The following are given passages.
Passage 1:
Vincent Kling (translator)
Vincent Kling is an American scholar and translator of German literature. He studied at La Salle College, the University of Pennsylvania and Temple University. His PhD thesis was based on the works of Hugo von Hofmannsthal. He also spent some time at Georg-August-Universität in Göttingen, Germany, and later taught at the University of Vienna under a Fulbright scholarship.
Kling's scholarly interests are wide-ranging, and he has published on subjects as diverse as Johann Breitwieser, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Anthony Hecht, Aglaja Veteranyi and W.G. Sebald. As a prominent scholar of Austrian literature, he has written on the works of Austrian writers such as Heimito von Doderer, Heimrad Bäcker, Lilian Faschinger, Andreas Pittler, Ödön von Horváth, Gert Jonke and Gerhard Fritsch.
Kling won the Schlegel-Tieck Prize for his translation of Aglaja Veteranyi's novel Why the Child Is Cooking in the Polenta. He has also translated Gert Jonke's The System of Vienna: From Heaven Street to Earth Mound Square. He is currently translating Heimito von Doderer for the NYRB Classics series.
Passage 2:
Sally-Ann Spencer
Sally-Ann Spencer is a British translator, specialising in German literature. She studied languages at Cambridge University before going to work in the publishing industry. In 2005, she moved to New Zealand, at the same time choosing literary translation as her full-time profession. She completed a PhD on German literature at the Victoria University of Wellington.As a translator, Spencer has won the Schlegel-Tieck Prize for her translation of Frank Schätzing's sci-fi novel The Swarm. She now lives in Wellington.

Selected translations
Juli Zeh: The Method (Corpus Delicti). Harvill Secker, 2012
Peter Schössow: My First Car was Red (Mein erstes Auto war rot). Gecko Press, 2011
Markus Heitz: The War of the Dwarves (Der Krieg der Zwerge). Orbit, 2010
Markus Heitz: The Dwarves (Die Zwerge). Orbit, 2009
Sebastian Fitzek: Therapy (Die Therapie). Pan Books, 2008
Frank Schätzing: The Swarm (Der Schwarm). Hodder and Stoughton, 2006
Passage 3:
Hugo von Hofmannsthal
Hugo Laurenz August Hofmann von Hofmannsthal (German: [ˈhuːɡo fɔn ˈhoːfmanstaːl]; 1 February 1874 – 15 July 1929) was an Austrian novelist, librettist, poet, dramatist, narrator, and essayist.

Early life
Hofmannsthal was born in Landstraße, Vienna, the son of an upper-class Christian Austrian mother, Anna Maria Josefa Fohleutner (1852–1904), and a Christian Austrian–Italian bank manager, Hugo August Peter Hofmann, Edler von Hofmannsthal (1841–1915).His grandfather was Augustin Emil Hofmann von Hofmannsthal and his great-grandfather was Isaak Löw Hofmann, Edler von Hofmannsthal, from whom his family inherited the noble title "Edler von Hofmannsthal", was a Jewish tobacco farmer ennobled by the Austrian emperor.He was schooled in Vienna at Akademisches Gymnasium, where he studied the works of Ovid, later a major influence on his work. He began to write poems and plays from an early age. Some of his early works were written under pseudonyms, such as Loris Melikow and Theophil Morren, because he was not allowed to publish as a student. He met the German poet Stefan George at the age of seventeen and had several poems published in George's journal, Blätter für die Kunst. He studied law and later philology at the University of Vienna but decided to devote himself to writing upon graduating in 1901. Along with Peter Altenberg and Arthur Schnitzler, he was a member of the avant garde group Young Vienna (Jung–Wien).

Career
In 1900 Hofmannsthal met the composer Richard Strauss for the first time. He later wrote libretti for several of his operas, including Elektra (1909), Der Rosenkavalier (1911), the plot of which he developed together with Harry Graf Kessler, Ariadne auf Naxos (1912, rev. 1916), Die Frau ohne Schatten (1919), Die ägyptische Helena (1928), and Arabella (1929, but first performed in 1933).Between 1891 and 1899 Hofmannsthal wrote a number of short verse plays, influenced by the static dramas of the Belgian writer Maurice Maeterlinck, the dramatic monologues of the English Romantic poet Robert Browning, and the proverbes dramatiques of the French poet Alfred de Musset.In 1911 he adapted the 15th century English morality play Everyman as Jedermann, and Einar Nilson wrote the music for it. The play later became a staple at the Salzburg Festival.During World War I Hofmannsthal held a government post. He wrote speeches and articles supporting the war effort, and emphasizing the cultural tradition of Austria-Hungary. The end of the war spelled the end of the Habsburg monarchy in Austria; this was a blow from which the patriotic and conservative-minded Hofmannsthal never fully recovered.Nevertheless, the years after the war were very productive ones for Hofmannsthal; he continued with his earlier literary projects, almost without a break. He wrote several new libretti for Richard Strauss operas. In 1920, Hofmannsthal, along with Max Reinhardt, founded the Salzburg Festival. His later plays revealed a growing interest in religious, particularly Roman Catholic, themes. Among his writings was a screenplay for a film version of Der Rosenkavalier (1925) directed by Robert Wiene.

Thought
On 18 October 1902 Hofmannsthal published a fictive letter in the Berlin Daily, Der Tag (The Day) titled simply "Ein Brief" ("A Letter"). It was purportedly written in 1603 by Philip, Lord Chandos, to Francis Bacon. In this letter Chandos says that he has stopped writing because he has "lost completely the ability to think or to speak of anything coherently"; he has given up on the possibility of language to describe the world. This letter reflects the growing distrust of and dissatisfaction with language that so characterizes the Modern era, and Chandos's dissolving personality is not only individual but societal.Growing up the son of a wealthy merchant who was well connected with the major artists of the time, Hofmannsthal was raised in what Carl Schorske refers to as "the temple of art". This perfect setting for aesthetic isolation allowed Hofmannsthal the unique perspective of the privileged artist, but also allowed him to see that art had become a flattened documenting of humanity, which took our instincts and desires and framed them for viewing without acquiring any of the living, passionate elements. Because of this realization, Hofmannsthal’s idea of the role of the artist began to take shape as someone who created works that would inspire or inflame the instinct, rather than merely preserving it in a creative form. He also began to think that the artist should not be someone isolated and left to his art, but rather a man of the world, immersed in both politics and art.Hofmannsthal saw in English culture the ideal setting for the artist. This was because the English simultaneously admired Admiral Nelson and John Milton, both war heroes and poets, while still maintaining a solid national identity. "In [Hofmannsthal’s] view, the division between artist (writer) and man of action (politician, explorer, soldier) does not exist in England. Britain provides her subjects with a common base of energy which functions as equilibrium, a force lacking in fragmented Germany" (Weiss). This singular and yet pragmatic identity must have appealed to Hofmannsthal to a certain degree due to the large scale fragmentation of Austria at the time, which was witnessing the birth of radical nationalism and anti-Semitism, a nation in which the progressive artist and the progressive politician were growing more different and hostile to each other by the day.

Influence
The Austrian author Stefan Zweig wrote in his memoirs The World of Yesterday (1942) on Hofmannsthal's early accomplishments and their influence on Zweig's generation:

The appearance of the young Hofmannsthal is and remains notable as one of the greatest miracles of accomplishment early in life; in world literature, except for Keats and Rimbaud, I know no other youthful example of a similar impeccability in the mastering of language, no such breadth of spiritual buoyancy, nothing more permeated with poetic substance even in the most casual lines, than in this magnificent genius, who already in his sixteenth and seventeenth year had inscribed himself in the eternal annals of the German language with unextinguishable verses and prose which today has still not been surpassed. His sudden beginning and simultaneous completion was a phenomenon that hardly occurs more than once in a generation.

