prompt_front: Now, answer the following question based on the text below, only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What happens to the high resolution of what we focus on at dawn or dusk?

Read the following text and answer briefly.

Context 1: Inner Reality Unveiled
Inner Reality Unveiled
by DragonFly on April 18th, 2018, 10:54 pm
There is no direct (literal) view of the actual reality 'out there'  Our inner viewport is ever only that of the model (qualia) of inner and outer reality built by the brain  We see/sense nothing but this model made inside the brain 
We don't see across a room or any scene but only across the model of the room/scene  We don't look through a microscope at an actual object but only look at a model of that object  You get the idea  A reflective color spectrum is used to make it look like that more distinctive color is a surface property of an object modeled 
The brain doesn't model everything, as a lot of it would be clutter, and for what remains as useful to portray the brain still doesn't have the resources to model everything at high resolution and so thus whatever we focus on gets all the high res detail put into it just in the nick of time when we look/focus  At dawn or dusk this high resolution becomes a bit less on what we focus on so that what's off to the left or right can be better noted in the dim light 
So far, nothing astounding here to us, although maybe to everyday folk that we only ever see the inside of the head/brain—the model 
Of course, the shocks get worse, such as that our intentions cannot be those of first cause, self-made people, but from prior causes that we weren't able to choose and be responsible for  What is left, in short, is the freedom of action for these inbuilt intentions to operate, at least when not prevented by the weather or any other controlling factors, which 'freedom of action' amounts to compatibilism 
Other notes on the above are that while we can never know if everything is deterministic, although we know that a lot is, whatever is indeterminate diminishes our modeling and our consistency 
Re: Inner Reality Unveiled
by DragonFly on April 20th, 2018, 3:14 pm
To continue, many feel that the model/qualia is very rich, but there's not anything to compare it to  Some creatures have a fourth primary color to work from and some have more smells and better hearing  Our colors (reflective spectrum) go through some averaging because of the various close frequencies about, but they still have a lot of pop to them  The model seems to be super real, where it has the focused detail, meaning better than real, or super real or surreal; surely colors win out over a bunch of waves (if they could be seen), these colors being very distinctive, which high contrast is what the model seems to be about  Away from the center of focus, the model has to be worse than cartoonish 
Other qualia properties are intense, too, such as pain being able to be very painful, to the max, and such 
Qualia are based on initial isomorphic maps, meaning topographical, when representing the territory  For sounds, the map is for tones from the air vibrations, and for smell it is scents from the molecule shapes; for touch it is a body map  The isomorphism may get carried through even three levels of models, whereafter it seems to become more symbolic and less isomorphic, perhaps indicating that the information is ready to turn into qualia, the point at which the 'hard problem' manifests  It is thought that at least four levels of modules are required for the 'magic' of phenomenal transformation to occur; we have the problem surrounded but not yet solved  Perhaps it is enough to have a truth in lieu of its proof—that there is ontological subjectivity, meaning that it exists, although it may not be fundamental or miraculous 
So, in sum so far, direct realism is an illusion, but is a very useful illusion, which we might better call a fine representation by the model, since the word 'illusion' is more about what's wrong as not really showing its object as substantial and really being behind it  Dreams, then, would be better called illusions; further they demonstrate the power of the structure of the model  When we inspects objects in dreams they look just as good as when we see them awake, although backgrounds come and go inconsistently and there are narrative gaps (all of a sudden we are driving a vehicle without ever having gotten into it, plus the controls are a mystery )
Another illusion is the feeling of having all of the information in a qualia scene as instantly available, as well as feeling that it is all happening in real time, plus that one is directing it all right then and there 
by mitchellmckain on April 21st, 2018, 4:33 am
Yes and all those security cameras in the banks and stores must be a joke because anybody watching cannot see us but only see images on a display screen 
by DragonFly on April 21st, 2018, 12:05 pm
mitchellmckain » April 21st, 2018, 3:33 am wrote: Yes and all those security cameras in the banks and stores must be a joke because anybody watching cannot see us but only see images on a display screen 
You forgot that what the brain maps and models is a reliable representation of what's out there and in here 
by mitchellmckain on April 21st, 2018, 12:16 pm
DragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 11:05 am wrote:
I was being sarcastic in order to point out this very fact  Whether images on a display screen or human consciousness, they are reliable representations and that means they do see what is really out there  The fact that this is indirect is not without logical implications, but not to the extent that you can say we do not apprehend an objective reality 
by TheVat on April 21st, 2018, 12:29 pm
The evolutionary argument is a strong one, also, for the accuracy of our sensory representations of the external world  If you think a tiger's tail is a pretty flower, and try to pluck it, you won't be around long to reproduce 
I invite anyone who thinks that bus hurtling down the street is nothing but a model in the brain to step in front of it 
Your impression of the bus may be indirect, but it has a direct causal chain of connections to the actual bus out there  You are a photon collector, absorbing photons bounced off a bus  That way, it doesn't have to be you that's bounced off the bus 
by DragonFly on April 21st, 2018, 2:19 pm
Mentally healthy responders need not worry about any unreliable representations due to there being no direct realism  As I showed, the representations are even improvements that bring out what is distinctive and important, as well as my indicating of an 'out there'  (The sarcasm thus fell doubly flat, run over by the bus, either because that mode is the nature of the person or this short thread wasn't read well )
The world out there indeed comes to us (we don't reach out and probe it but for such as feeling our way in the dark), via photons for sight, and similarly comes to us in other ways for the other 'distance' senses  That the brain projects the objects back out there where they are, with depth (objects whose radiation came into us) is very useful  This trivia is mentioned here for completeness, for non scientific readers, but all the like herein is not contested 
Back on track now, with derailment attempts ever unwelcome, but actual meaty posts extremely welcome, many neurologists note that awake consciousness doesn't easily get snuffed out, for a people may have many and various brain impairments yet they remain conscious, which, in short, without going through them all, indicates that there probably isn't any one 'Grand Central Station' where consciousness originates but that it may arise from any suitable hierarchy of brain modules 
Consciousness, like life, requires embodiment, and is now thought to have been around in some form since the Cambrian explosion  As evolution proceeds via physical processes it rather follows that consciousness does too  Billions of years of small steps from a stable organism platform can acculuminate into what otherwise seems a miracle, but then again, miracles are instant  When extinction events wipe everything out, the process just starts up again, and probably has, several times over 
Since qualia are structured, such as I described, plus healing the blind spot and more that wasn't put here, this again suggest that qualia have to be constructed from parts the brain has made from interpretations via physical processes 
How the phenomenal transform springs out remains as the central mystery of all  We think that there are larger mysteries, such as if there is any ultimate purpose to Existence, but this one is easy, for it can be shown that there can be no ultimate purpose  (There can be local and proximate purpose ) More an this another time or place 
by mitchellmckain on April 21st, 2018, 4:00 pm
I shall interpret the above as a request for a detailed point by point response to the OP 
DragonFly » April 18th, 2018, 9:54 pm wrote: There is no direct (literal) view of the actual reality 'out there'  Our inner viewport is ever only that of the model (qualia) of inner and outer reality built by the brain  We see/sense nothing but this model made inside the brain 
But this is wrong, derived from delusional semantics as if "seeing" meant absorbing the objects themselves into our brain and mind  Of course, "seeing" means no such thing  "Seeing" means gathering data to construct a mental model of an external reality  We don't, in fact, "see" this inner model at all  This "model" is a product of speculation and abstraction in meta-conscious process of self-reflection 
Our inner viewport is thus one of looking out at the outer reality and not one of looking at the model  We do see across a room -- USING a mental model  We do not see the mental model except by speculative imagination  The most we can say is that by using such a process of mental modeling in order to see, there can be deviations due to a variety of neurological and mental processes being involved, including the role of beliefs in our interpretations  Thus our perceptions cannot be fully separated from our beliefs and our access to the world is fundamentally subjective  The objective can only be fully realized by a process of abstraction through communication with others 
DragonFly » April 18th, 2018, 9:54 pm wrote: The brain doesn't model everything, as a lot of it would be clutter, and for what remains as useful to portray the brain still doesn't have the resources to model everything at high resolution and so thus whatever we focus on gets all the high res detail put into it just in the nick of time when we look/focus  
DragonFly » April 18th, 2018, 9:54 pm wrote: Of course, the shocks get worse, such as that our intentions cannot be those of first cause, self-made people, but from prior causes that we weren't able to choose and be responsible for  What is left, in short, is the freedom of action for these inbuilt intentions to operate, at least when not prevented by the weather or any other controlling factors, which 'freedom of action' amounts to compatibilism 
Your philosophical conclusions here will not be mistaken for scientific observations  Your interpretations are based on your own presumptions which I reject as incorrect  The process of human intention and action is certainly a complex one but the fact remains that the first causes do exist  People may be capable of simply watching much of their life pass by as an minimally participating observer (with all sorts of fatalistic and compatibilist dodges and delusions of objectivity), but others choose to take ownership of the first causes within them as a fully responsible participants in their own life 
Also as I have mentioned numerous times before, there is nothing absolute or guaranteed about this freedom of will  It can certainly be greatly diminished by a great number of things such as drugs, illness, habits, and even beliefs  This just means that we are ill advised to judge others according to our own perception and choices 
DragonFly » April 18th, 2018, 9:54 pm wrote: Other notes on the above are that while we can never know if everything is deterministic, although we know that a lot is, whatever is indeterminate diminishes our modeling and our consistency 
We can know that the experimental results show that there are events not determined by any hidden variables within the scientific worldview  People are free to ignore these results and stubbornly cling to presumptions to the contrary but they are being unreasonable if they expect other people to accept the conclusions which they are deriving from such willfulness 
And to head off the typical strawmen, I am not claiming that determinism has been disproven any more than the scientific evidence for evolution disproves divine intelligent design  Science is not a matter of proof, but of accepting that what the evidence and experimental results show us are the basis of what is reasonable to accept until there is evidence to the contrary 
mitchellmckain » April 21st, 2018, 3:00 pm wrote: But this is wrong, derived from delusional semantics as if "seeing" meant absorbing the objects themselves into our brain and mind  Of course, "seeing" means no such thing  "Seeing" means gathering data to construct a mental model of an external reality  We don't, in fact, "see" this inner model at all  This "model" is a product of speculation and abstraction in meta-conscious process of self-reflection 
Yes, the view point is within the model  We don't literally 'see' across a room  The model gets 'viewed' and navigated and noted and whatnot  The outer reality is not able to be viewed directly but is usefully "looked out at" through a representation  Do you directly see wave frequencies air vibrations, and molecule shapes? I didn't mean 'seeing' in the sense of eye stuff, but I note the word problem 
mitchellmckain » April 21st, 2018, 3:00 pm wrote:
Yes, I was reading a large road sign with many words and the words at the bottom didn't come into focus until I got down to them  Our computers have many more terabytes than the brain has 
mitchellmckain » April 21st, 2018, 3:00 pm wrote: Your philosophical conclusions here will not be mistaken for scientific observations  Your interpretations are based on your own presumptions which I reject as incorrect  The process of human intention and action is certainly a complex one but the fact remains that the first causes do exist  People may be capable of simply watching much of their life pass by as an minimally participating observer (with all sorts of fatalistic and compatibilist dodges and delusions of objectivity), but others choose to take ownership of the first causes within them as a fully responsible participants in their own life 
Total libertarians do claim that they are first cause, self made people at every instant  How does this work? A theory of conscious intentions happening without any underlying physical processes ('you') behind them is the toughest sell of all proposals on the will, so it's no wonder that this 'being free of the will' can't be shown  Plus, why does one want this? Perhaps a distaste for having a will that wills things in the subconscious dark  These trillions of connections firing are not portrayed in consciousness, thank goodness 
Yes, as I said, some is indeterminate, so there is no ignoring  (You don't seem to read well, even when seeing it again when you quote it ) The more indeterminacy the worse we are able to carry our our ability to operate, which minimal and trivial capability is called 'freedom of action'  So be it  We have learned something  People want more than this, though, and so they will have to show that that's possible while still retaining the self/will  How is responsibility gained at any point when one was never responsible for prior causes toward one's being/self that couldn't be chosen?
So, prison time need not be assigned for retribution only, more compassion can be granted for those who did as they had to, and we come to better understand our place in the universe  Life is great for experiencing and living, and fatalism isn't recommended, for it could work against the enjoyment 
P S  There is no point at which ultimate purpose/intention could have been applied to what is eternal, as well as none to be applied to something springing from nothing (which, though impossible, I include for completeness, for the "springing" capability would still be an eternal 'something' )
It's fine with me if you want a fully formed Being with a system of intelligence to be there First, amid nothing else, but to stick to the template of ID, then a Higher ID had to be behind it, etc , or we could just forget about the one-off usage golden template of ID  The universe looks to be tuned, if it is, for mostly a lot of hydrogen gas in endless sparse spaces  It took ten billion years for us to be able to persist a bit in our rarity amid the waste  [/quote]
DragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote:
Yes, as I said, some is indeterminate, so there is no ignoring 
Incorrect  You did not say "some is indeterminate " So either you do not write well, cannot understand the logic of your own words, or you make up things as an excuse to attack other people  In fact, this can be identified with a logical fallacy  "Whatever is indeterminate diminishes our modeling" means our modeling is diminished IF there is anything indeterminate  If A then B does not allow you affirm A, so by equating these two you have committed a logical fallacy  Furthermore it is amazing how far out on a limb you go to concoct such an attack  You said, "we cannot know if everything is deterministic," which is utterly inconsistent with a clam that "some is indeterminate," because if some is indeterminate then you would know that it is NOT deterministic 
DragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: Total libertarians do claim that they are first cause, self made people at every instant 
The philosophers who claim that we have free actions are called libertarians  The radical opposition that libertarians pose to the determinist position is their acceptance of free actions  Libertarians accept the incompatibility premise that holds agents morally responsible for free actions  Incompatibilism maintains that determinism is incompatible with human freedom  Libertarians accept that there are free actions, and in doing so, believe that we are morally responsible for some of our actions, namely, the free ones 
The libertarian ONLY claims that we do have free will actions and affirm the incompatibility of determinism with free will  There is no claim here that free will is absolute, inviolable, and applies to every action and thus that people are "self made at every instance "
Thus in the following it is clear you are burning an absurd strawman 
DragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: How does this work? A theory of conscious intentions happening without any underlying physical processes ('you') behind them is the toughest sell of all proposals on the will, so it's no wonder that this 'being free of the will' can't be shown  Plus, why does one want this? Perhaps a distaste for having a will that wills things in the subconscious dark  These trillions of connections firing are not portrayed in consciousness, thank goodness 
Someone only claims the opposition is selling something absurdly silly because they want to make something only slightly less absurd and silly sound reasonable by comparison  But to make sure you understand   
1  Nobody HERE is selling a theory of conscious intention without any underlying physical processes 
2  Nobody HERE is claiming any "being free of the will"
These are indeed nonsense 
1  As a physicalist with regards to the mind-body problem I oppose the idea of conscious intention without any physical processes  Nor would I assert that there are no unconscious processes underlying our conscious intentions  But as I explained in another thread just because there are such processes does not mean we have no responsibility for them or that our intention does not constitute a conscious cause of our action 
2  As a libertarian it is absurd to think free will means freedom from the will  What we reject is the attempt to separate the self from desires and will as if these were some external thing forcing people to do things  This is nothing but pure empty rhetoric on the part of the opposition  Freedom from the will is the OPPOSITE of free will  If you are not acting according to your desire then this is an example of actions without free will 
DragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: The more indeterminacy the worse we are able to carry our our ability to operate, which minimal and trivial capability is called 'freedom of action' 
Incorrect  This is only because you equate freedom with control  It is not the same thing  Besides the indeterminacy in the laws of physics is only with respect to a system of mathematical laws  It doesn't really say that nothing causes the result, but only that there are no variables to make the exact result calculable 
DragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: How is responsibility gained at any point when one was never responsible for prior causes toward one's being/self that couldn't be chosen?
Again it is because free will does not equal control  Free will only means you choose how to respond to the situation  It does require an awareness of alternatives, but it does not require an ability to dictate exactly what will happen in the future 
DragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: So, prison time need not be assigned for retribution only, more compassion can be granted for those who did as they had to, and we come to better understand our place in the universe  Life is great for experiencing and living, and fatalism isn't recommended, for it could work against the enjoyment 
While imprisonment may be an improvement over the old English law, the inadequacies are legion  It was indeed invented as a means of reforming the convicted even if it fails to accomplish this very well  To be sure, "retribution" is a lousy basis for a system of justice  But the point of "mercy" isn't just compassion but to acknowledge the fact that mistakes are part of the process by which we learn  Therefore, coming down on people like a load bricks for any mistake is counterproductive  On the other hand, we would be foolish not to consider whether a person in question is showing any ability to learn from their mistakes  If not, a change of environment/circumstances is probably called for, even if today's prisons largely fail to be environment needed 
Observe that this analysis of justice and mercy has nothing whatsoever to do with free will  The government of a free society should be founded upon what can be objectively established and free will is not one of these things  In the above consideration of justice and mercy, the question of whether a person truly has free will is completely irrelevant 
DragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: It's fine with me if you want a fully formed Being with a system of intelligence to be there First, amid nothing else, but to stick to the template of ID, then a Higher ID had to be behind it, etc , or we could just forget about the one-off usage golden template of ID  The universe looks to be tuned, if it is, for mostly a lot of hydrogen gas in endless sparse spaces  It took ten billion years for us to be able to persist a bit in our rarity amid the waste 
I consider Intelligent Design to be attack upon science -- shoving theology into a place where it clearly does not belong  Nor do I agree with intelligent design even in theology, for I think that evolution is more compatible with a belief in a loving God (because of the philosophical problem of evil)  Frankly, I consider design to be incompatible with the very essence of what life is 
DragonFly liked this post
Great post, Mitch 
I'm referring to "a lot is determinate", leaving room that some is indeterminate since QM finds this, and some brain doings may be at the micro-macro boundary and be affected, this degrading our ability to operate our intentions 
Here's a "libertarian" example/definition that may fit better:
“Hard Determinism and Libertarianism
Probing further into the free will-debate, we meet two different kinds of incompatibilist positions: hard determinism, which holds that determinism is true and that free will is not compatible with determinism, and libertarianism, which holds that we do have free will and that determinism is false  Given that these positions agree about the definition of determinism, we here actually have a genuine disagreement over fundamental ontological matters – a disagreement about whether determinism is true or not  This is a peculiar question to have strong disagreements about, however, since we know the final answer that we will ever get concerning the truth of determinism: that the state of the world is caused to be the way it is by its prior state at least to some degree, but to what degree exactly can never be known 
The libertarian position has often been criticized with the argument that even if determinism is not true, we still do not have free will, since our actions then simply are the product of a combination of deterministic and indeterministic events that we still do not ultimately choose ourselves, a view referred to as hard incompatibilism  Libertarians do not necessarily accept that this argument shows that we do not have free will, and the reason, or at least a big part of it, should not surprise anyone at this point: they simply define free will differently  According to libertarians, such as Robert Nozick and Robert Kane, one has free will if one could have acted otherwise than one did, and if indeterminism is true, then it may be true that we could have “acted” differently than we did under the exact same circumstances, and that we thereby might have free will in this sense  It should be pointed out, though, that critics of libertarianism are“rightly skeptical about the relevance of this kind of free will  First of all, the free will that libertarians endorse is, unlike what many libertarians seem to think, not an ethically relevant kind of freedom, and it does not have anything to do with the freedom of action that we by definition want  Second, the hard incompatibilist is right that no matter what is true about the degree to which the universe is deterministic, our actions are still caused by prior causes ultimately beyond our own control, which few of those who identify themselves as libertarians seem to want to acknowledge  And lastly, the fact that our actions are caused by causes ultimately beyond our own control does, if we truly appreciated, undermine our intuition of retributive justice, an intuition that libertarians generally seem to want to defend intellectually  So, as many have pointed out already, libertarians are simply on a failed mission 
Together with the want to defend retributive blame and punishment, what seems to be the main motivation for people who defend a libertarian notion of free will seems to be a fear of predeterminism, a fear of there being just one possible outcome from the present state of the universe, which would imply that we ultimately cannot do anything to cause a different outcome than the one possible  Libertarians and others with the same fear have artfully tried to make various models to help them overcome this fear, for instance so-called two-stage models that propose that our choices consist of an indeterministic stage of generation of possible actions, and then our non-random choice of one of them  (It should be noted, in relation to such models, that even if this is how our choices are made, our choice to choose one of these “alternative possibilities” will still be caused by prior causes that are ultimately completely beyond our own control  Nothing changes this fact, again because decision-making is the product of complex physical processes; it is not an uncaused event ) It is generally unclear what the purpose of such models is  Are they a hypotheses we should test? They do not seem to be  Generally, these models most of all seem like an attempt to make the world fit our preconceived intuitions, which most of all resembles pseudoscience 
Fortunately, there is plenty of relief available to the libertarians and other people who have this fear, and it does not involve any unscientific models – neither two-stage, three-stage, nor any other number of stages  The source of this relief is the simple earlier-mentioned fact that we can never know whether there is just one or infinitely many possible outcomes from the present state of the universe  This simple fact gives us all the relief we could ask for, because it reveals that there is no reason to be sure that there is just one possible outcome from the present state of the universe  And, to repeat an important point, we are then left with the conclusion that the only reasonable thing to do is to try to make the best impact we can in the world, which is true no matter whether there is just one possible outcome from the present state of the universe or not, since our actions still have consequences and therefore still matter even in a fully deterministic universe 
Some, especially libertarians, might want to object to the claim that we can never know whether determinism is true or not, and even claim that we in fact now know, or at least have good reasons to believe, that indeterminism is true  Here is neuroscientist Peter Tse expressing something along those lines: “Henceforth, I will accept the weight of evidence from modern physics, and assume ontological indeterminism to be the case ” (Tse, 2013, p  244)  Making this assumption is, however, to take a position on an unanswerable question  Again, rather than making strong claims about this question, we should stick to what we in fact know, namely that we do not know ”
Excerpt From: Magnus Vinding  “Free Will: An Examination of Human Freedom ” iBooks  https://itunes apple com/us/book/free-w     3363?mt=11
To extend the OP's implications of physical processes/causes dominating…
There are still real values in an existence with no ultimate purpose, this 'value' meaning good and bad valences and actions  It would be of great value to lessen suffering and improve well-being in humans and in all species  (Fixed wills are dynamic, simply meaning that they can learn and thus change to a better fixed will )
As for our model of reality, this is consciousness and it is ever our only view point inside the head in a brain, being what it is like to experience the world from the inside out 
by RJG on April 22nd, 2018, 1:07 am
Direct realism is not possible  We humans can only experience 'experiences' (sensations; sense data), not the 'real' things or objects themselves  Furthermore, we have no way of knowing if these experiences represent 'real' objects, or are just simply products of illusion; hallucination, delusion, dream, mirage, etc 
For this reason, solipsism is a possibility (i e  it is just as plausible as it is not), and true self-awareness is not possible (i e  we don't experience objects, including those called 'self')
DragonFly wrote: There is no direct (literal) view of the actual reality 'out there'  Our inner viewport is ever only that of the model (qualia) of inner and outer reality built by the brain  We see/sense nothing but this model made inside the brain 
Braininvat wrote: I invite anyone who thinks that bus hurtling down the street is nothing but a model in the brain to step in front of it 
Isn't it possible to dream or hallucinate stepping out in front of a bus hurtling down the street? This does not mean that the bus (in the dream/hallucination) is actually 'real' 
One does not normally step out in front of a bus (even in dreams) because they think it is not real, - it is the 'fear' (that it might be real, and) being smashed by it, that compels one not to step in front of it 
Braininvat wrote: Your impression of the bus may be indirect, but it has a direct causal chain of connections to the actual bus out there 
Not necessarily  You are assuming there is an "actual" bus out there (instead of a possible "hallucinated" bus)  We have no way of knowing the cause of our mental impressions 
by wolfhnd on April 22nd, 2018, 3:31 am
A bus that we do not step in front of is an extremely low resolution concept of what a bus is  Only the people who design and maintain the bus really know what a bus is at a relatively high resolution  Even then the designer doesn't really know the bus on the street because a bus is not just a collection of parts but takes it's meaning from an even more complex social and physical environment 
If you're a realist you assume that the bus can in theory be defined down to it's subatomic particles and a high resolution image of what it is can be created  The problem is that human perspective such an approach strips meaning from the image 
The other problem is that the kind of truth that a purely scientific approach provides tends to confuse the thing itself with it's mathematical model  The kind of absolutism that math provides is always subjective first because the parameters are always finite but the environment from our perspective is practically infinite and second because the model is an approximation even if 2+2 is always 4  A reductionist approach is a practical necessity that doesn't satisfy the evolutionary imperative for meaning 
The old view that everything can be reduced to cause and effect is itself challenged by the accepted view that determinism itself breaks down at tiny scales  Myself I'm not bothered by the indeterminate because I'm a pragmatist and close enough seems to satisfy practical solutions, scientific issues and philosophical questions  The philosophers goal is to determine what constitutes close enough to preserve life and meaning 
mitchellmckain wrote: If you are not acting according to your desire then this is an example of actions without free will 
If you act according to your desires, then you are it's slave  There is no free-will in slavery 
We don't control our desires  Our desires control us 
by DragonFly on April 22nd, 2018, 10:40 am
“This distinction between subject and object is not just an interesting oddity  It begins at the level of physics in the distinction between the probability inherent in symbolic measurements and the certainty of material laws  The distinction is later exemplified in the difference between a genotype, the sequence of nucleotide symbols that make up an organism’s DNA, and phenotype, its actual physical structure that those symbols prescribe  It travels with us up the evolutionary layers to the distinction between the mind and the brain ”
“These concepts will help us see how neural circuits are structures with a double life: they carry symbolic information, which is subject to arbitrary rules, yet they possess a material structure that is subject to the laws of physics ”
Excerpt From: Michael S  Gazzaniga  “The Consciousness Instinct ” iBooks  https://itunes apple com/us/book/the-co     3607?mt=11
by Neri on April 22nd, 2018, 11:13 am
On this topic, I should like to associate myself with the views of Mitch and BIV and will only add s few additional comments 
The question is not whether our experience is equivalent in every way to what lies outside of us, for such a thing is impossible 
[A perception cannot be exactly the same as a material object, for the former depends upon a sentient being for its existence, whereas the latter does not  Further, it is impossible to know everything that may be predicated of any material object by merely perceiving it ]
The real question is: Do sense impressions correspond to material objects in such a way that they are effective in preserving us from dangers that lie outside of us?
This question veritably answers itself  Only a madman would deny the evidence of his own senses 
It is essential to understand that the correspondence of which I speak depends on the reality of motion [from which we derive the ideas of time and space] 
To keep ourselves safe, it is necessary that we have the ability to know when a material object is moving closer or further from us and to be able to recognize an object as a danger  This, the senses give us, for perceptions like all other experiences are memories [are preserved over time] 
An object is recognized as a danger through prior sensory experiences preserved as long-term memories 
In order to be recognized and remembered as a danger, a material object must have the power to produce a particular human experience of it 
That power is part of the nature of the object and is thus truly reflected in the perception of it—even though there may be more to the object than its power to yield a human perception 
To the reasonable mind, the above comments may properly be seen as statements of the obvious  The curious fact, however, is that a whole school of western philosophy has labored mightily to deny the obvious 
I agree; I'm only delving into the inner experience to see how it works and what may become of that 
by TheVat on April 22nd, 2018, 11:57 am
RJG, this tablet ate the quoted part of your post and somehow hid the submit button, so sorry about the missing comment    
No, I was not assuming the in-the-moment knowledge, but rather that facts about buses are physically verifiable when science is applied  It is not difficult to verify that I was neither dreaming nor hallucinating  We are saved from solipsism by the multiplicity of observers and their reports  We can open a book and read complex prose (something that can't be done in dreams) that reveals areas of knowledge utterly unknown to us and beyond our previous experiences  We have senses enhanced by instruments that can show us photons leaving the photosphere of the sun and bouncing off solid objects like buses in particular and regular patterns, etc  Inner phenomenal reality and external reality are seamlessly connected and interacting - it is only big cranium apes like us who erect a wall of demarcation between them  Or drugs or pathological conditions that disrupt the causal connections 
To say that sensory data is incomplete is not equivalent to saying that it is deceptive  We are deceived only if we imagine that our impressions are complete  Our brains are engineered to find relevant data, not complete data  ("engineered" probably needs quotes)
by TheVat on April 22nd, 2018, 12:00 pm
Had to use Quick Reply window to post the above  Anyone else losing the submit button after Full Editor has been open for a couple minutes?? I will try to make sure this doesn't happen to anyone 
by DragonFly on April 22nd, 2018, 1:58 pm
What else, for now:
“Finally, affective consciousness—emotionally positive and negative feelings—has its own brain circuits, it does not require isomorphic mapping, and it may be experienced as mental states rather than mental images (figure 2 5B; chapters 7 and 8)  Thus, isomorphic maps are only one part of the creation and evolution of subjectivity and “something it is like to be”; many other special and general features (table 2 1) are required to create sensory consciousness and ontological subjectivity ”
“Consciousness-associated attention has several subtypes, including bottom-up (exogenous) versus top-down (endogenous) attention 48 Bottom-up attention is driven by the importance of the incoming stimuli and leads to the animal orienting to things that happen suddenly in the environment  Top-down attention, on the other hand, involves proactive anticipation, maintaining attention by concentration and focusing on goals 
Excerpt From: Todd E  Feinberg  “The Ancient Origins of Consciousness ” iBooks  https://itunes apple com/us/book/the-an     6953?mt=11
by RJG on April 22nd, 2018, 2:58 pm
Neri wrote: The real question is: Do sense impressions correspond to material objects in such a way that they are effective in preserving us from dangers that lie outside of us?
Firstly, we are not consciously aware of the actual causers (the supposed 'real' objects themselves) of these "sense impressions"  We are only consciously aware of the actual "sense impressions" (i e  the actual physical bodily reactions; experiences) themselves,    and of course this is only after they occur (after they impact our body) 
Secondly, we all assume that these "sense impressions" are the result of something 'real' out-there  Whether from a misfiring (hallucinating) brain, or from sensory signals emanating from a real object itself, it is still nonetheless 'real'  We all assume these "sense impressions" are the automatic reaction/response from some 'real' stimuli 
Thirdly, what "preserves us from danger" is NOT the conscious awareness of our sense impressions, but instead, it is the body's automatic RESPONSE to this danger (STIMULI) that "preserves us from danger",    and not the conscious awareness of said response 
