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Question: What are the two ground states observed for indeno[1,2-a]fluorene on NaCl surfaces?

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Context 1: Paper Info

Title: Bistability between π-diradical open-shell and closed-shell states in indeno[1,2-a]fluorene
Publish Date: Unkown
Author List: Shantanu Mishra (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich), Manuel Vilas-Varela (from Department of Organic Chemistry, Center for Research in Biological Chemistry and Molecular Materials (CiQUS), University of Santiago de Compostela), Leonard-Alexander Lieske (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich), Ricardo Ortiz (from Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)), Igor Rončević (from Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford), Florian Albrecht (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich), Diego Peña (from Department of Organic Chemistry, Center for Research in Biological Chemistry and Molecular Materials (CiQUS), University of Santiago de Compostela), Leo Gross (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich)

Figure

Fig  1 | Non-benzenoid non-alternant polycyclic conjugated hydrocarbons a, Classical nonbenzenoid non-alternant polycyclic conjugated hydrocarbons: pentalene, azulene and heptalene b, Generation of indacenes and indenoindenes through benzinterposition and benzannelation of pentalene, respectively Gray filled rings represent Clar sextets c, Closed-shell Kekulé (left) and openshell non-Kekulé (right) resonance structures of QDMs Note that meta-QDM is a non-Kekulé molecule All indenofluorene isomers, being derived through benzannelation of indacenes, contain a central QDM moiety d, Closed-shell Kekulé (top) and open-shell non-Kekulé (bottom) resonance structures of indenofluorenes Compared to their closed-shell structures, 1 and 5 gain two Clar sextets in the openshell structure, while 2-4 gain only one Clar sextet in the open-shell structure Colored bonds in d highlight the ortho-and para-QDM moieties in the two closed-shell Kekulé structures of 5  e, Scheme of on-surface generation of 5 by voltage pulse-induced dehydrogenation of 6 (C20H14) Structures 7 and 8 represent the two monoradical species (C20H13) 
Fig  2 | Characterization of open-shell indeno[1,2-a]fluorene on bilayer NaCl/Au(111) a, DFTcalculated wave functions of the frontier orbitals of 5OS in the triplet configuration for the spin up (occupied) level (isovalue: 0 002 e -Å -3 ) Blue and red colors represent opposite phases of the wave function b, Corresponding DFT-calculated spin density of 5OS (isovalue: 0 01 e -Å -3) Blue and orange colors represent spin up and spin down densities, respectively c, Probability density of the SOMOs of 5OS (isovalue: 0 001 e -Å -3 ) d, DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5OS e, Constant-height I(V) spectra acquired on a species of 5 assigned as 5OS, along with the corresponding dI/dV(V) spectra Open feedback parameters: V = -2 V, I = 0 17 pA (negative bias side) and V = 2 V, I = 0 17 pA (positive bias side) Acquisition position of the spectra is shown in Supplementary Fig 7 f, Scheme of many-body transitions associated to the measured ionic resonances of 5OS Also shown are STM images of assigned 5OS at biases where the corresponding transitions become accessible Scanning parameters: I = 0 3 pA (V = -1 2V and -1 5 V) and 0 2 pA (V = 1 3 V and 1 6 V)  g, Laplace-filtered AFM image of assigned 5OS STM set point: V = 0 2 V, I = 0 5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0 3Å The tip-height offset Δz for each panel is provided with respect to the STM setpoint, and positive (negative) values of Δz denote tip approach (retraction) from the STM setpoint f and g show the same molecule at the same adsorption site, which is next to a trilayer NaCl island The bright and dark features in the trilayer NaCl island in g correspond to Cl -and Na + ions, respectively Scale bars: 10 Å (f) and 5 Å (g) 
Fig  3 | Characterization of closed-shell indeno[1,2-a]fluorene on bilayer NaCl/Au(111) a, DFTcalculated wave functions of the frontier orbitals of closed-shell 5 0 (isovalue: 0 002 e -Å -3 ) The wave functions shown here are calculated for the 5para geometry b, DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5ortho (top) and 5para (bottom) c, Constant-height I(V) spectra acquired on a species of 5 assigned as 5para, along with the corresponding dI/dV(V) spectra Open feedback parameters: V = -2 V, I = 0 15 pA (negative bias side) and V = 2 2 V, I = 0 15 pA (positive bias side) Acquisition position of the spectra is shown in Supplementary Fig  7  d, Scheme of many-body transitions associated to the measured ionic resonances of 5para Also shown are STM images of assigned 5para at biases where the corresponding transitions become accessible Scanning parameters: I = 0 15 pA (V = -1 5 V) and 0 2 pA (V = 1 7 V)  e, Laplace-filtered AFM image of assigned 5para STM set point: V = 0 2 V, I = 0 5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0 7 Å  f, Selected bonds labeled for highlighting bond order differences between 5para and 5ortho For the bond pairs a/b, c/d and e/f, the bonds labeled in bold exhibit a higher bond order than their neighboring labeled bonds in 5para g, Laplace-filtered AFM images of 5 on bilayer NaCl/Cu(111) showing switching between 5OS and 5para as the molecule changes its adsorption position The faint protrusion adjacent to 5 is a defect that stabilizes the adsorption of 5  STM set point: V = 0 2 V, I = 0 5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0 3Å  STM and STS data in c and d are acquired on the same species, while the AFM data in e is acquired on a different species Scale bars: 10 Å (d) and 5 Å (e,g) 
NMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7 51 (m, 2H), 7 40 -7 28 (m, 5H), 7 27 -7 20 (m, 2H), 7 13 (d, J = 7 7 Hz, 1H), 2 07 (s, 3H), 1 77 (s, 3H) ppm  13C NMR-DEPT (75 MHz, CDCl3, 1:1 mixture of atropisomers) δ: 141 2 (C), 141 1 (C), 140 0 (C), 139 4 (2C), 137 5 (C), 137 4 (C), 136 0 (3C), 134 8 (C), 134 5 (C), 134 1 (C), 134 0 (C), 133 7 (C), 133 6 (C), 131 6 (CH), 131 2 (CH), 131 1 (CH), 130 7 (CH), 129 8 (CH), 129 7 (CH), 129 5 (CH), 129 4 (CH), 129 0 (CH), 128 9 (CH), 128 7 (2CH), 128 6 (2CH), 127 2 (CH), 127 1 (CH), 127 0 (CH), 126 9 (CH), 126 7 (CH), 126 6 (CH), 20 6 (CH3), 20 5 (CH3), 17 7 (CH3), 17 5 (CH3) ppm MS (APCI) m/z (%): 327 (M+1, 100) HRMS: C20H16Cl2; calculated: 327 0702, found: 327 0709 
NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7 93 (d, J = 7 6 Hz, 1H), 7 85 (d, J = 7 5 Hz, 1H), 7 78 (d, J = 7 7 Hz, 1H), 7 65 (d, J = 7 4 Hz, 1H), 7 61 (d, J = 7 5 Hz, 1H), 7 59 (d, J = 7 7 Hz, 1H), 7 47 (ddd, J = 8 4, 7 2, 1 1 Hz, 1H), 7 42 (dd, J = 8 1, 7 0 Hz, 1H), 7 35 (m, 2H), 4 22 (s, 3H), 4 02 (s, 3H) ppm  13C NMR-DEPT (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 144 1 (C), 143 3 (C), 142 3 (C), 141 9 (C), 141 8 (C), 141 2 (C), 138 2 (C), 136 5 (C), 127 0 (CH), 126 9 (CH), 126 7 (CH), 126 6 (CH), 125 3 (CH), 125 2 (CH), 123 6 (CH), 122 2 (CH), 119 9 (CH), 118 4 (CH), 37 4 (CH2), 36 3 (CH2) ppm MS (APCI) m/z (%): 254 (M+, 88) HRMS: C20H14; calculated: 254 1090, found: 254 1090 