Personal life
In 1901 he married Gertrud "Gerty" Schlesinger, the daughter of a Viennese Jewish banker. Gerty converted to Christianity before their marriage, and they settled in Rodaun (now part of Liesing), not far from Vienna, and had three children:

Christiane von Hofmannsthal (1902–1987), who married German indologist Heinrich Zimmer in early 1929. Zimmer taught at University of Greifswald, Heidelberg University, and Balliol College, Oxford. After they moved to New Rochelle, he became a visiting lecturer at Columbia University.
Franz von Hofmannsthal (1903–1929), who committed suicide on 13 July 1929.
Raimund von Hofmannsthal (1906–1974), who married Ava Alice Muriel Astor, daughter of John Jacob Astor IV and Ava Lowle Willing in 1933. After divorcing Ava in 1939, Raimund later married Lady Elizabeth Paget, daughter of the 6th Marquess of Anglesey.Two days after his elder son Franz committed suicide, Hugo himself died of a stroke while dressing for his funeral at Rodaun. He was buried wearing the habit of a Franciscan tertiary, as he had requested. His widow, who acquired Schloss Prielau in 1932, died in London in 1959.

Selected works
Plays
Libretti
Narrations and fictitious conversations
Novel (fragment)
Essays, speeches, prose
Poetry
Passage 4:
George Guțu
George Guțu (born March 16, 1944) is a Romanian philologist, teacher in the Department of German Language and Literature of the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures, University of Bucharest. He is also director of the Paul Celan Center for Research and Excellence and the Master programme "Intercultural Literary and Linguistic Communication Strategies" (Strategii comunicaționale interculturale – literare și lingvistice), initiated by the Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures together with other departments of the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures. His academic activity is based on the history of German literature (Age of Enlightenment, Sturm und Drang, Classicism, Romanticism); German and Austrian contemporary literature; German literature from Romania, cultural inter-referentiality in Central and Southeast Europe, particularly in Bukovina, poetics, literary theory, translation, the history of German studies and guidance for PhD students. His research domains are the history of German literature; comparative literature; German literature from Romania; cultural inter-referentiality; imagology; the history and aesthetics of reception; theory and practice of translation.

Studies
George Guțu studied at Mihail Kogălniceanu High School in Galați, where he learned Russian and German as foreign languages. In 1963, he took the baccalaureate exam, followed by the entrance exam at the Faculty of Romanian Language and Literature, University of Bucharest. Starting in 1963, he studied two semesters at the University of Bucharest, but in 1964 he applied for a scholarship of the Ministry of Education of Romania in socialist countries. He attended two semesters in order to prepare for the baccalaureate exam for higher education in German at the Herder Institute in Leipzig. From 1965 to 1969 he studied German Studies and Cultural Sciences at the University of Leipzig. He wrote his first intermediate paper entitled "Zur Lyrik von Ingeborg Bachmann"("Ingeborg Bachmann's Poetry") and a graduation thesis "Das Problem der 'Biographie' bei Max Frisch. (Unter gelegentlicher Bezugnahme auf Ingeborg Bachmanns Erzählungen)" ["The Problem of 'Biography' of Max Frisch (with occasional references to Ingeborg Bachmann's work)"]. In 1969, Guțu obtained his diploma in German Studies with "excellent" results, together with Sergio Bertocchi from Italy, he was ranked the best student of the class. In recognition of this, both were offered the opportunity to continue PhD studies at the University of Leipzig. He decided in 1973 to attend extramural PhD studies at the University of Leipzig with professor Walter Dietze and later with professor Walfried Hartinger. On October 14, 1977, he presented his PhD dissertation "Die rumänische Koordinate der Lyrik Paul Celans" ("The Romanian Coordinate of Paul Celan's poetry").

Professional career
In 1978, he began his career on the faculty of the University of Bucharest. He was awarded a Romanian degree as a Doctor of Philology became a lecturer in the Department of German Language and Literature at the University of Bucharest. In 1990, he became an assistant professor of German Language and Literature. Later, he was elected as a member of the Goethe Society in Weimar and received a scholarship from that institution. In January 2004, he was re-elected as head of the Department of German Language and Literature, University of Bucharest. From October 1, 2004, to July 31, 2005, he served as professor and titular of the Department "Elias Canetti" for Southeast European Intercultural Studies of Viadrina European University in Frankfurt (Oder), Germany. He was an academic teacher at the Institute of German Studies and Institute of Romance Studies of the Sapienza University of Rome from October to December 2006. In 2007 he initiated and founded the Paul Celan Centre for Research and Excellence  of the Department of German Language and Literature, University of Bucharest. Over the years 2010 and 2011, he debuted as the initiator and director of the Master programme "Intercultural Literary and Linguistic Communication Strategies", promoted by the Department of German Language and Literature in collaboration with the Departments of Romance, Classical, Slavic and Canadian Studies of the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures. In 2012 he was invited for a special seminar, "Interculturalism beyond the Borders of Bukovina", at the Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Viadrina European University. Guțu is a scholar of the Ministry of Education in Romania, the Goethe Institute, DAAD in Bonn, of Österreich-Kooperation, Vienna, the Austrian Society for Literature, the Erasmus, Socrates and Leonardo da Vinci programmes.

Memberships
Member of the Writers Union of Romania;
Founding member of the Institute for Germans' Culture and History in Southeast Europe University "Ludwig Maximilian" in Munich;
President of the Society of Romanian Germanists (S.R.G.);
President of "Goethe" Society from Romania;
Since 2007: Member of the scientific board of the magazine "Annals of the University of Bucharest – Foreign Languages and Literatures Series" ISSN 1220-0263;
Since 2008: Member of the scientific board of the periodical "Futark. Revista de Investigacion y Cultura" from Seville (Spain) ISSN 1886-9300; Scientific reviewer of the magazine "Annals of the "Spiru Haret" University – Philology Series";
Since 2009: Member of the board of scientific reviewers (peer review) of the publication "Germanistische Beiträge" in Sibiu ISSN 1454-5144;
Since 2010: Member of the scientific board of the publication "Kronstädter germanistischen Beiträge zur Forschung " in Brasov;
2009–2010: Member of the International Scientific Council for organizing and conducting the Biennial and Festival of Translation Europa Spazio di Traduzione, organized by the Naples Eastern University, with the participation of the Centre for Research and Excellence "Paul Celan", University of Bucharest; Organizer and moderator of the Round Table "Vita e vitalità delle 'lingue minori'";
Since 2011: Member of the Board "Institut zur Erforschung und Förderung regionaler und transnationaler Kulturprozesse" (INST, Vienna); Honorary Member of the Society "Simion C. Mândrescu" in Romania;

Prizes and awards
October 2006: Diploma of Honor "Virtue et Sapientia " of the University of Bucharest "for excellent performance om researching during the year 2005";
July 2011: Awarded with the Order of Cultural Merit – Knight of the Romanian Presidency;
March 2012: Awarded with the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art.

Selection from Released Books
George Guțu has written numerous scientific publications such as books, studies, reviews or reports. 

