prompt_front: Now, answer the following question based on the text below, only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How are smartphones and tablets different from a technical perspective?

Read the following text and answer briefly.

Context 1: The future of mobile CPUs, part 1: Today’s fork in the road | Ars Technica
2013 may be a big year for the evolution of smartphones and tablets 
Mobile computing's rise from niche market to the mainstream is among the most significant technological trends in our lifetimes  And to a large extent, it's been driven by the bounty of Moore’s Law—the rule that transistor density doubles every 24 months  Initially, most mobile devices relied on highly specialized hardware to meet stringent power and size budgets  But with so many transistors available, devices inevitably grew general-purpose capabilities  Most likely, that wasn't even the real motivation  The initial desire was probably to reduce costs by creating a more flexible software ecosystem with better re-use and faster time to market  As such, the first smartphones were very much a novelty, and it took many years before the world realized the potential of such devices  Apple played a major role by creating innovative smartphones that consumers craved and quickly adopted 
To some extent, this is where we still stand today  Smartphones are still (relatively) expensive and primarily interesting to the developed world  But over the next 10 years, this too will change  As Moore’s Law rolls on, the cost of a low-end smartphone will decline  At some point, the incremental cost will be quite minimal and many feature phones of today will be supplanted by smartphones  A $650 unsubsidized phone is well beyond the reach of most of the world compared to a $20 feature phone, but a $30 to $40 smartphone would naturally be very popular 
In this grand progression, 2013 will certainly be a significant milestone for mobile devices, smartphones and beyond  It's likely to be the first year in which tablets out-ship notebooks in the US  And in the coming years, this will lead to a confluence of high-end tablets and ultra-mobile notebooks as the world figures out how these devices co-exist, blend, hybridize, and/or merge 
Against this backdrop, in this two-part series, we'll explore the major trends and evolution for mobile SoCs  More importantly, we'll look to where the major vendors are likely going in the next several years 
Tablet and phone divergence
While phones and tablets are mobile devices that often share a great deal of software, it's becoming increasingly clear the two are very different products  These two markets have started to diverge and will continue doing so over time 
From a technical perspective, smartphones are far more compact and power constrained  Smartphone SoCs are limited to around 1W, both by batteries and by thermal dissipation  The raison d’etre of a smartphone is connectivity, so a cellular modem is an absolute necessity  For the cost sensitive-models that make up the vast majority of the market, the modem is integrated into the SoC itself  High-end designs favor discrete modems with a greater power budget instead  The main smartphone OSes today are iOS and Android, though Windows is beginning to make an appearance (perhaps with Linux or BlackBerry on the horizon)  Just as importantly, phone vendors like HTC must pass government certification and win the approval of carriers  There is very much a walled-garden aspect, where carriers control which devices can be attached to their networks, and in some cases devices can only be sold through a certain carrier  The business model places consumers quite far removed from the actual hardware 
In contrast, tablets are far more akin to the PC both technically and economically  The power budget for tablet SoCs is much greater, up to 4W for a passively cooled device and as high as 7-8W for systems with fans  This alone means there is a much wider range of tablet designs than smartphones  Moreover, the default connectivity for tablets is Wi-Fi rather than a cellular modem  The vast majority of tablets do not have cellular modems, and even fewer customers actually purchase a wireless data plan  As a result, cellular modems are almost always optional discrete components of the platform  The software ecosystem is relatively similar, with Microsoft, Apple, and Google OSes available  Because tablets eschew cellular modems, the time to market is faster, and they are much more commonly sold directly to consumers rather than through carriers  In terms of usage models, tablets are much more PC-like, with reasonable-sized screens that make games and media more attractive 
Looking forward, these distinctions will likely become more pronounced  Many tablets today use high-end smartphone SoCs, but the difference in power targets and expected performance is quite large  As the markets grow in volume, SoCs will inevitably bifurcate to focus on one market or the other  Even today, Apple is doing so, with the A6 for phones and the larger A6X for tablets  Other vendors may need to wait a few years to have the requisite volume, but eventually the two markets will be clearly separate 
Horizontal business model evolution
Another aspect of the mobile device market that is currently in flux and likely to change in the coming years is the business model for the chip and system vendors  Currently, Apple is the only company truly pursuing a vertically integrated model, where all phones and tablets are based on Apple’s own SoC designs and iOS  The tight integration between hardware and software has been a huge boon for Apple, and it has yielded superb products 
Samsung is one of the few others companies that takes a vertically integrated approach to phones and tablets, although in truth its strategy seems to be ambivalent on that point  Unlike Apple, Samsung’s SoCs are readily available to third parties, and some Samsung devices, such as the S7562 Galaxy S Duos, use SoCs from competitors  More recently though, there has been a trend of Samsung devices using Samsung SoCs, at least for the premier products  For the moment, Samsung’s approach is best characterized as a hybrid, particularly as the company lacks a bespoke OS 
The rest of the major SoC vendors (e g , Intel, Qualcomm, Nvidia, TI, Mediatek, etc ) have stayed pretty far away from actual mobile devices  These companies tend to focus on horizontal business models that avoid competing with customers or suppliers 
In the long term, mobile devices are likely to evolve similarly to the PC and favor a horizontal business model  The real advantage is one of flexibility; as costs drop and the market expands, it will be increasingly necessary for vendors like HTC to offer a wide range of phones based on radically different SoCs  While a vertically integrated company like Apple can focus and maintain leadership in a specific (and highly lucrative) niche, it would be very difficult to expand in many growing areas of the market  The differences between an iPhone 6 and a $20 feature phone are tremendous and would be very difficult for a single company to bridge 
However, SoC vendors will attempt to reap the benefits of vertical integration by providing complete reference platforms to OEMs  Conceptually, this is a form of "optional" system integration, where the phone vendor or carrier can get the entire platform from the SoC supplier  This has the principal advantages of reducing time to market while also providing a baseline quality and experience for consumers  Currently, this approach has mostly been tested in emerging markets, but it's likely to become more common over time  There is a crucial distinction between reference platforms and vertical integration  Namely, OEMs can always choose to customize a platform to differentiate, and the SoC vendor avoids dealing with consumers directly  Typically, most of the customization is in terms of software on top of a base operating system 
Quote:Moreover, that will make the transition to a 10nm node even more difficult, as the foundries will have to move from 20nm interconnects to 10nm interconnects and skip a generation The advances in technology lately allowing components on such a small scale to even be envisioned, much less planned for, are truly amazing 
Off topic: show
I present the first generation 'non-technical' rock:
I don't think your horizontal market development theory is supported by facts  Samsung and Apple are more vertically oriented than their competition, for starters  I know this article is narrowly focused on the hardware, but MS and Intel getting into hardware, Amazon getting into hardware, Google buying Moto, this is all vertical integration  How can you support the idea that this trend will be reversed with no real justification? I'm sure mobile chips will continue to specialize, but I don't think this means what you think it means  Automobile companies started making their own engines and with rare exceptions, never went back to being more horizontal  Same with retail and their store brands  Same with cloud companies and their servers  Same with mobile companies and their OSs  The horizontal market of PCs created by long-lasting standards and loose hegemony is the exception, not the norm 
Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?
