prompt_front: You are given a scientific article and a question. Answer the question as concisely as you can, using a single phrase or sentence if possible. If the question cannot be answered based on the information in the article, write "unanswerable". If the question is a yes/no question, answer "yes", "no", or "unanswerable". Do not provide any explanation.

Please answer the questions based on the text provided below. How does Gaussian-masked directional multi-head attention works?
Context 1: Introduction
Chinese word segmentation (CWS) is a task for Chinese natural language process to delimit word boundary  CWS is a basic and essential task for Chinese which is written without explicit word delimiters and different from alphabetical languages like English  BIBREF0 treats Chinese word segmentation (CWS) as a sequence labeling task with character position tags, which is followed by BIBREF1, BIBREF2, BIBREF3  Traditional CWS models depend on the design of features heavily which effects the performance of model  To minimize the effort in feature engineering, some CWS models BIBREF4, BIBREF5, BIBREF6, BIBREF7, BIBREF8, BIBREF9, BIBREF10, BIBREF11 are developed following neural network architecture for sequence labeling tasks BIBREF12  Neural CWS models perform strong ability of feature representation, employing unigram and bigram character embedding as input and approach good performance 
The CWS task is often modeled as one graph model based on a scoring model that means it is composed of two parts, one part is an encoder which is used to generate the representation of characters from the input sequence, the other part is a decoder which performs segmentation according to the encoder scoring  Table TABREF1 summarizes typical CWS models according to their decoding ways for both traditional and neural models  Markov models such as BIBREF13 and BIBREF4 depend on the maximum entropy model or maximum entropy Markov model both with a Viterbi decoder  Besides, conditional random field (CRF) or Semi-CRF for sequence labeling has been used for both traditional and neural models though with different representations BIBREF2, BIBREF15, BIBREF10, BIBREF17, BIBREF18  Generally speaking, the major difference between traditional and neural network models is about the way to represent input sentences 
Recent works about neural CWS which focus on benchmark dataset, namely SIGHAN Bakeoff BIBREF21, may be put into the following three categories roughly 
Encoder  Practice in various natural language processing tasks has been shown that effective representation is essential to the performance improvement  Thus for better CWS, it is crucial to encode the input character, word or sentence into effective representation  Table TABREF2 summarizes regular feature sets for typical CWS models including ours as well  The building blocks that encoders use include recurrent neural network (RNN) and convolutional neural network (CNN), and long-term memory network (LSTM) 
Graph model  As CWS is a kind of structure learning task, the graph model determines which type of decoder should be adopted for segmentation, also it may limit the capability of defining feature, as shown in Table 2, not all graph models can support the word features  Thus recent work focused on finding more general or flexible graph model to make model learn the representation of segmentation more effective as BIBREF9, BIBREF11 
External data and pre-trained embedding  Whereas both encoder and graph model are about exploring a way to get better performance only by improving the model strength itself  Using external resource such as pre-trained embeddings or language representation is an alternative for the same purpose BIBREF22, BIBREF23  SIGHAN Bakeoff defines two types of evaluation settings, closed test limits all the data for learning should not be beyond the given training set, while open test does not take this limitation BIBREF21  In this work, we will focus on the closed test setting by finding a better model design for further CWS performance improvement 
Shown in Table TABREF1, different decoders have particular decoding algorithms to match the respective CWS models  Markov models and CRF-based models often use Viterbi decoders with polynomial time complexity  In general graph model, search space may be too large for model to search  Thus it forces graph models to use an approximate beam search strategy  Beam search algorithm has a kind low-order polynomial time complexity  Especially, when beam width $b$=1, the beam search algorithm will reduce to greedy algorithm with a better time complexity $O(Mn)$ against the general beam search time complexity $O(Mnb^2)$, where $n$ is the number of units in one sentences, $M$ is a constant representing the model complexity  Greedy decoding algorithm can bring the fastest speed of decoding while it is not easy to guarantee the precision of decoding when the encoder is not strong enough 
In this paper, we focus on more effective encoder design which is capable of offering fast and accurate Chinese word segmentation with only unigram feature and greedy decoding  Our proposed encoder will only consist of attention mechanisms as building blocks but nothing else  Motivated by the Transformer BIBREF24 and its strength of capturing long-range dependencies of input sentences, we use a self-attention network to generate the representation of input which makes the model encode sentences at once without feeding input iteratively  Considering the weakness of the Transformer to model relative and absolute position information directly BIBREF25 and the importance of localness information, position information and directional information for CWS, we further improve the architecture of standard multi-head self-attention of the Transformer with a directional Gaussian mask and get a variant called Gaussian-masked directional multi-head attention  Based on the newly improved attention mechanism, we expand the encoder of the Transformer to capture different directional information  With our powerful encoder, our model uses only simple unigram features to generate representation of sentences 
For decoder which directly performs the segmentation, we use the bi-affinal attention scorer, which has been used in dependency parsing BIBREF26 and semantic role labeling BIBREF27, to implement greedy decoding on finding the boundaries of words  In our proposed model, greedy decoding ensures a fast segmentation while powerful encoder design ensures a good enough segmentation performance even working with greedy decoder together  Our model will be strictly evaluated on benchmark datasets from SIGHAN Bakeoff shared task on CWS in terms of closed test setting, and the experimental results show that our proposed model achieves new state-of-the-art 
The technical contributions of this paper can be summarized as follows 
We propose a CWS model with only attention structure  The encoder and decoder are both based on attention structure 
With a powerful enough encoder, we for the first time show that unigram (character) featues can help yield strong performance instead of diverse $n$-gram (character and word) features in most of previous work 
To capture the representation of localness information and directional information, we propose a variant of directional multi-head self-attention to further enhance the state-of-the-art Transformer encoder 
Models
The CWS task is often modelled as one graph model based on an encoder-based scoring model  The model for CWS task is composed of an encoder to represent the input and a decoder based on the encoder to perform actual segmentation  Figure FIGREF6 is the architecture of our model  The model feeds sentence into encoder  Embedding captures the vector $e=(e_1,   ,e_n)$ of the input character sequences of $c=(c_1,   ,c_n)$  The encoder maps vector sequences of $ {e}=(e_1,  ,e_n)$ to two sequences of vector which are $ {v^b}=(v_1^b,   ,v_n^b)$ and ${v^f}=(v_1^f,   v_n^f)$ as the representation of sentences  With $v^b$ and $v^f$, the bi-affinal scorer calculates the probability of each segmentation gaps and predicts the word boundaries of input  Similar as the Transformer, the encoder is an attention network with stacked self-attention and point-wise, fully connected layers while our encoder includes three independent directional encoders 