Fourthly, if the body auto-responds in a particular way then the likelihood of survivability is enhanced, and if the response is otherwise then it may be diminished 
Neri wrote: To keep ourselves safe, it is necessary that we have the ability to know when a material object is moving closer or further from us and to be able to recognize an object as a danger 
Not so  It is NOT the "knowing" or "recognizing" of the dangerous moving object that "keep ourselves safe"  It is the body's automatic reaction/response to this moving object (stimuli) that "keep ourselves safe" 
Remember, we can only be conscious of (i e  know or recognize) actual bodily reactions/events, and not of other 'external' events  We don't consciously know/recognize how we responded until 'after' we (our body) responds  Our consciousness (knowing/recognizing) is wholly dependent upon our bodily reactions/responses,    NOT the other way around 
Without something (e g  sense impressions; bodily reactions) to be conscious of, then there is no consciousness (   no knowing or recognizing!) 
Braininvat wrote: No, I was not assuming the in-the-moment knowledge, but rather that facts about buses are physically verifiable when science is applied 
Can't one hallucinate they are doing verifiable science?
Braininvat wrote: It is not difficult to verify that I was neither dreaming nor hallucinating   
   We can open a book and read complex prose (something that can't be done in dreams) that reveals areas of knowledge utterly unknown to us and beyond our previous experiences 
I'm not so confident/convinced of this  Have you seen the movie "A Beautiful Mind"?    or have had family members with mental issues?
Braininvat wrote: We are saved from solipsism by the multiplicity of observers and their reports   
   We have senses enhanced by instruments that can show us photons leaving the photosphere of the sun and bouncing off solid objects like buses in particular and regular patterns, etc  Inner phenomenal reality and external reality are seamlessly connected and interacting - it is only big cranium apes like us who erect a wall of demarcation between them 
Isn't it possible to hallucinate these "multiple observers and their reports",    and their "instrumentation" results?
Other than by 'blind faith', how can one really know that their perceptions are the 'true' representations of reality?    I think it is not possible,    I think we can only 'hope' that our personal view is of reality itself 
We can't perceive beyond our current ("suspect") perceptions 
How about that the 'knowing' is done by the brain that built the qualia showing the danger, for the brain thus already has the information available, in whatever form it uses to 'know' 
by TheVat on April 22nd, 2018, 4:50 pm
Isnt it possible to hallucinate these "multiple observers and their reports",    and their "instrumentation" results?
- RJG
For me, that level of arch-skepticism is an epistemic doldrums zone  As David Hume famously observed about a conference on epistemology on Europe, "on finishing their discussion, the participants all departed by means of the doors  " (or similar; don't have exact quote handy ATM)
Whenever I write numbers in dreams they change as I write them and when I read it often fills up with garbage 
I've been lucidly inspecting my dreams  Some flaws are that bugs appear as triangles  Yesterday, I was going to eat in a cafeteria but you had to bring your own plates from home, so I already suspected something  I did find a pile of plates and took one, but I was soon somehow holding the whole pile, which then happened again and again, so, as in these stuck cases, I clench my whole body and that wakes me up  Other times, for lesser problems or to be sure of the dream state, I am able to open one eye and see the window and then go back to the dream  And sometimes the dream perfectly shows an entire scene in fabulous detail, such as a mid summer dusk, with even those whirly things floating through the air 
by mitchellmckain on April 23rd, 2018, 4:00 am
DragonFly » April 20th, 2018, 2:14 pm wrote: The model seems to be super real,
To me, that seems like a completely nonsensical thing to say to  "Seems real" compared to what? By the only standard we have, it is real, for it is the only standard which we have for making such a measurement  What you say is practically Platonic in the implied imagination of some greater reality somewhere else 
DragonFly » April 20th, 2018, 2:14 pm wrote: So, in sum so far, direct realism is an illusion, but is a very useful illusion, which we might better call a fine representation by the model, since the word 'illusion' is more about what's wrong as not really showing its object as substantial and really being behind it 
In philosophy of mind, naïve realism, also known as direct realism or common sense realism, is the idea that the senses provide us with direct awareness of objects as they really are  Objects obey the laws of physics and retain all their properties whether or not there is anyone to observe them [1] They are composed of matter, occupy space and have properties, such as size, shape, texture, smell, taste and colour, that are usually perceived correctly 
In contrast, some forms of idealism claim that no world exists apart from mind-dependent ideas, and some forms of skepticism say we cannot trust our senses  Naïve realism is known as direct as against indirect or representative realism when its arguments are developed to counter the latter position, also known as epistemological dualism;[2] that our conscious experience is not of the real world but of an internal representation of the world 
There is nothing of illusion in direct realism  There is only the foolish rhetoric implying that "direct" in "direct realism" means absorbing the actual object rather than data from those objects  The data IS from actual objects and does provide awareness of actual objects obeying the laws of physics  The implication that anyone is confusing the awareness of an object with the object itself is just ridiculous  Instead you can say that the process of perception is what makes illusions possible  Because we are interpreting data, then it is entirely possible for similar data to suggest something other than what is the case, such as the impression of water from a mirage -- at least until we learn the distinctions 
When you consider the philosophical alternative, plastering the word "illusion" on direct realism implies that idealism is the reality beneath it  And that is an implication I would refute most heatedly  As for indirect realism, as I explained above, I think it is carrying things too far to say that we are experiencing the model instead of reality  Instead I would limits the validity only to the idea that we use a model in the process of perception  In that sense you could say my position is in-between that of direct realism and indirect realism 
DragonFly » April 20th, 2018, 2:14 pm wrote: Dreams, then, would be better called illusions; further they demonstrate the power of the structure of the model  When we inspects objects in dreams they look just as good as when we see them awake, although backgrounds come and go inconsistently and there are narrative gaps (all of a sudden we are driving a vehicle without ever having gotten into it, plus the controls are a mystery )
I think it is unwise to make generalizations about dreams in such a manner  That is not my experience of dreams at all  My impression is that dreams consist of a mental (linguistic) narrative using memory to fill in the details  The only uniqueness in such experiences are the irrational combinations and discontinuities  Because of this, I have no sense this is anywhere near as good as when we see things awake, when we are interpreting fresh new sensory data  For me, this imparts a considerably dim character to the dream experience 
For me dreams are rather comparable to when I envision scenarios for my books  I see them in my mind's eye but not in a manner that is remotely comparable to my experience of reality through the senses  I am not suggesting that everyone experiences dreams this way  On the contrary, the phenomenon of schizophrenia suggests to me that some people can see things in their minds eye with the same vividness of the senses, for otherwise, how can they not know the difference?
DragonFly » April 20th, 2018, 2:14 pm wrote: Another illusion is the feeling of having all of the information in a qualia scene as instantly available, as well as feeling that it is all happening in real time, plus that one is directing it all right then and there 
Calling this illusion is a gross exaggeration  At most it is simply approximation 
by DragonFly on April 23rd, 2018, 11:37 am
'Imagination' (say, of things to happen in a book,) uses the model, too, but the scenes are about 90% transparent, probably so they don't get in the way of the real scenes about 
by DragonFly on April 23rd, 2018, 2:51 pm
Boggling idea of the Subject/Object Cut…
“The Schnitt and the Origins of Life
Physicists refer to the inescapable separation of a subject (the measurer) from an object (the measured) as die Schnitt  (What a great word!) Pattee calls “this unavoidable conceptual separation of the knower and the known, or the symbolic record of an event and the event itself, the epistemic cut 
There is a world of actions that exists on the side of the observer with the observer’s record of an event  There is also a separate world of actions on the side of the event itself  This sounds confusing, but think of the explanatory gap between your subjective experience of an event (I had so much fun body-surfing) and the event itself (A person went swimming in the ocean)  Alternately, you can think of the explanatory gap between the same subjective experience (This is fun) and the goings-on within the brain (Some neurons fired while a person was swimming in the ocean)  These are all just versions of the subject/object complementarity seen in physics  Here is the really wild part: Who’s measuring the events? To examine the difference between a person’s subjective experience and objective reality, do we need a scientist? Who’s measuring the scientist?
Pattee points out that neither classical nor quantum theory formally defines the subject, that is, the agent or observer that determines what is measured  Physics, therefore, does not say where to make the epistemic cut 4 Quantum measurement does not need a physicist-observer, however  Pattee argues that other things can perform quantum measurements  For example, enzymes (such as DNA polymerases) can act as measurement agents, performing quantum measurement during a cell’s replication process  No human observer is needed 
For Schrödinger, the joke was on us  He was trying to point out that there is something missing in our understanding  Pattee got it (in high school) and buckled down to attack the problem  Where should we put the cut, the gap, die Schnitt? With his consuming interest in the origins of life, he came to realize that human consciousness was way too high a layer in the architecture of all living organisms to put the epistemic cut between the observer and the observed, between the subjective experience and the event itself  There are umpteen layers between subatomic particles and human brains  There are plenty of layers between subatomic particles and brains in general (cat or mouse or fly or worm)  Putting the major epistemic cut that high led to the nonsense of Schrödinger’s cat existing as a quantum system  There was no pussyfooting around for Pattee: “I have taken the point of view that the question of what constitutes an observation in quantum mechanics must arise long before we reach the complexity of the brain  In fact, I propose … that the gap between quantum and classical behavior is inherent in the distinction between inanimate and living matter 
There you have it  Pattee proposes that the gap resulted from a process equivalent to quantum measurement that began with self-replication at the origin of life with the cell as the simplest agent  The epistemic cut, the subject/object cut, the mind/matter cut, all are rooted to that original cut at the origin of life  The gap between subjective feeling and objective neural firings didn’t come about with the appearance of brains  It was already there when the first cell started living  Two complementary modes of behavior, two levels of description are inherent in life itself, were present at the origin of life, have been conserved by evolution, and continue to be necessary for differentiating subjective experience from the event itself  That is a mind-boggling idea ”
by mitchellmckain on April 24th, 2018, 1:06 pm
The "like" on the above post is not to be construed as complete agreement with conclusions, but rather more with an abundant approval of the questions and issues raised 
DragonFly » April 23rd, 2018, 1:51 pm wrote: Boggling idea of the Subject/Object Cut…
Absolute agreement here! I have always considered quantum interpretations linking quantum decoherence with human consciousness to be absurd -- with one exception  The one interpretation which makes this link and is not absurd is the Everett Interpretation  THOUGH, I would not count this in its favor! Furthermore, it isn't actually necessary to the Everett Interpretation, for it is quite possible to shift the locus of the decoherence in this interpetation to agree with other interpretations 
DragonFly » April 23rd, 2018, 1:51 pm wrote: For Schrödinger, the joke was on us  He was trying to point out that there is something missing in our understanding 
Agreed! That is how I have always understood the Schrödinger cat thought experiment  It was not to seriously propose the existence of dead-alive cats but to highlight the absurdities which come from the way that quantum physics was usually being presented 
DragonFly » April 23rd, 2018, 1:51 pm wrote: Pattee got it (in high school) and buckled down to attack the problem  Where should we put the cut, the gap, die Schnitt? With his consuming interest in the origins of life, he came to realize that human consciousness was way too high a layer in the architecture of all living organisms to put the epistemic cut between the observer and the observed, between the subjective experience and the event itself  There are umpteen layers between subatomic particles and human brains  There are plenty of layers between subatomic particles and brains in general (cat or mouse or fly or worm)  Putting the major epistemic cut that high led to the nonsense of Schrödinger’s cat existing as a quantum system  There was no pussyfooting around for Pattee: “I have taken the point of view that the question of what constitutes an observation in quantum mechanics must arise long before we reach the complexity of the brain  In fact, I propose … that the gap between quantum and classical behavior is inherent in the distinction between inanimate and living matter 
And here is where we have a disagreement  While I totally appreciate pushing many things such as consciousness, learning, and creativity down to the lowest levels of the divide between the living and nonliving, I personally do not believe that this has anything whatsoever to do with the quantum measurement problem 
DragonFly » April 23rd, 2018, 1:51 pm wrote: There you have it  Pattee proposes that the gap resulted from a process equivalent to quantum measurement that began with self-replication at the origin of life with the cell as the simplest agent 
Furthermore, I think this focus on self-replication as the divide between the living and non-living may be a little behind the times  Metabolism first theories of abiogenesis and the study of prebiotic evolution strongly suggest that key features of the life process are located way before the development of self-replicating molecules such as RNA and DNA  On the other hand, perhaps this idea of self-replication can be extended to processes in prebiotic evolution in which there is a catalysis of chemical reactions which replenish the chemical components  After all, self-maintenance is a definitive feature of the life process and would suggest that any life process must include the regeneration of its components 
DragonFly » April 23rd, 2018, 1:51 pm wrote: The epistemic cut, the subject/object cut, the mind/matter cut, all are rooted to that original cut at the origin of life  The gap between subjective feeling and objective neural firings didn’t come about with the appearance of brains  It was already there when the first cell started living  Two complementary modes of behavior, two levels of description are inherent in life itself, were present at the origin of life, have been conserved by evolution, and continue to be necessary for differentiating subjective experience from the event itself  That is a mind-boggling idea ”
This would only work if you can make a logical connection with this definitive feature of life in a process of self maintenance  I have already suggested a connection between this and consciousness by pointing out that self maintenance requires some kind of awareness of self, both as it is and as it "should be " Without some sort of "should be" in some form there can be no self-maintenance  It should be noted that there are numerous quantitative features to this, such as the clarity with which this goal of self as it "should be" is represented, the determination/flexibility with which it is adhered to (or in other words the range of circumstances which can be handled in holding to this goal) 
by TheVat on April 24th, 2018, 1:52 pm
It seems likely a paramecium does no representing to a self, and is pretty much a cellular machine lacking sentience 
A paramecium is not full of Schnitt  It is not measuring or having goals or anything else  It is an automaton  To think otherwise would be to invite some sort of Bergsonian "elan vital" or other dualistic essence 
The problem with the term "observation" is that it's prejudicial in common parlance  It implies some sort of sentient observer  It implies a subjective aspect  So a more neutral term would be needed when a microbe registers a chance in its environment and contracts or expands or fires up the cilia or dumps the vacuoles or whatever  Or when a Bose Einstein condensate loses its coherence in a wet noisy puddle 
Braininvat » April 24th, 2018, 12:52 pm wrote: It seems likely a paramecium does no representing to a self, and is pretty much a cellular machine lacking sentience 
But it is not a machine for the simple reason that it is not a product of design  The only reasons for which it does things are its own reasons  It is a product of self organization, and the learning process which is evolution 
I certainly agree with the term "biological machinery," which is to say that there is no reason to distinguish things simply on the basis that one uses the interactions of organic chemistry  Thus I think the locus of difference between the living organism and the machine has to do with origins whether it is by design or by learning, evolution, and self-organization 
Braininvat » April 24th, 2018, 12:52 pm wrote: The problem with the term "observation" is that it's prejudicial in common parlance  It implies some sort of sentient observer  It implies a subjective aspect  So a more neutral term would be needed when a microbe registers a chance in its environment and contracts or expands or fires up the cilia or dumps the vacuoles or whatever 
But the problem with this is that the prejudice in language goes both ways with the presumption of an uncrossable divide between the sentient and the non-sentient, when all the evidence points to a continuum going all the way from the non-living to the living to the sentient  And this is not a linear continuum but a rapidly branching tree with many capabilities somewhat arbitrarily (or rather anthropomorphically) lumped into this term "sentience "
Context 2: KSTP (1500 AM; SKOR North) is a commercial AM radio station licensed to Saint Paul, Minnesota  It is the flagship AM radio station of Hubbard Broadcasting, which also owns several other television and radio stations across the United States   KSTP has a sports radio format and is the ESPN Radio Network affiliate for Minneapolis-St  Paul   The radio studios are  on University Avenue in Minneapolis, shared with sister stations KSTP-FM, KSTP-TV, KTMY, and KSTC-TV  On weekdays, KSTP airs local sports shows from 9 a m  to 9 p m  and carries ESPN programming weekday mornings, late nights and weekends  Some KSTP shows are simulcast on other sports radio stations in the region 