I'm not so sure about several things:1- Moore's law's relevance  Moore's Law is about ICs  ICs are not as big a part of mobile computers as they are of desktops, even of laptops: screens, batteries, radios are a huge part of tablets' and phones' costs, as opposed to the bare SoC + RAM 2- The tablet vs phone dichotomy  For some reason (probably price insensitivity due to subsidies), Phones have a tendency to be more powerful than Tablets, ie phone SoCs are more than good enough for tablets  Since the OS and peripherals are the same, it makes more sense to design and build just one type of SoC, and just disable the phone-modem part of it (even the other radios are still required: BT, Wifi, GPS   ), same as Intel disable cache and cores for their entry-level CPUs  Once you're fabbing a SoC, it makes more sense to make more of the same than to setup a separate run of a cut-down SoC on an older process, unless volumes are huge  We might still be getting previous-generation, well amortized SoCs in cheaper tablets, though 3- On the contrary, I see a tablet and phone convergence (the ugly phablet)  I'm patiently waiting for the new 6"+ phones to replace my Nook Color and Galaxy Note 1 with a single device 4- The advantage of diversity ? Software is becoming ever more important than hardware  Multiplying SoCs means multiplying product development costs, making support and updates more difficult    Again, unless volumes are huge, OEMs are probaly better off going the way of the car industry and using modular "platforms" housed in different chassis with various screen sizes, keyboards, radios, digitizers   I'm wondering why the "single device" trend does not figure in your analysis  Is it stillborn ? Does it have no impact nor dependency on/with SoCs ?
Samsung has its own bespoke OS: Bada and it is used on an extensive line of devices  I think there are numbers somewhere that it outsold Windows Phone 7 for a time 
gypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?First mover advantage 
SoC? System on a Chip I guess?
You're way off on the Moore's Law/cost of smartphones point  The processors used in today's high-end smartphones are already cheap, around $25  And there are less expensive options if you want a lower end product  In fact, the hardware in the whole smartphone is relatively cheap  Analyst's estimate the Z10's materials cost around $160, the iPhone 5 around $140  They're using expensive glass and metals, then there's the battery, memory, etc  which means the processor is a small factor of the cost And then there's the jump from $140 in materials to the unsubsidized costs  The reason these phones cost $650 is because of the high margins these companies are able to get and the high cost of hardware design and/or software development  But the point is that making the processors 4 times better/cheaper isn't going to change the economics of the smartphone  What will change the economics is commoditized designs and software and cheaper materials all around  Then you'll have a $50 smartphone that's decent 
Last edited by ggeezz on Wed Feb 13, 2013 9:17 am
bigterp wrote:SoC? System on a Chip I guess?Yup 
gypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Money and momentum, the x86 market is a huge money maker for Intel so it is able to recoup its huge investments for advanced foundries 
Quote:Currently, the only products using 3D integration are FPGAs from Xilinx,Doesn't Sony use it in the PS Vita? I thought I read somewhere that they had the CPU, main memory (2 dies) and video memory, so 4 dies in total, sitting on top of each other all on the same chip 
renoX wrote:gypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Money and momentum, the x86 market is a huge money maker for Intel so it is able to recoup its huge investments for advanced foundries Exactly and I would clarify that it's all about margins, the difference between what it costs to make a chip and what it sells for  The margins for desktop and server processors is huge because a) the whole product is expensive so $200 to $1000 for the chip is acceptable, and b) Intel has huge advantages in that space and little competition So Intel can afford to do the R&D to stay ahead of the curve and keep their position  When your smartphone chip sells for $25 you can't do the R&D to leapfrog a company that sells Xeons for $1000 and Core i5's for $200 
I am happy to see Kanter here at Ars, I like his writing and he maintains Real World Tech, where Linus Torvalds often shows up to comment on CPU arch and other interesting topics 
ggeezz wrote:renoX wrote:gypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Money and momentum, the x86 market is a huge money maker for Intel so it is able to recoup its huge investments for advanced foundries Exactly and I would clarify that it's all about margins, the difference between what it costs to make a chip and what it sells for  The margins for desktop and server processors is huge because a) the whole product is expensive so $200 to $1000 for the chip is acceptable, and b) Intel has huge advantages in that space and little competition So Intel can afford to do the R&D to stay ahead of the curve and keep their position  When your smartphone chip sells for $25 you can't do the R&D to leapfrog a company that sells Xeons for $1000 and Core i5's for $200 Spot on Intel are able to piggyback other development efforts off the highly lucrative mainstream x86 market which generates the huge sums of money to fund their amazing fab technology The question for the future is how the economics will stack up when overall device costs fall significantly and there is a big downward pressure on SoC prices  In that situation, can Intel still justify bringing their A-game to a market where products are essentially commoditised and you have processors selling for a only a few dollars each?The lesson from their previous involvement in the DRAM market is that they probably won't want to be involved because there isn't enough money to be made to justify manufacturing phone SoCs on a cutting edge, or near cutting edge process  In that scenario, Intel may not totally abandon the market but they might just stick to manufacturing SoCs on nodes that are a step or two behind the state of the art 
solomonrex wrote:I don't think your horizontal market development theory is supported by facts  Samsung and Apple are more vertically oriented than their competition, for starters  I know this article is narrowly focused on the hardware, but MS and Intel getting into hardware, Amazon getting into hardware, Google buying Moto, this is all vertical integration  How can you support the idea that this trend will be reversed with no real justification? I'm sure mobile chips will continue to specialize, but I don't think this means what you think it means  Automobile companies started making their own engines and with rare exceptions, never went back to being more horizontal  Same with retail and their store brands  Same with cloud companies and their servers  Same with mobile companies and their OSs  The horizontal market of PCs created by long-lasting standards and loose hegemony is the exception, not the norm Yea, each year Amazon, MS, Apple and Google look more and more the same 
Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market  Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise  This trend is only going to increase going forward But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge  But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that 
gypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Intel's called Chipzilla for a reason up