Models ::: Encoder Stacks
In the Transformer, the encoder is composed of a stack of N identical layers and each layer has one multi-head self-attention layer and one position-wise fully connected feed-forward layer  One residual connection is around two sub-layers and followed by layer normalization BIBREF24  This architecture provides the Transformer a good ability to generate representation of sentence 
With the variant of multi-head self-attention, we design a Gaussian-masked directional encoder to capture representation of different directions to improve the ability of capturing the localness information and position information for the importance of adjacent characters  One unidirectional encoder can capture information of one particular direction 
For CWS tasks, one gap of characters, which is from a word boundary, can divide one sequence into two parts, one part in front of the gap and one part in the rear of it  The forward encoder and backward encoder are used to capture information of two directions which correspond to two parts divided by the gap 
One central encoder is paralleled with forward and backward encoders to capture the information of entire sentences  The central encoder is a special directional encoder for forward and backward information of sentences  The central encoder can fuse the information and enable the encoder to capture the global information 
The encoder outputs one forward information and one backward information of each positions  The representation of sentence generated by center encoder will be added to these information directly:
where $v^{b}=(v^b_1,   ,v^b_n)$ is the backward information, $v^{f}=(v^f_1,   ,v^f_n)$ is the forward information, $r^{b}=(r^b_1,   ,r^b_n)$ is the output of backward encoder, $r^{c}=(r^c_1,   ,r^c_n)$ is the output of center encoder and $r^{f}=(r^f_1,   ,r^f_n)$ is the output of forward encoder 
Models ::: Gaussian-Masked Directional Multi-Head Attention
Similar as scaled dot-product attention BIBREF24, Gaussian-masked directional attention can be described as a function to map queries and key-value pairs to the representation of input  Here queries, keys and values are all vectors  Standard scaled dot-product attention is calculated by dotting query $Q$ with all keys $K$, dividing each values by $\sqrt{d_k}$, where $\sqrt{d_k}$ is the dimension of keys, and apply a softmax function to generate the weights in the attention:
Different from scaled dot-product attention, Gaussian-masked directional attention expects to pay attention to the adjacent characters of each positions and cast the localness relationship between characters as a fix Gaussian weight for attention  We assume that the Gaussian weight only relys on the distance between characters 
Firstly we introduce the Gaussian weight matrix $G$ which presents the localness relationship between each two characters:
where $g_{ij}$ is the Gaussian weight between character $i$ and $j$, $dis_{ij}$ is the distance between character $i$ and $j$, $\Phi (x)$ is the cumulative distribution function of Gaussian, $\sigma $ is the standard deviation of Gaussian function and it is a hyperparameter in our method  Equation (DISPLAY_FORM13) can ensure the Gaussian weight equals 1 when $dis_{ij}$ is 0  The larger distance between charactersis, the smaller the weight is, which makes one character can affect its adjacent characters more compared with other characters 
To combine the Gaussian weight to the self-attention, we produce the Hadamard product of Gaussian weight matrix $G$ and the score matrix produced by $Q{K^{T}}$
where $AG$ is the Gaussian-masked attention  It ensures that the relationship between two characters with long distances is weaker than adjacent characters 
The scaled dot-product attention models the relationship between two characters without regard to their distances in one sequence  For CWS task, the weight between adjacent characters should be more important while it is hard for self-attention to achieve the effect explicitly because the self-attention cannot get the order of sentences directly  The Gaussian-masked attention adjusts the weight between characters and their adjacent character to a larger value which stands for the effect of adjacent characters 
For forward and backward encoder, the self-attention sublayer needs to use a triangular matrix mask to let the self-attention focus on different weights:
where $pos_i$ is the position of character $c_i$  The triangular matrix for forward and backward encode are:
$\left[ \begin{matrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots &0\\ 1 & 1 & 0 & \cdots &0\\ 1 & 1 & 1 & \cdots &0\\ \vdots &\vdots &\vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & \cdots & 1\\ \end{matrix} \right]$ $\left[ \begin{matrix} 1 & 1 & 1 & \cdots &1 \\ 0 & 1 & 1 & \cdots &1 \\ 0 & 0& 1 & \cdots &1 \\ \vdots &\vdots &\vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 1\\ \end{matrix}\right]$
Similar as BIBREF24, we use multi-head attention to capture information from different dimension positions as Figure FIGREF16 and get Gaussian-masked directional multi-head attention  With multi-head attention architecture, the representation of input can be captured by
where $MH$ is the Gaussian-masked multi-head attention, ${W_i^q, W_i^k,W_i^v} \in \mathbb {R}^{d_k \times d_h}$ is the parameter matrices to generate heads, $d_k$ is the dimension of model and $d_h$ is the dimension of one head 
Models ::: Bi-affinal Attention Scorer
Regarding word boundaries as gaps between any adjacent words converts the character labeling task to the gap labeling task  Different from character labeling task, gap labeling task requires information of two adjacent characters  The relationship between adjacent characters can be represented as the type of gap  The characteristic of word boundaries makes bi-affine attention an appropriate scorer for CWS task 
Bi-affinal attention scorer is the component that we use to label the gap  Bi-affinal attention is developed from bilinear attention which has been used in dependency parsing BIBREF26 and SRL BIBREF27  The distribution of labels in a labeling task is often uneven which makes the output layer often include a fixed bias term for the prior probability of different labels BIBREF27  Bi-affine attention uses bias terms to alleviate the burden of the fixed bias term and get the prior probability which makes it different from bilinear attention  The distribution of the gap is uneven that is similar as other labeling task which fits bi-affine 
Bi-affinal attention scorer labels the target depending on information of independent unit and the joint information of two units  In bi-affinal attention, the score $s_{ij}$ of characters $c_i$ and $c_j$ $(i < j)$ is calculated by:
where $v_i^f$ is the forward information of $c_i$ and $v_i^b$ is the backward information of $c_j$  In Equation (DISPLAY_FORM21), $W$, $U$ and $b$ are all parameters that can be updated in training  $W$ is a matrix with shape $(d_i \times N\times d_j)$ and $U$ is a $(N\times (d_i + d_j))$ matrix where $d_i$ is the dimension of vector $v_i^f$ and $N$ is the number of labels 
In our model, the biaffine scorer uses the forward information of character in front of the gap and the backward information of the character behind the gap to distinguish the position of characters  Figure FIGREF22 is an example of labeling gap  The method of using biaffine scorer ensures that the boundaries of words can be determined by adjacent characters with different directional information  The score vector of the gap is formed by the probability of being a boundary of word  Further, the model generates all boundaries using activation function in a greedy decoding way 
Experiments ::: Experimental Settings ::: Data