1986 "Abriß der Geschichte der rumäniendeutschen Literatur. Teil I: Von den Anfängen bis 1918 – Spezialvorlesung" Printing House of the University of Bucharest;
1990 "Die Lyrik Paul Celans und der geistige Raum Rumäniens";
1992 The initiative of establishing a specialized magazine of the S.G.R., "Zeitschrift der Germanisten Rumäniens";
1994 Translation "Dans în lanțuri", Hans Bergel;
1994 "Die Lyrik Paul Celans und die rumänische Dichtung der Zwischenkriegszeit";
1995 Translation "Lupul de stepă", Hermann Hesse, printing 1995 / 2005 / 2006;
1996 Translation "Siddhartha. O poemă indiană", Hermann Hesse, printing 1996 / 2005 / 2006;
1997 Book series "GGR-Beiträge zur Germanistik", the first volume "Beiträge zur Geschichte der Germanistik in Rumänien";
1997 "Germanistik an Hochschulen in Rumänien. Verzeichnis der Hochschullehrerinnen und Hochschullehrer";
1998 Translation "Când vin vulturii", Hans Bergel;
1998 Translation "Liniștea de după lovitura de secure", Matthias Buth;
2001 "Geschichte der deutschen Literatur. Textanthologie. Bd. I:  Ältere deutsche Literatur";
2002–2010 "transcarpathica germanistisches jahrbuch rumänien";
2002 Translation "Vis cu ochii deschiși. Poeme.", Rose Ausländer;
2002 Translation "Ecouri răzlețe", Hans Dama;
2005 Translation "Episcop în România într-o epocă a conflictelor naționale și religioase", Raymund Netzhammer;
2005 Translation  "Antichitățile creștine din Dobrogea", Raymund Netzhammer;
2009 "Geschichte der deutschen Literatur. Textanthologie. Bd. II: Humanismus. Reformation. Barock (1400–1700)";
2009 Translation "Scrisori către Wolfgang Kraus 1971–1990", Emil Cioran;
2010 Translation "Din România. Incursiuni prin această țară și istoria ei", Raymund Netzhammer.

Released Books in Cooperation
2002 "Stundenwechsel. Neue Perspektiven zu Alfred Margul-Sperber, Rose Ausländer, Paul Celan, Immanuel Weissglas (GGR-Beiträge zur Germanistik)", in cooperation with Martin Hainz, Andrei Corbea-Hoisie;
2003 "Kindheit: Fragment einer Autobiographie (Bukowiner Literaturlandschaft)", in cooperation with Doris Rosenkranz;
2005 "Interkulturelle Grenzgänge. Akten der Wissenschaftlichen Tagung des Bukarester Instituts für Germanistik zum 100. Geburtstag", in cooperation with Doina Sandu;
2007 "Fremde Arme – arme Fremde. "Zigeuner" in Literaturen Mittel- und Osteuropas", in cooperation with Herbert Uerlings, Iulia-Karin Patrut;
2008 "Minderheitenliteraturen – Grentzerfahrung und Reterritorialisierung. Festschrift für Stefan Sienerth", in cooperation with Ioana Crăciun-Fischer, Iulia-Karin Patrut;
2009 ""...dass ich in der Welt zu Hause bin." Hans Bergels Werk in sekundärliterarischem Querschnitt", in cooperation with Mariana Lăzărescu, Raluca Rădulescu;
2009 "Sprachheimat: Zum Werk von Dieter Schlesak in Zeiten von Diktatur und Exil", in cooperation with Jürgen Egyptien;
2011 "Die Buche: Eine Anthologie deutschsprachiger Judendichtung aus der Bukowina", in cooperation with Alfred Margul-Sperber, Peter Motzan, Stefan Sienerth;
2012 "Ost-West-Identitäten und -Perspektiven.: Deutschsprachige Literatur in und aus Rumänien im interkulturellen Dialog (Veröffentlichungen des Instituts ... der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München)", in cooperation with Ioana Crăciun-Fischer, Sissel Laegreid, Peter Motzan;
2015 "Kindheit – Hörbuch, 6 Audio-CDs: Fragment einer Autobiographie (Bukowiner Literaturlandschaft", in cooperation with Moses Rosenkranz;
2015 "Briefe an Alfred Margul-Sperber: (1930–1963) mit autobiographischen sowie literaturkritischen Dokumenten (Bukowiner Literaturlandschaft)", in cooperation with Moses Rosenkranz, Jürgen Kostka;
2016 "Jugend – Hörbuch, MP3-CD: Fragment einer Autobiographie (Bukowiner Literaturlandschaft)", in cooperation with Moses Rosenkranz, Matthias Huff, Jürgen Kostka, Nikolaus Paryla.

Other Cultural Activities
1990:The initiative of establishing the "Society of Romanian Germanists" ("S.G.R.; Gesellschaft der Germanisten Rumäniens") as a continuation of the tradition from the interwar period;
1997:The initiative of establishing and creation of S.G.R. web page (among the first in Europe in the field) and its constantly update;
1998: The initiative of establishing the "Goethe" Society in România ("Goethe-Gesellschaft in Rumänien"), election as its president;
1999: The initiative of organizing the International Symposium dedicated to the celebration of 250 years since the birth of Johann Wolfgang Goethe by the "Goethe" Society in Romania, in cooperation with the Romanian Academy, S.G.R., Ministry of Culture of Romania and "Goethe]]" Society in Weimar;
2002: The initiative of organizing the International Symposium "Rose Ausländer" at Bucharest;
December 2006: Co-organizer of the jubilee celebrations dedicated to the 15th anniversary of establishing Libraries "Austria" from Romania and Bulgaria in Vienna, in collaboration with the Romanian Embassy in Vienna and the Austrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs;
2008–2010: Co-initiator and coordinator from the Centre for Research and Excellence "Paul Celan" of the international project European Partnership of Intercultural Communications "Leonardo da Vinci", approved and funded by the European Union, with the participation of universities in Bucharest, Munich, Debrecen and Veliko Tarnovo.

Political career
1969 (autumn) – 1970 (summer): Reviewer at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on his own initiative;
1994: The organization of the III International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 16–19, 1994, Neptun) after a break of 62 years of tradition started in the interwar period of these congresses;
1997: The organization of the IV International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 2–5, 1997, Sinaia);
2000: The organization of the V International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 22–25, 2000, Iași);
2003: The organization of the VI International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 26–29, 2003, Sibiu);
2006: The organization of the VII International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 22–25, 2006, Timișoara);
2009: The organization of the VIII International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 25–28, 2009, Cluj-Napoca);
2012: The organization of the VIII International Congress of Romanian Germanists (Juni 4-7, 2012, Bucharest)


== Notes ==
Passage 5:
Austrian literature
Austrian literature (German: Österreichische Literatur) is mostly written in German, and is closely connected with German literature.

Origin and background
From the 19th century onward, Austria was the home of novelists and short-story writers, including Adalbert Stifter, Arthur Schnitzler, Franz Werfel, Stefan Zweig, Franz Kafka, Thomas Bernhard, Joseph Roth, and Robert Musil, and of poets Georg Trakl, Rose Ausländer, Franz Grillparzer, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Paul Celan. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists include Elfriede Jelinek and Peter Handke, and well-known essayists such as Robert Menasse and Karl-Markus Gauß. Despite Austria's contributions to architecture and revered musical traditions, no Austrian literature made it to the classical canon until the 19th century. In the early 18th century, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, whilst visiting Vienna, was stunned to meet no writers at all.Several reasons can be given. First, the arts were the preserve of the imperial court, who saw culture as a political tool, as propaganda. Fine baroque palaces, imperial portraits, and commissions of music could all work very well to this aim, but literature was deemed less suitable and thus not encouraged. Second, the late emergence of German literature; while much was published in German, hardly had the caliber to become "classic" until the late 18th century, when Goethe and Schiller began writing. In Austria, the imperial state also censored all books mercilessly; The Sorrows of Young Werther, Goethe's novel depicting a young man's ecstatic love and suicide, spawned a string of copycat suicides across Germany, and many states banned the work, but Austrian authorities also banned Goethe's entire opus. It came mostly from Empress Maria Theresa's 'Chastity Commission', intended to uphold public morals, but it had the effect not only of creating a facade of decency but a stunted intellectual front. Perhaps the primary reason for Austria's late literary fruition was its cultural mindset. According to the cultural historian Carl Emil Schorske, 'profoundly Catholic, it was a deeply sensuous, plastic culture'. The outlook of a leisured aristocracy, it was copied by the lower classes. This mentality was not necessarily bad; the emphasis on beauty and fantasy was integral to establishing the imperial capital of Vienna, and it made Vienna the greatest center of music in Europe. But it was not the best ground for the literary experiment. Nevertheless, the liberalization of Austria in the late 19th century created a more dynamic climate for writing, which soon produced a flowering.