abstract

Indenofluorenes are non-benzenoid conjugated hydrocarbons that have received great interest owing to their unusual electronic structure and potential applications in nonlinear optics and photovoltaics  Here, we report the generation of unsubstituted indeno[1,2-a]fluorene, the final and yet unreported parent indenofluorene regioisomer, on various surfaces by cleavage of two C-H bonds in 7,12-dihydro indeno[1,2-a]fluorene through voltage pulses applied by the tip of a combined scanning tunneling microscope and atomic force microscope 
On bilayer NaCl on Au(111), indeno[1,2a]fluorene is in the neutral charge state, while it exhibits charge bistability between neutral and anionic states on the lower work function surfaces of bilayer NaCl on Ag(111) and Cu(111)  In the neutral state, indeno[1,2-a]fluorene exhibits either of two ground states: an open-shell π-diradical state, predicted to be a triplet by density functional and multireference many-body perturbation theory calculations, or a closedshell state with a para-quinodimethane moiety in the as-indacene core 
Switching between open-and closed-shell states of a single molecule is observed by changing its adsorption site on NaCl  The inclusion of non-benzenoid carbocyclic rings is a viable route to tune the physicochemical properties of polycyclic conjugated hydrocarbons (PCHs)   Non-benzenoid polycycles may lead to local changes in strain, conjugation, aromaticity, and, relevant to the context of the present work, induce an open-shell ground state of the corresponding PCHs  
Many nonbenzenoid PCHs are also non-alternant, where the presence of odd-membered polycycles breaks the bipartite symmetry of the molecular network   Figure shows classical examples of non-benzenoid non-alternant PCHs, namely, pentalene, azulene and heptalene  Whereas azulene is a stable PCH exhibiting Hückel aromaticity ([4n+2] π-electrons, n = 2), pentalene and heptalene are unstable Hückel antiaromatic compounds with [4n] π-electrons, n = 2 (pentalene) and n = 3 (heptalene) 
Benzinterposition of pentalene generates indacenes, consisting of two isomers s-indacene and as-indacene (Fig  )  Apart from being antiaromatic, indacenes also contain proaromatic quinodimethane (QDM) moieties (Fig  ) , which endows them with potential open-shell character  While the parent s-indacene and asindacene have never been isolated, stable derivatives of s-indacene bearing bulky substituents have been synthesized  
A feasible strategy to isolate congeners of otherwise unstable non-benzenoid non-alternant PCHs is through fusion of benzenoid rings at the ends of the π-system, that is, benzannelation  For example, while the parent pentalene is unstable, the benzannelated congener indeno[2,1-a]indene is stable under ambient conditions (Fig  )  
However, the position of benzannelation is crucial for stability: although indeno[2,1a]indene is stable, its regioisomer indeno[1,2-a]indene (Fig  ) oxidizes under ambient conditions   Similarly, benzannelation of indacenes gives rise to the family of PCHs known as indenofluorenes (Fig  ), which constitute the topic of the present work 
Depending on the benzannelation position and the indacene core, five regioisomers can be constructed, namely, indeno [ Practical interest in indenofluorenes stems from their low frontier orbital gap and excellent electrochemical characteristics that render them as useful components in organic electronic devices  
The potential open-shell character of indenofluorenes has led to several theoretical studies on their use as non-linear optical materials and as candidates for singlet fission in organic photovoltaics   Recent theoretical work has also shown that indenofluorene-based ladder polymers may exhibit fractionalized excitations 
Fundamentally, indenofluorenes represent model systems to study the interplay between aromaticity and magnetism at the molecular scale   Motivated by many of these prospects, the last decade has witnessed intensive synthetic efforts toward the realization of indenofluorenes  Derivatives of 1-4 have been realized in solution , while 1-3 have also been synthesized on surfaces and characterized using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), which provide information on molecular orbital densities , molecular structure and oxidation state  
With regards to the open-shell character of indenofluorenes, 2-4 are theoretically and experimentally interpreted to be closed-shell, while calculations indicate that 1 and 5 should exhibit open-shell ground states   Bulk characterization of mesitylsubstituted 1, including X-ray crystallography, temperature-dependent NMR, and electron spin resonance spectroscopy, provided indications of its open-shell ground state  
Electronic characterization of 1 on Au(111) surface using scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) revealed a low electronic gap of 0 4 eV (ref  )  However, no experimental proof of an openshell ground state of 1 on Au(111), such as detection of singly occupied molecular orbitals (SOMOs) or spin excitations and correlations due to unpaired electrons , was shown 
In this work, we report the generation and characterization of unsubstituted 5  Our research is motivated by theoretical calculations that indicate 5 to exhibit the largest diradical character among all indenofluorene isomers   The same calculations also predict that 5 should possess a triplet ground state 
Therefore, 5 would qualify as a Kekulé triplet, of which only a handful of examples exist   However, definitive synthesis of 5 has never been reported so far  Previously, Dressler et al  reported transient isolation of mesityl-substituted 5, where it decomposed both in the solution and in solid state , and only the structural proof of the corresponding dianion was obtained 
On-surface generation of a derivative of 5, starting from truxene as a precursor, was recently reported   STM data on this compound, containing the indeno[1,2-a]fluorene moiety as part of a larger PCH, was interpreted to indicate its open-shell ground state  However, the results did not imply the ground state of unsubstituted 5  Here, we show that on insulating surfaces 5 can exhibit either of two ground states: an open-shell or a closed-shell 
We infer the existence of these two ground states based on high-resolution AFM imaging with bond-order discrimination and STM imaging of molecular orbital densities   AFM imaging reveals molecules with two different geometries  Characteristic bond-order differences in the two geometries concur with the geometry of either an open-or a closed-shell state 
Concurrently, STM images at ionic resonances show molecular orbital densities corresponding to SOMOs for the open-shell geometry, but orbital densities of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) for the closed-shell geometry  Our experimental results are in good agreement with density functional theory (DFT) and multireference perturbation theory calculations 
Finally, we observe switching between open-and closed-shell states of a single molecule by changing its adsorption site on the surface  Synthetic strategy toward indeno[1,2-a]fluorene  The generation of 5 relies on the solution-phase synthesis of the precursor 7,12-dihydro indeno[1,2-a]fluorene (6)  Details on synthesis and characterization of 6 are reported in Supplementary Figs 
  Single molecules of 6 are deposited on coinage metal (Au(111), Ag(111) and Cu(111)) or insulator surfaces  In our work, insulating surfaces correspond to two monolayer-thick (denoted as bilayer) NaCl on coinage metal surfaces  Voltage pulses ranging between 4-6 V are applied by the tip of a combined STM/AFM system, which result in cleavage of one C-H bond at each of the pentagonal apices of 6, thereby leading to the generation of 5 (Fig  ) 
In the main text, we focus on the generation and characterization of 5 on insulating surfaces  Generation and characterization of 5 on coinage metal surfaces is shown in Supplementary Fig    )  Blue and orange colors represent spin up and spin down densities, respectively  c, Probability density of the SOMOs of 5OS (isovalue: 0 001 e -Å -3 ) 
d, DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5OS  e, Constant-height I(V) spectra acquired on a species of 5 assigned as 5OS, along with the corresponding dI/dV(V) spectra  Open feedback parameters: V = -2 V, I = 0 17 pA (negative bias side) and V = 2 V, I = 0 17 pA (positive bias side)  Acquisition position of the spectra is shown in Supplementary Fig    f, Scheme of many-body transitions associated to the measured ionic resonances of 5OS 
Also shown are STM images of assigned 5OS at biases where the corresponding transitions become accessible  Scanning parameters: I = 0 3 pA (V = -1 2 V and -1 5 V) and 0 2 pA (V = 1 3 V and 1 6 V)  g, Laplace-filtered AFM image of assigned 5OS  STM set point: V = 0 2 V, I = 0 5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0 3
Å  The tip-height offset Δz for each panel is provided with respect to the STM setpoint, and positive (negative) values of Δz denote tip approach (retraction) from the STM setpoint  f and g show the same molecule at the same adsorption site, which is next to a trilayer NaCl island  The bright and dark features in the trilayer NaCl island in g correspond to Cl -and Na + ions, respectively 
Scale bars: 10 Å (f) and 5 Å (g)  To experimentally explore the electronic structure of 5, we used bilayer NaCl films on coinage metal surfaces to electronically decouple the molecule from the metal surfaces  Before presenting the experimental findings, we summarize the results of our theoretical calculations performed on 5 in the neutral charge state (denoted as 5 0 ) 
We start by performing DFT calculations on 5 0 in the gas phase  Geometry optimization performed at the spin-unrestricted UB3LYP/6-31G level of theory leads to one local minimum, 5OS, the geometry of which corresponds to the open-shell resonance structure of 5 (Fig  , the label OS denotes open-shell) 
The triplet electronic configuration of 5OS is the lowest-energy state, with the openshell singlet configuration 90 meV higher in energy  Geometry optimization performed at the restricted closed-shell RB3LYP/6-31G level reveals two local minima, 5para and 5ortho, the geometries of which (Fig  ) exhibit bond length alternations in line with the presence of a para-or an ortho-QDM moiety, respectively, in the as-indacene core of the closed-shell resonance structures of 5 (Fig  )  
Relative to 5OS in the triplet configuration, 5para and 5ortho are 0 40 and 0 43 eV higher in energy, respectively  Additional DFT results are shown in Supplementary Fig    To gain more accurate insights into the theoretical electronic structure of 5, we performed multireference perturbation theory calculations (Supplementary Fig  ) based on quasi-degenerate second-order n-electron valence state perturbation theory (QD-NEVPT2) 
In so far as the order of the ground and excited states are concerned, the results of QD-NEVPT2 calculations qualitatively match with DFT calculations  For 5OS, the triplet configuration remains the lowest-energy state, with the open-shell singlet configuration 60 meV higher in energy  The energy differences between the open-and closed-shell states are substantially reduced in QD-NEVPT2 calculations, with 5para and 5ortho only 0 11 and 0 21 eV higher in energy, respectively, compared to 5OS in the triplet configuration 
We also performed nucleus-independent chemical shift calculations to probe local aromaticity of 5 in the openand closed-shell states  While 5OS in the triplet configuration exhibits local aromaticity at the terminal benzenoid rings, 5OS in the open-shell singlet configuration, 5para and 5ortho all display antiaromaticity (Supplementary Fig  ) 
The choice of the insulating surface determines the charge state of 5: while 5 adopts neutral charge state on the high work function bilayer NaCl/Au(111) surface (irrespective of its openor closed-shell state, Supplementary Fig  ), 5 exhibits charge bistability between 5 0 and the anionic state 5 -1 on the lower work function bilayer NaCl/Ag(111) and Cu(111) surfaces (Supplementary Figs  ) 
In the main text, we focus on the characterization of 5 on bilayer NaCl/Au(111)  Characterization of charge bistable 5 is reported in Supplementary Figs    We first describe experiments on 5 on bilayer NaCl/Au(111), where 5 exhibits a geometry corresponding to the calculated 5OS geometry, and an open-shell electronic configuration 
We compare the experimental data on this species to calculations on 5OS with a triplet configuration, as theory predicts a triplet ground state for 5OS  For 5OS, the calculated frontier orbitals correspond to the SOMOs ψ1 and ψ2 (Fig  ), whose spin up levels are occupied and the spin down levels are empty 
Figure shows the DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5OS, where the two salient features, namely, the small difference in the bond lengths within each ring and the notably longer bond lengths in the pentagonal rings, agree with the open-shell resonance structure of 5 (Fig  )  Figure shows an AFM image of 5 adsorbed on bilayer NaCl/Au(111) that we assign as 5OS, where the bond-order differences qualitatively correspond to the calculated 5OS geometry (discussed and compared to the closed-shell state below) 
Differential conductance spectra (dI/dV(V), where I and V denote the tunneling current and bias voltage, respectively) acquired on assigned 5OS exhibit two peaks centered at -1 5 V and 1 6 V (Fig  ), which we assign to the positive and negative ion resonances (PIR and NIR), respectively  Figure shows the corresponding STM images acquired at the onset (V = -1 2
V/1 3 V) and the peak (V = -1 5 V/1 6 V) of the ionic resonances  To draw a correspondence between the STM images and the molecular orbital densities, we consider tunneling events as many-body electronic transitions between different charge states of 5OS (Fig  )  Within this framework, the PIR corresponds to transitions between 5 0 and the cationic state 5  
At the onset of the PIR at -1 2 V, an electron can only be detached from the SOMO ψ1 and the corresponding STM image at -1 2 V shows the orbital density of ψ1  Increasing the bias to the peak of the PIR at -1 5 V, it becomes possible to also empty the SOMO ψ2, such that the corresponding STM image shows the superposition of ψ1 and ψ2, that is, |ψ1| 2 + |ψ2| 2 (ref 
)  Similarly, the NIR corresponds to transitions between 5 0 and 5 -1   At the NIR onset of 1 3 V, only electron attachment to ψ2 is energetically possible  At 1 6 V, electron attachment to ψ1 also becomes possible, and the corresponding STM image shows the superposition of ψ1 and ψ2  The observation of the orbital densities of SOMOs, and not the hybridized HOMO and LUMO, proves the open-shell ground state of assigned 5OS 
Measurements of the monoradical species with a doublet ground state are shown in Supplementary Fig    Unexpectedly, another species of 5 was also experimentally observed that exhibited a closedshell ground state  In contrast to 5OS, where the frontier orbitals correspond to the SOMOs ψ1 and ψ2, DFT calculations predict orbitals of different shapes and symmetries for 5para and 5ortho, denoted as α and β and shown in Fig   
For 5ortho, α and β correspond to HOMO and LUMO, respectively  The orbitals are inverted in energy and occupation for 5para, where β is the HOMO and α is the LUMO  Fig  shows an AFM image of 5 that we assign as 5para  We experimentally infer its closed-shell state first by using qualitative bond order discrimination by AFM 
In high-resolution AFM imaging, chemical bonds with higher bond order are imaged brighter (that is, with higher frequency shift Δf) due to stronger repulsive forces, and they appear shorter   In Fig  , we label seven bonds whose bond orders show significant qualitative differences in the calculated 5ortho, 5para (Fig  ) and 5OS (Fig  ) geometries 
In 5para, the bonds b and d exhibit a higher bond order than a and c, respectively  This pattern is reversed for 5ortho, while the bond orders of the bonds a-d are all similar and small for 5OS  Furthermore, in 5para bond f exhibits a higher bond order than e, while in 5ortho and 5OS bonds e and f exhibit similar bond order (because they belong to Clar sextets) 
Finally, the bond labeled g shows a higher bond order in 5para than in 5ortho and 5OS  The AFM image of assigned 5para shown in Fig  indicates higher bond orders of the bonds b, d and f compared to a, c and e, respectively  In addition, the bond g appears almost point-like and with enhanced Δf contrast compared to its neighboring bonds, indicative of a high bond order (see Supplementary Fig  for height-dependent measurements) 
