prompt_front: Now, answer the following question based on the text below, only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did Goodwin become a Naval aviator?

Read the following text and answer briefly.

Context 1: Hugh Hilton Goodwin (December 21, 1900 – February 25, 1980) was a decorated officer in the United States Navy with the rank of Vice Admiral  A veteran of both World Wars, he commanded escort carrier  during the Mariana Islands campaign  Goodwin then served consecutively as Chief of Staff, Carrier Strike Group 6 and as Air Officer, Philippine Sea Frontier and participated in the Philippines campaign in the later part of the War 

Following the War, he remained in the Navy and rose to the flag rank and held several important commands including Vice Commander, Military Air Transport Service, Commander, Carrier Division Two and Commander, Naval Air Forces, Continental Air Defense Command 

Early life and career

Hugh H  Goodwin was born on December 21, 1900, in Monroe, Louisiana and attended Monroe High School there (now Neville High School)  Following the United States' entry into World War I in April 1917, Goodwin left the school without receiving the diploma in order to see some combat and enlisted the United States Navy on May 7, 1917  He completed basic training and was assigned to the battleship   Goodwin participated in the training of armed guard crews and engine room personnel as the Atlantic Fleet prepared to go to war and in November 1917, he sailed with the rest of Battleship Division 9, bound for Britain to reinforce the Grand Fleet in the North Sea 

Although he did not complete the last year of high school, Goodwin was able to earn an appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland in June 1918  While at the academy, he earned a nickname "Huge" and among his classmates were several future admirals and generals including: Hyman G  Rickover, Milton E  Miles, Robert E  Blick Jr , Herbert S  Duckworth, Clayton C  Jerome, James P  Riseley, James A  Stuart, Frank Peak Akers, Sherman Clark, Raymond P  Coffman, Delbert S  Cornwell, Frederick J  Eckhoff, Ralph B  DeWitt, John Higgins, Vernon Huber, Albert K  Morehouse, Harold F  Pullen, Michael J  Malanaphy, William S  Parsons, Harold R  Stevens, John P  Whitney, Lyman G  Miller and George J  O'Shea 

Goodwin graduated with Bachelor of Science degree on June 3, 1922, and was commissioned Ensign in the United States Navy  He was subsequently assigned to the battleship  and took part in the voyage to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, before he was ordered to the Naval Torpedo Station at Newport, Rhode Island for submarine instruction in June 1923  Goodwin completed the training several weeks later and was attached to the submarine   He then continued his further training aboard submarine  and following his promotion to Lieutenant (junior grade) on June 3, 1925, he qualified as submariner 

He then served aboard submarine  off the coast of California, before he was ordered for the recruiting duty to San Francisco in September 1927  While in this capacity, Goodwin applied for naval aviation training which was ultimately approved and he was ordered to the Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida in August 1928  Toward the end of the training, he was promoted to lieutenant on December 11, 1928, and upon the completion of the training in January 1929, he was designated Naval aviator 

Goodwin was subsequently attached to the Observation Squadron aboard the aircraft carrier  and participated in the Fleet exercises in the Caribbean  He was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics in Washington, D C  in August 1931 and served consecutively under the architect of naval aviation William A  Moffett and future Chief of Naval Operations Ernest J  King 

In June 1933, Goodwin was ordered to the Naval War College at Newport, Rhode Island, where he completed junior course in May of the following year  He subsequently joined the crew of aircraft carrier  and served under Captain Arthur B  Cook and took part in the Fleet exercises in the Caribbean and off the East Coast of the United States 

He was ordered back to the Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida in June 1936 and was attached to the staff of the Base Commandant, then-Captain Charles A  Blakely  When Blakely was succeeded by William F  Halsey in June 1937, Goodwin remained in Halsey's staff and was promoted to Lieutenant Commander on December 1, 1937  He also completed correspondence course in International law at the Naval War College 

Goodwin was appointed Commanding officer of the Observation Squadron 1 in June 1938 and attached to the battleship  he took part in the patrolling of the Pacific and 
West Coast of the United States until September 1938, when he assumed command of the Observation Squadron 2 attached to the battleship  

When his old superior from Lexington, now Rear Admiral Arthur B  Cook, was appointed Commander Aircraft, Scouting Force in June 1939, he requested Goodwin as his Aide and Flag Secretary  He became Admiral Cook's protégé and after year and half of service in the Pacific, he continued as his Aide and Flag Secretary, when Cook was appointed Commander Aircraft, Atlantic Fleet in November 1940 

World War II

Following the United States' entry into World War II, Goodwin was promoted to the temporary rank of Commander on January 1, 1942, and assumed duty as advisor to the Argentine Navy  His promotion was made permanent two months later and he returned to the United States in early 1943 for duty as assistant director of Planning in the Bureau of Aeronautics under Rear admiral John S  McCain  While still in Argentina, Goodwin was promoted to the temporary rank of Captain on June 21, 1942 

By the end of December 1943, Goodwin was ordered to Astoria, Oregon, where he assumed command of newly commissioned escort carrier USS Gambier Bay  He was responsible for the initial training of the crew and was known as a strict disciplinarian, but the crew appreciated the skills he taught them that prepared them for combat  Goodwin insisted that everyone aboard has to do every job right every time and made us fight our ship at her best 

During the first half of 1944, Gambier Bay was tasked with ferrying aircraft for repairs and qualified carrier pilots from San Diego to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, before departed on May 1, 1944, to join Rear admiral Harold B  Sallada's Carrier Support Group 2, staging in the Marshalls for the invasion of the Marianas 

The air unit, VC-10 Squadron, under Goodwin's command gave close air support to the initial landings of Marines on Saipan on June 15, 1944, destroying enemy gun emplacements, troops, tanks, and trucks  On the 17th, her combat air patrol (CAP) shot down or turned back all but a handful of 47 enemy planes headed for her task group and her gunners shot down two of the three planes that did break through to attack her 

Goodwin's carrier continued in providing of close ground support operations at Tinian during the end of July 1944, then turned her attention to Guam, where she gave identical aid to invading troops until mid-August that year  For his service during the Mariana Islands campaign, Goodwin was decorated with Bronze Star Medal with Combat "V" 

He was succeeded by Captain Walter V  R  Vieweg on August 18, 1944, and appointed Chief of Staff, Carrier Division Six under Rear admiral Arthur W  Radford  The Gambier Bay was sunk in the Battle off Samar on October 25, 1944, during the Battle of Leyte Gulf after helping turn back a much larger attacking Japanese surface force 

Goodwin served with Carrier Division Six during the Bonin Islands raids, the naval operations at Palau and took part in the Battle of Leyte Gulf and operations supporting Leyte landings in late 1944  He was later appointed Air Officer of the Philippine Sea Frontier under Rear admiral James L  Kauffman and remained with that command until the end of hostilities  For his service in the later part of World War II, Goodwin was decorated with Legion of Merit with Combat "V"  He was also entitled to wear two Navy Presidential Unit Citations and Navy Unit Commendation 

Postwar service

Following the surrender of Japan, Goodwin assumed command of Light aircraft carrier  on August 24, 1945  The ship was tasked with air missions over Japan became mercy flights over Allied prisoner-of-war camps, dropping food and medicine until the men could be rescued  She was also present at Tokyo Bay for the Japanese surrender on September 2, 1945 

Goodwin returned with San Jacinto to the United States in mid-September 1945 and he was detached in January 1946  He subsequently served in the office of the Chief of Naval Operations until May that year, when he entered the instruction at National War College  Goodwin graduated in June 1947 and served on Secretary's committee for Research on Reorganization  Upon promotion to Rear admiral on April 1, 1949, Goodwin was appointed Chief of Staff and Aide to Commander-in-Chief, Atlantic Fleet under Admiral William H  P  Blandy 

Revolt of the Admirals

In April 1949, the budget's cuts and proposed reorganization of the United States Armed Forces by the Secretary of Defense Louis A  Johnson launched the wave of discontent between senior commanders in the United States Navy  Johnson proposed the merging of the Marine Corps into the Army, and reduce the Navy to a convoy-escort force 

Goodwin's superior officer, Admiral Blandy was call to testify before the House Committee on Armed Services and his harsh statements for the defense of the Navy, costed him his career  Goodwin shared his views and openly criticized Secretary Johnson for having power concentrated in a single civilian executive, who is an appointee of the Government and not an elected representative of the people  He also criticized aspects of defense unification which permitted the Joint Chiefs of Staff to vote on arms policies of individual services, and thus "rob" the branches of autonomy 

The outbreak of the Korean War in summer 1950 proved the proposal of Secretary Johnson as incorrect and he resigned in September that year  Also Secretary of the Navy, Francis P  Matthews resigned one month earlier 