KSTP runs the maximum power for AM stations, 50,000 watts   It shares clear-channel, Class A status on 1500 AM with WFED in Washington, D C   KSTP broadcasts a directional signal at night, using a three-tower array, with its transmitter on U S  Route 61 at Beam Avenue in Maplewood   Programming is also heard on 250 watt FM translator K235BP at 94 9 MHz in Bemidji 

History

WAMD and KFOY
KSTP's start in 1928 was the product of a merger between two pioneering Twin Cities stations: WAMD ("Where All Minneapolis Dances") in Minneapolis, first licensed on February 16, 1925 to Stanley E  Hubbard, and KFOY in St  Paul, first licensed on March 12, 1924 to the Beacon Radio Service in St  Paul 

Following a few test transmissions, WAMD made its formal debut broadcast on February 22, 1925  (In later interviews Stanley Hubbard traced WAMD's start to April 1924 ) It was located at the Marigold Dance Garden, and featured nightly "Midnight Frolics" broadcasts by the ballroom's orchestra  It is claimed that WAMD was the first radio station to be completely supported by running paid advertisements  Effective June 15, 1927, WAMD was assigned to 1330 kHz 

On November 11, 1927 WAMD's transmitter site at Oxboro Heath on Lyndale Avenue South burned down, two weeks after the station had been sold to the National Battery Company  An initial arrangement was made to carry WAMD's programs over WRHM (now WWTC), transmitting on WAMD's 1330 kHz frequency  Beginning on November 24, 1927 the WAMD broadcasts, still on 1330 kHz, were shifted to KFOY's facility in St  Paul  (At this time KFOY was assigned to 1050 kHz)  The next day it was announced that National Battery had purchased KFOY, and as of December 1, 1927 both KFOY and WAMD were reassigned to 1350 kHz  WAMD continued making regular broadcasts until the end of March 1928, while KFOY, although it continued to be licensed for a few more months on a time-sharing basis with WAMD, ceased operations at this point 

National Battery Company
In mid-December 1927, the National Battery Company announced it had received permission from the Federal Radio Commission (FRC) to build a new station, with the call letters KSTP, operating from a transmitter site to be constructed three miles south of Wescott  The next month it was reported that the new station, still under construction, had been assigned to 1360 kHz  KSTP made its debut broadcast on March 29, 1928  Although technically it was a separate station from WAMD and KFOY, both of which were formally deleted on April 30, 1928, overall KSTP was treated as the direct successor to a consolidated WAMD and KFOY 

Hubbard became the merged station's general manager, acquiring controlling interest in 1941  A month after the merger, KSTP became an affiliate for the NBC Red Network   It remained with NBC for 46 years  On November 11, 1928, under the provisions of the FRC's General Order 40, KSTP was assigned to a "high-powered regional" frequency of 1460 kHz  The only other station assigned to this frequency was WTFF in Mount Vernon Hills, Virginia (later WJSV, now WFED, Washington, D C )  On February 7, 1933, the FRC authorized KSTP to increase its daytime power to 25 KW  In 1938 and 1939 KSTP also operated a high-fidelity AM "experimental audio broadcasting station" Apex station, W9XUP, originally on 25,950 kHz and later on 26,150 kHz  In 1941, as part of the implementation of the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement, KSTP was assigned to its current "clear channel" frequency of 1500 kHz, with the provision that it and WJSV, as "Class I-B" stations, had to maintain directional antennas at night in order to mutually protect each other from interference  An FM station, KSTP-FM, was founded in 1946 but shut down in 1952 