These observations concur with the calculated 5para geometry (Fig  )  Importantly, all these distinguishing bond-order differences are distinctly different in the AFM image of 5OS shown in Fig  , which is consistent with the calculated 5OS geometry (Fig  )  In the AFM images of 5OS (Fig  and Supplementary Fig  ), the bonds a-d at the pentagon apices appear with similar contrast and apparent bond length 
The bonds e and f at one of the terminal benzenoid rings also exhibit similar contrast and apparent bond length, while the central bond g appears longer compared to assigned 5para  Further compelling evidence for the closed-shell state of assigned 5para is obtained by STM and STS  dI/dV(V) spectra acquired on an assigned 5para species exhibit two peaks centered at -1 4 V (PIR) and 1 6 V (NIR) (Fig  ) 
STM images acquired at these biases (Fig  ) show the orbital densities of β (-1 4 V) and α (1 6 V)  First, the observation of α and β as the frontier orbitals of this species, and not the SOMOs, strongly indicates its closed-shell state  Second, consistent with AFM measurements that indicate good correspondence to the calculated 5para geometry, we observe β as the HOMO and α as the LUMO 
For 5ortho, α should be observed as the HOMO and β as the LUMO  We did not observe molecules with the signatures of 5ortho in our experiments  We observed molecules in open-(5OS, Fig  ) and closed-shell (5para, Fig  ) states in similar occurrence after their generation from 6 on the surface  We could also switch individual molecules between open-and closed-shell states as shown in Fig  and Supplementary Fig   
To this end, a change in the adsorption site of a molecule was induced by STM imaging at ionic resonances, which often resulted in movement of the molecule  The example presented in Fig  shows a molecule that was switched from 5para to 5OS and back to 5para  The switching is not directed, that is, we cannot choose which of the two species will be formed when changing the adsorption site, and we observed 5OS and 5para in approximately equal yields upon changing the adsorption site 
The molecule in Fig  is adsorbed on top of a defect that stabilizes its adsorption geometry on bilayer NaCl  At defect-free adsorption sites on bilayer NaCl, that is, without a third layer NaCl island or atomic defects in the vicinity of the molecule, 5 could be stably imaged neither by AFM nor by STM at ionic resonances (Supplementary Fig  ) 
Without changing the adsorption site, the state of 5 (open-or closedshell) never changed, including the experiments on bilayer NaCl/Ag(111) and Cu(111), on which the charge state of 5 could be switched (Supplementary Figs  )  Also on these lower work function surfaces, both open-and closed-shell species were observed for 5 0 and both showed charge bistability between 5 0 (5OS or 5para) and 5 -1 (Supplementary Figs  ) 
The geometrical structure of 5 -1 probed by AFM, and its electronic structure probed by STM imaging at the NIR (corresponding to transitions between 5 -1 and the dianionic state 5 -2 ), are identical within the measurement accuracy for the charged species of both 5OS and 5para  When cycling the charge state of 5 between 5 0 and 5 -1 several times, we always observed the same state (5OS or 5para) when returning to 5 0 , provided the molecule did not move during the charging/discharging process 
Based on our experimental observations we conclude that indeno[1,2-a]fluorene (5), the last unknown indenofluorene isomer, can be stabilized in and switched between an open-shell (5OS) and a closed-shell (5para) state on NaCl  For the former, both DFT and QD-NEVPT2 calculations predict a triplet electronic configuration 
Therefore, 5 can be considered to exhibit the spin-crossover effect, involving magnetic switching between high-spin (5OS) and low-spin (5para) states, coupled with a reversible structural transformation  So far, the spin-crossover effect has mainly only been observed in transition-metal-based coordination compounds with a near-octahedral geometry  
The observation that the switching between open-and closedshell states is related to changes in the adsorption site but is not achieved by charge-state cycling alone, indicates that the NaCl surface and local defects facilitate different electronic configurations of 5 depending on the adsorption site 
Gas-phase QD-NEVPT2 calculations predict that 5OS is the ground state, and the closed-shell 5para and 5ortho states are 0 11 and 0 21 eV higher in energy  The experiments, showing bidirectional switching between 5OS and 5para, indicate that a change in the adsorption site can induce sufficient change in the geometry of 5 (leading to a corresponding change in the ground state electronic configuration) and thus induce switching 
Switching between open-and closed-shell states in 5 does not require the breaking or formation of covalent bonds , but a change of adsorption site on NaCl where the molecule is physisorbed  Our results should have implications for single-molecule devices, capitalizing on the altered electronic and chemical properties of a system in π-diradical open-shell and closed-shell states such as frontier orbital and singlet-triplet gaps, and chemical reactivity 
For possible future applications as a single-molecule switch, it might be possible to also switch between open-and closed-shell states by changing the local electric field, such as by using chargeable adsorbates   Scanning probe microscopy measurements and sample preparation  STM and AFM measurements were performed in a home-built system operating at base pressures below 1×10 -10 mbar and a base temperature of 5 K  Bias voltages are provided with respect to the sample 
All STM, AFM and spectroscopy measurements were performed with carbon monoxide (CO) functionalized tips  AFM measurements were performed in non-contact mode with a qPlus sensor   The sensor was operated in frequency modulation mode with a constant oscillation amplitude of 0 5 Å  STM measurements were performed in constantcurrent mode, AFM measurements were performed in constant-height mode with V = 0 V, and I(V) and Δf(V) spectra were acquired in constant-height mode 
Positive (negative) values of the tip-height offset Δz represent tip approach (retraction) from the STM setpoint  All dI/dV(V) spectra are obtained by numerical differentiation of the corresponding I(V) spectra  STM and AFM images, and spectroscopy curves, were post-processed using Gaussian low-pass filters 
Au(111), Ag(111) and Cu(111) surfaces were cleaned by iterative cycles of sputtering with Ne + ions and annealing up to 800 K  NaCl was thermally evaporated on Au(111), Ag(111) and Cu(111) surfaces held at 323 K, 303 K and 283 K, respectively  This protocol results in the growth of predominantly bilayer (100)-terminated islands, with a minority of trilayer islands 
Sub-monolayer coverage of 6 on surfaces was obtained by flashing an oxidized silicon wafer containing the precursor molecules in front of the cold sample in the microscope  CO molecules for tip functionalization were dosed from the gas phase on the cold sample  Density functional theory calculations  DFT was employed using the PSI4 program package  
All molecules with different charge (neutral and anionic) and electronic (open-and closed-shell) states were independently investigated in the gas phase  The B3LYP exchangecorrelation functional with 6-31G basis set was employed for structural relaxation and singlepoint energy calculations  The convergence criteria were set to 10 −4 eV Å −1 for the total forces and 10 −6 eV for the total energies 
Multireference calculations  Multireference calculations were performed on the DFToptimized geometries using the QD-NEVPT2 level of theory , with three singlet roots and one triplet root included in the state-averaged calculation  A (10,10) active space (that is, 10 electrons in 10 orbitals) was used along with the def2-TZVP basis set  
Increasing either the active space size or expanding the basis set resulted in changes of about 50 meV for relative energies of the singlet and triplet states  These calculations were performed using the ORCA program package   Nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) calculations  Isotropic nucleus-independent chemical shift values were evaluated at the centre of each ring using the B3LYP exchangecorrelation functional with def2-TZVP basis set using the Gaussian 16 software package  
Starting materials (reagent grade) were purchased from TCI and Sigma-Aldrich and used without further purification  Reactions were carried out in flame-dried glassware and under an inert atmosphere of purified Ar using Schlenk techniques  Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was performed on Silica Gel 60 F-254 plates (Merck) 
Column chromatography was performed on silica gel (40-60 µm)  Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra were recorded on a Bruker Varian Mercury 300 or Bruker Varian Inova 500 spectrometers  Mass spectrometry (MS) data were recorded in a Bruker Micro-TOF spectrometer  The synthesis of compound 6 was developed following the two-step synthetic route shown in Supplementary Fig  , which is based on the preparation of methylene-bridge polyarenes by means of Pd-catalyzed activation of benzylic C-H bonds  
Supplementary Figure | Synthetic route to obtain compound 6  The complex Pd2(dba)3 (20 mg, 0 02 mmol) was added over a deoxygenated mixture of 1,3-dibromo-2,4-dimethylbenzene (9, 100 mg, 0 38 mmol), boronic acid 10 (178 mg, 1 14 mmol), K2CO3 (314 mg, 2 28 mmol) and XPhos (35 mg, 0 08 mmol) in toluene (1:1, 10 mL), and the resulting mixture was heated at 90 °C for 2 h 
After cooling to room temperature, the solvents were evaporated under reduced pressure  The reaction crude was purified by column chromatography (SiO2; hexane:CH2Cl2 9:1) affording 11 (94 mg, 76%) as a colorless oil  The complex Pd(OAc)2 (7 mg, 0 03 mmol) was added over a deoxygenated mixture of terphenyl 11 (90 mg, 0 27 mmol), K2CO3 (114 mg, 0 83 mmol) and ligand L (26 mg, 0 06 mmol) in NMP (2 mL) 
The resulting mixture was heated at 160 °C for 4 h  After cooling to room temperature, H2O (30 mL) was added, and the mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3x15 mL)  The combined organic extracts were dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered, and evaporated under reduced pressure  The reaction crude was purified by column chromatography (SiO2; hexane:CH2Cl2 9:1) affording compound 6 (8 mg, 11%) as a white solid  in AFM imaging due to their reduced adsorption height compared to the rest of the carbon atoms 
We attribute this observation to the significantly different lattice parameter of Cu(111) (2 57 Å) compared to Au(111) and Ag(111) (2 95 Å and 2 94 Å, respectively) , such that the apical carbon atoms of the pentagonal rings of 5 adsorb on the on-top atomic sites on Au(111) and Ag(111), but not on Cu(111) 
Our speculation is based on a previous study of polymers of 1 on Au(111) by Di Giovannantonio et al  , where both tilted and planar individual units of 1 were observed depending on whether the apical carbon atoms of the pentagonal rings in 1 adsorbed on the on-top or hollow sites of the surface, respectively 
Given the strong molecule-metal interaction, we found no electronic state signatures of 5 on all three metal surfaces  STM set point for AFM images: V = 0  e, Frontier orbital spectrum of 5 -1   In the anionic state, ψ2 becomes doubly occupied and ψ1 is the SOMO  Filled and empty circles denote occupied and empty orbitals, respectively 
For each panel, zero of the energy axis has been aligned to the respective highest-energy occupied orbital 
Context 2: For other uses, see Electricity (disambiguation) 
"Electric" redirects here  For other uses, see Electric (disambiguation) 
Lightning is one of the most dramatic effects of electricity 
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter that has a property of electric charge  In early days, electricity was considered as being not related to magnetism  Later on, many experimental results and the development of Maxwell's equations indicated that both electricity and magnetism are from a single phenomenon: electromagnetism  Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges and many others 
The presence of an electric charge, which can be either positive or negative, produces an electric field  The movement of electric charges is an electric current and produces a magnetic field 
When a charge is placed in a location with a non-zero electric field, a force will act on it  The magnitude of this force is given by Coulomb's law  Thus, if that charge were to move, the electric field would be doing work on the electric charge  Thus we can speak of electric potential at a certain point in space, which is equal to the work done by an external agent in carrying a unit of positive charge from an arbitrarily chosen reference point to that point without any acceleration and is typically measured in volts 
electronics which deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies 
Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries  Even then, practical applications for electricity were few, and it would not be until the late nineteenth century that electrical engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use  The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry and society, becoming a driving force for the Second Industrial Revolution  Electricity's extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation  Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society 
Long before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish  Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the "Thunderer of the Nile", and described them as the "protectors" of all other fish  Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians  Several ancient writers, such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, attested to the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by catfish and electric rays, and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects  Patients suffering from ailments such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them  Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning, and electricity from any other source, is to be attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had the Arabic word for lightning ra‘ad (رعد) applied to the electric ray 
Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers  Thales of Miletus made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BCE, from which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic, in contrast to minerals such as magnetite, which needed no rubbing  Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity  According to a controversial theory, the Parthians may have had knowledge of electroplating, based on the 1936 discovery of the Baghdad Battery, which resembles a galvanic cell, though it is uncertain whether the artifact was electrical in nature 
Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research on electricity in the 18th century, as documented by Joseph Priestley (1767) History and Present Status of Electricity, with whom Franklin carried on extended correspondence 
Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist William Gilbert wrote De Magnete, in which he made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber  He coined the New Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from ἤλεκτρον, elektron, the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed  This association gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity", which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646 
Further work was conducted in the 17th and early 18th centuries by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray and C  F  du Fay  Later in the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work  In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a metal key to the bottom of a dampened kite string and flown the kite in a storm-threatened sky  A succession of sparks jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature  He also explained the apparently paradoxical behavior of the Leyden jar as a device for storing large amounts of electrical charge in terms of electricity consisting of both positive and negative charges 
In 1791, Luigi Galvani published his discovery of bioelectromagnetics, demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which neurons passed signals to the muscles  Alessandro Volta's battery, or voltaic pile, of 1800, made from alternating layers of zinc and copper, provided scientists with a more reliable source of electrical energy than the electrostatic machines previously used  The recognition of electromagnetism, the unity of electric and magnetic phenomena, is due to Hans Christian Ørsted and André-Marie Ampère in 1819–1820  Michael Faraday invented the electric motor in 1821, and Georg Ohm mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827  Electricity and magnetism (and light) were definitively linked by James Clerk Maxwell, in particular in his "On Physical Lines of Force" in 1861 and 1862 