Later service

Due to the Revolts of the admirals, Blandy was forced to retire in February 1950 and Goodwin was ordered to Newport, Rhode Island for temporary duty as Chief of Staff and Aide to the President of the Naval War College under Vice admiral Donald B  Beary in April 1950  Goodwin was detached from that assignment two months and appointed member of the General Board of the Navy  He was shortly thereafter appointed acting Navy Chief of Public Information, as the substitute for Rear Admiral Russell S  Berkey, who was relieved of illness, but returned to the General Board of the Navy in July that year  Goodwin served in that capacity until February 1951, when he relieved his Academy class, Rear admiral John P  Whitney as Vice Commander, Military Air Transport Service (MATS) 

While in this capacity, Goodwin served under Lieutenant general Laurence S  Kuter and was co-responsible for the logistical support of United Nations troops fighting in Korea  The MATS operated from the United States to Japan and Goodwin served in this capacity until August 1953, when he was appointed Commander Carrier Division Two  While in this assignment, he took part in the Operation Mariner, Joint Anglo-American exercise which encountered very heavy seas over a two-week period in fall 1953 

Goodwin was ordered to the Philippines in May 1954 and assumed duty as Commander, U S  Naval Forces in the Philippines with headquarters at Naval Station Sangley Point near Cavite  He held that command in the period of tensions between Taiwan and China and publicly declared shortly after his arrival, that any attack on Taiwan by the Chinese Communists on the mainland would result in US participation in the conflict  The naval fighter planes under his command also provided escort for passing commercial planes  Goodwin worked together with retired Admiral Raymond A  Spruance, then-Ambassador to the Philippines, and accompanied him during the visits to Singapore, Bangkok and Saigon in January 1955 

On December 18, 1955, Goodwin's classmate Rear admiral Albert K  Morehouse, then serving as Commander, Naval Air Forces, Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD), died of heart attack and Goodwin was ordered to CONAD headquarters in Colorado Springs, Colorado to assume Morehouse's position  While in this capacity, he was subordinated to Army General Earle E  Partridge and was responsible for the Naval and Marine Forces allocated to the command designated for the defense of the Continental United States 

Retirement

Goodwin retired on June 1, 1957, after 40 years of active service and was advanced to the rank of Vice admiral on the retired list for having been specially commended in combat  A week later, he was invited back to his Monroe High School (now Neville High School) and handed a diploma showing that he had been graduated with the class of 1918  He then settled in Monterey, California where he taught American history at Stevenson school and was a member of the Naval Order of the United States 

Vice admiral Hugh H  Goodwin died at his home on February 25, 1980, aged 79  He was survived by his wife, Eleanor with whom he had two children, a daughter Sidney and a son Hugh Jr , who graduated from the Naval Academy in June 1948, but died one year later, when the Hellcat fighter he was piloting collided with another over the Gulf of Mexico during training 

Decorations

Here is the ribbon bar of Vice admiral Hugh H  Goodwin:

References

1900 births
1980 deaths
People from Monroe, Louisiana
Military personnel from Louisiana
United States Naval Academy alumni
Naval War College alumni
United States Naval Aviators
United States Navy personnel of World War I
United States Navy World War II admirals
United States Navy vice admirals
United States submarine commanders
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Context 2: Paper Info

Title: On the Role of Emergent Communication for Social Learning in Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning
Publish Date: Unkown
Author List: Seth Karten, Siva Kailas, Huao Li, Katia Sycara

Figure

Figure1 By using contrastive learning, our method seeks similar representations between the state-message pair and future states while creating dissimilar representations with random states Thus satisfying the utility objective of the information bottleneck The depicted agents are blind and cannot see other cars 
Figure 2 An example of two possible classes, person and horse, from a single observation in the Pascal VOC game 
Figure 3  Blind Traffic Junction Left: Our method uses compositional complexity and contrastive utility to outperform other baselines in terms of performance and sample complexity The legend provides the mean ± variance of the best performance Right: Top: success, contrastive, and complexity losses for our method Right, Bottom: success, autoencoder loss for ae-comm with supervised pretraining 
Figure 4  Pascal VOC Game Representing compositional concepts from raw pixel data in images to communicate multiple concepts within a single image Our method significantly outperforms ae-comm and no-comm due to our framework being able to learn composable, independent concepts 
Figure 5  Blind Traffic Junction Social shadowing enables significantly lower sample complexity when compared to traditional online MARL 
Beta ablation: Messages are naturally sparse in bits due to the complexity loss Redundancy measures the capacity for a bijection between the size of the set of unique tokens and the enumerated observations and intents Min redundancy is 1 0 (a bijection) Lower is better 

abstract

Explicit communication among humans is key to coordinating and learning  Social learning, which uses cues from experts, can greatly benefit from the usage of explicit communication to align heterogeneous policies, reduce sample complexity, and solve partially observable tasks  Emergent communication, a type of explicit communication, studies the creation of an artificial language to encode a high task-utility message directly from data 
However, in most cases, emergent communication sends insufficiently compressed messages with little or null information, which also may not be understandable to a third-party listener  This paper proposes an unsupervised method based on the information bottleneck to capture both referential complexity and task-specific utility to adequately explore sparse social communication scenarios in multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) 
We show that our model is able to i) develop a natural-language-inspired lexicon of messages that is independently composed of a set of emergent concepts, which span the observations and intents with minimal bits, ii) develop communication to align the action policies of heterogeneous agents with dissimilar feature models, and iii) learn a communication policy from watching an expert's action policy, which we term 'social shadowing' 

INTRODUCTION

Social learning agents analyze cues from direct observation of other agents (novice or expert) in the same environment to learn an action policy from others  However, observing expert actions may not be sufficient to coordinate with other agents  Rather, by learning to communicate, agents can better model the intent of other agents, leading to better coordination 
In humans, explicit communication for coordination assumes a common communication substrate to convey abstract concepts and beliefs directly , which may not be available for new partners  To align complex beliefs, heterogeneous agents must learn a message policy that translates from one theory of mind to another to synchronize coordination 
Especially when there is complex information to process and share, new agent partners need to learn to communicate to work with other agents  Emergent communication studies the creation of artificial language  Often phrased as a Lewis game, speakers and listeners learn a set of tokens to communicate complex observations  
However, in multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL), agents suffer from partial observability and non-stationarity (due to unaligned value functions) , which aims to be solved with decentralized learning through communication  In the MARL setup, agents, as speakers and listeners, learn a set of tokens to communicate observations, intentions, coordination, or other experiences which help facilitate solving tasks  
Agents learn to communicate effectively through a backpropagation signal from their task performance   This has been found useful for applications in human-agent teaming , multirobot navigation , and coordination in complex games such as StarCraft II   Communication quality has been shown to have a strong relationship with task performance , leading to a multitude of work attempting to increase the representational capacity by decreasing the convergence rates  
Yet these methods still create degenerate communication protocols , which are uninterpretable due to joined concepts or null (lack of) information, which causes performance degradation  In this work, we investigate the challenges of learning a arXiv:2302 14276v1 LG] 28 Feb 2023 messaging lexicon to prepare emergent communication for social learning (EC4SL) scenarios 
We study the following hypotheses: H1) EC4SL will learn faster through structured concepts in messages leading to higher-quality solutions, H2) EC4SL aligns the policies of expert heterogeneous agents, and H3) EC4SL enables social shadowing, where an agent learns a communication policy while only observing an expert agent's action policy 
By learning a communication policy, the agent is encouraged to develop a more structured understanding of intent, leading to better coordination  The setting is very realistic among humans and many computer vision and RL frameworks may develop rich feature spaces for a specific solo task, but have not yet interacted with other agents, which may lead to failure without alignment 
We enable a compositional emergent communication paradigm, which exhibits clustering and informativeness properties  We show theoretically and through empirical results that compositional language enables independence properties among tokens with respect to referential information  Additionally, when combined with contrastive learning, our method outperforms competing methods that only ground communication on referential information 
We show that contrastive learning is an optimal critic for communication, reducing sample complexity for the unsupervised emergent communication objective  In addition to the more human-like format, compositional communication is able to create variable-length messages, meaning that we are not limited to sending insufficiently compressed messages with little information, increasing the quality of each communication 
In order to test our hypotheses, we show the utility of our method in multi-agent settings with a focus on teams of agents, high-dimensional pixel data, and expansions to heterogeneous teams of agents of varying skill levels  Social learning requires agents to explore to observe and learn from expert cues 
We interpolate between this form of social learning and imitation learning, which learns action policies directly from examples  We introduce a 'social shadowing' learning approach where we use first-person observations, rather than third-person observations, to encourage the novice to learn latently or conceptually how to communicate and develop an understanding of intent for better coordination 
The social shadowing episodes are alternated with traditional MARL during training  Contrastive learning, which works best with positive examples, is apt for social shadowing  Originally derived to enable lower complexity emergent lexicons, we find that the contrastive learning objective is apt for agents to develop internal models and relationships of the task through social shadowing 
The idea is to enable a shared emergent communication substrate (with minimal bandwidth) to enable future coordi-nation with novel partners  Our contributions are deriving an optimal critic for a communication policy and showing that the information bottleneck helps extend communication to social learning scenarios 
In real-world tasks such as autonomous driving or robotics, humans do not necessarily learn from scratch  Rather they explore with conceptually guided information from expert mentors  In particular, having structured emergent messages reduces sample complexity, and contrastive learning can help novice agents learn from experts 
Emergent communication can also align heterogeneous agents, a social task that has not been previously studied 