We train and evaluate our model on datasets from SIGHAN Bakeoff 2005 BIBREF21 which has four datasets, PKU, MSR, AS and CITYU  Table TABREF23 shows the statistics of train data  We use F-score to evaluate CWS models  To train model with pre-trained embeddings in AS and CITYU, we use OpenCC to transfer data from traditional Chinese to simplified Chinese 
Experiments ::: Experimental Settings ::: Pre-trained Embedding
We only use unigram feature so we only trained character embeddings  Our pre-trained embedding are pre-trained on Chinese Wikipedia corpus by word2vec BIBREF29 toolkit  The corpus used for pre-trained embedding is all transferred to simplified Chinese and not segmented  On closed test, we use embeddings initialized randomly 
Experiments ::: Experimental Settings ::: Hyperparameters
For different datasets, we use two kinds of hyperparameters which are presented in Table TABREF24  We use hyperparameters in Table TABREF24 for small corpora (PKU and CITYU) and normal corpora (MSR and AS)  We set the standard deviation of Gaussian function in Equation (DISPLAY_FORM13) to 2  Each training batch contains sentences with at most 4096 tokens 
Experiments ::: Experimental Settings ::: Optimizer
To train our model, we use the Adam BIBREF30 optimizer with $\beta _1=0 9$, $\beta _2=0 98$ and $\epsilon =10^{-9}$  The learning rate schedule is the same as BIBREF24:
where $d$ is the dimension of embeddings, $step$ is the step number of training and $warmup_step$ is the step number of warmup  When the number of steps is smaller than the step of warmup, the learning rate increases linearly and then decreases 
Experiments ::: Hardware and Implements
We trained our models on a single CPU (Intel i7-5960X) with an nVidia 1080 Ti GPU  We implement our model in Python with Pytorch 1 0 
Experiments ::: Results
Tables TABREF25 and TABREF26 reports the performance of recent models and ours in terms of closed test setting  Without the assistance of unsupervised segmentation features userd in BIBREF20, our model outperforms all the other models in MSR and AS except BIBREF18 and get comparable performance in PKU and CITYU  Note that all the other models for this comparison adopt various $n$-gram features while only our model takes unigram ones 
With unsupervised segmentation features introduced by BIBREF20, our model gets a higher result  Specially, the results in MSR and AS achieve new state-of-the-art and approaching previous state-of-the-art in CITYU and PKU  The unsupervised segmentation features are derived from the given training dataset, thus using them does not violate the rule of closed test of SIGHAN Bakeoff 
Table TABREF36 compares our model and recent neural models in terms of open test setting in which any external resources, especially pre-trained embeddings or language models can be used  In MSR and AS, our model gets a comparable result while our results in CITYU and PKU are not remarkable 
However, it is well known that it is always hard to compare models when using open test setting, especially with pre-trained embedding  Not all models may use the same method and data to pre-train  Though pre-trained embedding or language model can improve the performance, the performance improvement itself may be from multiple sources  It often that there is a success of pre-trained embedding to improve the performance, while it cannot prove that the model is better 
Compared with other LSTM models, our model performs better in AS and MSR than in CITYU and PKU  Considering the scale of different corpora, we believe that the size of corpus affects our model and the larger size is, the better model performs  For small corpus, the model tends to be overfitting 
Tables TABREF25 and TABREF26 also show the decoding time in different datasets  Our model finishes the segmentation with the least decoding time in all four datasets, thanks to the architecture of model which only takes attention mechanism as basic block 
Related Work ::: Chinese Word Segmentation
CWS is a task for Chinese natural language process to delimit word boundary  BIBREF0 for the first time formulize CWS as a sequence labeling task  BIBREF3 show that different character tag sets can make essential impact for CWS  BIBREF2 use CRFs as a model for CWS, achieving new state-of-the-art  Works of statistical CWS has built the basis for neural CWS 
Neural word segmentation has been widely used to minimize the efforts in feature engineering which was important in statistical CWS  BIBREF4 introduce the neural model with sliding-window based sequence labeling  BIBREF6 propose a gated recursive neural network (GRNN) for CWS to incorporate complicated combination of contextual character and n-gram features  BIBREF7 use LSTM to learn long distance information  BIBREF9 propose a neural framework that eliminates context windows and utilize complete segmentation history  BIBREF33 explore a joint model that performs segmentation, POS-Tagging and chunking simultaneously  BIBREF34 propose a feature-enriched neural model for joint CWS and part-of-speech tagging  BIBREF35 present a joint model to enhance the segmentation of Chinese microtext by performing CWS and informal word detection simultaneously  BIBREF17 propose a character-based convolutional neural model to capture $n$-gram features automatically and an effective approach to incorporate word embeddings  BIBREF11 improve the model in BIBREF9 and propose a greedy neural word segmenter with balanced word and character embedding inputs  BIBREF23 propose a novel neural network model to incorporate unlabeled and partially-labeled data  BIBREF36 propose two methods that extend the Bi-LSTM to perform incorporating dictionaries into neural networks for CWS  BIBREF37 propose Switch-LSTMs to segment words and provided a more flexible solution for multi-criteria CWS which is easy to transfer the learned knowledge to new criteria 
Related Work ::: Transformer
Transformer BIBREF24 is an attention-based neural machine translation model  The Transformer is one kind of self-attention networks (SANs) which is proposed in BIBREF38  Encoder of the Transformer consists of one self-attention layer and a position-wise feed-forward layer  Decoder of the Transformer contains one self-attention layer, one encoder-decoder attention layer and one position-wise feed-forward layer  The Transformer uses residual connections around the sublayers and then followed by a layer normalization layer 
Scaled dot-product attention is the key component in the Transformer  The input of attention contains queries, keys, and values of input sequences  The attention is generated using queries and keys like Equation (DISPLAY_FORM11)  Structure of scaled dot-product attention allows the self-attention layer generate the representation of sentences at once and contain the information of the sentence which is different from RNN that process characters of sentences one by one  Standard self-attention is similar as Gaussian-masked direction attention while it does not have directional mask and gaussian mask  BIBREF24 also propose multi-head attention which is better to generate representation of sentence by dividing queries, keys and values to different heads and get information from different subspaces 
Conclusion
In this paper, we propose an attention mechanism only based Chinese word segmentation model  Our model uses self-attention from the Transformer encoder to take sequence input and bi-affine attention scorer to predict the label of gaps  To improve the ability of capturing the localness and directional information of self-attention based encoder, we propose a variant of self-attention called Gaussian-masked directional multi-head attention to replace the standard self-attention  We also extend the Transformer encoder to capture directional features  Our model uses only unigram features instead of multiple $n$-gram features in previous work  Our model is evaluated on standard benchmark dataset, SIGHAN Bakeoff 2005, which shows not only our model performs segmentation faster than any previous models but also gives new higher or comparable segmentation performance against previous state-of-the-art models 