Hubbard reportedly acquired an RCA TV camera in 1939, and started experimenting with television broadcasts   But World War II put a hold on the development of television   In 1948, with the war over, KSTP-TV became the first television station in Minnesota   With KSTP 1500 already associated with NBC Radio, KSTP-TV became an NBC Television Network affiliate   From 1946 to 1952, KSTP also had an FM counterpart
Context 3: Vitamin K - Wikipedia
(Redirected from Vitamin k)
This article needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources  Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can  Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed  (November 2015)
This article is about the family of vitamers  For vitamin K1 the form usually used as a supplement, see Phytomenadione 
Vitamin K structures  MK-4 and MK-7 are both subtypes of K2 
Vitamin K deficiency, Warfarin overdose
Vitamin K is a group of structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamins the human body requires for complete synthesis of certain proteins that are prerequisites for blood coagulation and which the body also needs for controlling binding of calcium in bones and other tissues  The vitamin K-related modification of the proteins allows them to bind calcium ions, which they cannot do otherwise  Without vitamin K, blood coagulation is seriously impaired, and uncontrolled bleeding occurs  Low levels of vitamin K also weaken bones and promote calcification of arteries and other soft tissues[citation needed] 
Chemically, the vitamin K family comprises 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (3-) derivatives  Vitamin K includes two natural vitamers: vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 [1] Vitamin K2, in turn, consists of a number of related chemical subtypes, with differing lengths of carbon side chains made of isoprenoid groups of atoms 
Vitamin K1, also known as phylloquinone, is made by plants, and is found in highest amounts in green leafy vegetables because it is directly involved in photosynthesis  It may be thought of as the plant form of vitamin K  It is active as a vitamin in animals and performs the classic functions of vitamin K, including its activity in the production of blood-clotting proteins  Animals may also convert it to vitamin K2 
Bacteria in the gut flora can also convert K1 into vitamin K2  In addition, bacteria typically lengthen the isoprenoid side chain of vitamin K2 to produce a range of vitamin K2 forms, most notably the MK-7 to MK-11 homologues of vitamin K2  All forms of K2 other than MK-4 can only be produced by bacteria, which use these forms in anaerobic respiration  The MK-7 and other bacterially derived forms of vitamin K2 exhibit vitamin K activity in animals, but MK-7's extra utility over MK-4, if any, is unclear and is a matter of investigation 
Three synthetic types of vitamin K are known: vitamins K3, K4, and K5  Although the natural K1 and all K2 homologues and synthetic K4 and K5 have proven nontoxic, the synthetic form K3 (menadione) has shown toxicity [2]
1 2 Cardiovascular health
1 4 Coumarin poisoning
4 1 Conversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2
4 2 Vitamin K2
6 Absorption and dietary need
7 Dietary reference intake
10 Biochemistry
10 1 Function in animals
10 2 Gamma-carboxyglutamate proteins
10 3 Methods of assessment
10 4 Function in bacteria
11 Injection in newborns
11 3 Controversy
A review of 2014 concluded that there is positive evidence that monotherapy using MK-4, one of the forms of Vitamin K2, reduces fracture incidence in post-menopausal women with osteoporosis, and suggested further research on the combined use of MK-4 with bisphosphonates  In contrast, an earlier review article of 2013 concluded that there is no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation helps prevent osteoporosis or fractures in postmenopausal women [3]
A Cochrane systematic review of 2006 suggested that supplementation with Vitamin K1 and with MK4 reduces bone loss; in particular, a strong effect of MK-4 on incident fractures among Japanese patients was emphasized [4]
A review article of 2016 suggested to consider, as one of several measures for bone health, increasing the intake of foods rich in vitamins K1 and K2 [5]
Cardiovascular health[edit]
Adequate intake of vitamin K is associated with the inhibition of arterial calcification and stiffening,[6] but there have been few interventional studies and no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation is of any benefit in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease [7]
One 10-year population study, the Rotterdam Study, did show a clear and significant inverse relationship between the highest intake levels of menaquinone (mainly MK-4 from eggs and meat, and MK-8 and MK-9 from cheese) and cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in older men and women [8]
Vitamin K has been promoted in supplement form with claims it can slow tumor growth; there is however no good medical evidence that supports such claims [9]
Coumarin poisoning[edit]
Vitamin K is part of the suggested treatment regime for poisoning by rodenticide (coumarin poisoning) [10]
Although allergic reaction from supplementation is possible, no known toxicity is associated with high doses of the phylloquinone (vitamin K1) or menaquinone (vitamin K2) forms of vitamin K, so no tolerable upper intake level (UL) has been set [11]
Blood clotting (coagulation) studies in humans using 45 mg per day of vitamin K2 (as MK-4)[12] and even up to 135 mg per day (45 mg three times daily) of K2 (as MK-4),[13] showed no increase in blood clot risk  Even doses in rats as high as 250 mg/kg, body weight did not alter the tendency for blood-clot formation to occur [14]
Unlike the safe natural forms of vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 and their various isomers, a synthetic form of vitamin K, vitamin K3 (menadione), is demonstrably toxic at high levels  The U S  FDA has banned this form from over-the-counter sale in the United States because large doses have been shown to cause allergic reactions, hemolytic anemia, and cytotoxicity in liver cells [2]
Phylloquinone (K1)[15][16] or menaquinone (K2) are capable of reversing the anticoagulant activity of the anticoagulant warfarin (tradename Coumadin)  Warfarin works by blocking recycling of vitamin K, so that the body and tissues have lower levels of active vitamin K, and thus a deficiency of vitamin K 
Supplemental vitamin K (for which oral dosing is often more active than injectable dosing in human adults) reverses the vitamin K deficiency caused by warfarin, and therefore reduces the intended anticoagulant action of warfarin and related drugs [17] Sometimes small amounts of vitamin K are given orally to patients taking warfarin so that the action of the drug is more predictable [17] The proper anticoagulant action of the drug is a function of vitamin K intake and drug dose, and due to differing absorption must be individualized for each patient [citation needed] The action of warfarin and vitamin K both require two to five days after dosing to have maximum effect, and neither warfarin or vitamin K shows much effect in the first 24 hours after they are given [18]
The newer anticoagulants dabigatran and rivaroxaban have different mechanisms of action that do not interact with vitamin K, and may be taken with supplemental vitamin K [19][20]
Vitamin K2 (menaquinone)  In menaquinone, the side chain is composed of a varying number of isoprenoid residues  The most common number of these residues is four, since animal enzymes normally produce menaquinone-4 from plant phylloquinone 
A sample of phytomenadione for injection, also called phylloquinone
The three synthetic forms of vitamin K are vitamins K3 (menadione), K4, and K5, which are used in many areas, including the pet food industry (vitamin K3) and to inhibit fungal growth (vitamin K5) [21]
Conversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2[edit]
Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) – both forms of the vitamin contain a functional naphthoquinone ring and an aliphatic side chain  Phylloquinone has a phytyl side chain 
The MK-4 form of vitamin K2 is produced by conversion of vitamin K1 in the testes, pancreas, and arterial walls [22] While major questions still surround the biochemical pathway for this transformation, the conversion is not dependent on gut bacteria, as it occurs in germ-free rats[23][24] and in parenterally-administered K1 in rats [25][26] In fact, tissues that accumulate high amounts of MK-4 have a remarkable capacity to convert up to 90% of the available K1 into MK-4 [27][28] There is evidence that the conversion proceeds by removal of the phytyl tail of K1 to produce menadione as an intermediate, which is then condensed with an activated geranylgeranyl moiety (see also prenylation) to produce vitamin K2 in the MK-4 (menatetrione) form [29]
Vitamin K2[edit]
Main article: Vitamin K2
Vitamin K2 (menaquinone) includes several subtypes  The two subtypes most studied are menaquinone-4 (menatetrenone, MK-4) and menaquinone-7 (MK-7) 
Vitamin K1, the precursor of most vitamin K in nature, is a stereoisomer of phylloquinone, an important chemical in green plants, where it functions as an electron acceptor in photosystem I during photosynthesis  For this reason, vitamin K1 is found in large quantities in the photosynthetic tissues of plants (green leaves, and dark green leafy vegetables such as romaine lettuce, kale and spinach), but it occurs in far smaller quantities in other plant tissues (roots, fruits, etc )  Iceberg lettuce contains relatively little  The function of phylloquinone in plants appears to have no resemblance to its later metabolic and biochemical function (as "vitamin K") in animals, where it performs a completely different biochemical reaction 
Vitamin K (in animals) is involved in the carboxylation of certain glutamate residues in proteins to form gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residues  The modified residues are often (but not always) situated within specific protein domains called Gla domains  Gla residues are usually involved in binding calcium, and are essential for the biological activity of all known Gla proteins [30]
At this time[update], 17 human proteins with Gla domains have been discovered, and they play key roles in the regulation of three physiological processes:
Blood coagulation: prothrombin (factor II), factors VII, IX, and X, and proteins C, S, and Z[31]
Bone metabolism: osteocalcin, also called bone Gla protein (BGP), matrix Gla protein (MGP),[32] periostin,[33] and the recently discovered Gla-rich protein (GRP) [34][35]
Vascular biology: growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6)[36]
Unknown function: proline-rich γ-carboxyglutamyl proteins (PRGPs) 1 and 2, and transmembrane γ-carboxy glutamyl proteins (TMGs) 3 and 4 [37]
Like other lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D and E), vitamin K is stored in the fatty tissue of the human body 
Absorption and dietary need[edit]
Previous theory held that dietary deficiency is extremely rare unless the small intestine was heavily damaged, resulting in malabsorption of the molecule  Another at-risk group for deficiency were those subject to decreased production of K2 by normal intestinal microbiota, as seen in broad spectrum antibiotic use [38] Taking broad-spectrum antibiotics can reduce vitamin K production in the gut by nearly 74% in people compared with those not taking these antibiotics [39] Diets low in vitamin K also decrease the body's vitamin K concentration [40] Those with chronic kidney disease are at risk for vitamin K deficiency, as well as vitamin D deficiency, and particularly those with the apoE4 genotype [41] Additionally, in the elderly there is a reduction in vitamin K2 production [42]
The National Academy of Medicine (NAM) updated an estimate of what constitutes an adequate intake (AI) for vitamin K in 2001  The NAM does not distinguish between K1 and K2 – both are counted as vitamin K  At that time there was not sufficient evidence to set the more rigorous estimated average requirement (EAR) or recommended dietary allowance (RDA) given for most of the essential vitamins and minerals  The current daily AIs for vitamin K for adult women and men are 90 μg and 120 μg respectively  The AI for pregnancy and lactation is 90 μg  For infants up to 12 months the AI is 2–2 5 μg, and for children aged 1 to 18 years the AI increases with age from 30 to 75 μg  As for safety, the FNB also sets tolerable upper intake levels (known as ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient  In the case of vitamin K no UL is set, as evidence for adverse effects is not sufficient  Collectively EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as dietary reference intakes [43] The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and did not set an UL [44]
For U S  food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percentage of daily value (%DV)  For vitamin K labeling purposes the daily value was 80 μg, but as of May 2016 it has been revised upwards to 120 μg  A table of the pre-change adult daily values is provided at reference daily intake  Food and supplement companies have until 28 July 2018 to comply with the change 
See also: Vitamin K2 § Dietary sources
K1 (μg)[45]
Kale, cooked
Collards, cooked
Collards, raw
Swiss chard, cooked
Swiss chard, raw
Turnip greens, raw
Romaine lettuce, raw
Table from "Important information to know when you are taking: Warfarin (Coumadin) and Vitamin K", Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health Drug Nutrient Interaction Task Force [46]
Vitamin K1 is found chiefly in leafy green vegetables such as dandelion greens (which contain 778 4 μg per 100 g, or 741% of the recommended daily amount), spinach, swiss chard, lettuce and Brassica vegetables (such as cabbage, kale, cauliflower, broccoli, and brussels sprouts) and often the absorption is greater when accompanied by fats such as butter or oils; some fruits, such as avocados, kiwifruit and grapes, are also high in vitamin K  By way of reference, two tablespoons of parsley contains 153% of the recommended daily amount of vitamin K [47] Some vegetable oils, notably soybean oil, contain vitamin K, but at levels that would require relatively large calorie consumption to meet the USDA-recommended levels [48] colonic bacteria synthesize a significant portion of humans' vitamin K needs; newborns often receive a vitamin K shot at birth to tide them over until their colons become colonized at five to seven days of age from the consumption of breast milk 
The tight binding of vitamin K1 to thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts makes it less bioavailable  For example, cooked spinach has a 5% bioavailability of phylloquinone, however, fat added to it increases bioavailability to 13% due to the increased solubility of vitamin K in fat [49]
Main article: Vitamin K deficiency
Average diets are usually not lacking in vitamin K, and primary deficiency is rare in healthy adults  Newborn infants are at an increased risk of deficiency  Other populations with an increased prevalence of vitamin K deficiency include those who suffer from liver damage or disease (e g  alcoholics), cystic fibrosis, or inflammatory bowel diseases, or have recently had abdominal surgeries  Secondary vitamin K deficiency can occur in people with bulimia, those on stringent diets, and those taking anticoagulants  Other drugs associated with vitamin K deficiency include salicylates, barbiturates, and cefamandole, although the mechanisms are still unknown  Vitamin K1 deficiency can result in coagulopathy, a bleeding disorder [50]Symptoms of K1 deficiency include anemia, bruising, nosebleeds and bleeding of the gums in both sexes, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women 
Osteoporosis[51][52] and coronary heart disease[53][54] are strongly associated with lower levels of K2 (menaquinone)  Vitamin K2 (as menaquinones MK-4 through MK-10) intake level is inversely related to severe aortic calcification and all-cause mortality [8]