Multi-Agent Signaling

Implicit communication conveys information to other agents that is not intentionally communicated   Implicit signaling conveys information to other agents based on one's observable physical position   Implicit signaling may be a form of implicit communication such as through social cues or explicit communication such as encoded into the MDP through "cheap talk"  
Unlike implicit signaling, explicit signaling is a form of positive signaling that seeks to directly influence the behavior of other agents in the hopes that the new information will lead to active listening  Multi-agent emergent communication is a type of explicit signaling which deliberately shares information 
Symbolic communication, a subset of explicit communication, seeks to send a subset of pre-defined messages  However, these symbols must be defined by an expert and do not scale to particularly complex observations and a large number of agents  Emergent communication aims to directly influence other agents with a learned subset of information, which allows for scalability and interpretability by new agents 

Emergent Communication

Several methodologies currently exist to increase the informativeness of emergent communication  With discrete and clustered continuous communication, the number of observed distinct communication tokens is far below the number permissible   As an attempt to increase the emergent "vocabulary" and decrease the data required to converge to an informative communication "language", work has added a bias loss to emit distinct tokens in different situations  
More recent work has found that the sample efficiency can be further improved by grounding communication in observation space with a supervised reconstruction loss   Information-maximizing autoencoders aim to maximize the state reconstruction accuracy for each agent  How-ever, grounding communication in observations has been found to easily satisfy these input-based objectives while still requiring a myriad more samples to explore to find a task-specific communication space  
Thus, it is necessary to use task-specific information to communicate informatively  This will enable learned compression for task completion rather than pure compression for input recovery  Other work aims to use the information bottleneck to decrease the entropy of messages   In our work, we use contrastive learning to increase representation similarity with future goals, which we show optimally optimizes the Q-function for messages 

Natural Language Inspiration

The properties of the tokens in emergent communication directly affect their informative ability  As a baseline, continuous communication tokens can represent maximum information but lack human-interpretable properties  Discrete 1-hot (binary vector) tokens allow for a finite vocabulary, but each token contains the same magnitude of information, with equal orthogonal distance to each other token 
Similar to word embeddings in natural language, discrete prototypes are an effort to cluster similar information together from continuous vectors   Building on the continuous word embedding properties, VQ-VIB , an information-theoretic observation grounding based on VQ-VAE properties , uses variational properties to provide word embedding properties for continuous emergent tokens 
Like discrete prototypes, they exhibit a clustering property based on similar information but are more informative  However, each of these message types determines a single token for communication  Tokens are stringed together to create emergent "sentences" 

Preliminaries

We formulate our setup as a decentralized, partially observable Markov Decision Process with communication (Dec-POMDP-Comm)  Formally, our problem is defined by the tuple, S, A, M, T , R, O, Ω, γ   We define S as the set of states, A i , i ∈ [1, N ] as the set of actions, which includes task-specific actions, and M i as the set of communications for N agents 
T is the transition between states due to the multi-agent joint action space T : S × A 1 ,    , A N → S  Ω defines the set of observations in our partially observable setting  Partial observability requires communication to complete the tasks successfully  O i : M 1 ,    , M N × Ŝ → Ω maps the communications and local state, Ŝ, to a distribution of observations for each agent 
R defines the reward function and γ defines the discount factor 

Architecture

The policy network is defined by three stages: Observation Encoding, Communication, and Action Decoding  The best observation encoding and action decoding architecture is task-dependent, i e , using multi-layer perceptrons (MLPs), CNNs , GRUs , or transformer layers are best suited to different inputs 
The encoder transforms observation and any sequence or memory information into an encoding H  The on-policy reinforcement learning training uses RE-INFORCE or a decentralized version of MAPPO as specified by our experiments  Our work focuses on the communication stage, which can be divided into three substages: message encoding, message passing (often considered sparse communication), and message decoding 
We use the message passing from   For message decoding, we build on a multiheaded attention framework, which allows an agent to learn which messages are most important   Our compositional communication framework defines the message encoding, as described in section 4 

Objective

Mutual information, denoted as I(X; Y ), looks to measure the relationship between random variables, which is often measured through Kullback-Leibler divergence , I(X; Y ) = D KL (p(x, y)||p(x) ⊗ p(y))  The message encoding substage can be defined as an information bottleneck problem, which defines a tradeoff between the complexity of information (compression, I(X, X)) and the preserved relevant information (utility, I( X, Y )) 
The deep variational information bottleneck defines a trade-off between preserving useful information and compression   We assume that our observation and memory/sequence encoder provides an optimal representation H i suitable for sharing relevant observation and intent/coordination information  We hope to recover a representation Y i , which contains the sufficient desired outputs 
In our scenario, the information bottleneck is a trade-off between the complexity of information I(H i ; M i ) (representing the encoded information exactly) and representing the relevant information I(M j =i ; Y i ), which is signaled from our contrastive objective  In our setup, the relevant information flows from other agents through communication, signaling a combination of the information bottleneck and a Lewis game 
We additionally promote complexity through our compositional independence objective, This is formulated by the following Lagrangian, where the bounds on mutual information Î are defined in equations 1, 2, and 10  Overall, our objective is,

Complexity through Compositional Communication

We aim to satisfy the complexity objective, I(H i , M i ), through compositional communication  In order to induce complexity in our communication, we want the messages to be as non-random as possible  That is, informative with respect to the input hidden state h  In addition, we want each token within the message to share as little information as possible with the preceding tokens 
Thus, each additional token adds only informative content  Each token has a fixed length in bits W   The total sequence is limited by a fixed limit, L l W l ≤ S, of S bits and a total of L tokens  We use a variational message generation setup, which maps the encoded hidden state h to a message m; that is, we are modeling the posterior, π i m (m l |h) 
We limit the vocabulary size to K tokens, e j ∈ R D , j ∈ [1, K] ⊂ N, where each token has dimensionality D and l ∈ [1, L] ⊂ N  Each token m l is sampled from a categorical posterior distribution, 0 otherwise such that the message m l is mapped to the nearest neighbor e j   A set of these tokens makes a message m 
To satisfy the complexity objective, we want to use m i to well-represent h i and consist of independently informative m i l  

Independent Information

We derive an upper bound for the interaction information between all tokens  Proposition 4 1  For the interaction information between all tokens, the following upper bound holds: The proof is in Appendix A 1  Since we want the mutual information to be minimized in our objective, we minimize,

Input-Oriented Information

In order to induce complexity in the compositional messages, we additionally want to minimize the mutual information I(H; M ) between the composed message m and the encoded information h  We derive an upper bound on the mutual information that we use as a Lagrangian term to minimize  Proposition 4 2  For the mutual information between the composed message and encoded information, the following upper bound holds:
The proof is in Appendix A 1  Thus, we have our Lagrangian term, Conditioning on the input or observation data is a decentralized training objective 

Sequence Length

Compositional communication necessitates an adaptive limit on the total length of the sequence  Corollary 4 3  Repeat tokens, w, are redundant and can be removed  Suppose one predicts two arbitrary tokens, w k and w l   Given equation 1, it follows that there is low or near-zero mutual information between w k and w l  
A trivial issue is that the message generator will predict every available token as to follow the unique token objective  Since the tokens are imbued with input-oriented information (equation 2), the predicted tokens will be based on relevant referential details  Thus, it follows that tokens containing irrelevant information will not be chosen 
A nice optimization objective that follows from corollary 4 3 is that one can use self-supervised learning with an end-ofsequence (EOS) token to limit the variable total length of compositional message sequences  (3) Algorithm 1 Compositional Message Gen (h t ) m i ∼ N ( ĥ; µ, σ) 9: end for 10: return m

Message Generation Architecture

Now, we can define the pipeline for message generation  The idea is to create an architecture that can generate features to enable independent message tokens  We expand each compressed token into the space of the hidden state h (1-layer linear expansion) since each token has a natural embedding in R |h|  
Then, we perform attention using a softmin to help minimize similarity with previous tokens and sample the new token from a variational distribution  See algorithm 1 for complete details  During execution, we can generate messages directly due to equation 1, resolving any computation time lost from sequential compositional message generation 