Context 2: Introduction
Data annotation is a major bottleneck for the application of supervised learning approaches to many problems  As a result, unsupervised methods that learn directly from unlabeled data are increasingly important  For tasks related to unsupervised syntactic analysis, discrete generative models have dominated in recent years – for example, for both part-of-speech (POS) induction BIBREF0 , BIBREF1 and unsupervised dependency parsing BIBREF2 , BIBREF3 , BIBREF4   While similar models have had success on a range of unsupervised tasks, they have mostly ignored the apparent utility of continuous word representations evident from supervised NLP applications BIBREF5 , BIBREF6   In this work, we focus on leveraging and explicitly representing continuous word embeddings within unsupervised models of syntactic structure 
Pre-trained word embeddings from massive unlabeled corpora offer a compact way of injecting a prior notion of word similarity into models that would otherwise treat words as discrete, isolated categories  However, the specific properties of language captured by any particular embedding scheme can be difficult to control, and, further, may not be ideally suited to the task at hand  For example, pre-trained skip-gram embeddings BIBREF7 with small context window size are found to capture the syntactic properties of language well BIBREF8 , BIBREF9   However, if our goal is to separate syntactic categories, this embedding space is not ideal – POS categories correspond to overlapping interspersed regions in the embedding space, evident in Figure SECREF4  
In our approach, we propose to learn a new latent embedding space as a projection of pre-trained embeddings (depicted in Figure SECREF5 ), while jointly learning latent syntactic structure – for example, POS categories or syntactic dependencies  To this end, we introduce a new generative model (shown in Figure FIGREF6 ) that first generates a latent syntactic representation (e g  a dependency parse) from a discrete structured prior (which we also call the “syntax model”), then, conditioned on this representation, generates a sequence of latent embedding random variables corresponding to each word, and finally produces the observed (pre-trained) word embeddings by projecting these latent vectors through a parameterized non-linear function  The latent embeddings can be jointly learned with the structured syntax model in a completely unsupervised fashion 
By choosing an invertible neural network as our non-linear projector, and then parameterizing our model in terms of the projection's inverse, we are able to derive tractable exact inference and marginal likelihood computation procedures so long as inference is tractable in the underlying syntax model  In sec:learn-with-inv we show that this derivation corresponds to an alternate view of our approach whereby we jointly learn a mapping of observed word embeddings to a new embedding space that is more suitable for the syntax model, but include an additional Jacobian regularization term to prevent information loss 
Recent work has sought to take advantage of word embeddings in unsupervised generative models with alternate approaches BIBREF9 , BIBREF10 , BIBREF11 , BIBREF12   BIBREF9 build an HMM with Gaussian emissions on observed word embeddings, but they do not attempt to learn new embeddings  BIBREF10 , BIBREF11 , and BIBREF12 extend HMM or dependency model with valence (DMV) BIBREF2 with multinomials that use word (or tag) embeddings in their parameterization  However, they do not represent the embeddings as latent variables 
In experiments, we instantiate our approach using both a Markov-structured syntax model and a tree-structured syntax model – specifically, the DMV  We evaluate on two tasks: part-of-speech (POS) induction and unsupervised dependency parsing without gold POS tags  Experimental results on the Penn Treebank BIBREF13 demonstrate that our approach improves the basic HMM and DMV by a large margin, leading to the state-of-the-art results on POS induction, and state-of-the-art results on unsupervised dependency parsing in the difficult training scenario where neither gold POS annotation nor punctuation-based constraints are available 
Model
As an illustrative example, we first present a baseline model for Markov syntactic structure (POS induction) that treats a sequence of pre-trained word embeddings as observations  Then, we propose our novel approach, again using Markov structure, that introduces latent word embedding variables and a neural projector  Lastly, we extend our approach to more general syntactic structures 
Example: Gaussian HMM
We start by describing the Gaussian hidden Markov model introduced by BIBREF9 , which is a locally normalized model with multinomial transitions and Gaussian emissions  Given a sentence of length INLINEFORM0 , we denote the latent POS tags as INLINEFORM1 , observed (pre-trained) word embeddings as INLINEFORM2 , transition parameters as INLINEFORM3 , and Gaussian emission parameters as INLINEFORM4   The joint distribution of data and latent variables factors as:
DISPLAYFORM0
where INLINEFORM0 is the multinomial transition probability and INLINEFORM1 is the multivariate Gaussian emission probability 
While the observed word embeddings do inform this model with a notion of word similarity – lacking in the basic multinomial HMM – the Gaussian emissions may not be sufficiently flexible to separate some syntactic categories in the complex pre-trained embedding space – for example the skip-gram embedding space as visualized in Figure SECREF4 where different POS categories overlap  Next we introduce a new approach that adds flexibility to the emission distribution by incorporating new latent embedding variables 
Markov Structure with Neural Projector
To flexibly model observed embeddings and yield a new representation space that is more suitable for the syntax model, we propose to cascade a neural network as a projection function, deterministically transforming the simple space defined by the Gaussian HMM to the observed embedding space  We denote the latent embedding of the INLINEFORM0 word in a sentence as INLINEFORM1 , and the neural projection function as INLINEFORM2 , parameterized by INLINEFORM3   In the case of sequential Markov structure, our new model corresponds to the following generative process:
For each time step INLINEFORM0 ,
[noitemsep, leftmargin=*]
Draw the latent state INLINEFORM0
Draw the latent embedding INLINEFORM0
Deterministically produce embedding
INLINEFORM0
The graphical model is depicted in Figure FIGREF6   The deterministic projection can also be viewed as sampling each observation from a point mass at INLINEFORM0   The joint distribution of our model is: DISPLAYFORM0
where INLINEFORM0 is a conditional Gaussian distribution, and INLINEFORM1 is the Dirac delta function centered at INLINEFORM2 : DISPLAYFORM0
General Structure with Neural Projector
Our approach can be applied to a broad family of structured syntax models  We denote latent embedding variables as INLINEFORM0 , discrete latent variables in the syntax model as INLINEFORM1 ( INLINEFORM2 ), where INLINEFORM3 are conditioned to generate INLINEFORM4   The joint probability of our model factors as:
DISPLAYFORM0
where INLINEFORM0 represents the probability of the syntax model, and can encode any syntactic structure – though, its factorization structure will determine whether inference is tractable in our full model  As shown in Figure FIGREF6 , we focus on two syntax models for syntactic analysis in this paper  The first is Markov-structured, which we use for POS induction, and the second is DMV-structured, which we use to learn dependency parses without supervision 
The marginal data likelihood of our model is: DISPLAYFORM0
While the discrete variables INLINEFORM0 can be marginalized out with dynamic program in many cases, it is generally intractable to marginalize out the latent continuous variables, INLINEFORM1 , for an arbitrary projection INLINEFORM2 in Eq  ( EQREF17 ), which means inference and learning may be difficult  In sec:opt, we address this issue by constraining INLINEFORM3 to be invertible, and show that this constraint enables tractable exact inference and marginal likelihood computation 