While the early 19th century had seen rapid progress in electrical science, the late 19th century would see the greatest progress in electrical engineering  Through such people as Alexander Graham Bell, Ottó Bláthy, Thomas Edison, Galileo Ferraris, Oliver Heaviside, Ányos Jedlik, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Charles Algernon Parsons, Werner von Siemens, Joseph Swan, Reginald Fessenden, Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse, electricity turned from a scientific curiosity into an essential tool for modern life 
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz:843–44 discovered that electrodes illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily  In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper that explained experimental data from the photoelectric effect as being the result of light energy being carried in discrete quantized packets, energising electrons  This discovery led to the quantum revolution  Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for "his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"  The photoelectric effect is also employed in photocells such as can be found in solar panels and this is frequently used to make electricity commercially 
The first solid-state device was the "cat's-whisker detector" first used in the 1900s in radio receivers  A whisker-like wire is placed lightly in contact with a solid crystal (such as a germanium crystal) to detect a radio signal by the contact junction effect  In a solid-state component, the current is confined to solid elements and compounds engineered specifically to switch and amplify it  Current flow can be understood in two forms: as negatively charged electrons, and as positively charged electron deficiencies called holes  These charges and holes are understood in terms of quantum physics  The building material is most often a crystalline semiconductor 
The solid-state device came into its own with the invention of the transistor in 1947  Common solid-state devices include transistors, microprocessor chips, and RAM  A specialized type of RAM called flash RAM is used in USB flash drives and more recently, solid-state drives to replace mechanically rotating magnetic disc hard disk drives  Solid state devices became prevalent in the 1950s and the 1960s, during the transition from vacuum tubes to semiconductor diodes, transistors, integrated circuit (IC) and the light-emitting diode (LED) 
The presence of charge gives rise to an electrostatic force: charges exert a force on each other, an effect that was known, though not understood, in antiquity :457 A lightweight ball suspended from a string can be charged by touching it with a glass rod that has itself been charged by rubbing with a cloth  If a similar ball is charged by the same glass rod, it is found to repel the first: the charge acts to force the two balls apart  Two balls that are charged with a rubbed amber rod also repel each other  However, if one ball is charged by the glass rod, and the other by an amber rod, the two balls are found to attract each other  These phenomena were investigated in the late eighteenth century by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, who deduced that charge manifests itself in two opposing forms  This discovery led to the well-known axiom: like-charged objects repel and opposite-charged objects attract 
The force acts on the charged particles themselves, hence charge has a tendency to spread itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface  The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is given by Coulomb's law, which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse-square relation to the distance between them :35 The electromagnetic force is very strong, second only in strength to the strong interaction, but unlike that force it operates over all distances  In comparison with the much weaker gravitational force, the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 1042 times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together 
Study has shown that the origin of charge is from certain types of subatomic particles which have the property of electric charge  Electric charge gives rise to and interacts with the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature  The most familiar carriers of electrical charge are the electron and proton  Experiment has shown charge to be a conserved quantity, that is, the net charge within an electrically isolated system will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system  Within the system, charge may be transferred between bodies, either by direct contact, or by passing along a conducting material, such as a wire :2–5 The informal term static electricity refers to the net presence (or 'imbalance') of charge on a body, usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together, transferring charge from one to the other 
The charge on electrons and protons is opposite in sign, hence an amount of charge may be expressed as being either negative or positive  By convention, the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative, and that by protons positive, a custom that originated with the work of Benjamin Franklin  The amount of charge is usually given the symbol Q and expressed in coulombs; each electron carries the same charge of approximately −1 6022×10−19 coulomb  The proton has a charge that is equal and opposite, and thus +1 6022×10−19 coulomb  Charge is possessed not just by matter, but also by antimatter, each antiparticle bearing an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle 
The movement of electric charge is known as an electric current, the intensity of which is usually measured in amperes  Current can consist of any moving charged particles; most commonly these are electrons, but any charge in motion constitutes a current  Electric current can flow through some things, electrical conductors, but will not flow through an electrical insulator 
By historical convention, a positive current is defined as having the same direction of flow as any positive charge it contains, or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part  Current defined in this manner is called conventional current  The motion of negatively charged electrons around an electric circuit, one of the most familiar forms of current, is thus deemed positive in the opposite direction to that of the electrons  However, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction, or even in both directions at once  The positive-to-negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation 
The process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction, and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling  Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal, and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids, or through plasmas such as electrical sparks  While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with an average drift velocity only fractions of a millimetre per second,:17 the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light, enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires 
Current causes several observable effects, which historically were the means of recognising its presence  That water could be decomposed by the current from a voltaic pile was discovered by Nicholson and Carlisle in 1800, a process now known as electrolysis  Their work was greatly expanded upon by Michael Faraday in 1833  Current through a resistance causes localised heating, an effect James Prescott Joule studied mathematically in 1840 :23–24 One of the most important discoveries relating to current was made accidentally by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, when, while preparing a lecture, he witnessed the current in a wire disturbing the needle of a magnetic compass  He had discovered electromagnetism, a fundamental interaction between electricity and magnetics  The level of electromagnetic emissions generated by electric arcing is high enough to produce electromagnetic interference, which can be detrimental to the workings of adjacent equipment 
In engineering or household applications, current is often described as being either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC)  These terms refer to how the current varies in time  Direct current, as produced by example from a battery and required by most electronic devices, is a unidirectional flow from the positive part of a circuit to the negative :11 If, as is most common, this flow is carried by electrons, they will be travelling in the opposite direction  Alternating current is any current that reverses direction repeatedly; almost always this takes the form of a sine wave :206–07 Alternating current thus pulses back and forth within a conductor without the charge moving any net distance over time  The time-averaged value of an alternating current is zero, but it delivers energy in first one direction, and then the reverse  Alternating current is affected by electrical properties that are not observed under steady state direct current, such as inductance and capacitance :223–25 These properties however can become important when circuitry is subjected to transients, such as when first energised 
The concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday  An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it, and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field  The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses, and like it, extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance  However, there is an important difference  Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion  Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero  Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker 
A hollow conducting body carries all its charge on its outer surface  The field is therefore zero at all places inside the body :88 This is the operating principal of the Faraday cage, a conducting metal shell which isolates its interior from outside electrical effects 
The principles of electrostatics are important when designing items of high-voltage equipment  There is a finite limit to the electric field strength that may be withstood by any medium  Beyond this point, electrical breakdown occurs and an electric arc causes flashover between the charged parts  Air, for example, tends to arc across small gaps at electric field strengths which exceed 30 kV per centimetre  Over larger gaps, its breakdown strength is weaker, perhaps 1 kV per centimetre  The most visible natural occurrence of this is lightning, caused when charge becomes separated in the clouds by rising columns of air, and raises the electric field in the air to greater than it can withstand  The voltage of a large lightning cloud may be as high as 100 MV and have discharge energies as great as 250 kWh 
A pair of AA cells  The + sign indicates the polarity of the potential difference between the battery terminals 
The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field  A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work  The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit test charge from an infinite distance slowly to that point  It is usually measured in volts, and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity :494–98 This definition of potential, while formal, has little practical application, and a more useful concept is that of electric potential difference, and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points  An electric field has the special property that it is conservative, which means that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant: all paths between two specified points expend the same energy, and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated :494–98 The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric potential difference that the term voltage sees greater everyday usage 
For practical purposes, it is useful to define a common reference point to which potentials may be expressed and compared  While this could be at infinity, a much more useful reference is the Earth itself, which is assumed to be at the same potential everywhere  This reference point naturally takes the name earth or ground  Earth is assumed to be an infinite source of equal amounts of positive and negative charge, and is therefore electrically uncharged—and unchargeable 
Electric potential is a scalar quantity, that is, it has only magnitude and not direction  It may be viewed as analogous to height: just as a released object will fall through a difference in heights caused by a gravitational field, so a charge will 'fall' across the voltage caused by an electric field  As relief maps show contour lines marking points of equal height, a set of lines marking points of equal potential (known as equipotentials) may be drawn around an electrostatically charged object  The equipotentials cross all lines of force at right angles  They must also lie parallel to a conductor's surface, otherwise this would produce a force that will move the charge carriers to even the potential of the surface 
Ørsted's discovery in 1821 that a magnetic field existed around all sides of a wire carrying an electric current indicated that there was a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism  Moreover, the interaction seemed different from gravitational and electrostatic forces, the two forces of nature then known  The force on the compass needle did not direct it to or away from the current-carrying wire, but acted at right angles to it  Ørsted's slightly obscure words were that "the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner " The force also depended on the direction of the current, for if the flow was reversed, then the force did too 
Ørsted did not fully understand his discovery, but he observed the effect was reciprocal: a current exerts a force on a magnet, and a magnetic field exerts a force on a current  The phenomenon was further investigated by Ampère, who discovered that two parallel current-carrying wires exerted a force upon each other: two wires conducting currents in the same direction are attracted to each other, while wires containing currents in opposite directions are forced apart  The interaction is mediated by the magnetic field each current produces and forms the basis for the international definition of the ampere 
This relationship between magnetic fields and currents is extremely important, for it led to Michael Faraday's invention of the electric motor in 1821  Faraday's homopolar motor consisted of a permanent magnet sitting in a pool of mercury  A current was allowed through a wire suspended from a pivot above the magnet and dipped into the mercury  The magnet exerted a tangential force on the wire, making it circle around the magnet for as long as the current was maintained 
Experimentation by Faraday in 1831 revealed that a wire moving perpendicular to a magnetic field developed a potential difference between its ends  Further analysis of this process, known as electromagnetic induction, enabled him to state the principle, now known as Faraday's law of induction, that the potential difference induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop  Exploitation of this discovery enabled him to invent the first electrical generator in 1831, in which he converted the mechanical energy of a rotating copper disc to electrical energy  Faraday's disc was inefficient and of no use as a practical generator, but it showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism, a possibility that would be taken up by those that followed on from his work 
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta showing his "battery" to French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in the early 19th century 
The ability of chemical reactions to produce electricity, and conversely the ability of electricity to drive chemical reactions has a wide array of uses 
Electrochemistry has always been an important part of electricity  From the initial invention of the Voltaic pile, electrochemical cells have evolved into the many different types of batteries, electroplating and electrolysis cells  Aluminium is produced in vast quantities this way, and many portable devices are electrically powered using rechargeable cells 
A basic electric circuit  The voltage source V on the left drives a current I around the circuit, delivering electrical energy into the resistor R  From the resistor, the current returns to the source, completing the circuit