Utility through Contrastive Learning

First, note that our Markov Network is as follows: H j → M j → Y i ← H i   Continue to denote i as the agent identification and j as the agent ID such that j = i  We aim to satisfy the utility objective of the information bottleneck, I(M j ; Y i ), through contrastive learning as shown in figure 1  Proposition 5 1 
Utility mutual information is lower bounded by the contrastive NCE-binary objective, The proof is in Appendix A 1  This result shows a need for gradient information to flow backward across agents along communication edge connections 

Experiments and Results

We condition on inputs, especially rich information (such as pixel data), and task-specific information  When evaluating an artificial language in MARL, we are interested in referential tasks, in which communication is required to complete the task  With regard to intent-grounded communication, we study ordinal tasks, which require coordination information between agents to complete successfully 
Thus, we consider tasks with a team of agents to foster messaging that communicates coordination information that also includes their observations  To test H1, structuring emergent messages enables lower complexity, we test our methodology and analyze the input-oriented information and utility capabilities 
Next, we analyze the ability of heterogeneous agents to understand differing communication policies (H2))  Finally, we consider the effect of social shadowing (H3), in which agents solely learn a communication policy from an expert agent's action policy  We additionally analyze the role of offline reinforcement learning for emergent communication in combination with online reinforcement learning to further learn emergent communication alongside an action policy 
We evaluate each scenario over 10 seeds 

Environments

Blind Traffic Junction We consider a benchmark that requires both referential and ordinal capabilities within a team of agents  The blind traffic junction environment requires multiple agents to navigate a junction without any observation of other agents  Rather, they only observe their own state location 
Ten agents must coordinate to traverse through the lanes without colliding into agents within their lane or in the junction  Our training uses REINFORCE   Pascal VOC Game We further evaluate the complexity of compositional communication with a Pascal VOC   This is a two-agent referential game similar to the Cifar game but requires the prediction of multiple classes 
During each episode, each agent observes a random image from the Pascal VOC dataset containing exactly two unique labels  Each agent must encode information given only the raw pixels from the original image such that the other agent can recognize the two class labels in the original image  An agent receives a reward of 0 25 per correctly chosen class label and will receive a total reward of 1 if both agents guess all labels correctly 
See figure 2  Our training uses heterogeneous agents trained with PPO (modified from MAPPO repository)  For simplicity of setup, we consider images with exactly two unique labels from a closed subset of size five labels of the original set of labels from the Pascal VOC data  Furthermore, these images must be of size 375 × 500 pixels 
Thus, the resultant dataset comprised 534 unique images from the Pascal VOC dataset 

Baselines

To evaluate our methodology, we compare our method to the following baselines: (1) no-comm, where agents do not communicate; (2) rl-comm, which uses a baseline communication method learned solely through policy loss ; (3) ae-comm, which uses an autoencoder to ground communication in input observations ; (4) VQ-VIB, which uses a variational autoencoder to ground discrete communication in input observations and a mutual information objective to ensure low entropy communication  
We provide an ablation of the loss parameter β in table 1 in the blind traffic junction scenario  When β = 0, we use our compositional message paradigm without our derived loss terms  We find that higher complexity and independence losses increase sample complexity  When β = 1, the model was unable to converge 
However, when there is no regularization loss, the model performs worse (with no guarantees about referential representation)  We attribute this to the fact that our independence criteria learns a stronger causal relationship  There are fewer spurious features that may cause an agent to take an incorrect action 
In order to understand the effect of the independent concept representation, we analyze the emergent language's capacity for redundancy  A message token m l is redundant if there exists another token m k that represents the same information  With our methodology, the emergent 'language' converges to the exact number of observations and intents required to solve the task 
With a soft discrete threshold, the independent information loss naturally converges to a discrete number of tokens in the vocabulary  Our β ablation in table 1 yields a bijection between each token in the vocabulary and the possible emergent concepts, i e , the enumerated observations and intents  Thus for β = 0 1, there is no redundancy 
Sparse Communication In corollary 4 3, we assume that there is no mutual information between tokens  In practice, the loss may only be near-zero  Our empirical results yield independence loss around 1e − 4  In table 1, the size of the messages is automatically compressed to the smallest size to represent the information 
Despite a trivially small amount of mutual information between tokens, our compositional method is able to reduce the message size in bits by 2 3x using our derived regularization, for a total of an 8x reduction in message size over non-compositional methods such as ae-comm  Since the base unit for the token is a 32-bit float, we note that each token in the message may be further compressed 
We observe that each token uses three significant digits, which may further compress tokens to 10 bits each for a total message length of 20 bits 

Communication Utility Results

Due to coordination in MARL, grounding communication in referential features is not enough  Finding the communication utility requires grounding messages in ordinal information  Overall, figure shows that our compositional, contrastive method outperforms all methods focused on solely input-oriented communication grounding 
In the blind traffic junction, our method yields a higher average task success rate and is able to achieve it with a lower sample complexity  Training with the contrastive update tends to spike to high success but not converge, often many episodes before convergence, which leaves area for training improvement 
That is, the contrastive update begins to find aligned latent spaces early in training, but it cannot adapt the methodology quickly enough to converge  The exploratory randomness of most of the early online data prevents exploitation of the high utility f + examples  This leaves further room for improvement for an adaptive contrastive loss term 
Regularization loss convergence After convergence to high task performance, the autoencoder loss increases in order to represent the coordination information  This follows directly from the information bottleneck, where there exists a tradeoff between utility and complexity  However, communication, especially referential communication, should have an overlap between utility and complexity 
Thus, we should seek to make the complexity loss more convex  Our compositional communication complexity loss does not converge before task performance convergence  While the complexity loss tends to spike in the exploratory phase, the normalized value is very small  Interestingly, the method eventually converges as the complexity loss converges below a normal- ized 0 3 
Additionally, the contrastive loss tends to decrease monotonically and converges after the task performance converges, showing a very smooth decrease  The contrastive f − loss decreases during training, which may account for success spikes prior to convergence  The method is able to converge after only a moderate decrease in the f + loss 
This implies empirical evidence that the contrastive loss is an optimal critic for messaging  See figure 3 

Heterogeneous Alignment Through Communication

In order to test the heterogeneous alignment ability of our methodology to learn higher-order concepts from highdimensional data, we analyze the performance on the Pascal VOC game  We compare our methodology against ae-comm to show that concepts should consist of independent information directly from task signal rather than compression to reconstruct inputs 
That is, we show an empirical result on pixel data to verify the premise of the information bottleneck  Our methodology significantly outperforms the observation-grounded ae-comm baseline, as demonstrated by figure 4  The ae-comm methodology, despite using autoencoders to learn observation-grounded communication, performs only slightly better than no-comm 
On the other hand, our methodology is able to outperform both baselines significantly  It is important to note that based on figure 4, our methodology is able to guess more than two of the four labels correctly across the two agents involved, while the baseline methodologies struggle to guess exactly two of thew four labels consistently 
This can be attributed to our framework being able to learn compositional concepts that are much more easily discriminated due to mutual independence 

Social Shadowing

Critics of emergent communication may point to the increased sample complexity due to the dual communication and action policy learning  In the social shadowing scenario, heterogeneous agents can learn to generate a communication policy without learning the action policy of the watched expert agents  To enable social shadowing, the agent will alternate between a batch of traditional MARL (no expert) and (1st-person) shadowing an expert agent performing the task in its trajectory 
The agent only uses the contrastive objective to update its communication policy during shadowing  In figure , the agent that performs social shadowing is able to learn the action policy with almost half the sample complexity required by the online reinforcement learning agent  Our results show that the structured latent space of the emergent communication learns socially benevolent coordination 
This tests our hypothesis that by learning communication to understand the actions of other agents, one can enable lower sample complexity coordination  Thus, it mitigates the issues of solely observing actions 

Discussion

By using our framework to better understand the intent of others, agents can learn to communicate to align policies and coordinate  Any referential-based setup can be performed with a supervised loss, as indicated by the instant satisfaction of referential objectives  Even in the Pascal VOC game, which appears to be a purely referential objective, our results show that intelligent compression is not the only objective of referential communication 
The emergent communication paradigm must enable an easy-to-discriminate space for the game  In multi-agent settings, the harder challenge is to enable coordination through communication  Using contrastive communication as an optimal critic aims to satisfy this, and has shown solid improvements  Since contrastive learning benefits from good examples, this method is even more powerful when there is access to examples from expert agents 
In this setting, the communication may be bootstrapped, since our optimal critic has examples with strong signals from the 'social shadowing' episodes  Additionally, we show that the minimization of our independence objective enables tokens that contain minimal overlapping information with other tokens 
Preventing trivial communication paradigms enables higher performance  Each of these objectives is complementary, so they are not trivially minimized during training, which is a substantial advantage over comparative baselines  Unlike prior work, this enables the benefits of training with reinforcement learning in multi-agent settings 
In addition to lower sample complexity, the mutual information regularization yields additional benefits, such as small messages, which enables the compression aspect of sparse communication  From a qualitative point of view, the independent information also yields discrete emergent concepts, which can be further made human-interpretable by a post-hoc analysis  
This is a step towards white-box machine learning in multi-agent settings  The interpretability of this learned white-box method could be useful in human-agent teaming as indicated by prior work   The work here will enable further results in decision-making from high-dimensional data with emergent concepts 
The social scenarios described are a step towards enabling a zero-shot communication policy  This work will serve as future inspiration for using emergent communication to enable ad-hoc teaming with both agents and humans 