Lagrange wrote:The question for the future is how the economics will stack up when overall device costs fall significantly and there is a big downward pressure on SoC prices  In that situation, can Intel still justify bringing their A-game to a market where products are essentially commoditised and you have processors selling for a only a few dollars each?The lesson from their previous involvement in the DRAM market is that they probably won't want to be involved because there isn't enough money to be made to justify manufacturing phone SoCs on a cutting edge, or near cutting edge process  In that scenario, Intel may not totally abandon the market but they might just stick to manufacturing SoCs on nodes that are a step or two behind the state of the art I think the processing is a bigger advantage than many realize  If Intel can stay ahead in process design - which this article seems to indicate - they should have a major advantage  All else being equal a 14nm chip should be significantly faster and more efficient than the same chip at 22nm  Add in the fact that yields increase geometrically - you can fit a lot more 14nm chips on a given wafer size vs 22nm (or 32nm for the other manufacturers ) and you have a very appealing proposition  And then add in the fact that Intel actually has a pretty good graphics stack and IP  It's not a sure thing by any means, but I suspect ARM may have just prodded a sleeping giant edit: Also worth noting, Intel, TSMC, and Samsung are the only manufacturers who are building out 450nm wafers  This will increase yields dramatically  Of course Samsung and TSMC will build ARM out, but it definitely puts quite a bit of pressure on all other manufacturers  As the article mentions Intel and Samsung are the only ones who control production top to bottom, and Samsung must share some of the benefits with ARM 
As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago  Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it  Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then  The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP 
Last edited by paul5ra on Wed Feb 13, 2013 11:06 am
introiboad wrote:I am happy to see Kanter here at Ars, I like his writing and he maintains Real World Tech, where Linus Torvalds often shows up to comment on CPU arch and other interesting topics Indeed  Most tech writing in this area is atrocious  This piece is one of the few well informed articles I've read in a long time 
ggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market  Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise  This trend is only going to increase going forward But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge  But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that The word you're looking for is Haswell, as far as I know 
Mabsark
ggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market  Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise  This trend is only going to increase going forward But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge  But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that Actually, that trend will not simply keep increasing going forward  The reason desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing is due to the fact that most people already have one and therefore don't need to buy another one  The exact same thing will happen with tablets as well  Sales are increasing now because people without tablets are buying them  When most people already own a tablet, they won't be buying a new one every year and therefore sales will stagnate/decrease The PC market is saturated and in a couple of years, the tablet market will be saturated too  Basically, in order to increase sales in a saturated market, you need to increase the population growth or decrease the longevity of the product 
gypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Probably a mix of a lot of things  One big thing was during this recession, Intel was the ONLY fab company that didn't scale back their R&D  That alone gave Intel a large advantage Intel has almost always been ahead  One of the reasons could be that Intel works with much higher margins than many of the commodity companies like Samsung and TSMC Outside of the P4 flop and some of the monopolistic abuses, Intel has typically been selling to high end customers that are willing to pay a premium for "the best" Intel has a large benefit of having a relatively "good name" when it comes to CPUs, so they can effectively charge a brand-name premium I'm sure there are other reasons, and probably better reasons, but these are the main ones that I think of 
Mabsark wrote:Actually, that trend will not simply keep increasing going forward  The reason desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing is due to the fact that most people already have one and therefore don't need to buy another one  The exact same thing will happen with tablets as well  Sales are increasing now because people without tablets are buying them  When most people already own a tablet, they won't be buying a new one every year and therefore sales will stagnate/decrease The PC market is saturated and in a couple of years, the tablet market will be saturated too  Basically, in order to increase sales in a saturated market, you need to increase the population growth or decrease the longevity of the product That's true as long as most people are still buying both a tablet and a laptop when each needs to be replaced  I think the assumption is that, as you say, the tablet market will saturate, with people just replacing existing ones, but the desktop/laptop market could decrease much farther than that, if most people stop replacing them at all  I'm not sure of the likelihood of that, but I think that's where this idea comes from 
ggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market  Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise  This trend is only going to increase going forward But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge  But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that The upcoming Haswell chip is showing to consume 1/3 the power of IvyBridge at peak, consumes 1/20th the power at idle, all the while maintaining Identical or better performance This chip should actually compete with ARM CPUs on both power/performance and idle I am expecting a large war 
Apple once again is dictating the performance in the mobile industry  Nice to see others being able to keep the pace, as well 
paul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago  Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it  Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then Yeah, and most of the innovation in the automobile industry came about before Henry Ford came into the business  Doesn't change the fact that cars would probably have been an asterisk in the history books under "toys for rich people" if it weren't for him The same applies to to mobile computing for Apple, Samsung, et al 
SheldonRoss wrote:Lagrange wrote:The question for the future is how the economics will stack up when overall device costs fall significantly and there is a big downward pressure on SoC prices  In that situation, can Intel still justify bringing their A-game to a market where products are essentially commoditised and you have processors selling for a only a few dollars each?The lesson from their previous involvement in the DRAM market is that they probably won't want to be involved because there isn't enough money to be made to justify manufacturing phone SoCs on a cutting edge, or near cutting edge process  In that scenario, Intel may not totally abandon the market but they might just stick to manufacturing SoCs on nodes that are a step or two behind the state of the art I think the processing is a bigger advantage than many realize  If Intel can stay ahead in process design - which this article seems to indicate - they should have a major advantage  All else being equal a 14nm chip should be significantly faster and more efficient than the same chip at 22nm  Add in the fact that yields increase geometrically - you can fit a lot more 14nm chips on a given wafer size vs 22nm (or 32nm for the other manufacturers ) and you have a very appealing proposition  And then add in the fact that Intel actually has a pretty good graphics stack and IP  My point was that Intel might have a one or two process advantage over the rest of the industry at the cutting edge but that doesn't mean that they can afford to manufacture on those processes for very low margin parts  If the SoC market becomes increasingly commoditised, there isn't going to be the money to justify making them in a state of the art fab Remember that one of the big selling points of Itanium was that it would make use of process advantages that were effectively paid for by the mainstream x86 market  That didn't quite work out in practice and Itanium processors were often well behind Xeons in process technology 