Learning & Inference
In this section, we introduce an invertibility condition for our neural projector to tackle the optimization challenge  Specifically, we constrain our neural projector with two requirements: (1) INLINEFORM0 and (2) INLINEFORM1 exists  Invertible transformations have been explored before in independent components analysis BIBREF14 , gaussianization BIBREF15 , and deep density models BIBREF16 , BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 , for unstructured data  Here, we generalize this style of approach to structured learning, and augment it with discrete latent variables ( INLINEFORM2 )  Under the invertibility condition, we derive a learning algorithm and give another view of our approach revealed by the objective function  Then, we present the architecture of a neural projector we use in experiments: a volume-preserving invertible neural network proposed by BIBREF16 for independent components estimation 
Learning with Invertibility
For ease of exposition, we explain the learning algorithm in terms of Markov structure without loss of generality  As shown in Eq  ( EQREF17 ), the optimization challenge in our approach comes from the intractability of the marginalized emission factor INLINEFORM0   If we can marginalize out INLINEFORM1 and compute INLINEFORM2 , then the posterior and marginal likelihood of our Markov-structured model can be computed with the forward-backward algorithm  We can apply Eq  ( EQREF14 ) and obtain : INLINEFORM3
By using the change of variable rule to the integration, which allows the integration variable INLINEFORM0 to be replaced by INLINEFORM1 , the marginal emission factor can be computed in closed-form when the invertibility condition is satisfied: DISPLAYFORM0
where INLINEFORM0 is a conditional Gaussian distribution, INLINEFORM1 is the Jacobian matrix of function INLINEFORM2 at INLINEFORM3 , and INLINEFORM4 represents the absolute value of its determinant  This Jacobian term is nonzero and differentiable if and only if INLINEFORM5 exists 
Eq  ( EQREF19 ) shows that we can directly calculate the marginal emission distribution INLINEFORM0   Denote the marginal data likelihood of Gaussian HMM as INLINEFORM1 , then the log marginal data likelihood of our model can be directly written as: DISPLAYFORM0
where INLINEFORM0 represents the new sequence of embeddings after applying INLINEFORM1 to each INLINEFORM2   Eq  ( EQREF20 ) shows that the training objective of our model is simply the Gaussian HMM log likelihood with an additional Jacobian regularization term  From this view, our approach can be seen as equivalent to reversely projecting the data through INLINEFORM3 to another manifold INLINEFORM4 that is directly modeled by the Gaussian HMM, with a regularization term  Intuitively, we optimize the reverse projection INLINEFORM5 to modify the INLINEFORM6 space, making it more appropriate for the syntax model  The Jacobian regularization term accounts for the volume expansion or contraction behavior of the projection  Maximizing it can be thought of as preventing information loss  In the extreme case, the Jacobian determinant is equal to zero, which means the projection is non-invertible and thus information is being lost through the projection  Such “information preserving” regularization is crucial during optimization, otherwise the trivial solution of always projecting data to the same single point to maximize likelihood is viable 
More generally, for an arbitrary syntax model the data likelihood of our approach is: DISPLAYFORM0
If the syntax model itself allows for tractable inference and marginal likelihood computation, the same dynamic program can be used to marginalize out INLINEFORM0   Therefore, our joint model inherits the tractability of the underlying syntax model 
Invertible Volume-Preserving Neural Net
For the projection we can use an arbitrary invertible function, and given the representational power of neural networks they seem a natural choice  However, calculating the inverse and Jacobian of an arbitrary neural network can be difficult, as it requires that all component functions be invertible and also requires storage of large Jacobian matrices, which is memory intensive  To address this issue, several recent papers propose specially designed invertible networks that are easily trainable yet still powerful BIBREF16 , BIBREF17 , BIBREF19   Inspired by these works, we use the invertible transformation proposed by BIBREF16 , which consists of a series of “coupling layers”  This architecture is specially designed to guarantee a unit Jacobian determinant (and thus the invertibility property) 
From Eq  ( EQREF22 ) we know that only INLINEFORM0 is required for accomplishing learning and inference; we never need to explicitly construct INLINEFORM1   Thus, we directly define the architecture of INLINEFORM2   As shown in Figure FIGREF24 , the nonlinear transformation from the observed embedding INLINEFORM3 to INLINEFORM4 represents the first coupling layer  The input in this layer is partitioned into left and right halves of dimensions, INLINEFORM5 and INLINEFORM6 , respectively  A single coupling layer is defined as: DISPLAYFORM0
where INLINEFORM0 is the coupling function and can be any nonlinear form  This transformation satisfies INLINEFORM1 , and BIBREF16 show that its Jacobian matrix is triangular with all ones on the main diagonal  Thus the Jacobian determinant is always equal to one (i e  volume-preserving) and the invertibility condition is naturally satisfied 
To be sufficiently expressive, we compose multiple coupling layers as suggested in BIBREF16   Specifically, we exchange the role of left and right half vectors at each layer as shown in Figure FIGREF24   For instance, from INLINEFORM0 to INLINEFORM1 the left subset INLINEFORM2 is unchanged, while from INLINEFORM3 to INLINEFORM4 the right subset INLINEFORM5 remains the same  Also note that composing multiple coupling layers does not change the volume-preserving and invertibility properties  Such a sequence of invertible transformations from the data space INLINEFORM6 to INLINEFORM7 is also called normalizing flow BIBREF20  
Experiments
In this section, we first describe our datasets and experimental setup  We then instantiate our approach with Markov and DMV-structured syntax models, and report results on POS tagging and dependency grammar induction respectively  Lastly, we analyze the learned latent embeddings 
Data
For both POS tagging and dependency parsing, we run experiments on the Wall Street Journal (WSJ) portion of the Penn Treebank  To create the observed data embeddings, we train skip-gram word embeddings BIBREF7 that are found to capture syntactic properties well when trained with small context window BIBREF8 , BIBREF9   Following BIBREF9 , the dimensionality INLINEFORM0 is set to 100, and the training context window size is set to 1 to encode more syntactic information  The skip-gram embeddings are trained on the one billion word language modeling benchmark dataset BIBREF21 in addition to the WSJ corpus 
General Experimental Setup
For the neural projector, we employ rectified networks as coupling function INLINEFORM0 following BIBREF16   We use a rectified network with an input layer, one hidden layer, and linear output units, the number of hidden units is set to the same as the number of input units  The number of coupling layers are varied as 4, 8, 16 for both tasks
Context 3: Introduction