Appendix

A 1  Proofs Proposition 4 1 For the interaction information between all tokens, the following upper bound holds: Proof  Starting with the independent information objective, we want to minimize the interaction information, which defines the conditional mutual information between each token and, Let π i m (m l |h) be a variational approximation of p(m l |h), which is defined by our message encoder network 
Given that each token should provide unique information, we assume independence between m l   Thus, it follows that our compositional message is a vector, m = [m 1 ,       , m L ], and is jointly Gaussian  Moreover, we can define q( m|h) as a variational approximation to p(m|h) = p(m 1 ;       , m L |h) 
We can model q with a network layer and define its loss as || m − m|| 2   Thus, transforming equation 4 into variational form, we have, it follows that q( m|h) log q( m|h)d m ≥ q( m|h) log Thus, we can bound our interaction information, Proposition 4 2 For the mutual information between the composed message and encoded information, the following upper bound holds:
Proof  By definition of mutual information between the composed messages M and the encoded observations H, we have, Substituting q( m|h) for p( m|h), the same KL Divergence identity, and defining a Gaussian approximation z( m) of the marginal distribution p( m), it follows that, In expectation of equation 1, we have,
This implies that, for m = [m 1 ,       , m L ], there is probabilistic independence between m j , m k , j = k  Thus, expanding, it follows that, where z(m l ) is a standard Gaussian  Proposition 5 1  Utility mutual information is lower bounded by the contrastive NCE-binary objective, Proof  We suppress the reliance on h since this is directly passed through 
By definition of mutual information, we have, Our network model learns π R + (y|m) from rolled-out trajectories, R + , using our policy  The prior of our network state, π R − (y), can be modeled from rolling out a random trajectory, R−  Unfortunately, it is intractable to model π R + (y|m) and π R − (y) directly during iterative learning, but we can sample y + ∼ π R + (y|m) and y − ∼ π R − (y) directly from our network during training 
It has been shown that log p(y|m) provides a bound on mutual information , with the expectation over l p(m l , y l )  However, we need a tractable understanding of the information Y   In the information bottleneck, Y represents the desired outcome  In our setup, y is coordination information that helps create the desired output, such as any action a −  
This implies, y =⇒ a −   Since the transition is known, it follows that a − =⇒ s − f , a random future state  Thus, we have, π This is similar to the proof for lemma A 5, but requires assumptions on messages m from the emergent language  We note that when m is random, the case defaults to lemma A 5  Thus, we assume we have at least input-oriented information in m given sufficiently satisfying equation 2  Given a sufficient emergent language, it follows that y =⇒ a + , where a + is an intention action based on m 
Similarly, since the transition is known, a + =⇒ s + f , a desired goal state along the trajectory  Thus, we have, π R + (y|m) = p(s = s + f |y, m)  Recall the following (as shown in ), which we have adapted to our communication objective, Proposition A 3 (rewards → probabilities)  The Q-function for the goal-conditioned reward function r g (s t , m t ) = (1 − γ)p(s = s g |y t ) is equivalent to the probability of state s g under the discounted state occupancy measure:
and Lemma A 4  The critic function that optimizes equation 8 is a Q-function for the goal-conditioned reward function up to a multiplicative constant 1 The critic function f (s, m, s f ) = y enc(s f ) represents the similarity between the encoding y = enc(s, m) and the encoding of the future rollout s f  
Given lemmas A 5 A 6 A 8 and proposition A 7, it follows that equation 8 is the NCE-binary (InfoMAX ) objective, Î(M j , Y i ) = log σ(f (s, m, s + f )) + log 1 − σ(f (s, m, s − f )) which lower bounds the mutual information, I(M j , Y i ) ≥ Î(M j , Y i )  The critic function is unbounded, so we constrain it to [0, 1] with the sigmoid function, σ( * ) 
We suppress the reliance on h since this is directly passed through  By definition of mutual information, we have, Our network model learns π R + (y|m) from rolled-out trajectories, R + , using our policy  The prior of our network state, π R − (y), can be modeled from rolling out a random trajectory, R− 
Unfortunately, it is intractable to model π R + (y|m) and π R − (y) directly during iterative learning, but we can sample y + ∼ π R + (y|m) and y − ∼ π R − (y) directly from our network during training  It has been shown that log p(y|m) provides a bound on mutual information , with the expectation over l p(m l , y l ) 
However, we need a tractable understanding of the information Y   Lemma A 5  π R − (y) = p(s = s − f |y)  In the information bottleneck, Y represents the desired outcome  In our setup, y is coordination information that helps create the desired output, such as any action a −   This implies, y =⇒ a −   Since the transition is known, it follows that a − =⇒ s − f , a random future state 
Thus, we have, π R − (y) = p(s = s − f |y)  Lemma A 6  π R + (y|m) = p(s = s + f |y, m)  This is similar to the proof for lemma A 5, but requires assumptions on messages m from the emergent language  We note that when m is random, the case defaults to lemma A 5  Thus, we assume we have at least input-oriented information in m given sufficiently satisfying equation 2  Given a sufficient emergent language, it follows that y =⇒ a + , where a + is an intention action based on m 
Similarly, since the transition is known, a + =⇒ s + f , a desired goal state along the trajectory  Thus, we have, π R + (y|m) = p(s = s + f |y, m)  Recall the following (as shown in ), which we have adapted to our communication objective, Proposition A 7 (rewards → probabilities)  The Q-function for the goal-conditioned reward function r g (s t , m t ) = (1 − γ)p(s = s g |y t ) is equivalent to the probability of state s g under the discounted state occupancy measure:
and Lemma A 8  The critic function that optimizes equation 8 is a Q-function for the goal-conditioned reward function up to a multiplicative constant 1 p(s f ) : exp(f * (s, m, s f ) = 1 p(s f ) Q π s f (s, m)  The critic function f (s, m, s f ) = y enc(s f ) represents the similarity between the encoding y = enc(s, m) and the encoding of the future rollout s f  
Given lemmas A 5 A 6 A 8 and proposition A 7, it follows that equation 8 is the NCE-binary (InfoMAX ) objective, which lower bounds the mutual information, I(M j , Y i ) ≥ Î(M j , Y i )  The critic function is unbounded, so we constrain it to [0, 1] with the sigmoid function, σ( * ) 
Context 3: Ann's Mega Dub: 12/19/10 - 12/26/10
Got o have a penis to be an expert
Thursday on NPR's Fresh Air, Terry Gross wanted to talk film and music  Since women don't know a thing about either and aren't interested in either, Terry had to find men who were 'experts 'This is C I 's " Iraq snapshot Friday, December 24, 2010  Chaos and violence continue, Nouri's incomplete Cabinet continues to receive criticism, a father offers an 'excuse' for killing his own daughter, and more Marci Stone (US Headlines Examiner) reports, "Friday afternoon, Santa is currently in Baghdad, Iraq and on his next stop is Moscow, Russia, according to the 2010 NORAD Santa Tracker  The North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) has been tracking Santa as he makes his annual journey throughout the world " Gerald Skoning (Palm Beach Post) quotes Santa saying, "We send our special wishes for peace and goodwill to all  That includes the people of Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran and North Korea " Please note that this is Santa's seventh trip to Iraq since the start of the Iraq War and, as usual, his journey was known in advance  No waiting until he hit the ground to announce he was going to Iraq -- the way George The Bully Boy Bush had to and the way US President Barack Obama still has to  In the lead up to Santa's yearly visit, many 'authorities' in Iraq began insisting that Christmas couldn't be celebrated publicly, that even Santa was banned  Gabriel Gatehouse (BBC News) quotes Shemmi Hanna stating, "I wasn't hurt but I wish that I had been killed  I wish I had become a martyr for this church, but God kept me alive for my daughters " Shemmi Hanna was in Our Lady of Salvation Church in Baghdad when it was assaulted October 31st and she lost her husband, her son, her daughter-in-law and her infant grandson in the attack  The October 31st attack marks the latest wave of violence targeting Iraqi Christians  The violence has led many to flee to northern Iraq (KRG) or to other countries  Zvi Bar'el (Haaretz) notes, "This week the Iraqi legislature discussed the Christians' situation and passed a resolution in principle to help families who fled  However, the parliament does not know where the Christians are, how many are still in Iraq, in their homes, and how many have found asylum in Iraqi Kurdistan " John Leland (New York Times) reports:The congregants on Friday night were fewer than 100, in a sanctuary built for four or five times as many  But they were determined  This year, even more than in the past, Iraqi's dwindling Christian minority had reasons to stay home for Christmas  "Yes, we are threatened, but we will not stop praying," the Rev  Meyassr al-Qaspotros told the Christmas Eve crowd at the Sacred Church of Jesus, a Chaldean Catholic church  "We do not want to leave the country because we will leave an empty space " Raheem Salman (Los Angeles Times) reports, "Rimon Metti's family will go to Christian services on Christmas Day, but his relatives will be praying for their own survival and wondering whether this is their last holiday season in Baghdad  If they had any grounds for optimism about the future of their faith in Iraq, it vanished this year amid repeated attacks on fellow believers " Shahsank Bengali (McClatchy Newspapers) adds, "Nearly two months after a shocking assault by Islamist militants, Our Lady of Salvation Catholic Church will commemorate Christmas quietly, with daytime mass and prayers for the dead, under security fit more for a prison than a house of worship  It is the same at Christian churches across Baghdad and northern Iraq, where what's left of one of the world's oldest Christian communities prepares to mark perhaps the most somber Christmas since the start of the Iraq war "Meanwhile Taylor Luck (Jordan Times) reports on Iraqi refugees in Jordan:Although the calendar will say December 25, for Theresa, Saturday will not be Christmas  There will be no cinnamon klecha cooling on the dining room table, no outdoor ceramic nativity scene, no readings of hymns with relatives  The 63-year-old Iraqi woman has even refused to put up Christmas lights in the crowded two-room Amman hotel apartment she has called home since fleeing Baghdad last month "There is no holiday spirit  All we have is fear," she said This holiday will