The search for a definition
The main problem of defining a dynamic development may be that any definition will fall short of the various currents which lead to a certain type of literature. Through the centuries, there have been different approaches, but most of them have been criticized to be biased - cultural, ideological, or political. Austrian literature developed out of a symbiosis of different regional traditions and languages.
In the Middle Ages, there was a homogeneous zone along the Danube River, spanning from Bavaria down to the eastern territories. Travelers and bards moved along this route, bringing with them new influences. At the same time Alps had their forbidding little valleys, which were virtually untouched - they developed their own regional culture.
This is important because it remains characteristic through the centuries. On the other hand, there were writers strictly in the tradition of a region (like towns, countries etc.) language or culture, on the other hand there was a continuous influence on each other's writing and thinking.
The multi-ethnic Habsburg monarchy, Austrian Empire and eventually Austro-Hungarian Empire should therefore not be reduced to the German parts of the empire. There were large ethnic or religious minorities in nearly all regional capitals, like Prague, Budapest or Vienna—microcosmi with their own traditions and characteristics.
Franz Kafka may be a good example: while in some of his writings he declared himself to be "German" this was meant more in relation to the ethnic minority living in Prague than as a declaration for another part of the empire. So perhaps he was a "German-speaking-secular-Jewish-Prague-born-Austro-Hungarian-Austro-Czech writer" - a term which best shows the difficulties that are to be faced.
Besides the national differences between the provinces, there were also different regions which influenced the writing style. There were Alps with their distinctive traditions, the deep woods, the coastal regions around Trieste (now Italy and Slovenia) and the Croatian islands, which served as the Austro-Hungarian equivalent to the French Côte d'Azur, a center for writers, painters and other artists at value - and that often-meant religious texts - were written down. In addition, most texts were also translated into Latin before they were put down (e.g. Germanic tribal laws).
Different sources however suggest that there also existed aristocratic historical records (like Heldenlieder), lyric folklore (dance, love songs, spells). Only by accident individual texts were preserved in monasteries. Examples for this are the "Merseburger Zaubersprüche", two Germanic spells being the only written proofs for pagan religion in the German-speaking lands. The "Hildebrandslied" is important as a voucher of Germanic hero literature.
The first German texts were written to translate Latin religious books around 750 in the early Middle Ages. The Benedictine communities in Melk and Salzburg were carrying on notable literary and religious activities. Ava (1060–1127), who was the first known German female writer, wrote in this religiously inspired tradition and lived in the territories which were then and now within the borders of Austria.

High and Late Middle Ages (1170–1500)
With the Crusades around 1160, knights became more important and prosperous. The oral minnesang was a new form, dealing with their love. The topics of the ballads were also more worldly with themes ranging from love and war to political criticism. There was a lot of travelling along the Danube River, with travelling bards (Minnesänger) bringing news and new songs. The towns were getting rich and independent. The first representatives of this movement and first known male writers in German were Der von Kürenberg and Dietmar von Aist (12th century). At the end of the 12th century, one of the most important literary works of the times, Nibelungenlied, emerged. It was created by an unknown minnesang poet most probably in the territories of Austria. As the tradition of minnesang grew, the older poets started teaching younger ones. For example, probably the most known German bard Walther von der Vogelweide (13th century) learnt his craft from Reinmar von Hagenau at the court in Vienna. Among other known minnesang poets are Neidhart, Jans der Enikel, Ulrich von Liechtenstein, and Oswald von Wolkenstein.
In the 12th century, satire was also developing. Seifried Helbling was an example of a writer who wrote texts of this type.
Later on the minnesang, which was cultivated by knights, became a craft practiced by burghers – meistersingers. Its center was more to the west, in Nuremberg. Michael Beheim was a meistersinger poet strongly connected with the court in Vienna. Yet another form that developed at that time was drama. Especially, presentations of Passion were regularly played. Das Wiener Passionsspiel is worth mentioning here.
An Austrian representative of Holy Grail literature is Heinrich von dem Tuerlîn (also written Türlin). He wrote the poem Diu Crône, which has about 30,000 lines. The edition of the original text in Middle High German has completed recently by the Viennese Germanists Fritz Peter Knapp, Manuela Niesner (Part I, Altdeutsche Textbibliothek, Tübingen 2000), Alfred Ebenbauer and Florian Kragl (Part II, Altdeutsche Textbibliothek, Tübingen 2005), who are preparing a translation to Modern German.

Renaissance
Around 1600, humanism, with its rediscovery of ancient cultures and ideals, spread from Italy throughout Europe. Emperor Maximilian I was a big supporter of this movement. He managed to gather around his court in Vienna humanists such as Conrad Celtes – the founder of Collegium Poetarum or in the later time poet laureat Vadian (Joachim von Watt) who wrote in Latin. Eleonore of Austria translated to German a widely read French adventure novel Pontus et la belle Sidonie. Big figures of the Catholic Church of that time Nicholas of Cusa and Petrus Canisius were connected with the Austrian court and a few of their works were written in German.

Baroque
The Thirty Years War had multiple effects on European literary trends; some writers based their work on the sufferings of the time, or withdrew into writings of a religious nature. Others responded with escapism, providing beautiful and peaceful worlds readers could flee to. The humorous stories (Schelmenromane) brought relief to the suffering people. This trend is apparent with Abraham a Sancta Clara's religious and comical works, and Catharina Regina von Greiffenberg's religious poetry.
As a reaction to the Protestant movements of the Reformation, which rocked the Catholic-led Habsburg territories, many Catholic schools emerged on the territories of Austria. These colleges led by the Jesuit order developed plays and operas that were Italian in style and impressed most by their luxurious equipment. Sermons were an important genre of baroque literature, rooted as it was in the Counter-Reformation. The aforementioned Benedictine monk Abraham a Sancta Clara was a notable preacher of the times. A Jesuit, Georg Scherer, is another example of a monk whose sermons were published and had a wider audience.
Another literary form were improvised plays called "Hanswurstspiele". This direction was represented by Josef Anton Stranitzky, Gottfried Prehauser, Joachim Perinet and Josef Felix von Kurz-Bernardon.
Examples of baroque epic are the chivalric fiction and "Schelmenromane" of Johann Beer, which represent a realistic description of the reality at that time.

Enlightenment
With the start of Enlightenment around 1720, philosophy and the need of literature to educate the reader (Lehrdichtung, Bildungsroman) were two new and strong motivations for literature.
Aristotle and his school of thinking was revived. These ideas developed on the territories of Austria during the rule of Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II. Around 1790 the ideas of Enlightenment were firmly rooted and the ancient classic cultures (Greek and Roman) were the inspiration for poets, artists, architects and writers. Harmony and Beauty were some of the ideals of that time.
Austrian literature was also under the strong influence of Freemasonry and strongly connected with the criticism towards clergy. All of these circumstances caused the literature to become more educative and instructional. Satire started to be one of the most frequently used literary genres.
The literary life of Enlightenment concentrated around an almanac Wienerischer Musen-Almanach. It was started in 1777 (from 1786 under a changed title Wiener Musen-Almanach) by Joseph Franz von Ratschky and Gottlieb von Leon. Aloys Blumauer was also its editor since 1781 (he even edited a few editions alone). 
A notable poet in the Austrian literature of this period has Johann Baptist von Alxinger who wrote chivalric epics Doolin von Maynz (1787) and Bliomberis (1791) which were inspired by the tradition of Freemasonry. Alxinger also wrote poetry based on anticlerical ideas. 
The writings of a might-have-been monk Johann Pezzl also had a profile of this kind. He wrote journalistic and epic texts. 
Classical vision of poetry promoted by Joseph Schreyvogel strongly influenced later authors (for instance Franz Grillparzer). Schreyvogel improved considerably the quality of the Austrian theatre. He was a dramatic adviser at the Wiener Burgtheater from 1814 to 1832.
Another important dramatist was Johann Nepomuk von Kalchberg, but historical themes of his dramas give his work the flavour of Romanticism.

