Hut.This name change was also used to promote the new Tuscani Pasta line and the new Pizza Hut dine-in menu. The first Pasta Hut advertisement shows the original Pizza Hut restaurant being imploded and recreated with a "Pasta Hut" sign.
A version of this stunt was re-created by Pizza Hut's UK operation later that year in October 2008, which included ten locations in London temporarily taking on new "Pasta Hut" signage. Pizza Hut UK's chief executive at the time has insisted that this was solely intended as a "PR exercise" and the chain never planned on permanently changing its name in the UK or elsewhere.

Sponsorships
In the early 1990s, as part of PepsiCo's sponsorship of The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer (and its former moniker, The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour), Pizza Hut was included in the acknowledgment alongside Taco Bell and KFC, which PepsiCo owned at the time.
In 2000, Pizza Hut was a part-time sponsor of Galaxy Motorsports' #75 Ford in the then NASCAR Cup Series, driven by Wally Dallenbach Jr.
Pizza Hut was the shirt sponsor of English football club Fulham F.C. for the 2001–02 season
Terry Labonte drove selected events with Pizza Hut as the primary sponsor of his #44 car for Hendrick Motorsports in 2005. Brian Vickers also drove a Pizza Hut car in the NASCAR Busch Series for Hendrick.
Pizza Hut purchased the naming rights to Major League Soccer club FC Dallas' stadium, Pizza Hut Park, prior to its opening in 2005, which were allowed to expire in January 2012.
In October 2015, Pizza Hut signed sponsorship deals with the Dallas Mavericks, Dallas Stars, and American Airlines Center.
In February 2018, Pizza Hut signed a sponsorship deal to be the official pizza sponsor for the National Football League.
Pizza Hut sponsored the #14 Brad Jones Racing Holden ZB Commodore driven by Todd Hazelwood for both of the Darwin Triple Crown and Townsville 500 in 2021.
In March 2022, Pizza Hut signed a sponsorship deal to be the official Quick Service Restaurant for the Supercars Championship.

Book It!
Pizza Hut has sponsored the Book It! reading-incentive program since it started in January 1985. Students who read books according to the goal set by the classroom teacher, in any month from October through March, are rewarded with a Pizza Hut certificate good for a free, one-topping Personal Pan Pizza; and the classroom whose students read the most books is rewarded with a pizza party. Book It! was conceived in 1984 during a dinner with Art Gunther, President of Pizza Hut, and Bud Gates, SVP of Marketing at Pizza Hut, as a way to help Gunther's son read more.The program has been criticized by some psychologists on the grounds it may lead to overjustification and reduce children's intrinsic interest in reading. Book It! was also criticized by the Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood in 2007 who described it as "one of corporate America's most insidious school-based brand promotions." A pamphlet produced by the group argued the program promoted junk food to a captive market, made teachers into promoters for Pizza Hut, and undermined parents by making visits to the chain an integral part of bringing up their children to be literate. However, a study of the program found participation in the program neither increased nor decreased reading motivation. The program's 25th anniversary was in 2010. The Book It! program in Australia ceased in 2002.

Criticism
In the United Kingdom, Pizza Hut was criticized in October 2007 for the high salt content of its meals, some of which were found to contain more than twice the daily recommended amount of salt for an adult. The toppings that consumers prefer, however, (ham, sausage, bacon, etc.) naturally contain high levels of salt.To meet the Food Standards Agency 2010 target for salt levels in foods, between 2008 and 2010, the company removed over 15% of salt across its menu.In July 2014, delivery drivers in the United States filed a class-action lawsuit over Pizza Hut "paying delivery drivers net wages below minimum wage due to unreimbursed automobile expenses" in violation of the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act. An attempt by Pizza Hut to have the case dismissed in November 2015 failed. In December 2016, the case, Linkovich v. Capital Pizza Huts, Inc., et al., was decided by arbitration, in which Pizza Hut paid damages.

See also
List of pizza chains
List of pizza chains of the United States
List of pizza franchises
List of pizza varieties by country
Passage 17:
Krasnovishersky District
Krasnovishersky District (Russian: Краснови́шерский райо́н) is an administrative district (raion) of Perm Krai, Russia; one of the thirty-three in the krai. Municipally, it is incorporated as Krasnovishersky Municipal District. It is located in the northeast of the krai, in the valley of the Vishera River, and borders with the Komi Republic in the north, Sverdlovsk Oblast in the east, Cherdynsky District in the west, Solikamsky District in the south, and with the territory of the town of krai significance of Alexandrovsk in the southeast. The area of the district is 15,375 square kilometers (5,936 sq mi). Its administrative center is the town of Krasnovishersk. Population:  22,554 (2010 Census); 27,871 (2002 Census); 30,827 (1989 Census). The population of Krasnovishersk accounts for 71.4% of the district's total population.

Geography
The eastern part of the district is mostly mountainous, while the western part is mostly flat, with some hills with the height of about 190–220 meters (620–720 ft). The highest point of Perm Krai, Mount Tulymsky Kamen, is located in the district. There are many rivers in the district, including the Vishera River with its tributaries the Yazva, the Vels, the Uls, and many others. The town of Krasnovishersk is located 320 kilometers (200 mi) from the city of Perm. Natural resources of the district include diamonds, gold, oil, natural gas, and others.
The climate is temperate continental. The average annual temperature is +0.1 °C (32.2 °F); annual precipitation is 550–700 millimeters (22–28 in). Up to 87% of the district's territory is covered by forests. In the extreme northeast of the district the Vishera Nature Reserve is located.

History
The district was established on January 13, 1941. Until then, its territory was a part of Cherdynsky District. Krasnovishersk, the administrative center of the district, was granted town status on July 2, 1942.

Demographics
As of the 2002 Census, about 89.7% of district's population were Russians and 2.5% were the Komi people.

Economy
The industry of the district includes timber industry, pulp and paper mill, mining and food industry.

See also
Visherogorsk
Zagovorukha

Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In which county did Snappy Tomato Pizza form?



Answer: Kenton County Kenton County, Kentucky