instead mark another year without news from her 46-year-old son, who was kidnapped outside Baghdad in late 2006 From Turkey, Sebnem Arsu (New York Times -- link has text and video) notes the increase in Iraq refugees to the country since October 31st and quotes Father Emlek stating, "I've never seen as many people coming here as I have in the last few weeks  They also go to Lebanon, Jordan and Syria but it seems that Turkey is the most popular despite the fact that they do not speak the language " Jeff Karoub (AP) reports on the small number of Iraqi refugees who have made it to the US and how some of them "struggle with insomnia, depression and anxiety "One group in Iraq who can openly celebrate Christmas are US service members who elect to  Barbara Surk (AP) reports that tomorrow Chief Warrant Officer Archie Morgan will celebrate his fourth Christmas in Iraq and Captain Diana Crane is celebrating her second Christmas in Iraq: "Crane was among several dozen troops attending a Christmas Eve mass in a chapel in Camp Victory, an American military base just outside Baghdad " Marc Hansen (Des Moines Reigster) speaks with six service members from Iowa who are stationed in Iraq  Sgt 1st Class Dennis Crosser tells Hansen, "I certainly understand from reading the paper what's going on in Afghanistan and the attention definitely needs to be on the troops there  But everyone serving here in Operation New Dawn appreciates a little bit of attention as we finish this up "Today Jiang Yu, China's Foreign Minister, issued the following statement, "We welcome and congratulate Iraq on forming a new government  We hope that the Iraqi Government unite all its people, stabilize the security situation, accelerate economic reconstruction and make new progress in building its country " James Cogan (WSWS) reports:US State Department official Philip Crowley declared on Wednesday that Washington had not "dictated the terms of the government"  In reality, constant American pressure was applied to Maliki, Allawi, Kurdish leaders and other prominent Iraqi politicians throughout the entire nine-month process to form a cabinet  The US intervention included numerous personal phone calls and visits to Baghdad by both President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden The key objective of the Obama administration has been to ensure that the next Iraqi government will "request" a long-term military partnership with the US when the current Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) expires at the end of 2011  The SOFA is the legal basis upon which some 50,000 American troops remain in Iraq, operating from large strategic air bases such as Balad and Tallil and Al Asad  US imperialism spent billions of dollars establishing these advanced bases as part of its wider strategic plans and has no intention of abandoning them Cogan's only the second person to include the SOFA in his report  Some are impressed with the 'feat' of taking nearly ten months to form a government, stringing the country along for ten months while no decisions could go through  The editorial board of the Washington Post, for example, was full of praise yesterday  Today they're joined by Iran's Ambassador to Iraq, Hassan Danaiifar  The Tehran Times reports that Danaiifar was full of praise today hailing the "positive and final step which ended the 10-month political limbo in Iraq " However, Danaiifar was less pie-in-the-sky than the Post editorial board because he can foresee future problems as evidenced by his statement, "We may witness the emergence of some problems after one and half of a year -- for example, some ministers may be impeached " Of course, there are already many clouds on the horizon, even if Iranian diplomats and Post editorial boards can't suss them out  For example, Ben Bendig (Epoch Times) noted the objection of Iraq's female politicians to Nouri al-Maliki's decision to nominate only one woman (so far) to his Cabinet: "Some 50 female lawmakers went to the country's top leadership, the United Nations and the Arab League to voice their concern and desire for increased representation " BNO notes that protest and also that a group of Iraqi MPs are alleging that Iraqiya bought seats in the Cabinet via money exchanged in Jordan  UPI adds, "Maliki, a Shiite who has a long history of working with Tehran, has named himself acting minister of defense, interior and national security, three most powerful and sensitive posts in the government he is stitching together  Although Maliki appears to be bending over backward to accommodate rivals among Iraq's Shiite majority as well as minority Sunnis and Kurds in his administration in a spirit of reconciliation, he is unlikely to relinquish those ministries that dominate the security sector " DPA reports, "Sheikh Abdel-Mahdi al-Karbalaei, a confident of influential Shiite spiritual leader Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, said that the new cabinet is 'below the standards' Iraqi citizens had hoped for and suggested it could prove to be weaker than the previous government " Ranj Alaaldin (Guardian) also spots clouds on the horizon:Lasting peace and stability depends on resolving outstanding disputes with the Kurds on oil, revenue-sharing, security and the disputed territories (Kirkuk in particular)  The Kurds, rather than exploiting their kingmaker position to take a stronger proportion of ministries in Baghdad (they are taking just one major portfolio – the foreign ministry), are instead banking on guarantees from Maliki to implement their list of 19 demands that includes resolving the above disputes in their favour They may have been naive, though  With their historical and federalist partners, the Islamic supreme council of Iraq in decline, the Kurds may be isolated in the new government – a government dominated by the nationalistic and centrist characteristics of the INM, the Sadrists and indeed State of Law Maliki may, therefore, turn out to be unable to grant concessions even if he wanted to and could use Osama Nujayfi, the new ultra-nationalist speaker of parliament and Kurdish foe, to absorb the Kurdish criticism and insulate himself from any attacks AP reports that Iraqi police sought out a 19-year-old woman because of rumors that she was working with al Qaida in Mesopotamia only to be greeted with the news that her father allegedly killed her and the father showed the police where he buried the woman       last month  The story begs for more than it offers  The most obvious observation is: what does it say that a woman's allegedly killed by her father and no one says a word for over a month? After that, it should probably be noted that there are many men in Iraq killing women who, no doubt, would love to also be able to pin the blame on al Qaida  In other violence, Reuters notes a house bombing in Haswa which claimed the life of Mohammed al-Karrafi, "his wife, two sons and a nephew" -- as well as injuring four more people, and a Samarra roadside bombing which claimed the lives of 2 police officers  DPA notes it was two homes bombed in Haswa and that the Samarra roadside bombing also injured four Iraqi soldiers  Jomana Karadsheh (CNN) reports, "Another policeman was wounded in Baghdad Friday night when a roadside bomb detonated by a police patrol, an Interior Ministry official told CNN "And we'll close with this from Peace Mom Cindy Sheehan's latest Al Jazeera column:The recent repeal of the US military policy of "Don't ask, don't tell" is far from being the human rights advancement some are touting it to be  I find it intellectually dishonest, in fact, illogical on any level to associate human rights with any military, let alone one that is currently dehumanising two populations as well as numerous other victims of it's clandestine "security" policies Placing this major contention aside, the enactment of the bill might be an institutional step forward in the fight for "equality"; however institutions rarely reflect reality Do we really think that the US congress vote to repeal the act and Obama signing the bill is going to stop the current systemic harassment of gays in the military?While I am a staunch advocate for equality of marriage and same-sex partnership, I cannot - as a peace activist - rejoice in the fact that now homosexuals can openly serve next to heterosexuals in one of the least socially responsible organisations that currently exists on earth: The US military It is an organisation tainted with a history of intolerance towards anyone who isn't a Caucasian male from the Mid-West  Even then I'm sure plenty fitting that description have faced the terror and torment enshrined into an institution that transforms the pride and enthusiasm of youth into a narrow zeal for dominating power relations And we'll close with this from Francis A  Boyle's "2011: Prospects for Humanity?" (Global Research):Historically, this latest eruption of American militarism at the start of the 21st Century is akin to that of America opening the 20th Century by means of the U S -instigated Spanish-American War in 1898  Then the Republican administration of President William McKinley stole their colonial empire from Spain in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines; inflicted a near genocidal war against the Filipino people; while at the same time illegally annexing the Kingdom of Hawaii and subjecting the Native Hawaiian people (who call themselves the Kanaka Maoli) to near genocidal conditions  Additionally, McKinley's military and colonial expansion into the Pacific was also designed to secure America's economic exploitation of China pursuant to the euphemistic rubric of the "open door" policy  But over the next four decades America's aggressive presence, policies, and practices in the "Pacific" would ineluctably pave the way for Japan's attack at Pearl Harbor on Dec  7, 194l, and thus America's precipitation into the ongoing Second World War  Today a century later the serial imperial aggressions launched and menaced by the Republican Bush Jr  administration and now the Democratic Obama administration are threatening to set off World War III  By shamelessly exploiting the terrible tragedy of 11 September 2001, the Bush Jr  administration set forth to steal a hydrocarbon empire from the Muslim states and peoples living in Central Asia and the Persian Gulf under the bogus pretexts of (1) fighting a war against international terrorism; and/or (2) eliminating weapons of mass destruction; and/or (3) the promotion of democracy; and/or (4) self-styled "humanitarian intervention " Only this time the geopolitical stakes are infinitely greater than they were a century ago: control and domination of two-thirds of the world's hydrocarbon resources and thus the very fundament and energizer of the global economic system – oil and gas  The Bush Jr / Obama administrations have already targeted the remaining hydrocarbon reserves of Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia for further conquest or domination, together with the strategic choke-points at sea and on land required for their transportation  In this regard, the Bush Jr