First half of 19th century
Around 1790 these ideas were firmly rooted and the ancient classic cultures (Greek and Roman) were the inspiration for poets, artists, architects and writers. Harmony and Beauty were some of the ideals of that time. There was a lot of philosophical and aesthetic writing which accumulated in the Romantic era around 1820 (mostly writers from the nobility). With the Napoleonic Wars going on, a lot of people wanted literature which took them away in a fantasy world. A lot of religious writing was also providing people with new hope. Klemens Maria Hofbauer, Eduard von Bauernfeld and Franz Grillparzer are but three of the writers influenced by these events. The German writer Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel also lived and worked in Vienna around 1809.
Between the years 1815, the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and 1848, the year of the European revolutions the Biedermeier contrasted with the Romantic era which preceded it partly. Biedermeier can be identified with two trends in early 19th-century history.
The first trend is growing urbanization and industrialization leading to a new urban middle class. The early Lieder of Schubert, which were performable at the piano without substantial musical training, serve as examples. Further, Biedermeier writers were mainly middle-class, as opposed to the German Romantics, who were mainly drawn from the nobility. The second trend is the growing political oppression following the end of the Napoleonic Wars prompting people to concentrate on the domestic and the non-political.

Biedermeier
Biedermeier refers to work in the fields of literature, music, the visual arts and interior design in the period between the years 1815 (Vienna Congress), the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and 1848, the year of the European revolutions and contrasts with the Romantic era which preceded it.
Biedermeier can be identified with two trends in early 19th-century German history.
The first trend is growing urbanization and industrialization leading to a new urban middle class. The early Lieder of Schubert, which were performable at the piano without substantial musical training, serve as examples. Further, Biedermeier writers were mainly middle-class, as opposed to the Romantics, who were mainly drawn from the nobility.
The second trend is the growing political oppression following the end of the Napoleonic Wars prompting people to concentrate on the domestic and (at least in public) the non-political. The strict publication rules and the censorship had the consequence, that the main topics written about were unpolitical, e.g. Historical Fiction or Books about the quiet life in the countryside. This does not mean that there was not a lot of political discussion going on, but it happened at home and in the presence of close friends. This explosive situation finally led to the revolutions in Europe in the year 1848.
Poets of that time in Austria were Nikolaus Lenau (1802–1850) and Franz Grillparzer. The latter is often mentioned as a representative of Austrian Classicism in literature.
Playwrights at that time were Franz Grillparzer (1791–1872), Friedrich Halm (1806–1871) - also an accomplished writer of "Novellen" (novellas and short stories) -, Johann Nepomuk Nestroy (1801–1862) and Ferdinand Raimund (1790–1836). Grillparzer wrote tragedies in the tradition of the "Weimarer Klassik", Nestroy and Raimund were representatives for the "Wiener Volksstück" mainly played at the Viennese theater "Volkstheater Wien".
Charles Sealsfield - a pseudonym of Karl Postl - lived a long time in the US and wrote novels set in the Wild West. On the other hand, he managed to write about Austria and to criticize the Austrian absolutism during Biedermeier without being recognized by Austrian authorities.
The end of Biedermeier is marked by the writings of Adalbert Stifter (1805–1868). His first work Nachsommer was published in 1857 but was still believed to be one of the finest works of biedermeier. Stifter not only influenced Peter Rosegger but also German writers like Ganghofer, Heyse, Freytag, Wildenbruch and later authors (the time of "Bürgerlichen Realismus") like Storm, Fontane and through them Thomas Mann and Hesse.

Realism
Austrian writers of Realism are primarily the writer of short novels Ferdinand von Saar, Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach and the aforementioned Adalbert Stifter. Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach is known for her psychological novels and novellas as well as for her social engagement. Ferdinand Kürnberger was a novelist much like Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, who became famous with Venus in Furs - the erotic behavior he described, would later be called masochism according to his name.
Another writer to mention is Bertha von Suttner. She wrote social novels whose literary quality usually is not appreciated highly by literary critiques and Germanists, but Suttner received the Nobel Prize for Peace for her novel Die Waffen nieder (Lay down your arms) in 1905.
While in Germany Realism paved the way for Naturalism, a similar literary movement has never developed in Austria. Instead, the successors were Jugendstil and Expressionism.

20th century
First half of the 20th century
The Jugendstil movement was primarily a cultural movement of architecture and decorative arts. However, Viennese Jugendstil was marked by the presence of artists of every genre, including compositors and writers. Viennese writers, such as Arthur Schnitzler and Stefan Zweig, are often included in this movement. Arthur Schnitzler was a very typical writer of that time. He wrote his major works between 1890 and the end of World War I, namely novels, short stories and theater plays.
A very important center of Austrian literature during the ca. 20 years before the end of World War I was Prague. It was the center of many German-speaking, mostly Jewish, authors who contributed significantly to Austrian and partly even to world literature. Their influence endured until the 1930s. Authors to mention are Oskar Baum, Max Brod, Franz Kafka, the journalist Egon Erwin Kisch, Gustav Meyrink, Robert Musil, Rainer Maria Rilke, Franz Werfel, and Oskar Wiener.
Expressionism was presented primarily by the poet Georg Trakl and the dramatist and narrator Hugo von Hofmannsthal, both originating from Salzburg.
The end of World War I reduced Austria to a very small and mainly German-speaking country. Some Austrian (and German writing) authors relocated to new emerging countries, such as Kafka and Werfel to Czechoslovakia. Others, such as Robert Musil, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Elias Canetti, migrated to Vienna. The political rupture and the fact that this small German-speaking Austria had lost most of its territory, industry, and agriculture, led to the fatal conviction of many Austrians that only a union with Germany would be able to save the country from a total downfall, a conviction which paved the way to its later annexation by Hitler in 1938. The texts of some writers give an insight to this conviction. Robert Musil and Hugo von Hofmannsthal expressed their "German centric" point of view, while others, such as Stefan Zweig, Franz Werfel and Alexander Lernet-Holenia, strictly spoke up for Austria and Austrian tradition and culture.
The time between the two world wars gave way to rich literature in Austria. Robert Musil wrote the well-known novel The Man without Qualities, Stefan Zweig published a multitude of essays, stories and novels, Karl Kraus edited the magazine Die Fackel (The Torch), for which he wrote almost all articles by himself, Franz Werfel wrote some of his best novels, e.g. The Forty Days of Musa Dagh which narrates the Armenian tragedy of 1915, and after Franz Kafka's death, his life-time friend Max Brod began to publish Kafka's unfinished novels. Later Nobel Prize winner Elias Canetti studied and lived in Vienna and wrote his only novel Auto-da-Fe, before the Anschluss he fled to England. In analogy to Musil's Kakania (from the anagram for the k. u. k., i.e. imperial and royal monarchy till 1918), Fritz von Herzmanovsky-Orlando created Tarockania for the weird figures of his humorous novels and stories.