paul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago  Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it  Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then  The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP Just goes to show that people who have worked in an industry for a long time don't always understand what that industry is doing You haven't been working in it long enough to seem to know that it was Acorn and Apple that invented the mobile ARM CPU in the first place  All those companies you've mentioned have just been working off Acorn and Apple's pioneering work  Now, Apple is back at it again, very successfully, and all the companies you mentioned that produce chips with ARM IP in them are licensing them from the company Acorn and Apple formed—ARM 
Last edited by melgross on Wed Feb 13, 2013 11:13 am
Mark Havel wrote:ggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market  Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise  This trend is only going to increase going forward But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge  But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that The word you're looking for is Haswell, as far as I know If tablets move into the $100-200 range, is there going to be room for Haswell?So long as there is a higher-end tablet market, then Haswell will be able to shine, but it's going to be a much more powerful and costly part than the sort of ARM based hardware that often runs tablets  If we see a race to the bottom where price is the dominant motivator behind purchases, then a high performance SoC will struggle to make its mark 
melgross wrote:paul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago  Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it  Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then  The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP Just goes to show that people who have worked in an industry for a long time don't always understand what that industry is doing You haven't been working in it long enough to seem to know that it was Acorn and Apple that invented the mobile ARM CPU in the first place  All those companies you've mentioned have just been working off Acorn and Apple's pioneering work  Now, Apple is back at it again, very successfully, and all the companies you mentioned that produce chips with ARM IP in them are licensing them from the company Acorn and Apple formed—ARM Of course I realise ARM IP has indeed been a major driving factor too (though only one if several architectures before ARM became dominant), though I see ARM's influence on the mobile industry as having nothing to do with modern day Apple and only one small piece of the puzzle  My point is that the hard electrical engineering, mathematics, DSP, semiconductor physics/chemistry, RF engineering, analogue design, CAD etc  that make modern telecommunications possible has very little to do with the fashion companies who consumers (and unfortunately much of the tech media) associate with it and give the credit (though in this respect Samsung does deserve a bit more credit for their work on NAND flash and displays)  The industry simply would not exist TODAY without the overwhelming horizontal integration that already dominates 
Quote:In the long term, mobile devices are likely to evolve similarly to the PC and favor a horizontal business model  The real advantage is one of flexibility; as costs drop and the market expands, it will be increasingly necessary for vendors like HTC to offer a wide range of phones based on radically different SoCs  You don't mention in the article that each SoC necessarily requires a bit of parallel dev work unlike the PC  In the PC world there is a standard BIOS and HW architecture that allows for pluggable designs  On a highly integrated SoC this is untrue  HTC suffers because it has to support radically different SoCs, their drivers and boot loaders, etc  Quote:While a vertically integrated company like Apple can focus and maintain leadership in a specific (and highly lucrative) niche, it would be very difficult to expand in many growing areas of the market  The differences between an iPhone 6 and a $20 feature phone are tremendous and would be very difficult for a single company to bridge It's only difficult because Apple chooses to ignore that market, not because they can't  If they can release a $99 Apple TV, they can surely cobble together a $20 feature phone if they chose to eschew 8GB of NAND, BT, WiFi, a specialized dock connector, LTE, and their specialized processors  In other words, build the equivalent of an iPod shuffle with a horrible screen and no OS to speak of 
paul5ra wrote:melgross wrote:paul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago  Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it  Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then  The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP Just goes to show that people who have worked in an industry for a long time don't always understand what that industry is doing You haven't been working in it long enough to seem to know that it was Acorn and Apple that invented the mobile ARM CPU in the first place  All those companies you've mentioned have just been working off Acorn and Apple's pioneering work  Now, Apple is back at it again, very successfully, and all the companies you mentioned that produce chips with ARM IP in them are licensing them from the company Acorn and Apple formed—ARM Of course I realise ARM IP has indeed been a major driving factor too (though only one if several architectures before ARM became dominant), though I see ARM's influence on the mobile industry as having nothing to do with modern day Apple and only one piece of the puzzle  My point is that the hard electrical engineering, mathematics, DSP, semiconductor physics/chemistry, RF engineering, analogue design,etc  that make modern telecommunications possible has very little to do with the fashion companies who consumers (and unfortunately much of the tech media) associate with it and give the credit (though in this respect Samsung does deserve a bit more credit for their work on NAND flash and displays)  The industry simply would not exist TODAY without the overwhelming horizontal integration that already dominates Yes the efforts of these companies getting cellular communications standardized were immense  And the technology matured  And then they didn't do much with it  It took some youngin's to look at the problem fresh and add the UI that make today's smartphones work  As we have all seen, the moment your technology has matured is the moment you are screwed because someone else now has the opportunity to look at it as a black box and make something new  Each of those manufacturers knew that smartphones would eventually be awesome, but none of them had the UI and software design to make a truly breakout product  Imagine if Motorola would have been smart enough to buy the Android guys instead of Google  Instead, Google bought a bunch of patents on that cellular black box to try to defend it's platform And when you think about it, which consumes more man years of engineering effort per year at this point     iterating that cellular black box or developing the OS, services and apps that power today's smartphones?