Function in animals[edit]
Mechanism of action of vitamin K1 
The function of vitamin K2 in the animal cell is to add a carboxylic acid functional group to a glutamate (Glu) amino acid residue in a protein, to form a gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residue  This is a somewhat uncommon posttranslational modification of the protein, which is then known as a "Gla protein"  The presence of two −COOH (carboxylic acid) groups on the same carbon in the gamma-carboxyglutamate residue allows it to chelate calcium ions  The binding of calcium ions in this way very often triggers the function or binding of Gla-protein enzymes, such as the so-called vitamin K-dependent clotting factors discussed below 
Within the cell, vitamin K undergoes electron reduction to a reduced form called vitamin K hydroquinone, catalyzed by the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR) [55] Another enzyme then oxidizes vitamin K hydroquinone to allow carboxylation of Glu to Gla; this enzyme is called gamma-glutamyl carboxylase[56][57] or the vitamin K-dependent carboxylase  The carboxylation reaction only proceeds if the carboxylase enzyme is able to oxidize vitamin K hydroquinone to vitamin K epoxide at the same time  The carboxylation and epoxidation reactions are said to be coupled  Vitamin K epoxide is then reconverted to vitamin K by VKOR  The reduction and subsequent reoxidation of vitamin K coupled with carboxylation of Glu is called the vitamin K cycle [58] Humans are rarely deficient in vitamin K1 because, in part, vitamin K1 is continuously recycled in cells [59]
Warfarin and other 4-hydroxycoumarins block the action of VKOR [60] This results in decreased concentrations of vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone in tissues, such that the carboxylation reaction catalyzed by the glutamyl carboxylase is inefficient  This results in the production of clotting factors with inadequate Gla  Without Gla on the amino termini of these factors, they no longer bind stably to the blood vessel endothelium and cannot activate clotting to allow formation of a clot during tissue injury  As it is impossible to predict what dose of warfarin will give the desired degree of clotting suppression, warfarin treatment must be carefully monitored to avoid overdose 
Gamma-carboxyglutamate proteins[edit]
Main article: Gla domain
The following human Gla-containing proteins ("Gla proteins") have been characterized to the level of primary structure: blood coagulation factors II (prothrombin), VII, IX, and X, anticoagulant proteins C and S, and the factor X-targeting protein Z  The bone Gla protein osteocalcin, the calcification-inhibiting matrix Gla protein (MGP), the cell growth regulating growth arrest specific gene 6 protein (Gas6), and the four transmembrane Gla proteins (TMGPs), the function of which is at present unknown  Gas6 can function as a growth factor to activate the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase and stimulate cell proliferation or prevent apoptosis in some cells  In all cases in which their function was known, the presence of the Gla residues in these proteins turned out to be essential for functional activity 
Gla proteins are known to occur in a wide variety of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish  The venom of a number of Australian snakes acts by activating the human blood-clotting system  In some cases, activation is accomplished by snake Gla-containing enzymes that bind to the endothelium of human blood vessels and catalyze the conversion of procoagulant clotting factors into activated ones, leading to unwanted and potentially deadly clotting 
Another interesting class of invertebrate Gla-containing proteins is synthesized by the fish-hunting snail Conus geographus [61] These snails produce a venom containing hundreds of neuroactive peptides, or conotoxins, which is sufficiently toxic to kill an adult human  Several of the conotoxins contain two to five Gla residues [62]
Methods of assessment[edit]
Vitamin K status can be assessed by:
The prothrombin time (PT) test measures the time required for blood to clot  A blood sample is mixed with citric acid and put in a fibrometer; delayed clot formation indicates a deficiency  This test is insensitive to mild deficiency, as the values do not change until the concentration of prothrombin in the blood has declined by at least 50% [63]
Undercarboxylated prothrombin (PIVKA-II); in a study of 53 newborns, found "PT (prothrombin time) is a less sensitive marker than PIVKA II",[64] and as indicated above, PT is unable to detect subclinical deficiencies that can be detected with PIVKA-II testing 
Plasma phylloquinone was found to be positively correlated with phylloquinone intake in elderly British women, but not men,[65] but an article by Schurgers et al  reported no correlation between FFQ[further explanation needed] and plasma phylloquinone [66]
Urinary γ-carboxyglutamic acid responds to changes in dietary vitamin K intake  Several days are required before any change can be observed  In a study by Booth et al , increases of phylloquinone intakes from 100 μg to between 377 and 417 μg for five days did not induce a significant change  Response may be age-specific [67]
Undercarboxylated osteocalcin (UcOc) levels have been inversely correlated with stores of vitamin K[68] and bone strength in developing rat tibiae  Another study following 78 post-menopausal Korean women found a supplement regimen of vitamins K and D, and calcium, but not a regimen of vitamin D and calcium, was inversely correlated with reduced UcOc levels [69]
Function in bacteria[edit]
Many bacteria, such as Escherichia coli found in the large intestine, can synthesize vitamin K2 (menaquinone-7 or MK-7, up to MK-11),[70] but not vitamin K1 (phylloquinone)  In these bacteria, menaquinone transfers two electrons between two different small molecules, during oxygen-independent metabolic energy production processes (anaerobic respiration) [71] For example, a small molecule with an excess of electrons (also called an electron donor) such as lactate, formate, or NADH, with the help of an enzyme, passes two electrons to menaquinone  The menaquinone, with the help of another enzyme, then transfers these two electrons to a suitable oxidant, such fumarate or nitrate (also called an electron acceptor)  Adding two electrons to fumarate or nitrate converts the molecule to succinate or nitrite plus water, respectively 
Some of these reactions generate a cellular energy source, ATP, in a manner similar to eukaryotic cell aerobic respiration, except the final electron acceptor is not molecular oxygen, but fumarate or nitrate  In aerobic respiration, the final oxidant is molecular oxygen (O2), which accepts four electrons from an electron donor such as NADH to be converted to water  E  coli, as facultative anaerobes, can carry out both aerobic respiration and menaquinone-mediated anaerobic respiration 
Injection in newborns[edit]
The blood clotting factors of newborn babies are roughly 30–60% that of adult values; this may be due to the reduced synthesis of precursor proteins and the sterility of their guts  Human milk contains 1–4 μg/L of vitamin K1, while formula-derived milk can contain up to 100 μg/L in supplemented formulas  Vitamin K2 concentrations in human milk appear to be much lower than those of vitamin K1  Occurrence of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the first week of the infant's life is estimated at 0 25–1 7%, with a prevalence of 2–10 cases per 100,000 births [72] Premature babies have even lower levels of the vitamin, so they are at a higher risk from this deficiency 
Bleeding in infants due to vitamin K deficiency can be severe, leading to hospitalization, blood transfusions, brain damage, and death  Supplementation can prevent most cases of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the newborn  Intramuscular administration is more effective in preventing late vitamin K deficiency bleeding than oral administration [73][74]
As a result of the occurrences of vitamin K deficiency bleeding, the Committee on Nutrition of the American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended 0 5–1 mg of vitamin K1 be administered to all newborns shortly after birth [74]
In the UK vitamin K supplementation is recommended for all newborns within the first 24 hours [75] This is usually given as a single intramuscular injection of 1 mg shortly after birth but as a second-line option can be given by three oral doses over the first month [76]
Controversy arose in the early 1990s regarding this practice, when two studies suggested a relationship between parenteral administration of vitamin K and childhood cancer,[77] however, poor methods and small sample sizes led to the discrediting of these studies, and a review of the evidence published in 2000 by Ross and Davies found no link between the two [78] Doctors reported emerging concerns in 2013,[79] after treating children for serious bleeding problems  They cited lack-of newborn vitamin K administration, as the reason that the problems occurred, and recommended that breastfed babies could have an increased risk unless they receive a preventative dose 
In the early 1930s, Danish scientist Henrik Dam investigated the role of cholesterol by feeding chickens a cholesterol-depleted diet [80] He initially replicated experiments reported by scientists at the Ontario Agricultural College (OAC) [81] McFarlane, Graham and Richardson, working on the chick feed program at OAC, had used chloroform to remove all fat from chick chow  They noticed that chicks fed only fat-depleted chow developed hemorrhages and started bleeding from tag sites [82] Dam found that these defects could not be restored by adding purified cholesterol to the diet  It appeared that – together with the cholesterol – a second compound had been extracted from the food, and this compound was called the coagulation vitamin  The new vitamin received the letter K because the initial discoveries were reported in a German journal, in which it was designated as Koagulationsvitamin  Edward Adelbert Doisy of Saint Louis University did much of the research that led to the discovery of the structure and chemical nature of vitamin K [83] Dam and Doisy shared the 1943 Nobel Prize for medicine for their work on vitamin K (K1 and K2) published in 1939  Several laboratories synthesized the compound(s) in 1939 [84]
For several decades, the vitamin K-deficient chick model was the only method of quantifying vitamin K in various foods: the chicks were made vitamin K-deficient and subsequently fed with known amounts of vitamin K-containing food  The extent to which blood coagulation was restored by the diet was taken as a measure for its vitamin K content  Three groups of physicians independently found this: Biochemical Institute, University of Copenhagen (Dam and Johannes Glavind), University of Iowa Department of Pathology (Emory Warner, Kenneth Brinkhous, and Harry Pratt Smith), and the Mayo Clinic (Hugh Butt, Albert Snell, and Arnold Osterberg) [85]
The first published report of successful treatment with vitamin K of life-threatening hemorrhage in a jaundiced patient with prothrombin deficiency was made in 1938 by Smith, Warner, and Brinkhous [86]
The precise function of vitamin K was not discovered until 1974, when three laboratories (Stenflo et al ,[87] Nelsestuen et al ,[88] and Magnusson et al [89]) isolated the vitamin K-dependent coagulation factor prothrombin (factor II) from cows that received a high dose of a vitamin K antagonist, warfarin  It was shown that, while warfarin-treated cows had a form of prothrombin that contained 10 glutamate (Glu) amino acid residues near the amino terminus of this protein, the normal (untreated) cows contained 10 unusual residues that were chemically identified as γ-carboxyglutamate (Gla)  The extra carboxyl group in Gla made clear that vitamin K plays a role in a carboxylation reaction during which Glu is converted into Gla 
The biochemistry of how vitamin K is used to convert Glu to Gla has been elucidated over the past thirty years in academic laboratories throughout the world 
^ "Vitamin K Overview"  University of Maryland Medical Center  ^ a b Higdon, Jane (Feb 2008)  "Vitamin K"  Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University  Retrieved 12 Apr 2008  ^ Hamidi, M  S ; Gajic-Veljanoski, O ; Cheung, A  M  (2013)  "Vitamin K and bone health"  Journal of Clinical Densitometry (Review)  16 (4): 409–413  doi:10 1016/j jocd 2013 08 017  PMID 24090644  ^ Cockayne, S ; Adamson, J ; Lanham-New, S ; Shearer, M  J ; Gilbody, S; Torgerson, D  J  (Jun 2006)  "Vitamin K and the prevention of fractures: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials"  Archives of Internal Medicine (Review)  166 (12): 1256–1261  doi:10 1001/archinte 166 12 1256  PMID 16801507  ^ O'Keefe, J  H ; Bergman, N ; Carrera Bastos, P ; Fontes Villalba, M ; Di Nicolantonio, J  J ; Cordain, L  (2016)  "Nutritional strategies for skeletal and cardiovascular health: hard bones, soft arteries, rather than vice versa"  Open Heart (Review)  3 (1): e000325  doi:10 1136/openhrt-2015-000325  PMC 4809188  PMID 27042317  ^ Maresz, K  (Feb 2015)  "Proper Calcium Use: Vitamin K2 as a Promoter of Bone and Cardiovascular Health"  Integrative Medicine (Review)  14 (1): 34–39  PMC 4566462  PMID 26770129  ^ Hartley, L ; Clar, C ; Ghannam, O ; Flowers, N ; Stranges, S ; Rees, K  (Sep 2015)  "Vitamin K for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease"  The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Systematic review)  9 (9): CD011148  doi:10 1002/14651858 CD011148 pub2  PMID 26389791  ^ a b Geleijnse, J  M ; Vermeer, C ; Grobbee, D  E ; Schurgers, L  J ; Knapen, M  H ; van der Meer, I  M ; Hofman, A ; Witteman, J  C  (Nov 2004)  "Dietary intake of menaquinone is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease: the Rotterdam Study"  Journal of Nutrition  134 (11): 3100–3105  PMID 15514282  ^ Ades, T  B , ed  (2009)  "Vitamin K"  American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies (2nd ed )  American Cancer Society  pp  558–563  ISBN 978-0-944235-71-3  ^ Lung, D  (Dec 2015)  Tarabar, A , ed  "Rodenticide Toxicity Treatment & Management"  Medscape  WebMD  ^ Rasmussen, S  E ; Andersen, N  L ; Dragsted, L  O ; Larsen, J  C  (Mar 2006)  "A safe strategy for addition of vitamins and minerals to foods"  European Journal of Nutrition  45 (3): 123–135  doi:10 1007/s00394-005-0580-9  PMID 16200467  ^ Ushiroyama, T ; Ikeda, A ; Ueki, M (Mar 2002)  "Effect of continuous combined therapy with vitamin K2 and vitamin D3 on bone mineral density and coagulofibrinolysis function in postmenopausal women"  Maturitas  41 (3): 211–221  doi:10 1016/S0378-5122(01)00275-4  PMID 11886767  ^ Asakura, H ; Myou, S ; Ontachi, Y ; Mizutani, T ; Kato, M ; Saito, M ; Morishita, E ; Yamazaki, M ; Nakao, S  (Dec 2001)  "Vitamin K administration to elderly patients with osteoporosis induces no hemostatic activation, even in those with suspected vitamin K deficiency"  Osteoporosis International  12 (12): 996–1000  doi:10 1007/s001980170007  PMID 11846334  ^ Ronden, J  E ; Groenen-van Dooren, M  M ; Hornstra, G ; Vermeer, C  (Jul 1997)  "Modulation of arterial thrombosis tendency in rats by vitamin K and its side chains"  Atherosclerosis  132 (1): 61–67  doi:10 1016/S0021-9150(97)00087-7  PMID 9247360  ^ Ansell, J ; Hirsh, J ; Poller, L ; Bussey, H ; Jacobson, A ; Hylek, E (Sep 2004)  "The pharmacology and management of the vitamin K antagonists: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy"  Chest  126 (3 Suppl ): 204S–233S  doi:10 1378/chest 126 3_suppl 204S  PMID 15383473  ^ Crowther, M  A ; Douketis, J  D ; Schnurr, T ; Steidl, L ; Mera, V ; Ultori, C ; Venco, A ; Ageno, W  (Aug 2002)  "Oral vitamin K lowers the international normalized ratio more rapidly than subcutaneous vitamin K in the treatment of warfarin-associated coagulopathy  A randomized, controlled trial"  Annals of Internal Medicine  137 (4): 251–254