From a group of small users at the time of its inception in 2009, Quora has evolved in the last few years into one of the largest community driven Q&A sites with diverse user communities  With the help of efficient content moderation/review policies and active in-house review team, efficient Quora bots, this site has emerged into one of the largest and reliable sources of Q&A on the Internet  On Quora, users can post questions, follow questions, share questions, tag them with relevant topics, follow topics, follow users apart from answering, commenting, upvoting/downvoting etc  The integrated social structure at the backbone of it and the topical organization of its rich content have made Quora unique with respect to other Q&A sites like Stack Overflow, Yahoo! Answers etc  and these are some of the prime reasons behind its popularity in recent times  Quality question posting and getting them answered are the key objectives of any Q&A site  In this study we focus on the answerability of questions on Quora, i e , whether a posted question shall eventually get answered  In Quora, the questions with no answers are referred to as “open questions”  These open questions need to be studied separately to understand the reason behind their not being answered or to be precise, are there any characteristic differences between `open' questions and the answered ones  For example, the question “What are the most promising advances in the treatment of traumatic brain injuries?” was posted on Quora on 23rd June, 2011 and got its first answer after almost 2 years on 22nd April, 2013  The reason that this question remained open so long might be the hardness of answering it and the lack of visibility and experts in the domain  Therefore, it is important to identify the open questions and take measures based on the types - poor quality questions can be removed from Quora and the good quality questions can be promoted so that they get more visibility and are eventually routed to topical experts for better answers 
Characterization of the questions based on question quality requires expert human interventions often judging if a question would remain open based on factors like if it is subjective, controversial, open-ended, vague/imprecise, ill-formed, off-topic, ambiguous, uninteresting etc  Collecting judgment data for thousands of question posts is a very expensive process  Therefore, such an experiment can be done only for a small set of questions and it would be practically impossible to scale it up for the entire collection of posts on the Q&A site  In this work, we show that appropriate quantification of various linguistic activities can naturally correspond to many of the judgment factors mentioned above (see table 2 for a collection of examples)  These quantities encoding such linguistic activities can be easily measured for each question post and thus helps us to have an alternative mechanism to characterize the answerability on the Q&A site 
There are several research works done in Q&A focusing on content of posts  BIBREF0 exploit community feedback to identify high quality content on Yahoo! Answers  BIBREF1 use textual features to predict answer quality on Yahoo! Answers  BIBREF2 , investigate predictors of answer quality through a comparative, controlled field study of user responses  BIBREF3 study the problem of how long questions remain unanswered  BIBREF4 propose a prediction model on how many answers a question shall receive

ground_truth: pays attentions to adjacent characters and casts a localness relationship between the characters as a fixed Gaussian weight assuming the weight relies on the distance between characters

Gaussian-masked directional attention can be described as a function to map queries and key-value pairs to the representation of input, Gaussian-masked directional attention expects to pay attention to the adjacent characters of each positions and cast the localness relationship between characters as a fix Gaussian weight for attention, Gaussian weight only relys on the distance between characters

prompt_front: You are given a scientific article and a question. Answer the question as concisely as you can, using a single phrase or sentence if possible. If the question cannot be answered based on the information in the article, write "unanswerable". If the question is a yes/no question, answer "yes", "no", or "unanswerable". Do not provide any explanation.

Please answer the questions based on the text provided below. What is the invertibility condition?
Context 2:  We optimize marginal data likelihood directly using Adam BIBREF22   For both tasks in the fully unsupervised setting, we do not tune the hyper-parameters using supervised data 
Unsupervised POS tagging
For unsupervised POS tagging, we use a Markov-structured syntax model in our approach, which is a popular structure for unsupervised tagging tasks BIBREF9 , BIBREF10  
Following existing literature, we train and test on the entire WSJ corpus (49208 sentences, 1M tokens)  We use 45 tag clusters, the number of POS tags that appear in WSJ corpus  We train the discrete HMM and the Gaussian HMM BIBREF9 as baselines  For the Gaussian HMM, mean vectors of Gaussian emissions are initialized with the empirical mean of all word vectors with an additive noise  We assume diagonal covariance matrix for INLINEFORM0 and initialize it with the empirical variance of the word vectors  Following BIBREF9 , the covariance matrix is fixed during training  The multinomial probabilities are initialized as INLINEFORM1 , where INLINEFORM2   For our approach, we initialize the syntax model and Gaussian parameters with the pre-trained Gaussian HMM  The weights of layers in the rectified network are initialized from a uniform distribution with mean zero and a standard deviation of INLINEFORM3 , where INLINEFORM4 is the input dimension  We evaluate the performance of POS tagging with both Many-to-One (M-1) accuracy BIBREF23 and V-Measure (VM) BIBREF24   Given a model we found that the tagging performance is well-correlated with the training data likelihood, thus we use training data likelihood as a unsupervised criterion to select the trained model over 10 random restarts after training 50 epochs  We repeat this process 5 times and report the mean and standard deviation of performance 
We compare our approach with basic HMM, Gaussian HMM, and several state-of-the-art systems, including sophisticated HMM variants and clustering techniques with hand-engineered features  The results are presented in Table TABREF32   Through the introduced latent embeddings and additional neural projection, our approach improves over the Gaussian HMM by 5 4 points in M-1 and 5 6 points in VM  Neural HMM (NHMM) BIBREF10 is a baseline that also learns word representation jointly  Both their basic model and extended Conv version does not outperform the Gaussian HMM  Their best model incorporates another LSTM to model long distance dependency and breaks the Markov assumption, yet our approach still achieves substantial improvement over it without considering more context information  Moreover, our method outperforms the best published result that benefits from hand-engineered features BIBREF27 by 2 0 points on VM 
We found that most tagging errors happen in noun subcategories  Therefore, we do the one-to-one mapping between gold POS tags and induced clusters and plot the normalized confusion matrix of noun subcategories in Figure FIGREF35   The Gaussian HMM fails to identify “NN” and “NNS” correctly for most cases, and it often recognizes “NNPS” as “NNP”  In contrast, our approach corrects these errors well 
Unsupervised Dependency Parsing without gold POS tags
For the task of unsupervised dependency parse induction, we employ the Dependency Model with Valence (DMV) BIBREF2 as the syntax model in our approach  DMV is a generative model that defines a probability distribution over dependency parse trees and syntactic categories, generating tokens and dependencies in a head-outward fashion  While, traditionally, DMV is trained using gold POS tags as observed syntactic categories, in our approach, we treat each tag as a latent variable, as described in sec:general-neural 