Intel had better decide that they are competing in this space "for real", or they are screwed  They've already let the Atom languish for five years, during which ARM has completely caught up in performance Just like Tim Cook said, if you don't cannibalize your own markets someone else will do it for you Whether Intel will embrace that concept in time remains to be seen  Personally, I hope they don't; if Intel transforms into a chipless Fab company (like TSMC) everyone benefits 
I still think Samsung has the advantage long term because they have both the SOC and the memory products  As mentioned in the article, TSV's (Through Silicon Via's) are going to be quite a disruption  Today, people normally stack an LPDDR2 package on top of their SOC package (POP or Package On Package)  Within the LPDDR2 package, you could have a stack of DRAM die typically with wire bonding connecting the die within the package Once you more to TSV's, you can have a LOT more connections between the SOC and its DRAM's  While this is being standardized through JEDEC (http://www jedec org/category/technolog     a/3d-ics-0), Samsung has all the pieces in house to do whatever they want  You could see a 512 bit or higher bus from the SOC to the memory  The trick is that the memory and the SOC need to line up with each other when you stack them  This gives Samsung an inherent advantage This isn't just going to impact mobile either  Take a look at that JEDEC link  It also lists High Bandwidth Memory (HBM)  This is a 1024 bit bus that provides 128GBytes/s to 256GBytes/s of bandwidth to a stack of up to 8 DRAM's  Here is your processor that includes 8-16 cores and 4GBytes of really, really, fast DRAM    No DIMMs required  How many of them do you want in your server rack?If I was Intel or Apple, I would be thinking seriously about making some investments in Micron to guarantee they make some compelling DRAM's to integrate with their SOC's and processors    otherwise Samsung is going to blow them out of the water on bandwidth 
Great_Scott wrote:Intel had better decide that they are competing in this space "for real", or they are screwed  They've already let the Atom languish for five years, during which ARM has completely caught up in performance Just like Tim Cook said, if you don't cannibalize your own markets someone else will do it for you Whether Intel will embrace that concept in time remains to be seen  Personally, I hope they don't; if Intel transforms into a chipless Fab company (like TSMC) everyone benefits It's true that Atom has stood still for too long, but honestly it's pretty amazing how Atom is still competitive with current ARM chips  The Z2760 is even 32nm vs 28nm of the latest Krait and A15 chips But that's all changing with Atom moving to the tick tock schedule this year  It wouldn't even surprise me to see Apple move to Intel chips for IOS And I don't see how Intel moving to a chipless Fab company would help everyone  It certainly wouldn't help Intel 
Mabsark wrote:ggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market  Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise  This trend is only going to increase going forward But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge  But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that Actually, that trend will not simply keep increasing going forward  The reason desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing is due to the fact that most people already have one and therefore don't need to buy another one  The exact same thing will happen with tablets as well  Sales are increasing now because people without tablets are buying them  When most people already own a tablet, they won't be buying a new one every year and therefore sales will stagnate/decrease The PC market is saturated and in a couple of years, the tablet market will be saturated too  Basically, in order to increase sales in a saturated market, you need to increase the population growth or decrease the longevity of the product Yes and no  I'm not sure the tablet market will saturate in a "couple of years " It may be more like 5 years  But that's a quibble Here's the real issue  Right now Apple wants you to own an iPhone AND iPad AND Macbook AND iWatch AND Apple TV  Microsoft, OTOH, is making the Surface so that you could ditch your laptop and just use a Surface  Not everyone, but some people If 5 years from now, we're in a world where a significant number of people use a Surface-type device instead of a laptop, then the PC market is going to contract significantly  Maybe some of the tablet-like devices will use moderately expensive Intel chips, but some of them are going to use cheaper chips 
GravyGraphics wrote:I still think Samsung has the advantage long term because they have both the SOC and the memory products  As mentioned in the article, TSV's (Through Silicon Via's) are going to be quite a disruption  Today, people normally stack an LPDDR2 package on top of their SOC package (POP or Package On Package)  Within the LPDDR2 package, you could have a stack of DRAM die typically with wire bonding connecting the die within the package Once you more to TSV's, you can have a LOT more connections between the SOC and its DRAM's  While this is being standardized through JEDEC (http://www jedec org/category/technolog     a/3d-ics-0), Samsung has all the pieces in house to do whatever they want  You could see a 512 bit or higher bus from the SOC to the memory  The trick is that the memory and the SOC need to line up with each other when you stack them  This gives Samsung an inherent advantage This isn't just going to impact mobile either  Take a look at that JEDEC link  It also lists High Bandwidth Memory (HBM)  This is a 1024 bit bus that provides 128GBytes/s to 256GBytes/s of bandwidth to a stack of up to 8 DRAM's  Here is your processor that includes 8-16 cores and 4GBytes of really, really, fast DRAM    No DIMMs required  How many of them do you want in your server rack?If I was Intel or Apple, I would be thinking seriously about making some investments in Micron to guarantee they make some compelling DRAM's to integrate with their SOC's and processors    otherwise Samsung is going to blow them out of the water on bandwidth Why not AMD? Last I checked they still made memory   and processors/GPUs 
Context 2: Vitamin K - Wikipedia