ground_truth: Open-shell π-diradical state and closed-shell state with a para-quinodimethane moiety.

prompt_front: Now, answer the following question based on the text below, only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How is electricity used in everyday life?

Read the following text and answer briefly.

Context 2: 
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components such that electric charge is made to flow along a closed path (a circuit), usually to perform some useful task 
Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit  The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second 
Electricity generation is often done with electric generators, but can also be supplied by chemical sources such as electric batteries or by other means from a wide variety of sources of energy  Electric power is generally supplied to businesses and homes by the electric power industry  Electricity is usually sold by the kilowatt hour (3 6 MJ) which is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours  Electric utilities measure power using electricity meters, which keep a running total of the electric energy delivered to a customer  Unlike fossil fuels, electricity is a low entropy form of energy and can be converted into motion or many other forms of energy with high efficiency 
Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes, optoelectronics, sensors and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies  The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes amplification of weak signals possible and electronics is widely used in information processing, telecommunications, and signal processing  The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible  Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a regular working system 
Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control  The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a branch of solid state physics, whereas the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems come under electronics engineering 
Thus, the work of many researchers enabled the use of electronics to convert signals into high frequency oscillating currents, and via suitably shaped conductors, electricity permits the transmission and reception of these signals via radio waves over very long distances 
Early 20th-century alternator made in Budapest, Hungary, in the power generating hall of a hydroelectric station (photograph by Prokudin-Gorsky, 1905–1915) 
In the 6th century BC, the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus experimented with amber rods and these experiments were the first studies into the production of electrical energy  While this method, now known as the triboelectric effect, can lift light objects and generate sparks, it is extremely inefficient  It was not until the invention of the voltaic pile in the eighteenth century that a viable source of electricity became available  The voltaic pile, and its modern descendant, the electrical battery, store energy chemically and make it available on demand in the form of electrical energy  The battery is a versatile and very common power source which is ideally suited to many applications, but its energy storage is finite, and once discharged it must be disposed of or recharged  For large electrical demands electrical energy must be generated and transmitted continuously over conductive transmission lines 
Electrical power is usually generated by electro-mechanical generators driven by steam produced from fossil fuel combustion, or the heat released from nuclear reactions; or from other sources such as kinetic energy extracted from wind or flowing water  The modern steam turbine invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884 today generates about 80 percent of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources  Such generators bear no resemblance to Faraday's homopolar disc generator of 1831, but they still rely on his electromagnetic principle that a conductor linking a changing magnetic field induces a potential difference across its ends  The invention in the late nineteenth century of the transformer meant that electrical power could be transmitted more efficiently at a higher voltage but lower current  Efficient electrical transmission meant in turn that electricity could be generated at centralised power stations, where it benefited from economies of scale, and then be despatched relatively long distances to where it was needed 
Since electrical energy cannot easily be stored in quantities large enough to meet demands on a national scale, at all times exactly as much must be produced as is required  This requires electricity utilities to make careful predictions of their electrical loads, and maintain constant co-ordination with their power stations  A certain amount of generation must always be held in reserve to cushion an electrical grid against inevitable disturbances and losses 
Electricity is a very convenient way to transfer energy, and it has been adapted to a huge, and growing, number of uses  The invention of a practical incandescent light bulb in the 1870s led to lighting becoming one of the first publicly available applications of electrical power  Although electrification brought with it its own dangers, replacing the naked flames of gas lighting greatly reduced fire hazards within homes and factories  Public utilities were set up in many cities targeting the burgeoning market for electrical lighting  In the late 20th century and in modern times, the trend has started to flow in the direction of deregulation in the electrical power sector 
The resistive Joule heating effect employed in filament light bulbs also sees more direct use in electric heating  While this is versatile and controllable, it can be seen as wasteful, since most electrical generation has already required the production of heat at a power station  A number of countries, such as Denmark, have issued legislation restricting or banning the use of resistive electric heating in new buildings  Electricity is however still a highly practical energy source for heating and refrigeration, with air conditioning/heat pumps representing a growing sector for electricity demand for heating and cooling, the effects of which electricity utilities are increasingly obliged to accommodate 
Electricity is used within telecommunications, and indeed the electrical telegraph, demonstrated commercially in 1837 by Cooke and Wheatstone, was one of its earliest applications  With the construction of first intercontinental, and then transatlantic, telegraph systems in the 1860s, electricity had enabled communications in minutes across the globe  Optical fibre and satellite communication have taken a share of the market for communications systems, but electricity can be expected to remain an essential part of the process 
The effects of electromagnetism are most visibly employed in the electric motor, which provides a clean and efficient means of motive power  A stationary motor such as a winch is easily provided with a supply of power, but a motor that moves with its application, such as an electric vehicle, is obliged to either carry along a power source such as a battery, or to collect current from a sliding contact such as a pantograph  Electrically powered vehicles are used in public transportation, such as electric buses and trains, and an increasing number of battery-powered electric cars in private ownership 
Electronic devices make use of the transistor, perhaps one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century, and a fundamental building block of all modern circuitry  A modern integrated circuit may contain several billion miniaturised transistors in a region only a few centimetres square 
A voltage applied to a human body causes an electric current through the tissues, and although the relationship is non-linear, the greater the voltage, the greater the current  The threshold for perception varies with the supply frequency and with the path of the current, but is about 0 1 mA to 1 mA for mains-frequency electricity, though a current as low as a microamp can be detected as an electrovibration effect under certain conditions  If the current is sufficiently high, it will cause muscle contraction, fibrillation of the heart, and tissue burns  The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is electrified makes electricity a particular hazard  The pain caused by an electric shock can be intense, leading electricity at times to be employed as a method of torture  Death caused by an electric shock is referred to as electrocution  Electrocution is still the means of judicial execution in some jurisdictions, though its use has become rarer in recent times 
Electricity is not a human invention, and may be observed in several forms in nature, a prominent manifestation of which is lightning  Many interactions familiar at the macroscopic level, such as touch, friction or chemical bonding, are due to interactions between electric fields on the atomic scale  The Earth's magnetic field is thought to arise from a natural dynamo of circulating currents in the planet's core  Certain crystals, such as quartz, or even sugar, generate a potential difference across their faces when subjected to external pressure  This phenomenon is known as piezoelectricity, from the Greek piezein (πιέζειν), meaning to press, and was discovered in 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie  The effect is reciprocal, and when a piezoelectric material is subjected to an electric field, a small change in physical dimensions takes place 
§Bioelectrogenesis in microbial life is a prominent phenomenon in soils and sediment ecology resulting from anaerobic respiration  The microbial fuel cell mimics this ubiquitous natural phenomenon 
Some organisms, such as sharks, are able to detect and respond to changes in electric fields, an ability known as electroreception, while others, termed electrogenic, are able to generate voltages themselves to serve as a predatory or defensive weapon  The order Gymnotiformes, of which the best known example is the electric eel, detect or stun their prey via high voltages generated from modified muscle cells called electrocytes  All animals transmit information along their cell membranes with voltage pulses called action potentials, whose functions include communication by the nervous system between neurons and muscles  An electric shock stimulates this system, and causes muscles to contract  Action potentials are also responsible for coordinating activities in certain plants 
In the 19th and early 20th century, electricity was not part of the everyday life of many people, even in the industrialised Western world  The popular culture of the time accordingly often depicted it as a mysterious, quasi-magical force that can slay the living, revive the dead or otherwise bend the laws of nature  This attitude began with the 1771 experiments of Luigi Galvani in which the legs of dead frogs were shown to twitch on application of animal electricity  "Revitalization" or resuscitation of apparently dead or drowned persons was reported in the medical literature shortly after Galvani's work  These results were known to Mary Shelley when she authored Frankenstein (1819), although she does not name the method of revitalization of the monster  The revitalization of monsters with electricity later became a stock theme in horror films 
As the public familiarity with electricity as the lifeblood of the Second Industrial Revolution grew, its wielders were more often cast in a positive light, such as the workers who "finger death at their gloves' end as they piece and repiece the living wires" in Rudyard Kipling's 1907 poem Sons of Martha  Electrically powered vehicles of every sort featured large in adventure stories such as those of Jules Verne and the Tom Swift books  The masters of electricity, whether fictional or real—including scientists such as Thomas Edison, Charles Steinmetz or Nikola Tesla—were popularly conceived of as having wizard-like powers 
With electricity ceasing to be a novelty and becoming a necessity of everyday life in the later half of the 20th century, it required particular attention by popular culture only when it stops flowing, an event that usually signals disaster  The people who keep it flowing, such as the nameless hero of Jimmy Webb’s song "Wichita Lineman" (1968), are still often cast as heroic, wizard-like figures 
Ampère's circuital law, connects the direction of an electric current and its associated magnetic currents 
^ Diogenes Laertius  R D  Hicks (ed )  "Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book 1 Chapter 1 "  Perseus Digital Library  Tufts University  Retrieved 5 February 2017  Aristotle and Hippias affirm that, arguing from the magnet and from amber, he attributed a soul or life even to inanimate objects 
^ Aristotle  Daniel C  Stevenson (ed )  "De Animus (On the Soul) Book 1 Part 2 (B4 verso)"  The Internet Classics Archive  Translated by J A  Smith  Retrieved 5 February 2017  Thales, too, to judge from what is recorded about him, seems to have held soul to be a motive force, since he said that the magnet has a soul in it because it moves the iron 
^ a b c Guarnieri, M  (2014)  "Electricity in the age of Enlightenment"  IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine  8 (3): 60–63  doi:10 1109/MIE 2014 2335431 
^ Srodes, James (2002), Franklin: The Essential Founding Father, Regnery Publishing, pp  92–94, ISBN 0-89526-163-4 It is uncertain if Franklin personally carried out this experiment, but it is popularly attributed to him 
^ a b Guarnieri, M  (2014)  "The Big Jump from the Legs of a Frog"  IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine  8 (4): 59–61, 69  doi:10 1109/MIE 2014 2361237 
^ Hertz, Heinrich (1887)  "Ueber den Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die electrische Entladung"  Annalen der Physik  267 (8): S  983–1000  Bibcode:1887AnP   267  983H  doi:10 1002/andp 18872670827 
^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921"  Nobel Foundation  Retrieved 2013-03-16 
^ John Sydney Blakemore, Solid state physics, pp  1–3, Cambridge University Press, 1985 ISBN 0-521-31391-0 
^ Richard C  Jaeger, Travis N  Blalock, Microelectronic circuit design, pp  46–47, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003 ISBN 0-07-250503-6 
^ "The repulsive force between two small spheres charged with the same type of electricity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centres of the two spheres " Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, Histoire de l'Academie Royal des Sciences, Paris 1785 
^ Sewell, Tyson (1902), The Elements of Electrical Engineering, Lockwood, p  18   The Q originally stood for 'quantity of electricity', the term 'electricity' now more commonly expressed as 'charge' 
^ a b Berkson, William (1974), Fields of Force: The Development of a World View from Faraday to Einstein, Routledge, p  370, ISBN 0-7100-7626-6 Accounts differ as to whether this was before, during, or after a lecture 