ground_truth: It becomes a bit less so that what's off to the left or right can be better noted.

prompt_front: Now, answer the following question based on the text below, only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How many years has KSTP-FM 102.1 been on the air?

Read the following text and answer briefly.

Context 2:   KSTP-FM 102 1 was only on the air four years   There were few radios equipped to receive FM signals in that era, and management decided to discontinue FM broadcasts 

MOR and Top 40
As network programming moved from radio to television, KSTP programmed a full service Middle of the Road (MOR) radio format, in the shadow of its chief competitor, CBS Radio affiliate 830 WCCO  In 1965, a new FM station, reviving the KSTP-FM call sign, was put on the air, largely simulcasting the AM station   But by the late 1960s, KSTP-FM began a separate format of beautiful music   KSTP was the radio home of the Minnesota Vikings football team from 1970 to 1975  

In 1973, KSTP broke away from its longtime adult MOR sound and became one of four area stations at the time to program a Top 40 format  "15 KSTP, The Music Station" competed with Top 40 AM rivals WDGY, KDWB and later, WYOO  The competition would eventually shake itself out, with outrageous rocker WYOO dropping out after being sold in 1976, and then the staid WDGY switching to country music the following year   As for uptempo hits station 15 KSTP, it went from a tight Top 40 format to leaning adult rock in 1978, to leaning adult contemporary in 1979, to evolving into adult contemporary/talk by 1980   In 1982, it officially shifted to talk   Most Top 40 rock music, by this time, had moved to the FM band 

Past Personalities

Notable hosts who have been on KSTP include John Hines, Jesse Ventura, Larry Carolla, Tom Barnard, Big Al Davis, Don Vogel, John MacDougall, Griff, Mike Edwards, Geoff Charles, Joe Soucheray, James Lileks, Leigh Kamman, Barbara Carlson, Peter Thiele, Tom Mischke, Jason Lewis, Chuck Knapp, Machine Gun Kelly, Charle Bush, Mark O'Connell and Paul Brand  These broadcasters were supported by producers such as Bruce Huff, Rob Pendleton, Alison Brown, Jean Bjorgen, David Elvin (who Vogel dubbed the "Steven Spielberg of Talk Radio"), Mitch Berg and others 

The station has, for the most part, emphasized local hosts over the years   But in 1988, KSTP was one of Rush Limbaugh's first affiliates when his conservative talk show was rolled out for national syndication   (Clear Channel-owned KTLK-FM took over rights to Limbaugh's show in January 2006)  Other syndicated hosts previously heard on KSTP include Sean Hannity, Bruce Williams, Larry King, and Owen Spann 

Sports Radio
KSTP switched to Sports Radio on February 15, 2010   As the station had to wait for ESPN's contract with rival KFAN and its sister station KFXN to expire, it did not become an ESPN Radio affiliate until April 12, the same day that the Minnesota Twins were scheduled to play the first game in their new ball park, Target Field, against the Boston Red Sox   As a result Coast to Coast AM and Live on Sunday Night, it's Bill Cunningham were retained during this period   One ESPN Radio network program, The Herd with Colin Cowherd, was picked up by KSTP immediately following the format change 

In 2018, the station was approved for an FM translator on 94 1 FM, broadcasting from a transmitter atop the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis  The two-watt signal threw most of its power to the west, preventing interference to low powered FM stations on the same channel including WFNU-LP in St  Paul  With only two watts of power, however, the signal was limited to the immediate downtown area surrounding the IDS Center   It later acquired a 250 watt translator, K235BP at 94 9 MHz   The original translator was discontinued 

On January 15, 2019, KSTP rebranded as "SKOR North" (a reference to the Vikings team song/chant, "Skol, Vikings"), with local programming between 12 noon and 7 pm  About a year later, in May of 2020, KSTP suspended most of its local programming and laid off nearly all of its local staff  Station management cited the economic toll of the coronavirus for the changes  Sports broadcasting continues, primarily composed of ESPN radio network broadcasts 

Sports Teams

KSTP-AM served as the radio flagship for the Minnesota Vikings football team from 1970 to 1975 

On August 1, 2006, the station announced that it would be the new flagship station for the Minnesota Twins baseball team, effective with the start of the 2007 season  The Twins had been on rival WCCO since arriving in Minnesota in 1961   KSTP served as the flagship for the Twins until the end of the 2012 season, when games moved to 96 3 KTWN-FM (now KMWA)   The Twins have since returned to WCCO 830 

The switch to a fairly weak FM station caused dissent among some listeners, particularly in communities that had trouble picking up KSTP 1500   Although KSTP is the state's second most powerful AM station, it must operate directionally at night, delivering a reduced signal to parts of the market  WCCO, by comparison, offers a signal with a wider coverage area during the day than KSTP does, with WCCO's non-directional 50,000 watt signal  In response, the Twins have expanded the number of affiliates 

On March 9, 2011, KSTP announced it would be the new flagship for the University of Minnesota Golden Gophers men's and women's basketball and men's ice hockey, ending a 68-year run on WCCO  The rights have since moved to KFXN-FM, which already aired Gopher football 

On March 2, 2017, KSTP announced it would be the first radio broadcaster for Minnesota United FC   The move brings live soccer action to 1500 AM 

Previous logos

References

External links
KSTP website

FCC History Cards for KSTP (covering 1928-1980)
Radiotapes com Historic Minneapolis/St  Paul airchecks dating back to 1924 including KSTP and other Twin Cities radio stations 
Rick Burnett's TwinCitiesRadioAirchecks com has additional airchecks of KSTP and other Twin Cities radio stations from the '60s and '70s, including Chuck Knapp's 2nd show on KSTP 

Hubbard Broadcasting
ESPN Radio stations
Peabody Award winners
Radio stations in Minneapolis–Saint Paul
Radio stations established in 1925
1925 establishments in Minnesota
Minnesota Kicks
Sports radio stations in the United States
Clear-channel radio stations 
Context 3:  doi:10 7326/0003-4819-137-4-200208200-00009  PMID 12186515  ^ a b "Important Information to Know When You Are Taking: Warfarin (Coumadin) and Vitamin K" (PDF)  National Institute of Health Clinical Center Drug-Nutrient Interaction Task Force  Retrieved 17 Apr 2015  ^ "Guidelines For Warfarin Reversal With Vitamin K" (PDF)  American Society of Health-System Pharmacists  Retrieved 17 Apr 2015  ^ "Pradaxa Drug Interactions"  Pradaxapro com  19 Mar 2012  Retrieved 21 Apr 2013  ^ Bauersachs, R ; Berkowitz, S  D ; Brenner, B ; Buller, H  R ; Decousus, H ; Gallus, A  S ; Lensing, A  W ; Misselwitz, F ; Prins, M  H ; Raskob, G  E ; Segers, A ; Verhamme, P ; Wells, P ; Agnelli, G ; Bounameaux, H ; Cohen, A ; Davidson, B  L ; Piovella, F ; Schellong, S  (Dec 2010)  "Oral rivaroxaban for symptomatic venous thromboembolism"  New England Journal of Medicine  363 (26): 2499–2510  doi:10 1056/NEJMoa1007903  PMID 21128814  ^ McGee, W  (1 Feb 2007)  "Vitamin K"  MedlinePlus  Retrieved 2 Apr 2009  ^ Shearer, M  J ; Newman, P  (Oct 2008)  "Metabolism and cell biology of vitamin K"  Thrombosis and Haemostasis  100 (4): 530–547  doi:10 1160/TH08-03-0147  PMID 18841274  ^ Davidson, R  T ; Foley, A  L ; Engelke, J  A ; Suttie, J  W  (Feb 1998)  "Conversion of dietary phylloquinone to tissue menaquinone-4 in rats is not dependent on gut bacteria"  Journal of Nutrition  128 (2): 220–223  PMID 9446847  ^ Ronden, J  E ; Drittij-Reijnders, M  J ; Vermeer, C ; Thijssen, H  H  (Jan 1998)  "Intestinal flora is not an intermediate in the phylloquinone–menaquinone-4 conversion in the rat"  Biochimica et Biophysica Acta  1379 (1): 69–75  doi:10 1016/S0304-4165(97)00089-5  PMID 9468334  ^ Thijssen, H   H ; Drittij-Reijnders, M  J  (Sep 1994)  "Vitamin K distribution in rat tissues: dietary phylloquinone is a source of tissue menaquinone-4"  The British Journal of Nutrition  72 (3): 415–425  doi:10 1079/BJN19940043  PMID 7947656  ^ Will, B  H ; Usui, Y ; Suttie, J  W  (Dec 1992)  "Comparative metabolism and requirement of vitamin K in chicks and rats"  Journal of Nutrition  122 (12): 2354–2360  PMID 1453219  ^ Davidson, R  T ; Foley, A  L ; Engelke, J  A ; Suttie, J  W  (Feb 1998)  "Conversion of dietary phylloquinone to tissue menaquinone-4 in rats is not dependent on gut bacteria"  Journal of Nutrition  128 (2): 220–223  PMID 9446847  ^ Ronden, J  E ; Drittij-Reijnders, M  J ; Vermeer, C ; Thijssen, H  H  (Jan 1998)  "Intestinal flora is not an intermediate in the phylloquinone-menaquinone-4 conversion in the rat"  Biochimica et Biophysica Acta  1379 (1): 69–75  doi:10 1016/S0304-4165(97)00089-5  PMID 9468334  ^ Al Rajabi, Ala (2011)  The Enzymatic Conversion of Phylloquinone to Menaquinone-4 (PhD thesis)  Tufts University, Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy  ^ Furie, B ; Bouchard, B  A ; Furie, B  C  (Mar 1999)  "Vitamin K-dependent biosynthesis of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid"  Blood  93 (6): 1798–1808  PMID 10068650  ^ Mann, K  G  (Aug 1999)  "Biochemistry and physiology of blood coagulation"  Thrombosis and Haemostasis  82 (2): 165–174  PMID 10605701  ^ Price, P  A  (1988)  "Role of vitamin-K-dependent proteins in bone metabolism"  Annual Review of Nutrition  8: 565–583  doi:10 1146/annurev nu 08 070188 003025  PMID 3060178  ^ Coutu, D  L ; Wu, J  H ; Monette, A ; Rivard, G  E ; Blostein, M  D ; Galipeau, J (Jun 2008)  "Periostin, a member of a novel family of vitamin K-dependent proteins, is expressed by mesenchymal stromal cells"  Journal of Biological Chemistry  283 (26): 17991–18001  doi:10 1074/jbc M708029200  PMID 18450759  ^ Viegas, C  S ; Simes, D  C ; Laizé, V ; Williamson, M  K ; Price, P  A ; Cancela, M  L  (Dec 2008)  "Gla-rich protein (GRP), a new vitamin K-dependent protein identified from sturgeon cartilage and highly conserved in vertebrates"  Journal of Biological Chemistry  283 (52): 36655–36664  doi:10 1074/jbc M802761200  PMC 2605998  PMID 18836183  ^ Viegas, C  S ; Cavaco, S ; Neves, P  L ; Ferreira, A ; João, A ; Williamson, M  K ; Price, P  A ; Cancela, M  L ; Simes, D  C  (Dec 2009)  "Gla-rich protein is a novel vitamin K-dependent protein present in serum that accumulates at sites of pathological calcifications"  American Journal of Pathology  175 (6): 2288–2298  doi:10 2353/ajpath 2009 090474  PMC 2789615  PMID 19893032  ^ Hafizi, S ; Dahlbäck, B  (Dec 2006)  "Gas6 and protein S  Vitamin K-dependent ligands for the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase subfamily"  The FEBS Journal  273 (23): 5231–5244  doi:10 1111/j 1742-4658 2006 05529 x  PMID 17064312  ^ Kulman, J  D ; Harris, J  E ; Xie, L ; Davie, E  W  (May 2007)  "Proline-rich Gla protein 2 is a cell-surface vitamin K-dependent protein that binds to the transcriptional coactivator Yes-associated protein"  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America  104 (21): 8767–8772  doi:10 1073/pnas 0703195104  PMC 1885577  PMID 17502622  ^ "Vitamin K"  MedlinePlus  US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health  Sep 2016  Retrieved 26 May 2009  ^ Conly, J; Stein, K  (Dec 1994)  "Reduction of vitamin K2 concentrations in human liver associated with the use of broad spectrum antimicrobials"  Clinical and Investigative Medicine  17 (6): 531–539  PMID 7895417  ^ Ferland, G ; Sadowski, J  A ; O'Brien, M  E  (Apr 1993)  "Dietary induced subclinical vitamin K deficiency in normal human subjects"  Journal of Clinical Investigation  91 (4): 1761–1768  doi:10 1172/JCI116386  PMC 288156  PMID 8473516  ^ Holden, R  M ; Morton, A  R ; Garland, J  S ; Pavlov, A ; Day, A  G ; Booth, S  L  (Apr 2010)  "Vitamins K and D status in stages 3-5 chronic kidney disease"  Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology  5 (4): 590–597  doi:10 2215/CJN 06420909  PMC 2849681  PMID 20167683  ^ Hodges, S  J ; Pilkington, M  J ; Shearer, M  J ; Bitensky, L ; Chayen, J (Jan 1990)  "Age-related changes in the circulating levels of congeners of vitamin K2, menaquinone-7 and menaquinone-8"  Clinical Science  78 (1): 63–66  PMID 2153497  ^ "Vitamin K"  Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (PDF)  National Academy Press  2001  p  162–196  ^ Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals (PDF), European Food Safety Authority, 2006 ^ a b Rhéaume-Bleue, p  42
^ "Important information to know when you are taking: Warfarin (Coumadin) and Vitamin K" (PDF)  National Institutes of Health Clinical Center  ^ "Nutrition Facts and Information for Parsley, raw"  Nutritiondata com  Retrieved 21 Apr 2013  ^ "Nutrition facts, calories in food, labels, nutritional information and analysis"  Nutritiondata com  13 Feb 2008  Retrieved 21 Apr 2013  ^ "Vitamin K"  Vivo colostate edu  2 Jul 1999  Retrieved 21 Apr 2013  ^ "Vitamin K"  Micronutrient Data Centre  ^ Ikeda, Y ; Iki, M ; Morita, A ; Kajita, E ; Kagamimori, S ; Kagawa, Y ; Yoneshima, H  (May 2006)  "Intake of fermented soybeans, natto, is associated with reduced bone loss in postmenopausal women: Japanese Population-Based Osteoporosis (JPOS) Study"  Journal of Nutrition  136 (5): 1323–1328  PMID 16614424  ^ Katsuyama, H ; Ideguchi, S ; Fukunaga, M ; Saijoh, K ; Sunami, S  (Jun 2002)  "Usual dietary intake of fermented soybeans (Natto) is associated with bone mineral density in premenopausal women"  Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology  48 (3): 207–215  doi:10 3177/jnsv 48 207  PMID 12350079  ^ Sano, M ; Fujita, H ; Morita, I ; Uematsu, H ; Murota, S  (Dec 1999)  "Vitamin K2 (menatetrenone) induces iNOS in bovine vascular smooth muscle cells: no relationship between nitric oxide production and gamma-carboxylation"  Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology  45 (6): 711–723  doi:10 3177/jnsv 45 711  PMID 10737225  ^ Gast, G  C ; de Roos, N  M ; Sluijs, I ; Bots, M  L ; Beulens, J  W ; Geleijnse, J  M ; Witteman, J  C ; Grobbee, D  E ; Peeters, P  H ; van der Schouw, Y  T  (Sep 2009)  "A high menaquinone intake reduces the incidence of coronary heart disease"