ground_truth: Goodwin became a Naval aviator in January 1929.

prompt_front: Now, answer the following question based on the text below, only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the main methodology used in the research?

Read the following text and answer briefly.

Context 3:  administration announced the establishment of the U S  Pentagon's Africa Command (AFRICOM) in order to better control, dominate, and exploit both the natural resources and the variegated peoples of the continent of Africa, the very cradle of our human species  This current bout of U S  imperialism is what Hans Morgenthau denominated "unlimited imperialism" in his seminal work Politics Among Nations (4th ed  1968, at 52-53): The outstanding historic examples of unlimited imperialism are the expansionist policies of Alexander the Great, Rome, the Arabs in the seventh and eighth centuries, Napoleon I, and Hitler  They all have in common an urge toward expansion which knows no rational limits, feeds on its own successes and, if not stopped by a superior force, will go on to the confines of the political world  This urge will not be satisfied so long as there remains anywhere a possible object of domination--a politically organized group of men which by its very independence challenges the conqueror's lust for power  It is, as we shall see, exactly the lack of moderation, the aspiration to conquer all that lends itself to conquest, characteristic of unlimited imperialism, which in the past has been the undoing of the imperialistic policies of this kind…  On 10 November 1979 I visited with Hans Morgenthau at his home in Manhattan  It proved to be our last conversation before he died on 19 July 1980  Given his weakened physical but not mental condition and his serious heart problem, at the end of our necessarily abbreviated one-hour meeting I purposefully asked him what he thought about the future of international relations  iraqbbc newsgabriel gatehousethe new york timesjohn lelandhaaretzzvi bar'elthe jordan timestaylor luckthe associated pressjeff karoubthe los angeles timesraheem salmancnnjomana karadsheh
Terry thinks she's a man
Yesterday on NPR's Fresh Air the hour went to a male TV critic  It's always a man with Terry  Always  And somebody tell her that a snotty, snooty TV critic really doesn't make for good programming This is C I 's "Iraq snapshot:" Thursday, December 23, 2010  Chaos and violence continue, Iraqi women make clear their displeasure over the Cabinet make up, Daniel Ellsberg and Veterans for Peace get some recognition, and more  Last Thursday a protest held outside the White House  One of the organizers was Veterans for Peace and Pentagon Papers whistle blower Daniel Ellsberg participated and spoke  Juana Bordas (Washington Post) advocates for both of them to be named persons of the year: Veterans for Peace and Daniel Ellsberg should be this year's person of the year because of their courage and bravery to stand up for all of us who believe that "war is not the answer " Moreover in a time of economic recession, the war machine is bankrupting our country  As John Amidon, a Marine Corps veteran from Albany asked at the White House protest, "How is the war economy working for you?"While unemployment rates hover near 10 percent, there is no doubt that the U S  economy and quality of life is faltering  Worldwide we are 14th in education, 37th in the World Health Organization's ranking on medical systems, and 23rd in the U N  Environmental Sustainability Index on being most livable and greenest benefits  There is one place we take the undeniable world lead  The US military spending accounts for a whopping 46 5 percent of world military spending--the next ten countries combined come in at only 20 7 percent  Linda Pershing (Truthout) reports, "Responding to a call from the leaders of Stop These Wars(1) - a new coalition of Veterans for Peace and other activists - participants came together in a large-scale performance of civil resistance  A group of veterans under the leadership of Veterans for Peace members Tarak Kauff, Will Covert and Elaine Brower, mother of a Marine who has served three tours of duty in Iraq, sponsored the event with the explicit purpose of putting their bodies on the line  Many participants were Vietnam War veterans; others ranged from Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans in their 20s and 30s to World War II vets in their 80s and older  They were predominately white; men outnumbered women by at least three to one  After a short rally in Lafayette Park, they formed a single-file procession, walking across Pennsylvania Avenue to the solemn beat of a drum  As they reached the police barricade (erected to prevent them from chaining themselves to the gate, a plan they announced on their web site), the activists stood shoulder to shoulder, their bodies forming a human link across the 'picture postcard' tableau in front of the White House " Maria Chutchian (Arlington Advocate) quotes, participant Nate Goldshlag (Vietnam veteran) stating, ""There was a silent, single file march around Lafayette Park to a drum beat  Then we went in front of the White House,  There were barricades set up in front of white house fence  So when we got there, we jumped over barricades and were able to get right next to the White House fence " Participant Linda LeTendre (Daily Gazette) reports: At the end of the rally, before the silent, solemn procession to the White House fence, in honor of those killed in Iraq and Afghan wars of lies and deceptions, the VFP played taps and folded an American flag that had been left behind at a recent funeral for the veteran of one of those wars  Two attendees in full dress uniform held and folded the flag  I had the image of all of the people who stood along the roads and bridges when the bodies of the two local men, Benjamin Osborn and David Miller, were returned to the Capital District  I thought if all of those people were here now or spoke out against war these two fine young men might still be with us I was blessed enough to be held in custody with one of those in uniform; a wonderful young man who had to move from his hometown in Georgia because no one understood why as a veteran he was against these wars  Even his family did not understand  (He remains in my prayers )Our plan was to attach ourselves to the White House fence until President Obama came out and talked to us or until we were arrested and dragged away  I don't have to tell you how it ended Mr  Ellsberg was one of 139 people arrested at that action  We've noted the protest in pretty much every snapshot since last Thursday  If something else comes out that's worth noting on the protest, we'll include it  We will not include people who don't have their facts and it's really sad when they link to, for example, Guardian articles and the links don't even back them up  It's real sad, for example, when they're trashing Hillary (big strong men that they are) and ripping her apart and yet Barack? "Obama's inaccurate statements"??? What the hell is that? You're inferring he lied, say so  Don't be such a little chicken s**t  It's especially embarrasing when you're grandstanding on 'truth ' Especially when you're the little s**t that clogged up the public e-mail account here in the summer of 2008 whining that you were holding Barack to a standard, then admitting that you weren't, then whining that if you did people would be mean to you  Oh, that's sooooooo sad  Someone might say something bad about you  The horror  You must suffer more than all the people in Iraq and Afghanistan combined  While the action took place in DC, actions also took place in other cities  We've already noted NYC's action this week, Doug Kaufmann (Party for Socialism & Liberation) reports on the Los Angeles action: Despite heavy rain, over 100 people gathered in Los Angeles on the corner of Hollywood and Highland to demand an end to the U S  wars on Afghanistan and Iraq  People came from as far as Riverside to protest, braving what Southern California media outlets have dubbed the "storm of the decade " The demonstration, initiated and led by the ANSWER Coalition, broke the routine of holiday shopping and garnered support from activists and even passers by, who joined in chanting "Money for jobs and education -- not for war and occupation!" and "Occupation is a crime -- Iraq, Afghanistan, Palestine!" Protesters held banners reading, "U S /NATO Out of Afghanistan!" and "Yes to jobs, housing and education -- no to war, racism and occupation!"Speakers at the demonstration included representatives of Korean Americans for Peace, ANSWER Coalition, KmB Pro-People Youth, Veterans for Peace, Party for Socialism and Liberation and National Lawyers Guild  Tuesday, Nouri al-Maliki managed to put away the political stalemate thanks to a lot of Scotch -- tape to hold the deal together and booze to keep your eyes so crossed you don't question how someone can claim to have formed a Cabinet when they've left over ten positions to be filled at a later date  One group speaking out is women  Bushra Juhi and Qassmi Abdul-Zahra (AP) report, "Iraq's female lawmakers are furious that only one member of the country's new Cabinet is a woman and are demanding better representation in a government that otherwise has been praised by the international community for bringing together the country's religious sects and political parties " As noted Tuesday, though represenation in Parliament is addressed in Iraq's Constitution, there is nothing to address women serving in the Cabinet  Aseel Kami (Reuters) notes one of the most damning aspects of Nouri's chosen men -- a man is heaing the Ministry of Women's Affairs  Iraqiya's spokesperson Maysoon Damluji states, "There are really good women who could do wel       they cannot be neglected and marginalized " Al-Amal's Hanaa Edwar states, "They call it a national (power) sharing government  So where is the sharing? Do they want to take us back to the era of the harem? Do they want to take us back to the dark ages, when women were used only for pleasure " Deborah Amos (NPR's All Things Considered) reports that a struggle is going on between secular impulses and fundamentalist ones  Gallery owner Qasim Sabti states, "We know it's fighting between the religious foolish man and the civilization man  We know we are fighting like Gandhi, and this is a new language in Iraqi life  We have no guns  We do not believe in this kind of fighting " Deborah Amos is the author of Eclipse of the Sunnis: Power, Exile, and Upheaval in the Middle East  Meanwhile Nizar Latif (The National) reports that distrust is a common reaction to the new government in Baghdad and quotes high school teacher Hussein Abed Mohammad stating, "Promises were made that trustworthy, competent people would be ministers this time around, but it looks as if everything has just been divided out according to sectarian itnerests  No attention has been paid to forming a functioning government, it is just a political settlement of vested interests  I'm sure al Maliki will have the same problems in his next four years as he had in the last four years " Days away from the ten months mark, Nouri managed to finally end the stalemate  Some try to make sense of it and that must have been some office party that the editorial board of the Washington Post is still coming down from judging by "A good year in Iraq " First up, meet the new Iraqi Body Count -- an organization that provides cover for the war and allows supporters of the illegal war to point to it and insist/slur "Things aren't so bad!" Sure enough, the editorial board of the Post does just that noting the laughable "civilian deaths" count at iCasualities  As we noted -- long, long before we walked away from that crap ass website, they're not doing a civilian count 