^ "Lab Note #105 EMI Reduction – Unsuppressed vs  Suppressed"  Arc Suppression Technologies  April 2011  Retrieved March 7, 2012 
^ Almost all electric fields vary in space  An exception is the electric field surrounding a planar conductor of infinite extent, the field of which is uniform 
^ Paul J  Nahin (9 October 2002)  Oliver Heaviside: The Life, Work, and Times of an Electrical Genius of the Victorian Age  JHU Press  ISBN 978-0-8018-6909-9 
^ "The Bumpy Road to Energy Deregulation"  EnPowered  2016-03-28 
^ a b c d e f g h Van Riper, op cit , p  71 
Look up electricity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary 
Basic Concepts of Electricity chapter from Lessons In Electric Circuits Vol 1 DC book and series 
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(b) SOME STATES OR OTHER JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OR LIMITATION OF LIABILITY FOR INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, SO THE ABOVE LIMITATIONS AND EXCLUSIONS MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU  PROVIDED, HOWEVER, THAT TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW YOU HEREBY WAIVE THE PROVISIONS OF ANY STATE LAW LIMITING OR PROHIBITING SUCH EXCLUSIONS OR LIMITATIONS 
(c) WITHOUT LIMITING THE FOREGOING, UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES SHALL BROADJAM BE HELD LIABLE FOR ANY DELAY OR FAILURE IN PERFORMANCE RESULTING DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY FROM ACTS OF NATURE, FORCES, OR CAUSES BEYOND ITS REASONABLE CONTROL, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, INTERNET FAILURES, COMPUTER EQUIPMENT FAILURES, TELECOMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT FAILURES, OTHER EQUIPMENT FAILURES, ELECTRICAL POWER FAILURES, STRIKES, LABOR DISPUTES, RIOTS, INSURRECTIONS, CIVIL DISTURBANCES, SHORTAGES OF LABOR OR MATERIALS, FIRES, FLOODS, STORMS, EXPLOSIONS, ACTS OF GOD, EPIDEMIC, WAR, GOVERNMENTAL ACTIONS, ORDERS OF DOMESTIC OR FOREIGN COURTS OR TRIBUNALS, NON-PERFORMANCE OF THIRD PARTIES, OR LOSS OF OR FLUCTUATIONS IN HEAT, LIGHT, OR AIR CONDITIONING 
(a) All content included on this Site, including but not limited to text, graphics, logos, button icons, images, data compilations, code and source code, multimedia content, including but not limited to images, illustrations, audio and video clips, html and other mark up languages, and all scripts within the Site or associated therewith, are the property of Broadjam or its content suppliers and is protected by United States and international copyright laws with All Rights Reserved  The compilation of all content on this Site is the exclusive property of Broadjam and is protected by United States and international copyright laws with All Rights Reserved  All software used on this site is the property of Broadjam or its software suppliers and is protected by United States and international copyright laws with All Rights Reserved 
(b) "Broadjam," "Broadjam Top 10," "Metajam", "broadjam com", "Musicians of Broadjam," Mini MoB, PRIMO MoB and other trademarks, service marks, logos, labels, product names and service names appearing on the Site (collectively, the "Marks") are owned or licensed by Broadjam  Marks not owned by Broadjam or its subsidiaries are the property of their respective owners, who may or may not be affiliated with, connected to, or sponsored by Broadjam 
(c) You agree not to copy, display or otherwise use any Marks without Broadjam's prior written permission  The Marks may never be used in any manner likely to cause confusion, disparage or dilute the Marks and/or in connection with any product or service that is not authorized or sponsored by Broadjam 
(a) We make no representation that products or services available on or through the Site or any Service are appropriate or available for use in other locations other than the United States  Those who choose to access the Site or any Service from other locations do so on their own initiative and at their own risk, and are responsible for compliance with local laws, if and to the extent local laws are applicable  By accessing the Site or using any Services you are consenting to have your personal data transferred to and processed in the United States 
(b) Products, including software, made available through the Site or any Service are further subject to United States export controls  You agree to comply with all applicable laws regarding the transmission of technical data exported from the United States or the country in which you reside  No such products may be downloaded or otherwise exported or re-exported (i) into (or to a national or resident of) any country to which the U S  has embargoed goods; or (ii) to anyone on the U S  Treasury Department's list of Specially Designated Nationals or the U S  Commerce Department's Table of Deny Orders  By downloading any product available through the Site or any Service, you represent and warrant that you are not located in, under the control of, or a national or resident of any such country or on any such list  We reserve the right to limit the availability of the Site and/or any Service or product described thereon to any person, geographic area or jurisdiction, at any time and in our sole discretion, and to limit the quantities of any such Service or product that we provide 
Broadjam may also provide access to certain services (including, without limitation and by way of example only: advertising, promotion, and submission processing services for contests, radio play, publishing, placement and licensing opportunities) that are supplied by others ("Third Party Services")  YOU EXPRESSLY ACKNOWLEDGE THAT BROADJAM BEARS NO RESPONSIBILITY FOR THIRD PARTY SERVICES; BROADJAM EXPRESSLY DISCLAIMS ANY/ALL LIABILITY FOR THIRD PARTY SERVICES; AND BROADJAM MAKES NO WARRANTY, REPRESENTATION OR GUARANTEE TO YOU REGARDING ANY ASPECT OF THIRD PARTY SERVICES  ANY CLAIM YOU MAY HAVE REGARDING ANY THIRD PARTY SERVICE MUST BE PURSUED DIRECTLY AND EXCLUSIVELY WITH THE INDIVIDUAL OR GROUP, WHETHER OR NOT ORGANIZED AS A LEGAL ENTITY (THE "THIRD PARTY PROVIDER"), THAT SUPPLIED THE THIRD PARTY SERVICE  BROADJAM IS NOT A PARTY TO ANY RULES, CONTRACTS OR OTHER AGREEMENTS BETWEEN YOU AND ANY THIRD PARTY PROVIDER, AND YOU EXPRESSLY AGREE NOT TO JOIN OR ATTEMPT TO JOIN BROADJAM AS A PARTY IN ANY DISPUTE BETWEEN YOU AND ANY THIRD PARTY PROVIDER 
Upon receipt of your written request, Broadjam will remove any of your Materials from the Site within a reasonable period of time  Broadjam's licenses to use such Materials will continue for any copies of such Materials that may have been disseminated in any format or media prior to the actual removal of such Materials from the Site 
You agree that, at any time, Broadjam may revise, change or modify any terms and conditions of this Agreement and/or any aspect of any Service, without notice to you  You can review the most current version of this Agreement at any time at: http://www broadjam com  When using any Service, you and Broadjam shall also be subject to any guidelines, Policies or rules applicable to such Service which may be posted on the Site from time to time  All such guidelines, Policies or rules are hereby incorporated by reference into this Agreement and you agree to their terms  Any such revisions, changes or modifications shall be binding and effective immediately upon posting of same to the Site 
(a) Your rights under this Agreement are not assignable and any attempt by your creditors to obtain an interest in your rights under this Agreement, whether by attachment, levy, garnishment or otherwise, renders this Agreement voidable at Broadjam's option 
(b) This Agreement is binding onthe Parties and their respective heirs, legatees, executors, successors and assigns  Except for Policies and other agreements incorporated by reference herein, this Agreement is the entire agreement between the Parties and supersedes all prior written or oral agreements between the Parties relating to the subject matter hereof  If any portion of this Agreement is found to be void or unenforceable, the remaining portion shall be enforceable with the invalid portion removed, giving all reasonable construction to permit the essential purposes of the Agreement to be achieved  The Parties' various rights and remedies hereunder shall be construed to be cumulative 
(c) This Agreement shall be deemed to have been made in the State of Wisconsin, and it shall be governed by the substantive laws of the State of Wisconsin without regard to any applicable conflict of laws provisions  The Parties submit to jurisdiction in the state and federal courts sitting in Dane County, Wisconsin, and you hereby waive any jurisdictional, venue or inconvenient forum objections  Provided, however, that if we are sued or joined in an action in any other court or forum in respect of any matter which may give rise to a claim by us hereunder, you consent to the jurisdiction of such court or forum over any such claim  Nothing in this paragraph or Agreement constitutes our consent to the assertion of personal jurisdiction over Broadjam otherwise than in Wisconsin 
(d) Nothing contained in this Agreement shall be construed to require the commission of any act contrary to law  Nothing in this Agreement shall be construed or deemed to create any partnership, agency, joint venture, employment or franchise relationship between the Parties 
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(f) Captions and headings used in this Agreement are for purposes of convenience only and shall not be deemed to limit, affect the scope, meaning or intent of this Agreement, nor shall they otherwise be given any legal effect 
(g) No breach of this Agreement by Broadjam shall be deemed material unless the Party alleging such breach shall have given Broadjam written notice of such breach, and Broadjam shall fail to cure such breach within thirty (30) days after its receipt of such notice 
(h) All notices required to be sent to Broadjam under this Agreement shall be in writing and shall be sent by certified mail, return receipt requested, postage paid, or by overnight delivery service, to Broadjam Inc , 211 S  Paterson St  Ste  360 Madison, WI 53703 Attention: Legal (or such other address or addresses as may be designated by Broadjam herein) 
(i) All duties, liabilities, obligations, warranties, representations, covenants, authorizations, agreements and restrictions undertaken by and/or imposed upon you in connection with this Agreement shall be deemed to apply jointly and severally to all members collectively and each member individually of any group at any time comprising the Artist whose recordings or other Materials you post, upload or otherwise make available to Broadjam  You affirmatively represent that you have the authority to bind all such individuals to the terms and conditions of this Agreement 
(j) You agree that regardless of any statute or law to the contrary, any claim or cause of action against Broadjam, arising out of or related to use of the Site or any Service, must be filed within one (1) year after such claim or cause of action arose or be forever barred 
Sacramento, California 95834, or by telephone at (800) 952-5210 
available by contacting Broadjam at the above address, Attention: Customer Service 
(m) This Agreement has no intended third party beneficiaries 
(a) This Article II applies to any Person (hereinafter a "Subscriber") who subscribes to any member subscription service offered by Broadjam, including but not limited to, by way of example, Mini MoB or PRIMO MoB (hereinafter a "Subscription Service")  For purposes of this Agreement all Subscribers are also Users as defined herein 
(b) You agree to provide true, accurate, current and complete information about yourself as prompted by the subscription registration processes (such information being your "Account Information")  You further agree that, in providing such Account Information, you will not knowingly omit or misrepresent any material facts or information and that you will promptly enter corrected or updated Account Information, or otherwise advise us promptly in writing of any such changes or updates  You further consent and authorize us to verify your Account Information as required for your use of and access to the Site and any Service, as applicable 
(c) As a Subscriber, you will receive a unique username and password in connection with your account (collectively referred to herein as your "Username")  You agree that you will not allow another person to use your Username to access and use the Site or any Service under any circumstances  You are solely and entirely responsible for maintaining the confidentiality of your Username and for any charges, damages, liabilities or losses incurred or suffered as a result of your failure to do so  Broadjam is not liable for any harm caused by or related to the theft of your Username, your disclosure of your Username, or your authorization to allow another person to access and use the Site or any Service using your Username  Furthermore, you are solely and entirely responsible for any and all activities that occur under your account, including, but not limited to, any charges incurred relating to the Site or any Service  You agree to immediately notify us of any unauthorized use of your account or any other breach of security known to you  You acknowledge that the complete privacy of your data transmitted while using the Site or any Service cannot be guaranteed 
The term of any Subscription Service shall commence when the Subscriber initiates payment for such Subscription Service or, if the Subscription Service is complimentary, when the Subscriber registers for such Subscription Service  All Subscription Services will extend for an initial period of oneyear (the "Term") and, unless terminated as provided herein, shall renew automatically for successive one-year periods  During the Term, the Subscriber shall be afforded the full use and benefit of the applicable Subscription Service as described on the Site (the "Service Benefits"), which Service Benefits may be revised by Broadjam from time to time without notice to the Subscriber  Due to technical considerations, certain Service Benefits may not be available to the Subscriber immediately upon commencement of the Term, but shall be provided to the Subscriber as soon as commercially reasonable  Please direct any questions about Subscription Services or Service Benefits to Broadjam by email at: customerservice@broadjam com or by US mail at: Broadjam Inc , 100 S  Baldwin St  Ste  #204, Madison, WI 53703, Attn: Customer Service 
(b) maintain and update such information as needed to keep it current, complete and accurate 
Subscriber acknowledges that Broadjam relies and will rely upon the accuracy of such information as supplied by Subscriber 