(Redirected from Vitamin k)
This article needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources  Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can  Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed  (November 2015)
This article is about the family of vitamers  For vitamin K1 the form usually used as a supplement, see Phytomenadione 
Vitamin K structures  MK-4 and MK-7 are both subtypes of K2 
Vitamin K deficiency, Warfarin overdose
Vitamin K is a group of structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamins the human body requires for complete synthesis of certain proteins that are prerequisites for blood coagulation and which the body also needs for controlling binding of calcium in bones and other tissues  The vitamin K-related modification of the proteins allows them to bind calcium ions, which they cannot do otherwise  Without vitamin K, blood coagulation is seriously impaired, and uncontrolled bleeding occurs  Low levels of vitamin K also weaken bones and promote calcification of arteries and other soft tissues[citation needed] 
Chemically, the vitamin K family comprises 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (3-) derivatives  Vitamin K includes two natural vitamers: vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 [1] Vitamin K2, in turn, consists of a number of related chemical subtypes, with differing lengths of carbon side chains made of isoprenoid groups of atoms 
Vitamin K1, also known as phylloquinone, is made by plants, and is found in highest amounts in green leafy vegetables because it is directly involved in photosynthesis  It may be thought of as the plant form of vitamin K  It is active as a vitamin in animals and performs the classic functions of vitamin K, including its activity in the production of blood-clotting proteins  Animals may also convert it to vitamin K2 
Bacteria in the gut flora can also convert K1 into vitamin K2  In addition, bacteria typically lengthen the isoprenoid side chain of vitamin K2 to produce a range of vitamin K2 forms, most notably the MK-7 to MK-11 homologues of vitamin K2  All forms of K2 other than MK-4 can only be produced by bacteria, which use these forms in anaerobic respiration  The MK-7 and other bacterially derived forms of vitamin K2 exhibit vitamin K activity in animals, but MK-7's extra utility over MK-4, if any, is unclear and is a matter of investigation 
Three synthetic types of vitamin K are known: vitamins K3, K4, and K5  Although the natural K1 and all K2 homologues and synthetic K4 and K5 have proven nontoxic, the synthetic form K3 (menadione) has shown toxicity [2]
1 2 Cardiovascular health
1 4 Coumarin poisoning
4 1 Conversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2
4 2 Vitamin K2
6 Absorption and dietary need
7 Dietary reference intake
10 Biochemistry
10 1 Function in animals
10 2 Gamma-carboxyglutamate proteins
10 3 Methods of assessment
10 4 Function in bacteria
11 Injection in newborns
11 3 Controversy
A review of 2014 concluded that there is positive evidence that monotherapy using MK-4, one of the forms of Vitamin K2, reduces fracture incidence in post-menopausal women with osteoporosis, and suggested further research on the combined use of MK-4 with bisphosphonates  In contrast, an earlier review article of 2013 concluded that there is no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation helps prevent osteoporosis or fractures in postmenopausal women [3]
A Cochrane systematic review of 2006 suggested that supplementation with Vitamin K1 and with MK4 reduces bone loss; in particular, a strong effect of MK-4 on incident fractures among Japanese patients was emphasized [4]
A review article of 2016 suggested to consider, as one of several measures for bone health, increasing the intake of foods rich in vitamins K1 and K2 [5]
Cardiovascular health[edit]
Adequate intake of vitamin K is associated with the inhibition of arterial calcification and stiffening,[6] but there have been few interventional studies and no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation is of any benefit in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease [7]
One 10-year population study, the Rotterdam Study, did show a clear and significant inverse relationship between the highest intake levels of menaquinone (mainly MK-4 from eggs and meat, and MK-8 and MK-9 from cheese) and cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in older men and women [8]
Vitamin K has been promoted in supplement form with claims it can slow tumor growth; there is however no good medical evidence that supports such claims [9]
Coumarin poisoning[edit]
Vitamin K is part of the suggested treatment regime for poisoning by rodenticide (coumarin poisoning) [10]
Although allergic reaction from supplementation is possible, no known toxicity is associated with high doses of the phylloquinone (vitamin K1) or menaquinone (vitamin K2) forms of vitamin K, so no tolerable upper intake level (UL) has been set [11]
Blood clotting (coagulation) studies in humans using 45 mg per day of vitamin K2 (as MK-4)[12] and even up to 135 mg per day (45 mg three times daily) of K2 (as MK-4),[13] showed no increase in blood clot risk  Even doses in rats as high as 250 mg/kg, body weight did not alter the tendency for blood-clot formation to occur [14]
Unlike the safe natural forms of vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 and their various isomers, a synthetic form of vitamin K, vitamin K3 (menadione), is demonstrably toxic at high levels  The U S  FDA has banned this form from over-the-counter sale in the United States because large doses have been shown to cause allergic reactions, hemolytic anemia, and cytotoxicity in liver cells [2]
Phylloquinone (K1)[15][16] or menaquinone (K2) are capable of reversing the anticoagulant activity of the anticoagulant warfarin (tradename Coumadin)  Warfarin works by blocking recycling of vitamin K, so that the body and tissues have lower levels of active vitamin K, and thus a deficiency of vitamin K 