Austrofascism and Nazi dictatorship
Catholic and conservative Austrofascism came into power after the Austrian Civil War and revitalized censorship. A more important influence on Austrian literature resulted however from Nazi empowerment in Germany in 1933. It has to be understood that not only the majority of German speaking readers live in Germany, but almost all large and important publishers for literature in German are situated in Germany as well. In 1933 it came to a breakup at the P.E.N. conference in Dubrovnik. The members discussed an official protest against the prosecution of writers and the burning of books by the Nazis. In consequence the German delegation left the conference and referred to the organization's principle not to interfere with politics. Some members of the Austrian delegation solidarized with the Germans, while others supported the resolution. This breakup continued afterwards in Vienna and led to a separation of liberal and "German nationalistic" authors; the latter left the Austrian PEN Club and later worshipped Hitler and his annexation of Austria. Nazi Germany observed the events carefully, boycotted immediately the liberal authors, who couldn't go on publishing in Germany and lost most of their readers and income. After the annexation, these authors were prosecuted as well as their German counterparts since years, and many of them, especially the Jewish, were murdered or forced to emigration.
Stefan Zweig flew to Brazil, Franz Werfel escaped to the US together with the German writer Heinrich Mann, Elias Canetti to England. Others, like Jura Soyfer, were killed by the Nazis. In 2007, the Theodor Kramer Society published an anthology of Austrian poetry written in exile, under the title In welcher Sprache träumen Sie? (Which Language Do You Dream In?). The editors present 278 authors whose names in many cases have been wiped out. The better known among them are Ilse Aichinger, Franz Theodor Csokor, Albert Drach, Albert Paris Gütersloh, Hermann Hakel, Theodor Kramer, Josef Luitpold Stern, Felix Pollak, Paula von Preradović, Joseph Roth, Hilde Spiel, Wilhelm Szabo, Hans Weigel, Stefan Zweig.
During the Nazi dictatorship, which had factually wiped out the Austrian state, the Austrian PEN Club was in exile in London and continued its work in Austria from 1946 on. Until 1973, PEN was the only Austrian writers' organization of importance.

After World War II: Group of Vienna
The literature after World War II combined many different movements. While some authors were in search for reorientation, such as Ilse Aichinger, Ingeborg Bachmann, Heimito von Doderer, Alexander Lernet-Holenia, Gerhard Fritsch and Hans Lebert, others came back from concentration camps, such as Jean Améry, from former (in times of monarchy) Austrian territories, such as Rose Ausländer and Paul Celan, or from exile, such as Hans Weigel and Friedrich Torberg, while others again did not come back from exile, such as Hermann Broch or Franz Werfel. On the other hand, some former "Nazi" writers kept their positions, such as Max Mell, Franz Nabl and Karl Heinrich Waggerl. The latter and other, catholic, writers began to form a very conservative block within the Austrian literature. Through the Austrian PEN Club, they even seemed to control statal subsidies for literature as well as literary awards till the 1970s.
Some authors had good relations to the Group 47 based in Germany or were members. Among them Ilse Aichinger who published the novel Die größere Hoffnung (Greater Hope) and the narrator and poet Ingeborg Bachmann. Both were awarded the Group 47 Prize for Literature. Other Austrian members of the Group 47 were Paul Celan and Erich Fried. While Celan, after some time in Vienna, went to live in Paris, Fried moved to Berlin. In 1954, the Wiener Gruppe (Group of Vienna) was formed by H. C. Artmann and others. Friedrich Achleitner, Konrad Bayer, Gerhard Rühm and Oswald Wiener belonged to the group, as well as Ernst Jandl and Friederike Mayröcker.
Hans Lebert wrote the novel Wolfshaut (Wolf's Skin), in which he described a fictional village named Schweigen (Silence), an allegory for the silence of many Austrians after the Nazi dictatorship, who pretended to know nothing about what had happened in their country.
Several volumes of Diaries contain the war memories of Heimito von Doderer. However, this author was best known for his novels, which he designed meticulously, such as The Strudlhofstiege, The Demons, The Waterfalls of Slunj, and The Merowingians. Doderer influenced many other authors with his novelistic art, e.g., Robert Schindel.

1970–2000
In 1973, a new writers' association was founded in Graz (Styria), mostly as a protest against the conservatism of P.E.N. and their controlling position, e.g. concerning literature prizes. The new association was called Grazer Autorenversammlung (GAV). Among its founders and first members include Barbara Frischmuth, Peter Handke, Ernst Jandl, Alfred Kolleritsch, Friederike Mayröcker, and Michael Scharang. Eventually, the GAV became the largest writers' association in Austria with more than 500 members.
The end of the 1960s and eventually the 1970s were characterized by experimental theater plays. Peter Handke tried out new ways of theater communication with his play Offending the Audience in 1966.Ernst Jandl and Friederike Mayröcker wrote a new sort of experimental poetry, Konkrete Poesie, working with the sounds of speech than with semantics.
One of the most important writers after World War II was Thomas Bernhard (1931–1989). He wrote nine novels, several books of stories and short prose, some autobiographical works, and numerous plays. His works triggered public controversies as Bernhard constantly attacked a typical Austrian manner of ignoring the Nazi past. One of the dramas is called Heldenplatz, an open allusion to Vienna's central imperial place, from which Adolf Hitler had held his first speech after the country's annexation by Nazi German troops in front of hundreds of thousands of cheering Austrians.
Marianne Fritz (1948–2007) was known as a novelist. Her third novel, Dessen Sprache du nicht verstehst (Whose speech you don't understand), was published in 1985. On more than three thousand pages, Fritz describes a linguistic and fictional universe that deals with the decline of the Austrian empire. She used an artificial language that broke many linguistic norms, to achieve a more rhythmic speech. Marianne Fritz intensified this individual esthetics with her fourth and fifth novel.
During the 1980s, especially after the political scandal around former UN secretary and eventually Austrian federal president Kurt Waldheim, a new and more distinctive Jewish literature formed. Robert Schindel published the novel Gebirtig, which deals with a contemporary Jewish society within Austria and the difficult memories of the Shoah. Robert Menasse is known for his novels and especially for his essays on Austria. Another author who works with Jewish topics is Doron Rabinovici.

Christoph Ransmayr mixes historical facts with fiction. The acclaimed novel Morbus Kithara creates a scenario, in which Austria did not get aid from the Marshall Plan after World War II and was condemned to become an exclusively agrarian country. On this background, the author writes about the time after the war, about ex-soldiers, ex-Nazis and concentration camp survivors, and thus depicts the complexity of post-war Austria.
Josef Haslinger wrote the novel Opernball, in which he described a fictitious attack at the Vienna Opera Ball, in which all attendants, incl. the entire Austrian government, is killed by combat gas. This attack brings a new fascist party to power, which a handful of idealistic journalists try to tell the world. Haslinger is also the author of an essay about the Waldheim affair. Also Milo Dor, a born Serb who wrote all of his books in German and became a very important figure in Austria's literary scene, chose the danger of ultra-right wing parties as topic for one of his narrative texts, Wien, Juli 1999. Other books describe the destiny of immigrants after the world war.
Essays have also a tradition in Austrian literature. While the roots may be found with Franz Grillparzer, Hermann Bahr and especially Karl Kraus, one of the most important essayists after World War II is Jean Améry whose oeuvre primarily consists of essays, articles and critiques. The historian and scholar Friedrich Heer is the author of about fifty thousand pages, most of them essays on Austrian and European topics, on history and philosophy as well as on religion and literature. A younger representative of Austrian essayism is Karl-Markus Gauß who writes for several newspapers and magazines in Austria, Switzerland and Germany. His books speak about Central and Eastern European peoples, cultures, and literatures. He is also the editor in chief of the magazine Literatur und Kritik.
Authors in Slovene, originating in Carinthia, are Florjan Lipuš, Cvetka Lipuš and Janko Messner. Usually they write either exclusively in Slovene, or in Slovene and German. Another famous Carinthian writer, Peter Handke, has translated several works from Slovene to German.

Nobel Prizes for Literature
In 1981, Elias Canetti (1905–1994) received the Nobel Prize in Literature. Born in Bulgaria, he spent much of his early adult life in Vienna, and wrote all his books in German. In 1938, following Austria's Anschluss with Germany, Canetti moved to London, becoming a British subject. During his later years, he also lived in Zurich, Switzerland. Among his most acclaimed works are the novel, Auto-da-Fe, and his work of nonfiction, Crowds and Power. His three volumes of well-acclaimed memoirs are also seen to give a personal insight into Austrian society during the decades preceding World War II.
In 2004, Elfriede Jelinek (*1946) received the Nobel Prize in Literature for her "musical flow of voices and counter-voices in novels and plays that, with extraordinary linguistic zeal, reveal the absurdity of society's clichés and their subjugating power". Her works comprise novels such as The Piano Teacher, Lust and Die Kinder der Toten (Children of the Dead), as well as theater plays such as Clara S., Burgtheater and Bambiland. In the 1960s she began to write poetry and stories.