Most existing approaches to this task are not fully unsupervised since they rely on gold POS tags following the original experimental setup for DMV  This is partially because automatically parsing from words is difficult even when using unsupervised syntactic categories BIBREF29   However, inducing dependencies from words alone represents a more realistic experimental condition since gold POS tags are often unavailable in practice  Previous work that has trained from words alone often requires additional linguistic constraints (like sentence internal boundaries) BIBREF29 , BIBREF30 , BIBREF31 , BIBREF32 , acoustic cues BIBREF33 , additional training data BIBREF4 , or annotated data from related languages BIBREF34   Our approach is naturally designed to train on word embeddings directly, thus we attempt to induce dependencies without using gold POS tags or other extra linguistic information 
Like previous work we use sections 02-21 of WSJ corpus as training data and evaluate on section 23, we remove punctuations and train the models on sentences of length INLINEFORM0 , “head-percolation” rules BIBREF39 are applied to obtain gold dependencies for evaluation  We train basic DMV, extended DMV (E-DMV) BIBREF35 and Gaussian DMV (which treats POS tag as unknown latent variables and generates observed word embeddings directly conditioned on them following Gaussian distribution) as baselines  Basic DMV and E-DMV are trained with Viterbi EM BIBREF40 on unsupervised POS tags induced from our Markov-structured model described in sec:pos  Multinomial parameters of the syntax model in both Gaussian DMV and our model are initialized with the pre-trained DMV baseline  Other parameters are initialized in the same way as in the POS tagging experiment  The directed dependency accuracy (DDA) is used for evaluation and we report accuracy on sentences of length INLINEFORM1 and all lengths  We train the parser until training data likelihood converges, and report the mean and standard deviation over 20 random restarts 
Our model directly observes word embeddings and does not require gold POS tags during training  Thus, results from related work trained on gold tags are not directly comparable  However, to measure how these systems might perform without gold tags, we run three recent state-of-the-art systems in our experimental setting: UR-A E-DMV BIBREF36 , Neural E-DMV BIBREF11 , and CRF Autoencoder (CRFAE) BIBREF37   We use unsupervised POS tags (induced from our Markov-structured model) in place of gold tags  We also train basic DMV on gold tags and include several state-of-the-art results on gold tags as reference points 
As shown in Table TABREF39 , our approach is able to improve over the Gaussian DMV by 4 8 points on length INLINEFORM0 and 4 8 points on all lengths, which suggests the additional latent embedding layer and neural projector are helpful  The proposed approach yields, to the best of our knowledge, state-of-the-art performance without gold POS annotation and without sentence-internal boundary information  DMV, UR-A E-DMV, Neural E-DMV, and CRFAE suffer a large decrease in performance when trained on unsupervised tags – an effect also seen in previous work BIBREF29 , BIBREF34   Since our approach induces latent POS tags jointly with dependency trees, it may be able to learn POS clusters that are more amenable to grammar induction than the unsupervised tags  We observe that CRFAE underperforms its gold-tag counterpart substantially  This may largely be a result of the model's reliance on prior linguistic rules that become unavailable when gold POS tag types are unknown  Many extensions to DMV can be considered orthogonal to our approach – they essentially focus on improving the syntax model  It is possible that incorporating these more sophisticated syntax models into our approach may lead to further improvements 
Sensitivity Analysis
In the above experiments we initialize the structured syntax components with the pre-trained Gaussian or discrete baseline, which is shown as a useful technique to help train our deep models  We further study the results with fully random initialization  In the POS tagging experiment, we report the results in Table TABREF48   While the performance with 4 layers is comparable to the pre-trained Gaussian initialization, deeper projections (8 or 16 layers) result in a dramatic drop in performance  This suggests that the structured syntax model with very deep projections is difficult to train from scratch, and a simpler projection might be a good compromise in the random initialization setting 
Different from the Markov prior in POS tagging experiments, our parsing model seems to be quite sensitive to the initialization  For example, directed accuracy of our approach on sentences of length INLINEFORM0 is below 40 0 with random initialization  This is consistent with previous work that has noted the importance of careful initialization for DMV-based models such as the commonly used harmonic initializer BIBREF2   However, it is not straightforward to apply the harmonic initializer for DMV directly in our model without using some kind of pre-training since we do not observe gold POS 
We investigate the effect of the choice of pre-trained embedding on performance while using our approach  To this end, we additionally include results using fastText embeddings BIBREF41 – which, in contrast with skip-gram embeddings, include character-level information  We set the context windows size to 1 and the dimension size to 100 as in the skip-gram training, while keeping other parameters set to their defaults  These results are summarized in Table TABREF50 and Table TABREF51   While fastText embeddings lead to reduced performance with our model, our approach still yields an improvement over the Gaussian baseline with the new observed embeddings space 
Qualitative Analysis of Embeddings
We perform qualitative analysis to understand how the latent embeddings help induce syntactic structures  First we filter out low-frequency words and punctuations in WSJ, and visualize the rest words (10k) with t-SNE BIBREF42 under different embeddings  We assign each word with its most likely gold POS tags in WSJ and color them according to the gold POS tags 
For our Markov-structured model, we have displayed the embedding space in Figure SECREF5 , where the gold POS clusters are well-formed  Further, we present five example target words and their five nearest neighbors in terms of cosine similarity  As shown in Table TABREF53 , the skip-gram embedding captures both semantic and syntactic aspects to some degree, yet our embeddings are able to focus especially on the syntactic aspects of words, in an unsupervised fashion without using any extra morphological information 
In Figure FIGREF54 we depict the learned latent embeddings with the DMV-structured syntax model  Unlike the Markov structure, the DMV structure maps a large subset of singular and plural nouns to the same overlapping region  However, two clusters of singular and plural nouns are actually separated  We inspect the two clusters and the overlapping region in Figure FIGREF54 , it turns out that the nouns in the separated clusters are words that can appear as subjects and, therefore, for which verb agreement is important to model  In contrast, the nouns in the overlapping region are typically objects  This demonstrates that the latent embeddings are focusing on aspects of language that are specifically important for modeling dependency without ever having seen examples of dependency parses  Some previous work has deliberately created embeddings to capture different notions of similarity BIBREF43 , BIBREF44 , while they use extra morphology or dependency annotations to guide the embedding learning, our approach provides a potential alternative to create new embeddings that are guided by structured syntax model, only using unlabeled text corpora 
Related Work