(a) Termination by Subscriber  Subscriber may terminate any Subscription Service at any time by providing Broadjam with written notice pursuant to this Agreement  Written notice will be followed by a confirmation request from Broadjam Customer Service  Confirmation is required to implement termination  Such termination will be effective after the paid period  In the case of termination by the Subscriber, the period that is already paid for will not be reimbursed  The Subscription Service will remain active until the end of the paid period 
(a) As consideration for a Subscription Service, Subscriber agrees to pay Broadjam all applicable subscription fees as posted on the Site at the time Subscriber applies for the Subscription Service  All subscription fees are due immediately pursuant to the payment option Subscriber chooses, and are non-refundable except as otherwise provided herein  Broadjam may exercise all available remedies to collect fees due and owing for any Subscription Service 
(b) Broadjam may, at its sole discretion and for any Subscription Service, offer Subscriber the option to pay Subscriber's annual subscription fee in monthly installments (a "Payment Plan")  If Subscriber elects a Payment Plan, Subscriber agrees to provide Broadjam with a valid credit card number, which Broadjam will charge on a monthly basis for twelve (12) consecutive months, in an amount each month equal to 1/12th of the subscription fee for the Subscription Service, plus a finance charge, until the Subscription Service is terminated pursuant to this Agreement  By providing credit card billing information, Subscriber shall be authorizing Broadjam to charge that credit card until termination of the Subscription Service  Broadjam shall have the right immediately to discontinue Subscriber's Service Benefits if Broadjam does not receive payment when due 
In order to change any of Subscriber's account information, Subscriber must use the User Name and the Password that Subscriber selected when Subscriber registered as a Broadjam User  In no event will Broadjam be liable for any unauthorized use or misuse of Subscriber's User Name and Password 
Subscriber agrees that Subscriber's failure to abide by any provision of this Agreement or any Broadjam operating rule or policy, Subscriber's willful provision of inaccurate or unreliable information as part of the application process, Subscriber's failure to update Subscriber's information to keep it current, complete or accurate, and/or Subscriber's failure to respond to inquiries from Broadjam concerning the accuracy of Subscriber's account information shall be considered a material breach of this Agreement  If within ten (10) calendar days after Broadjam provides notice (in any form and via any method of delivery) to Subscriber of such material breach, Subscriber fails to provide evidence, reasonably satisfactory to Broadjam, that Subscriber has not breached its obligations under this Agreement, Broadjam may terminate all Services, Subscription and otherwise, without further notice to Subscriber 
This Article III applies to any Person (hereinafter a "Hosting Subscriber") who subscribes to any web hosting subscription service offered by Broadjam, including but not limited to, by way of example, PRIMO MoB (hereinafter a "Hosting Service")  For purposes of this Agreement all Hosting Subscribers are also Subscribers and Users as defined herein 
Hosting Subscriber's Website will not be used in connection with any illegal activity 
(b) Hosting Subscriber is responsible for ensuring that there is no excessive overloading on Broadjam's DNS or servers  Broadjam prohibits the use of software or scripts run on its servers that cause the server to load beyond a reasonable level, as determined by Broadjam  Hosting Subscriber agrees that Broadjam reserves the right to remove Hosting Subscriber's Website temporarily or permanently from its hosting servers if Hosting Subscriber's Website threatens the stability of Broadjam's network 
(c) Hosting Subscriber may not use Broadjam's servers or Hosting Subscriber's Website as a source, intermediary, reply to address, or destination address for mail bombs, Internet packet flooding, packet corruption, denial of service, or any other abusive activities  Server hacking or other perpetration of security breaches is strictly prohibited and Broadjam reserves the right to remove websites that contain information about hacking or links to such information  Use of Hosting Subscriber's Website as an anonymous gateway is prohibited 
engage in any other activity deemed by Broadjam to be in conflict with the spirit or intent of this Agreement or any Broadjam policy 
Subject to the terms and conditions of this Agreement, Broadjam shall attempt to provide Hosting Services for twenty-four (24) hours a day, seven (7) days a week throughout the term of Hosting Subscriber's subscription  Hosting Subscriber agrees that from time to time the Hosting Service may be inaccessible or inoperable for any reason, including, without limitation, equipment malfunctions; periodic maintenance procedures or repairs which Broadjam may undertake from time to time; or causes beyond the control of Broadjam or which are not reasonably foreseeable by Broadjam, including, without limitation, interruption or failure of telecommunication or digital transmission links, hostile network attacks, network congestion or other failures  Hosting Subscriber agrees that Broadjam makes no representation or assurance that Hosting Services will be available on a continuous or uninterrupted basis 
At all times, Hosting Subscriber shall bear full risk of loss and damage to Hosting Subscriber's Website and all of Hosting Subscriber's Website content  Hosting Subscriber is solely responsible for maintaining the confidentiality of Hosting Subscriber's Password and account information  Hosting Subscriber agrees that Hosting Subscriber is solely responsible for all acts, omissions and use under and charges incurred with Hosting Subscriber's account or password or any of Hosting Subscriber's Website content  Hosting Subscriber shall be solely responsible for undertaking measures to: (i) prevent any loss or damage to Hosting Subscriber's Website content; (ii) maintain independent archival and backup copies of Hosting Subscriber's Website content; (iii) ensure the security, confidentiality and integrity of all of Hosting Subscriber's Website content transmitted through or stored on Broadjam servers; and (iv) ensure the confidentiality of Hosting Subscriber's password  Broadjam's servers and Hosting Services are not an archive and Broadjam shall have no liability to Hosting Subscriber or any other person for loss, damage or destruction of any of Hosting Subscriber's content  If Hosting Subscriber's password is lost, stolen or otherwise compromised, Hosting Subscriber shall promptly notify Broadjam, whereupon Broadjam shall suspend access to Hosting Subscriber's Website by use of such password and issue a replacement password to Hosting Subscriber or Hosting Subscriber's authorized representative  Broadjam will not be liable for any loss that Hosting Subscriber may incur as a result of someone else using Hosting Subscriber's password or account, either with or without Hosting Subscriber's knowledge  However, Hosting Subscriber could be held liable for losses incurred by Broadjam or another party due to someone else using Hosting Subscriber's account or password 
(a) Broadjam does not tolerate the transmission of spam  We monitor all traffic to and from our Web servers for indications of spamming and maintain a spam abuse compliant center to register allegations of spam abuse  Customers suspected to be using Broadjam products and services for the purposeof sending spam are fully investigated  Once Broadjam determines there is a problem with spam, Broadjam will take the appropriate action to resolve the situation  Our spam abuse compliant center can be reached by email at hosting@broadjam com 
(c) Broadjam will not allow its servers or services to be used for the purposes of spam as described above  In order to use our products and services, Hosting Subscriber shall abide by all applicable laws and regulations, including but not limited to the Can-Spam Act of 2003 and the Telephone Consumer Protection Act, as well as Broadjam's no-spam policies  Commercial advertising and/or bulk emails or faxes may only be sent to recipients who have already "opted-in" to receive messages from the sender specifically  They must include a legitimate return address and reply-to address, the sender's physical address, and an opt-out method in the footer of the email or fax  Upon request by Broadjam, conclusive proof of optin may be required for an email address or fax number 
(d) If Broadjam determines that Hosting Services are being used in association with spam, Broadjam will re-direct, suspend, or cancel such Hosting Service for a period of no less than 2 days  The Hosting Subscriber will be required to respond by email to Broadjam stating that Hosting Subscriber will cease to send spam and/or have spam sent on their behalf  Broadjam will require a non-refundable reactivation fee to be paid before Hosting Subscriber's Website, email boxes and/or other Hosting Services are reactivated  In the event Broadjam determines the abuse has not stopped after services have been restored the first time, Broadjam may terminate all Services associated with the Hosting Subscriber 
This Article IV applies to all Users 
Fees and prices appearing on the Site are based on United States dollars  Payments for any Service or purchase made on or through the Site shall be made to Broadjam in United States dollars, except as provided in Section 4 05 herein 
You agree to pay for all fees and charges incurred under your Broadjam account or Username  If you have configured the account associated with your Username (your "Account") to pay for Services or purchases with a credit or debit card or similar form of payment (a "Card" payment method), you authorize any and all charges and fees incurred under your Account to be billed from time to time to your Card account  Regardless of the method of payment, it is your sole responsibility to advise Broadjam of any billing problems or discrepancies within thirty (30) days after such discrepancies or problems become known to you  Your Card issuer agreement governs the use of your designated Card account in connection with any fee, purchase or Service; you must refer exclusively to such issuer agreement, and not this Agreement, to determine your rights and liabilities as a Cardholder  If you submit a payment that results in Broadjam being charged non-sufficient funds, chargeback fees, or other similar fees, you agree to reimburse all such fees 
Monthly Billing Subscriptions  No refunds will be issued for monthly billing subscriptions  If monthly billing is selected and is not cancelled by the end of the monthly period (30 days from the sign up date), your Card will be billed at the beginning of the next 30 day period  In order to avoid additional charges to your Card, you must contact Broadjam Customer Service by email (customerservice@broadjam com) at least 5 days before your next billing period, to cancel your Subscription Service  Your email should include the following: registered name on the account, registered email address on the account, and the service to be cancelled  Notice will be followed by a confirmation request from Broadjam Customer Service  Confirmation is required to implement cancellation 
(a) Merchants who elect to be paid in Purchase Credits ("PCs") for sales at Broadjam, Buyers who choose to purchase PCs and Users who otherwise obtain PCs (collectively, "Holders" of PCs) shall hold PCs subject to the provisions of this Section 4 05 as well as all rules and policies posted on the Site relating to PCs 
(b) PCS ARE NONRETURNABLE AND NONREFUNDABLE 
(c) PCs do not have an expiration date  However, if there exists rules defined by the laws of your state that require Broadjam to terminate your right to use PCs if you have not used them within a specified number of years  Under those laws, Broadjam will attempt to contact you before terminating your right to use PCs 
(e) Holders shall have no right to demand cash or any other thing of value in exchange for PCs, except as provided in Section 4 05 (d) 
(f) Interest shall not accrue on PCs 
(a) Buyers who choose to purchase the Primo MoB membership which includes complimentary Weekly Submission Credits ("WSCs") for the term of the membership purchased for use towards Music Licensing Opportunities services and shall hold WSCs subject to the provisions of this Section 4 06 as well as all rules and policies posted on the Site relating to WSCs 
(b) WSCs ARE NONRETURNABLE AND NONREFUNDABLE 
(c) One WSC is available for use each week for the duration of the membership purchased  One WSC is available each week starting Sunday at 12:00 am midnight CST  If unused, each WSC will expire on the following Sunday at 11:59 pm CST 
ii  wholly controlled by Broadjam 
(f) Holders shall have no right to demand cash or any other thing of value in exchange for WSCs, except as provided in Section 4 06 (e) 
(g) Interest shall not accrue on WSCs 
(a) Buyers who choose to purchase the Film/TV membership which includes complimentary Monthly Submission Credits ("MSCs") for the term of the membership purchased for use towards Music Licensing Opportunities services and shall hold MSCs subject to the provisions of this Section 4 07 as well as all rules and policies posted on the Site relating to MSCs 
(b) MSCs ARE NONRETURNABLE AND NONREFUNDABLE 
(c) One MSC is available for use each month for the duration of the membership purchased  One MSC is available each month starting the first day of the month at 12:00 am midnight CST  If unused, each WSC will expire on the last day of the month at 11:59 pm CST 
(f) Holders shall have no right to demand cash or any other thing of value in exchange for MSCs, except as provided in Section 4 07 (e) 
(g) Interest shall not accrue on MSCs 
Checks issued by Broadjam to any User, for any purpose, are VOID after 180 days from the date of issue  Users who fail to cash Broadjam-issued checks within such 180-day period will be charged a $2 00 fee for re-depositing funds from the stale check to the User's account  Users requesting replacement checks will be charged an additional $5 00 fee for issuance of the replacement check 
The following shall apply if you purchase Broadjam's Deliveries services 
Refunds will not be issued for Broadjam Deliveries services  If you experience a technical problem related to Broadjam Deliveries services, Broadjam will take steps in accordance with Section 1 10 to ensure your transaction is completed successfully  Broadjam may at its sole discretion convey complimentary services to you in the event of a verified technical problem 
The following shall apply if you purchase Broadjam's Music Software services 
Refunds will not be issued for Music Software services  If you experience a technical problem related to Broadjam Music Software services, Broadjam will take steps in accordance with Section 1 10 to ensure your transaction is completed successfully  Broadjam may at its sole discretion convey complimentary services to you in the event of a verified technical problem 