ground_truth: Four years.

prompt_front: Now, answer the following question based on the text below, only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the recommended daily intake of vitamin K for adult women and men?

Read the following text and answer briefly.

Context 3:  Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases  19 (7): 504–510  doi:10 1016/j numecd 2008 10 004  PMID 19179058  ^ Oldenburg, J ; Bevans, C  G ; Müller, C  R ; Watzka, M  (2006)  "Vitamin K epoxide reductase complex subunit 1 (VKORC1): the key protein of the vitamin K cycle"  Antioxidants & Redox Signaling  8 (3–4): 347–353  doi:10 1089/ars 2006 8 347  PMID 16677080  ^ Suttie, J  W  (1985)  "Vitamin K-dependent carboxylase"  Annual Review of Biochemistry  54: 459–477  doi:10 1146/annurev bi 54 070185 002331  PMID 3896125  ^ Presnell, S  R ; Stafford, D  W  (Jun 2002)  "The vitamin K-dependent carboxylase"  Thrombosis and Haemostasis  87 (6): 937–946  PMID 12083499  ^ Stafford, D  W  (Aug 2005)  "The vitamin K cycle"  Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis  3 (8): 1873–1878  doi:10 1111/j 1538-7836 2005 01419 x  PMID 16102054  ^ Rhéaume-Bleue, p  79 
^ Whitlon, D  S ; Sadowski, J  A ; Suttie, J  W  (Apr 1978)  "Mechanism of coumarin action: significance of vitamin K epoxide reductase inhibition"  Biochemistry  17 (8): 1371–1377  doi:10 1021/bi00601a003  PMID 646989  ^ Terlau, H ; Olivera, B  M  (Jan 2004)  "Conus venoms: a rich source of novel ion channel-targeted peptides"  Physiological Reviews  84 (1): 41–68  doi:10 1152/physrev 00020 2003  PMID 14715910  ^ Buczek, O ; Bulaj, G ; Olivera, BM (Dec 2005)  "Conotoxins and the posttranslational modification of secreted gene products"  Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences  62 (24): 3067–3079  doi:10 1007/s00018-005-5283-0  PMID 16314929  ^ "Prothrombin Time"  WebMD  ^ Dituri, F ; Buonocore, G ; Pietravalle, A ; Naddeo, F ; Cortesi, M; Pasqualetti, P; Tataranno M  L ; R , Agostino (Sep 2012)  "PIVKA-II plasma levels as markers of subclinical vitamin K deficiency in term infants"  Journal of Maternal, Fetal & Neonatal Medicine  25 (9): 1660–1663  doi:10 3109/14767058 2012 657273  PMID 22280352  ^ Thane, C  W ; Bates, C  J ; Shearer, M  J ; Unadkat, N; Harrington, D  J ; Paul, A  A ; Prentice, A ; Bolton-Smith, C  (Jun 2002)  "Plasma phylloquinone (vitamin K1) concentration and its relationship to intake in a national sample of British elderly people"  British Journal of Nutrition  87 (6): 615–622  doi:10 1079/BJNBJN2002582  PMID 12067432  ^ McKeown, N  M ; Jacques, P  F ; Gundberg, C  M ; Peterson, J  W ; Tucker, K  L ; Kiel, D  P ; Wilson, P  W ; Booth, SL (Jun 2002)  "Dietary and nondietary determinants of vitamin K biochemical measures in men and women" (PDF)  Journal of Nutrition  132 (6): 1329–1334  PMID 12042454  ^ Yamano, M ; Yamanaka, Y ; Yasunaga, K ; Uchida, K  (Sep 1989)  "Effect of vitamin K deficiency on urinary gamma-carboxyglutamic acid excretion in rats"  Nihon Ketsueki Gakkai Zasshi  52 (6): 1078–1086  PMID 2588957  ^ Matsumoto, T ; Miyakawa, T ; Yamamoto, D  (Mar 2012)  "Effects of vitamin K on the morphometric and material properties of bone in the tibiae of growing rats"  Metabolism  61 (3): 407–414  doi:10 1016/j metabol 2011 07 018  PMID 21944271  ^ Je, S -H ; Joo, N -S ; Choi, B -H ; Kim, K -M ; Kim, B -T ; Park, S -B ; Cho, D -Y ; Kim, K -N ; Lee, D -J  (Aug 2011)  "Vitamin K supplement along with vitamin D and calcium reduced serum concentration of undercarboxylated osteocalcin while increasing bone mineral density in Korean postmenopausal women over sixty-years-old"  Journal of Korean Medical Science  26 (8): 1093–1098  doi:10 3346/jkms 2011 26 8 1093  PMC 3154347  PMID 21860562  ^ Bentley, R ; Meganathan, R  (Sep 1982)  "Biosynthesis of vitamin K (menaquinone) in bacteria" (PDF)  Microbiological Reviews  46 (3): 241–280  PMC 281544  PMID 6127606  ^ Haddock, B  A ; Jones, C  W  (Mar 1977)  "Bacterial respiration" (PDF)  Bacteriological Reviews  41 (1): 47–99  PMC 413996  PMID 140652  ^ Shearer, M  J  (Jan 1995)  "Vitamin K"  Lancet  345 (8944): 229–234  doi:10 1016/S0140-6736(95)90227-9  PMID 7823718  ^ Greer, J  P ; Foerster, J ; Lukens, J  N ; Rodgers, G  M ; Paraskevas, F ; Glader, B  (eds )  Wintrobe's Clinical Hematology (11th ed )  Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkens  ^ a b American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus Newborn  (Jul 2003)  "Controversies concerning vitamin K and the newborn  American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn" (PDF)  Pediatrics  112 (1 1): 191–192  doi:10 1542/peds 112 1 191  PMID 12837888  ^ Logan, S ; Gilbert, R  (1998)  "Vitamin K For Newborn Babies" (PDF)  Department of Health  Retrieved 12 Oct 2014  ^ "Postnatal care: Routine postnatal care of women and their babies [CG37]"  www nice org uk  NICE  Jul 2006  Retrieved 12 Oct 2014  ^ Parker, L ; Cole, M ; Craft, A  W ; Hey, E  N  (1998)  "Neonatal vitamin K administration and childhood cancer in the north of England: retrospective case-control study"  BMJ (Clinical Research Edition)  316 (7126): 189–193  doi:10 1136/bmj 316 7126 189  PMC 2665412  PMID 9468683  ^ McMillan, D  D  (1997)  "Routine administration of vitamin K to newborns"  Paediatric Child Health  2 (6): 429–431  ^ "Newborns get rare disorder after parents refused shots"  Having four cases since February just at Vanderbilt was a little bit concerning to me ^ Dam, C  P  H  (1935)  "The Antihaemorrhagic Vitamin of the Chick: Occurrence And Chemical Nature"  Nature  135 (3417): 652–653  doi:10 1038/135652b0  ^ Dam, C  P  H  (1941)  "The discovery of vitamin K, its biological functions and therapeutical application" (PDF)  Nobel Prize Laureate Lecture  ^ McAlister, V  C  (2006)  "Control of coagulation: a gift of Canadian agriculture" (PDF)  Clinical and Investigative Medicine  29 (6): 373–377  ^ MacCorquodale, D  W ; Binkley, S  B ; Thayer, S  A ; Doisy, E  A  (1939)  "On the constitution of Vitamin K1"  Journal of the American Chemical Society  61 (7): 1928–1929  doi:10 1021/ja01876a510  ^ Fieser, L  F  (1939)  "Synthesis of Vitamin K1"  Journal of the American Chemical Society  61 (12): 3467–3475  doi:10 1021/ja01267a072  ^ Dam, C  P  H  (12 Dec 1946)  "The discovery of vitamin K, its biological functions and therapeutical application" (PDF)  Nobel Prize lecture  ^ Warner, E  D ; Brinkhous, K  M ; Smith, H  P  (1938)  "Bleeding Tendency of Obstructive Jaundice"  Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine  37 (4): 628–630  doi:10 3181/00379727-37-9668P  ^ Stenflo, J; Fernlund, P ; Egan, W ; Roepstorff, P  (Jul 1974)  "Vitamin K dependent modifications of glutamic acid residues in prothrombin"  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America  71 (7): 2730–2733  doi:10 1073/pnas 71 7 2730  PMC 388542  PMID 4528109  ^ Nelsestuen, G  L ; Zytkovicz, T  H ; Howard, J  B  (Oct 1974)  "The mode of action of vitamin K  Identification of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid as a component of prothrombin" (PDF)  Journal of Biological Chemistry  249 (19): 6347–6350  PMID 4214105  ^ Magnusson, S ; Sottrup-Jensen, L ; Petersen, T  E ; Morris, H  R ; Dell, A  (Aug 1974)  "Primary structure of the vitamin K-dependent part of prothrombin"  FEBS Letters  44 (2): 189–193  doi:10 1016/0014-5793(74)80723-4  PMID 4472513  Bibliography[edit]
Rhéaume-Bleue, Kate (2012)  Vitamin K2 and the Calcium Paradox  John Wiley & Sons, Canada  ISBN 1-118-06572-7  External links[edit]
"Vitamin K: Another Reason to Eat Your Greens"  v
TPP / ThDP (B1)
FMN, FAD (B2)
NAD+, NADH, NADP+, NADPH (B3)
Coenzyme A (B5)
PLP / P5P (B6)
THFA / H4FA, DHFA / H2FA, MTHF (B9)
AdoCbl, MeCbl (B12)
Phylloquinone (K1), Menaquinone (K2)
non-vitamins
Coenzyme B
Heme / Haem (A, B, C, O)
Molybdopterin/Molybdenum cofactor
THMPT / H4MPT
Fe2+, Fe3+
vitamins: see vitamins
Antihemorrhagics (B02)
(coagulation)
Phytomenadione (K1)
Menadione (K3)
intrinsic: IX/Nonacog alfa
VIII/Moroctocog alfa/Turoctocog alfa
extrinsic: VII/Eptacog alfa
common: X
II/Thrombin
I/Fibrinogen
XIII/Catridecacog
combinations: Prothrombin complex concentrate (II, VII, IX, X, protein C and S)
Carbazochrome
thrombopoietin receptor agonist (Romiplostim
Eltrombopag)
Tetragalacturonic acid hydroxymethylester
Epinephrine/Adrenalone
amino acids (Aminocaproic acid
Aminomethylbenzoic acid)
serpins (Aprotinin
Alfa1 antitrypsin
Camostat) 



ground_truth: 90 μg for women and 120 μg for men.