Our approach is related to flow-based generative models, which are first described in NICE BIBREF16 and have recently received more attention BIBREF17 , BIBREF19 , BIBREF18   This relevant work mostly adopts simple (e g  Gaussian) and fixed priors and does not attempt to learn interpretable latent structures  Another related generative model class is variational auto-encoders (VAEs) BIBREF45 that optimize a lower bound on the marginal data likelihood, and can be extended to learn latent structures BIBREF46 , BIBREF47   Against the flow-based models, VAEs remove the invertibility constraint but sacrifice the merits of exact inference and exact log likelihood computation, which potentially results in optimization challenges BIBREF48   Our approach can also be viewed in connection with generative adversarial networks (GANs) BIBREF49 that is a likelihood-free framework to learn implicit generative models  However, it is non-trivial for a gradient-based method like GANs to propagate gradients through discrete structures 
Conclusion
In this work, we define a novel generative approach to leverage continuous word representations for unsupervised learning of syntactic structure  Experiments on both POS induction and unsupervised dependency parsing tasks demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed approach  Future work might explore more sophisticated invertible projections, or recurrent projections that jointly transform the entire input sequence 
Context 3:  BIBREF5 analyze and predict unanswered questions on Yahoo Answers  BIBREF6 study question quality in Yahoo! Answers 
Dataset description
We obtained our Quora dataset BIBREF7 through web-based crawls between June 2014 to August 2014  This crawling exercise has resulted in the accumulation of a massive Q&A dataset spanning over a period of over four years starting from January 2010 to May 2014  We initiated crawling with 100 questions randomly selected from different topics so that different genre of questions can be covered  The crawling of the questions follow a BFS pattern through the related question links  We obtained 822,040 unique questions across 80,253 different topics with a total of 1,833,125 answers to these questions  For each question, we separately crawl their revision logs that contain different types of edit information for the question and the activity log of the question asker 
Linguistic activities on Quora
In this section, we identify various linguistic activities on Quora and propose quantifications of the language usage patterns in this Q&A site  In particular, we show that there exists significant differences in the linguistic structure of the open and the answered questions  Note that most of the measures that we define are simple, intuitive and can be easily obtained automatically from the data (without manual intervention)  Therefore the framework is practical, inexpensive and highly scalable 
Content of a question text is important to attract people and make them engage more toward it  The linguistic structure (i e , the usage of POS tags, the use of Out-of-Vocabulary words, character usage etc ) one adopts are key factors for answerability of questions  We shall discuss the linguistic structure that often represents the writing style of a question asker 
In fig 1 (a), we observe that askers of open questions generally use more no  of words compared to answered questions  To understand the nature of words (standard English words or chat-like words frequently used in social media) used in the text, we compare the words with GNU Aspell dictionary to see whether they are present in the dictionary or not  We observe that both open questions and answered questions follow similar distribution (see fig 1 (b))  Part-of-Speech (POS) tags are indicators of grammatical aspects of texts  To observe how the Part-of-Speech tags are distributed in the question texts, we define a diversity metric  We use the standard CMU POS tagger BIBREF8 for identifying the POS tags of the constituent words in the question

ground_truth: The neural projector must be invertible.

we constrain our neural projector with two requirements: (1) INLINEFORM0 and (2) INLINEFORM1 exists

prompt_front: You are given a scientific article and a question. Answer the question as concisely as you can, using a single phrase or sentence if possible. If the question cannot be answered based on the information in the article, write "unanswerable". If the question is a yes/no question, answer "yes", "no", or "unanswerable". Do not provide any explanation.

Please answer the questions based on the text provided below. Do the answered questions measure for the usefulness of the answer?
Context 3:  We define the POS tag diversity (POSDiv) of a question $q_i$ as follows: $POSDiv(q_i) = -\sum _{j \in pos_{set}}p_j\times \log (p_j)$ where $p_j$ is the probability of the $j^{th}$ POS in the set of POS tags  Fig 1 (c) shows that the answered questions have lower POS tag diversity compared to open questions  Question texts undergo several edits so that their readability and the engagement toward them are enhanced  It is interesting to identify how far such edits can make the question different from the original version of it  To capture this phenomena, we have adopted ROUGE-LCS recall BIBREF9 from the domain of text summarization  Higher the recall value, lesser are the changes in the question text  From fig 1 (d), we observe that open questions tend to have higher recall compared to the answered ones which suggests that they have not gone through much of text editing thus allowing for almost no scope of readability enhancement 
Psycholinguistic analysis:
The way an individual talks or writes, give us clue to his/her linguistic, emotional, and cognitive states  A question asker's linguistic, emotional, cognitive states are also revealed through the language he/she uses in the question text  In order to capture such psycholinguistic aspects of the asker, we use Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) BIBREF10 that analyzes various emotional, cognitive, and structural components present in individuals' written texts  LIWC takes a text document as input and outputs a score for the input for each of the LIWC categories such as linguistic (part-of-speech of the words, function words etc ) and psychological categories (social, anger, positive emotion, negative emotion, sadness etc ) based on the writing style and psychometric properties of the document  In table 1 , we perform a comparative analysis of the asker's psycholinguistic state while asking an open question and an answered question 
Askers of open questions use more function words, impersonal pronouns, articles on an average whereas asker of answered questions use more personal pronouns, conjunctions and adverbs to describe their questions  Essentially, open questions lack content words compared to answered questions which, in turn, affects the readability of the question  As far as the psychological aspects are concerned, answered question askers tend to use more social, family, human related words on average compared to an open question asker  The open question askers express more positive emotions whereas the answered question asker tend to express more negative emotions in their texts  Also, answered question askers are more emotionally involved and their questions reveal higher usage of anger, sadness, anxiety related words compared to that of open questions  Open questions, on the other hand, contains more sexual, body, health related words which might be reasons why they do not attract answers 
In table 2 , we show a collection of examples of open questions to illustrate that many of the above quantities based on the linguistic activities described in this section naturally correspond to the factors that human judges consider responsible for a question remaining unanswered  This is one of the prime reasons why these quantities qualify as appropriate indicators of answerability 
Prediction model
In this section, we describe the prediction framework in detail  Our goal is to predict whether a given question after a time period $t$ will be answered or not 
Linguistic styles of the question asker
The content and way of posing a question is important to attract answers  We have observed in the previous section that these linguistic as well as psycholinguistic aspects of the question asker are discriminatory factors  For the prediction, we use the following features:

ground_truth: No