21st century
While some of the well-known authors, such as Franzobel, Peter Handke, Peter Henisch, Elfriede Jelinek, Gerhard Roth, and Robert Schneider, still publish regularly, there are rich literary movements, mostly driven by a younger generation. In some cases, literary magazines play an important role in gathering writers and fostering their works.

Literary magazines and publishers
Literatur und Kritik and Erostepost are published in Salzburg, Manuskripte, Sterz, Schreibkraft and Lichtungen in Graz, Wespennest and Kolik in Vienna, Cognac & Biskotten in Innsbruck, DUM in Lower Austria. They count among the most traditional and important literary magazines in contemporary Austria. In addition, the literary magazine Buchkultur has been around since 1989.
Notable publishing houses include Residenz, Droschl, Haymon, Zsolnay, and Deuticke. Residenz played an important role during the 1970s and 1980s, when numerous important Austrian writers were published there. Especially smaller publishers, such as Arovell, Drava, FZA-Verlag, Mitter, Otto Müller, Pichler, Ritter, Skarabaeus, Sonderzahl, Wieser, etc. bring emerging and younger authors to the public. On the other hand, many Austrian writers publish their books in Germany, which offers much larger and powerful publishing houses. Of course, the economic regrouping of publishing houses and their mergers have also an influence on Austrian publishers. Thus, Zsolny and Deuticke already belong to the German publishing group Hanser.

Literature awards and subsidies
In addition to subsidies and awards financed and organized by the Austrian and federal governments, several smaller literary prizes award Austrian and other German writing authors. Alfred-Gesswein-Literaturpreis, Erostepost-Literaturpreis, Franz-Kafka-Preis, Feldkircher Lyrikpreis, Wiener Werkstattpreis, Anton-Wildgans-Preis, and Manuskripte-Preis belong to this aspect of Austrian literature.
The scholar Klaus Zeyringer states that public subsidies represent the backbone of today's literary production and especially publishing in Austria, and this would be one reason why the frame conditions obviously differ from those in Germany. Public subsidies add to the funding of publishing houses, literary magazines, public events, book publications, and to writer's income. Zeyringer points out that on one hand this custom also enables the publication of non-mainstream and complicated literary works but on the other hand reduces the awareness of the necessity of adequate marketing activities of many cultural organizations, including publishers.

Contemporary authors
Book publications, magazines, public readings and literary prizes chronicle a multitude of writers, including novelists, playwrights, prosaists, essayists and poets. These include Marie Anders, Reinhold Aumaier, Zdenka Becker, Adelheid Dahimène, Dimitré Dinev, Martin Dragosits, Klaus Ebner, Günter Eichberger, Olga Flor, Karin Geyer, Thomas Glavinic, Constantin Göttfert, Marianne Gruber, Egyd Gstättner, Wolf Haas, Klaus Händl, Ludwig Laher, Gabriel Loidolt, Wolfgang Kauer, Daniel Kehlmann, Michael Köhlmeier, Melamar, Hanno Millesi, Gabriele Petricek, Judith Nika Pfeifer, Wolfgang Pollanz, Doron Rabinovici, Julya Rabinowich, Kathrin Röggla, Gudrun Seidenauer, Linda Stift, Erwin Uhrmann, Vladimir Vertlib, Philipp Weiss, Christine Werner, Peter Paul Wiplinger. Usually these authors publish not only in Austria, but also in Germany and Switzerland.

Cultural melting pot
In its history, the country and Austrian literature have been a cultural melting pot that put together different ethnicities, ideas, and cultures. Today, this element has shrunk enormously but is still not wiped out. Examples of this are novelist Zdenka Becker who emigrated from Slovakia, Dimitré Dinev from Bulgaria, and Vladimir Vertlib who was born in Russia. Very often their topics have to do with immigration and interculturality.
There is some literature written by members of the autochthonous minorities in Austria. To mention the daughter of Florjan Lipuš, the poet Cvetka Lipuš, who has lived in the US for several years. Her poetry has been published in Slovene and in German.
Some authors have chosen to live in countries other than Austria, while still writing literature in German. Their experiences living in another country have some impact on their writing. For example, Marlene Streeruwitz and Ann Cotten live in Berlin, Raoul Schrott lived several years in Ireland and also Christoph Ransmayr has moved there.

See also
List of Austrian writers
List of Austrian women writers

Notes
Sources (books)
Heer, Friedrich: Der Kampf um die österreichische Identität. Böhlau Verlag, Wien 1981/1996/2001, ISBN 3-205-99333-0
Herz-Kestranek, Miguel, Konstantin Kaiser and Daniela Strigl (Ed.): In welcher Sprache träumen Sie? Österreichische Exillyrik. Verlag der Theodor Kramer Gesellschaft, Wien 2007, ISBN 978-3-901602-25-2
Zeman, Herbert and Fritz P. Knapp (Ed.): Geschichte der Literatur in Österreich. 7 volumes, Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Vienna 1994ff., Vol. 1: ISBN 978-3-201-01611-7, Vol. 2: ISBN 978-3-201-01721-3 and ISBN 978-3-201-01812-8, Vol. 7: ISBN 978-3-201-01687-2
Zeyringer, Klaus: Österreichische Literatur seit 1945. Haymon Verlag, Innsbruck 2001, ISBN 978-3-85218-379-4
Žmegač, Viktor (Ed.): Kleine Geschichte der deutschen Literatur. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart. Marix, Wiesbaden 2004. ISBN 3-937715-24-X

External links
Austrian Studies Association, ASA
eLibrary Austria Project (eLib Austria text in German)
WikiReader Austrian Literature (German)
IG Autoren (interest group of all Austrian writers and professional associations of writers)
Österreichischer Schriftstellerverband (writers' association)
P.E.N.-Club (writers' association)
Grazer Autorenversammlung (writers' association)
Österreichische Gesellschaft für Literatur (Austrian Society for Literature)
Passage 6:
Inta Ezergailis
Inta Miške Ezergailis (11 September 1932 in Riga, Latvia – 1 January 2005, in Ithaca, New York), was a Latvian American professor emerita of German literature at Cornell University from 1969 to 1999, specializing in Thomas Mann and contemporary women writers. In 1965, she began graduate study at Cornell University and after earning the doctorate in 1969, she was appointed to the Cornell faculty as an assistant professor of German literature.
In addition to books, she published numerous articles, in English and Latvian, in scholarly and intellectual periodicals.
During the last decade of her life, she turned from academic prose to poetry. Posthumously, her poems have been published by Ulysses House in four volumes: Inta's poems I, II, and III, Alzheimer's Poems, the Vanishing of a Mother. The last volume is devoted to her mother, who died of dementia.
She was married to Andrew Ezergailis.

Books
Male and Female: An Approach to Thomas Mann's Dialectic (1975)
Woman Writers - The Divided Self (1982). (Study of Christa Wolf, Ingeborg Bachmann, Doris Lessing, Erica Jong, Karin Struck, Francine du Plessix Gray and others.)
Thomas Mann, Critical Essays on Thomas Mann (1988)
Nostalgia and Beyond: Eleven Latvian Women Writers (1998).
Passage 7:
İhsan Oktay Anar
İhsan Oktay Anar (born 1960 in Yozgat, Turkey), is a Turkish writer, illustrator, literature translator and an academic.
He studied philosophy in Ege University on undergraduate (1984), graduate (1989) and doctoral levels. Anar now teaches at the same university, lecturing in antique philosophy and Greek. In 2009, he won the Erdal Öz Literature Award "for his valuable novels and original style".Anar published his first novel, The Atlas of Misty Continents (Puslu Kıtalar Atlası) in 1995. The book was translated to a number of languages, including French, German and Hungarian, and a comic book version by caricaturist İlban Ertem was released in Spring of 2015. His novels are fantasy pieces supported by historical facts and rumors especially related to the Ottoman Empire and a narration resembling fairy tales. He is known for well developed, various and original characters and providing a philosophical basis for his fantasy plots. Supernatural elements and references to folk literature and culture are commonly seen in his works. He uses a mixture of Ottoman and folk terminology within his Turkish writings, giving references to myths and historical scriptures. A trivial fact is that each of his books have a character named "Uzun İhsan" (meaning "Ihsan the Tall"), which is in fact a reference to himself. Anar is a tall and imposing figure, with a height over six feet four.