Supplemental vitamin K (for which oral dosing is often more active than injectable dosing in human adults) reverses the vitamin K deficiency caused by warfarin, and therefore reduces the intended anticoagulant action of warfarin and related drugs [17] Sometimes small amounts of vitamin K are given orally to patients taking warfarin so that the action of the drug is more predictable [17] The proper anticoagulant action of the drug is a function of vitamin K intake and drug dose, and due to differing absorption must be individualized for each patient [citation needed] The action of warfarin and vitamin K both require two to five days after dosing to have maximum effect, and neither warfarin or vitamin K shows much effect in the first 24 hours after they are given [18]
The newer anticoagulants dabigatran and rivaroxaban have different mechanisms of action that do not interact with vitamin K, and may be taken with supplemental vitamin K [19][20]
Vitamin K2 (menaquinone)  In menaquinone, the side chain is composed of a varying number of isoprenoid residues  The most common number of these residues is four, since animal enzymes normally produce menaquinone-4 from plant phylloquinone 
A sample of phytomenadione for injection, also called phylloquinone
The three synthetic forms of vitamin K are vitamins K3 (menadione), K4, and K5, which are used in many areas, including the pet food industry (vitamin K3) and to inhibit fungal growth (vitamin K5) [21]
Conversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2[edit]
Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) – both forms of the vitamin contain a functional naphthoquinone ring and an aliphatic side chain  Phylloquinone has a phytyl side chain 
The MK-4 form of vitamin K2 is produced by conversion of vitamin K1 in the testes, pancreas, and arterial walls [22] While major questions still surround the biochemical pathway for this transformation, the conversion is not dependent on gut bacteria, as it occurs in germ-free rats[23][24] and in parenterally-administered K1 in rats [25][26] In fact, tissues that accumulate high amounts of MK-4 have a remarkable capacity to convert up to 90% of the available K1 into MK-4 [27][28] There is evidence that the conversion proceeds by removal of the phytyl tail of K1 to produce menadione as an intermediate, which is then condensed with an activated geranylgeranyl moiety (see also prenylation) to produce vitamin K2 in the MK-4 (menatetrione) form [29]
Vitamin K2[edit]
Main article: Vitamin K2
Vitamin K2 (menaquinone) includes several subtypes  The two subtypes most studied are menaquinone-4 (menatetrenone, MK-4) and menaquinone-7 (MK-7) 
Vitamin K1, the precursor of most vitamin K in nature, is a stereoisomer of phylloquinone, an important chemical in green plants, where it functions as an electron acceptor in photosystem I during photosynthesis  For this reason, vitamin K1 is found in large quantities in the photosynthetic tissues of plants (green leaves, and dark green leafy vegetables such as romaine lettuce, kale and spinach), but it occurs in far smaller quantities in other plant tissues (roots, fruits, etc )  Iceberg lettuce contains relatively little  The function of phylloquinone in plants appears to have no resemblance to its later metabolic and biochemical function (as "vitamin K") in animals, where it performs a completely different biochemical reaction 
Vitamin K (in animals) is involved in the carboxylation of certain glutamate residues in proteins to form gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residues  The modified residues are often (but not always) situated within specific protein domains called Gla domains  Gla residues are usually involved in binding calcium, and are essential for the biological activity of all known Gla proteins [30]
At this time[update], 17 human proteins with Gla domains have been discovered, and they play key roles in the regulation of three physiological processes:
Blood coagulation: prothrombin (factor II), factors VII, IX, and X, and proteins C, S, and Z[31]
Bone metabolism: osteocalcin, also called bone Gla protein (BGP), matrix Gla protein (MGP),[32] periostin,[33] and the recently discovered Gla-rich protein (GRP) [34][35]
Vascular biology: growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6)[36]
Unknown function: proline-rich γ-carboxyglutamyl proteins (PRGPs) 1 and 2, and transmembrane γ-carboxy glutamyl proteins (TMGs) 3 and 4 [37]
Like other lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D and E), vitamin K is stored in the fatty tissue of the human body 
Absorption and dietary need[edit]
Previous theory held that dietary deficiency is extremely rare unless the small intestine was heavily damaged, resulting in malabsorption of the molecule  Another at-risk group for deficiency were those subject to decreased production of K2 by normal intestinal microbiota, as seen in broad spectrum antibiotic use [38] Taking broad-spectrum antibiotics can reduce vitamin K production in the gut by nearly 74% in people compared with those not taking these antibiotics [39] Diets low in vitamin K also decrease the body's vitamin K concentration [40] Those with chronic kidney disease are at risk for vitamin K deficiency, as well as vitamin D deficiency, and particularly those with the apoE4 genotype [41] Additionally, in the elderly there is a reduction in vitamin K2 production [42]
The National Academy of Medicine (NAM) updated an estimate of what constitutes an adequate intake (AI) for vitamin K in 2001  The NAM does not distinguish between K1 and K2 – both are counted as vitamin K  At that time there was not sufficient evidence to set the more rigorous estimated average requirement (EAR) or recommended dietary allowance (RDA) given for most of the essential vitamins and minerals  The current daily AIs for vitamin K for adult women and men are 90 μg and 120 μg respectively  The AI for pregnancy and lactation is 90 μg  For infants up to 12 months the AI is 2–2 5 μg, and for children aged 1 to 18 years the AI increases with age from 30 to 75 μg  As for safety, the FNB also sets tolerable upper intake levels (known as ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient  In the case of vitamin K no UL is set, as evidence for adverse effects is not sufficient  Collectively EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as dietary reference intakes [43] The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and did not set an UL [44]
For U S  food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percentage of daily value (%DV)  For vitamin K labeling purposes the daily value was 80 μg, but as of May 2016 it has been revised upwards to 120 μg  A table of the pre-change adult daily values is provided at reference daily intake  Food and supplement companies have until 28 July 2018 to comply with the change 