ground_truth: An unsupervised method based on the information bottleneck and contrastive learning.

prompt_front: Now, answer the following question based on the text below, only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What does the new Iraqi Body Count organization do?

Read the following text and answer briefly.

Context 4: Slide the toggle according to arrow direction toopen the battery case  12 EN
Power on the Controller ❷ First Start: The Controller will start automaticallyafter removing the insulating paper  Others: Short press the Home button for 1second until the status indicator flashes blue Power on the VR Headset ❸ Long press the Power button for 2 seconds untilthe status indicator turns blue Wear Your Headset for a Comfortable Fit and View ❹ Adjust the strap dial to turn the strap so that the back of your head rests on the padding  Fine-tune thelength and position of the strap to give a clear view  * Note: You can use this product with prescription glasses or lenses insert  13 EN
Fine-tune the Top Strap ❺ Fine-tune the head strap to reduce pressure on the forehead  Interpupillary Distance (IPD) Adjustment ❻ In System Setting, go to “Setting” ► “Display” to adjust IPD, tap “+” or “-” button to slightly adjust IPDuntil the picture is clear  14 64mm Please note that inappropriate IPD setting may cause ghosting or eyestrain Accurate IPD setting helps you get a clear imaging and ease eyestrain  EN
Product Details VR Headset Status Indicator Legend Blue: Powered on with battery over 20% Yellow: Charging: Battery is less than 98% Red: Charging: Battery is less than 20% Green: Charging: Battery is more than 98% or charge complete Blue flashing: Shutting down Red flashing: Battery is less than 20% Off: Sleeping or Powered off Power Power on: Long press for 2 seconds Power off: Long press for 5 seconds Hardware reset: Long press for 10 seconds Short press to enter sleep or wake up Status Indicator Face Cushion Volume ① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦ ⑧ RGB See Through Camera Do not block during use  Top Strap Removable Strap Dial Tracking Cameras Do not block during use  ⑨ ⑩ ⑪ USB-C Interface Left/Right Speaker Proximity Sensor The system wakes upwhen the VR headset isput on, sleeps when VRheadset is taken off  ⑫ ⑬ Eye Tracking Cameras Pro version only  Do not block during use  Face Tracking Camera Pro version only  Do not block during use  15 EN
Controller Status Indicator Legend Off: Connected or Powered off Blue: Firmware updating in progress Blue flashing: Searching for connection Red and blue flashing alternately: Pairing in progress 16 Joystick Menu ③ ① ② Home Power on: Short pressPower off: Long press for 6 secondsReturn home screen: Short pressScreen recentering: Press for 1 secondStatus Indicator Grip Capture Trigger ④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦ ⑧ ⑨ Battery Case Open: Slide down the toggle andpop up the battery case  Lock: Push the battery case to lock  Tracking Ring Do not block during use  * Note: Pass the Controller Lanyardthrough the string as shown andlock at the end of the Controller EN
Operating Instructions Headset Control Mode If the Controller is not connected, you can interact with the home screen by moving your head to directthe crosshairs over your intended selection and clicking the Volume Up/Down button on the VR Headset  Switch the pointer of the master Controller In the home screen, short press the Trigger of the corresponding Controller to switch the pointer of themaster Controller  Screen re-centering Wear the VR Headset and look straight ahead, press and hold the Home button of the Controller or VRHeadset ( or the Volume Down button of the VR Headset in head control mode) for more than 1 second tore-center the screen  Disconnect the Controller Press and hold the Home button until the status indicator turns red and the Controller vibrates Controllers will automatically shut down to save power in the following cases:When the VR Headset enters deep sleep (a while after the VR Headset is taken off)When the Controller is unpairedWhen the VR Headset is powered off Add a new Controller If you need to add a new Controller (the VR Headset can only connect one left Controller and one rightController) or reconnect with an unpaired Controller  Go to “Settings” ► “Controller”, click on “Pair” Press and hold the Home button and the Trigger of the Controller at the same time until the red and bluelights of the Controller flashing alternately, and then follow the instructions on the VR Headset screen  Sleep / Wake up Option 1 (Proximity Sensor) Take off VR Headset for automatic sleeping: wear the VR Headset for automat- ic waking up  Option 2 (POWER Button) Press the Power button of the VR Headset for manual sleeping or waking up  Hardware reset VR Headset reset If the visual in the VR Headset freezes, or the VR Headset does not respond after short press the Powerbutton, you can press the Power button of the VR Headset for more than 10 seconds to reboot the VRHeadset  Controller reset If the virtual Controller, the Home button or any buttons of the Controller doesn\'t respond, remove andreinstall the battery case to restart the Controller  The VR Headset Adjustment This device has no myopia adjustment function  The VR Headset allows wearing most standard glasseswith a frame width of less than 150mm  to install Glasses Spacer to increase the space  You can install or not according to your situation  17 EN
Install Glasses Spacer Install Nose Pad If you have glasses collision with headset lens or pressure on the bridge of nose, please follow the pictureto install Glasses Spacer to increase the space  You can install or not according to your situation  If you feel light leaking from your nose, please follow the picture to install Nose Pad to block the light You can consider having it installed at your own discretion  Disassemble the Face Cushion  Install the Glasses Spacer on the Headset  ❸ ❶ ❷ Install the Face Cushion on the Glasses Spacer  Disassemble the Face Cushion  Install the Nose Pad on the Face Cushion  ❶ ❷ Install the Face Cushion on the Headset  ❸ * Note: Disassemble the Glasses Spacer 18 EN
Replace Face Cushion The Face Cushion will have the following phenomena such as color change, surface fluff, soft texture afterlong-term use and repeated cleaning  You can replace a new Face Cushion as needed  Replace Top Strap ❶ ❷ Disassemble the Face Cushion  Pinch the metal buckle of the top strap asshown, press it down and pull it out Install the Face Cushion on  ❸ ❷ ❶ • Purchase high-quality and trending apps • Join PICO Community and explore the VR worldwith other PICO players• Manage your device with ease • Engage in diverse and interactive activities • More exciting features waiting for you 19 EN
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ground_truth: It provides cover for the war and allows supporters of the illegal war to point to it.