Works
Novels
Tiamat (Tiamat) (2022)
The Nasty Hero (Galiz Kahraman) (2014)
Seventh Day (Yedinci Gün) (2012)
Taciturns (Suskunlar) (2007)
Amat (Amat) (2005)
Tales of Afrasiab (Efrasiyab`ın Hikayeleri)  (1998) - later adapted for stage
The Book of Devices (Kitab-ül Hiyel) (1996)
The Atlas of Misty Continents (Puslu Kıtalar Atlası) (1995)Illustrations for Kitab-ül Hiyel
has published articles in the former newspaper Yeni Binyıl
has published a story in the book 1002 Gece MasallarıAcademic articles published in Turkish
Anar, İ.O., Er Efsanesinin Muhtemel Kökenleri, Seminar, 1993, P.30-44.
Anar, İ.O., Sokrates Sorunu, Seminar. 1990. pp. 1–9.
Passage 8:
Michael Werner (publisher)
Michael Werner (born 1965 in Frankenthal, Germany) is a publisher of Pennsylvania German publications and writer of Pennsylvania German articles, prose and poetry. He is the founder and publisher of the only existing Pennsylvania German newspaper, Hiwwe wie Driwwe.

Life
Werner was raised in the Palatinate (Germany). Members of his family had emigrated from this area to the U.S. in the 19th century. He studied at the University of Mannheim and holds a Master's degree in General Linguistics, Germans Studies and Sociology. His Ph.D. Thesis is dealing with Pennsylvania German literature. Werner is working as publishing director of a B2B publishing house in Mainz (Germany). He lives in Ober-Olm.

Activities
In 1993, he became a student of C. Richard Beam (1925-2018), director of the Center for Pennsylvania German Studies at Millersville University (PA). In the same year, Werner started a private "Archive for Pennsylvania German Literature" in the Palatinate, Germany. In 1996, the newspaper Hiwwe wie Driwwe was founded by him in Ebertsheim, Palatinate (Germany). Actually, it is being published bi-annually. Since 1998, he has been a member of the jury of the oldest Palatine Dialect Writers Contest in Bockenheim an der Weinstraße, Palatinate (Germany). In 2003, Michael Werner was one of the co-founders of the German-Pennsylvanian Association and the first president of the association (until 2010). Since 2008, Werner invites speakers of Pennsylvania German to give presentations about the language and culture in Germany. In 2013, "Hiwwe wie Driwwe" started a cooperation with the Pennsylvania German Cultural Heritage Center at Kutztown University (PA). The editorial office was moved to Pennsylvania in 2015. In 2017, Werner donated his private archive of Pennsylvania German literature and folk life to the Mennonite Research Center at Weierhof (Palatinate, Germany), where it will be presented to the public as "Deutsch-Pennsylvanisches Archiv" (German-Pennsylvanian Archive). In 2020, he was one of the founders of Groundhog Lodge No. 19 in Bockenheim (Palatinate, Germany). In 2021, Werner published a German trip advisor to the Pennsylvania Dutch Country.

Trivia
His journalistic work over a period of three decades inspired two German cinema documentaries: "Hiwwe wie Driwwe 1" (2019) and "Hiwwe wie Driwwe 2" (coming up 2024).

Works
Werner, Michael (Ed.): Hiwwe wie Driwwe. The Pennsylvania German Review (Newspaper). Ebertsheim/Ober-Olm/Kutztown 1997-.
Werner, Michael: "Ebbes aus em alte Land". Newspaper Column. In: The Pennsylvania German Review (Kutztown, PA), 2001-2003.
Werner, Michael: "Ebbes in die Mudderschprooch". Newspaper Column. In: The Diary (Gordonville, PA), 2003-2005.
Werner, Michael: "S Katz Deitsch Schtick". Internet Blog. In: hiwwe-wie-driwwe.de. Ober-Olm 2002-.
Werner, Michael et al. (Ed.): Mit Pennsylvanisch-Deitsch darich's Yaahr. A Pennsylvania German Reader for Grandparents and Grandchildren. Neckarsteinach 2006.
Werner, Michael (Transl.): Es globbt beim Sammy in der Nacht (Children's Book). Neckarsteinach 2012.
Werner, Michael: "Der Uncle Saem findt uns gedrei" - A Multimedia Performance (Texts, Music, Pictures & Videos), presented by the "New Paltz Band". Ober-Olm/Frankenthal/Schifferstadt 2013-.
Werner, Michael (Transl.): Kumm, mer gehne Baere yaage (engl. Original: We're Going on a Bear Hunt, by Michael Rosen). Neckarsteinach/Morgantown (PA) 2014.
Werner, Michael: Pennsylvanisch-Deitsch im Yahr 2015. A Hiwwe wie Driwwe Documentary. Published on youtube.com (30 minutes).
Werner, Michael (Ed.): DEITSCH. News und Geschichten aus dem Pennsylvania Dutch Country. A Hiwwe wie Driwwe Publication (E-Paper). Ober-Olm 2015-2017.
Werner, Michael / Louden, Mark / Sauer, Walter (Eds.): Die Erschte Dausend Wadde in Pennsilfaanisch Deitsch. Neckarsteinach 2018.
Werner, Michael: En neier Sound im neie Land - 32 New Songs in Pennsylvania Dutch. Ober-Olm 2019.
Werner, Michael: Hiwwe wie Driwwe - Der Pennsylvania ReiseVERführer. Neustadt an der Weinstraße 2021.
Werner, Michael / Donmoyer, Patrick (Eds.): 25 Yaahre Hiwwe wie Driwwe - Celebrating a Quarter Century of Transatlantic Friendship. Morgantown (PA) 2022.

Films
Hiwwe wie Driwwe - Pfälzisch in Amerika (2018). Calimedia/Cinewa (Landau). - Expert advice and participation.
Die Rezeptsucherin: Pennsylvania (2018). SWR (Mainz). - Expert advice.
Hiwwe wie Driwwe - The Roots of the Pennsylvania Dutch (2019). Calimedia/Cinewa (Landau).
Driwwe im neie Land - Pfälzisch in Amerika (2020). SWR (Mainz).
Rumspringa (2022). Constantin Film (Munich). - Expert advice and language training of the actors (Pennsylvania Dutch).

Publishing
Awards and acknowledgements
1998: Member of the jury of the Palatine Dialect Writers Contest in Bockenheim (Palatinate, Germany)
2007: "10th J. William Frey Lecturer", Franklin & Marshall College (Lancaster, PA)
2012: "Medienpreis Pfalz", Bezirksverband Pfalz (short list) - for "Hiwwe wie Driwwe"
2015: "Emichsburg-Preis", Förderkreis Mundart Bockenheim e.V. - together with Frank Kessler and Dr. Walter Sauer in place of the "German-Pennsylvanian Association" (Deutsch-Pennsylvanischer Arbeitskreis e.V.)
2020: "Hermann Sinsheimer Plakette", City of Freinsheim (Palatinate, Germany) - for his services to the Palatine and Pennsylvania German literature

Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: An American who is a German literature translator and did a thesis on an Austrian prodigy born in 1874 taught at which university?



Answer: University of Vienna