ground_truth: Electricity is used for transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation.

prompt_front: Now, answer the following question based on the text below, only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What are the restrictions on the use of Broadjam's servers?

Read the following text and answer briefly.

Context 4: 
Originally built as a taildragger, the fixed gear is made from 4130 steel tubing  Custom cast 6 00x6 aluminum wheels and steel rotors are mated with 6" Cleveland calipers for braking  An early taxi test accident damaged the main gear, and prompted Les to change to tricycle gear  Again, he designed his own fiberglass main gear, and uses a Diehl nose wheel fork with a 4130 strut and 6" wheel up front 
Early tests revealed cooling problems, which prompted a radiator move from the firewall to a lower cowling location 
The first flight was almost a disaster, as test pilot Randy Smith lost power right after takeoff  He managed a 180 with a safe downwind landing with only minor nosewheel pant damage  The culprit proved to be a spark plug with too much reach, which was quickly remedied  Subsequent flights have shown water temp to be about 210 degrees, oil temp is 220-230, and airspeed is about 180 mph 
Shopping for the Partially Built KR 
This story starts about twenty years ago when I first started looking at the KR-2 as the plane I'd like to build  The only problem at that time was a lack of money, lack of knowledge, and a lack of job stability  I liked the design, except for the low ground clearance of the retractable gear and that a KR was going to be a tight fit for me to fly 
Over the past twenty years I've owned a number of planes, but still always wanted to build my own  I needed one that would fit me, my budget requirements, and have the speed and performance that I wanted  When "KITPLANES" published the article featuring Roy Marsh's new KR-2S, it was the first I had heard of any major modifications or improvements to the same old KR design  I believe that article and Roy Marsh's workmanship have probably been the greatest boon to Rand Robinson (RR) in the last twenty years  It certainly caught my eye! Here was the same design I had decided I wanted to build twenty years ago, with all of the improvements I wanted  It was sitting on fixed gear with some reasonable ground clearance  It had the capability to be built large enough to accommodate me  It has enough prefab parts available that it didn't have to be 100% scratch built if I decided to hurry the project along  And it had the speed I wanted  I knew that Roy's published speeds were probably not realistic expectations for the average KR, but after knocking around for the last three years in my Champ, anything over 90 mph seems pretty fast to me 
After purchasing the info kit and the sales video from Rand Robinson, the next step after deciding for sure to build this plane was to order the KR-2 plans and the KR-2S addendum  I finally got my plans and was putting together my first order to start the plane, when my partner in the Champ pointed out that there was a partially completed KR-2S for sale in Trade-a-plane  My initial answer was "No, I don't even want to look at it  I want to build my own from scratch " My partner insisted that for the advertised price and the fact that it wasn't too far away, I ought to at least give the guy a call and investigate it  "No, I don't think I want to buy someone else's problems," I persisted  That night I went home and crunched up some numbers on the calculator and finally came to the conclusion that for the sake of my budget for the next several years, I really should give this guy a call 
Three days later, I flew to his place about 400 miles away to take a look at his project  At this point I should probably mention that I consider myself to be fairly knowledgeable about airplane construction, although the vast majority of my experience is with tube and fabric  The rest of this article deals with what I looked for and more importantly what I missed and have had to repair in the last year since I purchased the project 
When we went to the seller's house, I found that the left wing was built using the Dan Diehl wing skins and the right wing skins were leaning against the wall inside the house  Also the canopy was in the house with the canopy covered with paper and tape  I wanted to inspect the fuselage first, so off we went to the shop 
There I found a fuselage sitting on it's gear painted in primer gray  The first step was to inspect the quality of workmanship of what could be seen as it sat  The interior of the fuselage looked as if it had been built with a great deal of care  The fit and finish of all of the interior wood was very nice  Even the gussets looked like they had been painstakingly perfectly fitted  The glass work on the turtle back also looked very precise and clean  It was evenly faired into the vertical and horizontal stabs  The tail also appeared to be well built with the exception of a depression directly over the front and rear spars in the horizontal stabs  He explained that when he moved recently, that he had shot the plane with gray primer to protect it from the weather since he wouldn't have ready access to a shop to put it in right away  It ended up sitting out in the hot south Texas summer sun for a few weeks before he got a shop rented to work in  That caused the glass (or possibly the foam inside the horizontal stab) to swell, except that it held onto the spar, so it was slightly ballooned in front of and behind the spars  His recommendation was to fill it back smooth with micro 
I also found a small linear crack in the lower left wing spar cap on the left wing stub  It appeared to be from over tightening the rear spar wing attach fitting bolts  His explanation was that the crack wasn't important because the rear spars only job is to keep the wings from folding back  I also noticed that the holes for attaching the outer wing to the wing stub were badly rounded out on the rear spar  He explained that the Diehl wing skins require the rear spar to be swept slightly more forward than the stock wings  This won't allow you to use the rear spar attach fittings from RR and that I would need to fabricate a new set of rear spar attach fittings 
I also found that the aileron bellcranks were not built or installed as per plans, but found that they looked professional  I couldn't check for function since the right bellcrank and sheeve wasn't installed, the left wing also wasn't installed, and the right wing didn't exist yet 
Next we pulled the inspection panels off of the fuselage and tail and looked at everything I could see with a good flashlight  I didn't find anything else that might be questionable about the fuselage except for a cracked elevator trim tab that was damaged when it fell off it's hanging place on the wall 
Next we spent some time going over his builders log and builders photo album  I still hadn't seen anything that would dissuade me from buying this project 
At this point it was starting to get late and my ride down needed to get airborne for the flight home  I needed to make a decision about whether I wanted this project or not, but I hadn't inspected the wings and canopy yet  I took a cursory look at the left wing and saw lots on micro built up on it and some bubbles in the leading edge, but nothing that looked seriously wrong to my amateur eye  The right wing was only a set of spars in the shop and the Diehl wing skins in the house, so there wasn't much to look at there  The canopy was wrapped in paper and tape, so there wasn't much to look at there either  I decided that even if there were serious problems in the wing that was built, I would be money ahead to go ahead and buy the project  For the advertised price, I could build a new set of wings and still be way ahead financially  We negotiated a final price, shook hands, took my ride to the airport, and started off in search of a U-haul to haul the project home 
Now, at this point, some of you are thinking about what I surely must have forgotten to inspect and why didn't I take a local A & P or EAA member along for the ride  First of all, I don't know any mechanics locally that have any experience with glass and our EAA chapter of which I am VP is woefully lacking in fiberglass knowledge  Secondly, as you will see, I missed plenty  Some by ignorance, some by just not looking close enough 
Now for a list of the problems that I found over the last year and a few of the fixes that I came up with 
I found that the lower set of rear spar attach fittings on the left rear spar were installed backwards with the longer spaced hole towards the fuselage  Since this is the same place that also had the cracked spar cap, it required a major change  Also in the same area he had drilled through the rear spar with a hole saw to create a place for the aileron cable to pass through and managed to cut out the second from the outside vertical brace in the spar  Then he chose to install the aileron bellcranks in front of the rear spar, and cut another hole through the rear spar for the aileron push rod  He also managed to cut out the outside vertical brace in the spar  Since the holes were already drilled through the spar, the choices were to either cut out that section of spar cap and scarf a new piece in, cut the whole rear spar carrythrough out of the fuselage including ruining the left lower wing skin, or do something else creative to reinforce the spar cap and install a custom built set of attach fittings 
I also found that after I built and installed the right side wing stub ribs and skin that the aileron bellcrank setup would not work as installed  The cable that crosses between the two bellcranks had a sharp uphill from the sheeve to the bellcrank in the last 12 inches on either side  This combined with the radius that the bellcranks turn caused the cross cable to pull up tight when the ailerons were pushed to either end of their travel, but allowed the cables to go very slack when the ailerons were centered  Also the Aileron pushrods needed to pass directly through the lower set of rear wing attach fittings to attach to the aileron  This whole rear spar and aileron bellcrank setup was going to either have to be redesigned or cut out and built to plans  The bottom line is that the problems I observed when I inspected this part were much more serious than expected when I had to fix it 
I decided that I had to remove the rear fittings from the left wing to be replaced with the new set that my neighborhood machinist was cutting out for me  When I put the wing on the work bench to start removing the rear fittings, I thought I had better take a closer look at the bubbles in the leading edge  I found that as I pushed on the leading edge, it delaminated between the glass lay-up on top and the upper and lower wing skin edges that were floxed together underneath  I concluded that that area had to come apart and took a belt sander to the leading edge  What I found was that the leading edge had been floxed together and glassed over, but the mold release had never been scrubbed off the leading edge of the wing  It peeled apart for rebuild quite easily 
When I got back to removing the rear spar attach fittings, I noticed that the woodwork inside the wing looked awfully dull  The reason was that the wing had been closed up without varnishing any of the woodwork  This was rectified with a small hole saw, a number of extensions and a modified undercoating sprayer 
I also found that the aluminum drain fitting in the bottom of the left wing tank had been glassed into place upside down  The tapered pipe threads were tapered the wrong way to install the draincock into the tank  Retapping the fitting the right direction seemed to be a good fix for that problem 
When I finally got around to attaching the wing to the fuselage, I found that the front spar attach fittings were badly misaligned  Although they could be forced into alignment, I didn't think I needed that kind of preload on the main spar fittings  This problem was fixed by calling on my local neighborhood machinist to build me an aligning fixture and reaming the attach holes to the next larger size and ordering the new sized bolts 
On the fuselage I found that although it had new Cleveland wheels and brakes on it, one of the brakes had a severe wobble to it  I must complement the manufacturers for taking care of that problem  One call to the Cleveland factory and they shipped me a new set of wheels and brakes even though the receipt for this set was over four years old and in the original builders name  Their only concern was that this set had never been placed in service yet 
I chose to sand the load of micro off the left wing to see what it was covering  When I got down to the glass, I found that there was no glass for the aft inch and a half of the underside of the wing in front of the aileron hinge  With the Diehl wing skins, you build the wings, then cut the ailerons out of trailing edge of the wing  He had mismeasured and cut too much material off the bottom side of the trailing edge in front of the aileron  It was filled by floxing a piece of spruce into the gap to fill the space between the back edge of the fiberglass and the aileron mount  I chose to wrap the trailing edge of that wing, and the other wing to match with a couple of lay-ups of glass 
When I sanded the primer off the aforementioned damaged trim tab, I found that the hinge was floxed to the leading edge of the foam insides of the tab, but not the glass  I also chose to wrap the front of the trim tab with a lay-up of glass 
I decided to pull the paper off the canopy and take a look at it before I'm ready to bolt it on and fly  The original builder had blown his own canopy and after some of the previous problems, I was beginning to have some concerns about not having looked it over closely enough  The canopy turned out to have been blow a little too large  It ended up with a little larger bubble for headroom, which I didn't object to  However, it had more headroom on the right side than the left  Yes, it was just a little bit lopsided  The main problem was that the canopy is stretched thin enough that it can be easily pushed in with one hand when the weather is warm   My fear was that this is just thin enough that it may decide to lay on my head or in my lap when flying on a warm day  It will have to be replaced 
I'm sure that many that are reading this could see several of the potential problems before I mentioned them, but some others may not have and I'm sure that there could have been many other problems that didn't but could have existed on this project  This is also not intended to be critical of the gentleman that started this project as many parts of it, especially the wood work are better than I could have done and much of his work is outstanding  I prefer to think that I'll end up with a better plane with his woodwork combined with my glasswork  This article is intended to feature some of the problems that you may run into in buying someone else's project 
The final question is, knowing what I have found over the past year, would I have still purchased this project  The answer is yes, but primarily because the price was right in that I am still money and work ahead of where I would be if I had started the project from scratch  There are a few things that I would have done differently, but nothing that I can't live with  Although I won't be able to say that I built it all from scratch, I have built and rebuild enough of the plane that I should have no problem qualifying under the 51% rule 
You can send comments directly to the author via e-mail at "jscott@LANL GOV" 
Here is an brief explanation of how I built my turtledecks  The jig was constructed from scrap plywood and a few 1x4s that I ripped into stringers  I made two temporary bulkheads from the plywood, one for each end  Remember the forward bulkhead needs to be shaped in a way that will closely match the aft end of your canopy frame  Make an aft bulkhead by placing a straight edge at the top of your forward bulkhead and the trailing edge of your horizontal stabilizer  This will give you an idea of how tall your aft bulkhead needs to be  As far as location, I placed my aft bulkhead just forward of the lower/front of my vertical fin  I constructed the jig on the fuselage, it is glued together with automotive bondo 
After the bulkheads were bondoed to the fuselage I used the stringers that I ripped from the 1x4s and bondoed them to the bulkheads  This gave me a male form to cover with thin plastic or posterboard  I stapled two layers of posterboard to the jig(thin plastic would work better)  The posterboard wraps down two inches onto the fuselage  After I was satisfied with the way it looked, I then covered the entire thing with duct tape (fiberglass will not stick to duct tape) On top of this I wetout one layer of tri-ply cloth (22oz) that I had left over from an earlier project, and one layer of 8oz  bid  Remember to mask off your fuselage so you don't get epoxy on it  If you are not familiar with composite lay-ups, you should plan on razor cutting your lay-ups 4 to 6 hours after wetout while the lay-up is still soft enough to cut with a razorblade 
After the lay-up cured (2 or 3 days) it was removed from the jig, and the jig was removed from the fuselage and discarded  (be careful, the bondo sticks very well to the spruce, you could splinter your wood during removal) I now have a fiberglass skin that tends to hold the shape of the jig but is still flexible enough to work with  I made two bulkheads out of 1/4 last-a-foam (AS&S) using the plywood formers from the jig as a guide  I covered these foam bulkheads with one 8oz layer of glass on each side, with a glass to glass edge on the bottom  After cure these bulkheads were bondoed into place (to the fuselage)and the fiberglass skin was pulled down tight and floxed to the bulkheads  When the flox cured the bondo joints were broken, again being careful not to harm the wood  The turtledeck was removed from the fuselage and 2 inch tapes added to the bulkheads inside and out 
At this point the turtledeck looked great and only weighed about 5lbs  but I noticed you could deform the skin by pushing hard on the outside  So I flipped the turtledeck over and from 1/4 inch last-a-foam, I cut two inch wide strips that would run the entire length, forward and aft inside the turtledeck  In effect these would act as composite stringers, I made enough of these two inch wide strips to make up three stringers  One down the center (sort of a backbone) and one on each side of the "backbone" half the distance to the edge of the turtledeck  I sanded the edge of the foam so that when covered with a layer of bid @ 45degrees there would be a nice transition from the turtledeck skin up onto the foam and then back onto the turtledeck I scuff sanded and glued the foam stringers in with micro  I covered the foam stringers with one layer of 8oz bid @ 45degrees 



ground_truth: No excessive overloading and no use for illegal activity.