See also: Vitamin K2 § Dietary sources
K1 (μg)[45]
Kale, cooked
Collards, cooked
Collards, raw
Swiss chard, cooked
Swiss chard, raw
Turnip greens, raw
Romaine lettuce, raw
Table from "Important information to know when you are taking: Warfarin (Coumadin) and Vitamin K", Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health Drug Nutrient Interaction Task Force [46]
Vitamin K1 is found chiefly in leafy green vegetables such as dandelion greens (which contain 778 4 μg per 100 g, or 741% of the recommended daily amount), spinach, swiss chard, lettuce and Brassica vegetables (such as cabbage, kale, cauliflower, broccoli, and brussels sprouts) and often the absorption is greater when accompanied by fats such as butter or oils; some fruits, such as avocados, kiwifruit and grapes, are also high in vitamin K  By way of reference, two tablespoons of parsley contains 153% of the recommended daily amount of vitamin K [47] Some vegetable oils, notably soybean oil, contain vitamin K, but at levels that would require relatively large calorie consumption to meet the USDA-recommended levels [48] colonic bacteria synthesize a significant portion of humans' vitamin K needs; newborns often receive a vitamin K shot at birth to tide them over until their colons become colonized at five to seven days of age from the consumption of breast milk 
The tight binding of vitamin K1 to thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts makes it less bioavailable  For example, cooked spinach has a 5% bioavailability of phylloquinone, however, fat added to it increases bioavailability to 13% due to the increased solubility of vitamin K in fat [49]
Main article: Vitamin K deficiency
Average diets are usually not lacking in vitamin K, and primary deficiency is rare in healthy adults  Newborn infants are at an increased risk of deficiency  Other populations with an increased prevalence of vitamin K deficiency include those who suffer from liver damage or disease (e g  alcoholics), cystic fibrosis, or inflammatory bowel diseases, or have recently had abdominal surgeries  Secondary vitamin K deficiency can occur in people with bulimia, those on stringent diets, and those taking anticoagulants  Other drugs associated with vitamin K deficiency include salicylates, barbiturates, and cefamandole, although the mechanisms are still unknown  Vitamin K1 deficiency can result in coagulopathy, a bleeding disorder [50]Symptoms of K1 deficiency include anemia, bruising, nosebleeds and bleeding of the gums in both sexes, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women 
Osteoporosis[51][52] and coronary heart disease[53][54] are strongly associated with lower levels of K2 (menaquinone)  Vitamin K2 (as menaquinones MK-4 through MK-10) intake level is inversely related to severe aortic calcification and all-cause mortality [8]
Function in animals[edit]
Mechanism of action of vitamin K1 
The function of vitamin K2 in the animal cell is to add a carboxylic acid functional group to a glutamate (Glu) amino acid residue in a protein, to form a gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residue  This is a somewhat uncommon posttranslational modification of the protein, which is then known as a "Gla protein"  The presence of two −COOH (carboxylic acid) groups on the same carbon in the gamma-carboxyglutamate residue allows it to chelate calcium ions  The binding of calcium ions in this way very often triggers the function or binding of Gla-protein enzymes, such as the so-called vitamin K-dependent clotting factors discussed below 
Within the cell, vitamin K undergoes electron reduction to a reduced form called vitamin K hydroquinone, catalyzed by the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR) [55] Another enzyme then oxidizes vitamin K hydroquinone to allow carboxylation of Glu to Gla; this enzyme is called gamma-glutamyl carboxylase[56][57] or the vitamin K-dependent carboxylase  The carboxylation reaction only proceeds if the carboxylase enzyme is able to oxidize vitamin K hydroquinone to vitamin K epoxide at the same time  The carboxylation and epoxidation reactions are said to be coupled  Vitamin K epoxide is then reconverted to vitamin K by VKOR  The reduction and subsequent reoxidation of vitamin K coupled with carboxylation of Glu is called the vitamin K cycle [58] Humans are rarely deficient in vitamin K1 because, in part, vitamin K1 is continuously recycled in cells [59]
Warfarin and other 4-hydroxycoumarins block the action of VKOR [60] This results in decreased concentrations of vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone in tissues, such that the carboxylation reaction catalyzed by the glutamyl carboxylase is inefficient  This results in the production of clotting factors with inadequate Gla  Without Gla on the amino termini of these factors, they no longer bind stably to the blood vessel endothelium and cannot activate clotting to allow formation of a clot during tissue injury  As it is impossible to predict what dose of warfarin will give the desired degree of clotting suppression, warfarin treatment must be carefully monitored to avoid overdose 
Gamma-carboxyglutamate proteins[edit]
Main article: Gla domain
The following human Gla-containing proteins ("Gla proteins") have been characterized to the level of primary structure: blood coagulation factors II (prothrombin), VII, IX, and X, anticoagulant proteins C and S, and the factor X-targeting protein Z  The bone Gla protein osteocalcin, the calcification-inhibiting matrix Gla protein (MGP), the cell growth regulating growth arrest specific gene 6 protein (Gas6), and the four transmembrane Gla proteins (TMGPs), the function of which is at present unknown  Gas6 can function as a growth factor to activate the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase and stimulate cell proliferation or prevent apoptosis in some cells  In all cases in which their function was known, the presence of the Gla residues in these proteins turned out to be essential for functional activity 
Gla proteins are known to occur in a wide variety of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish  The venom of a number of Australian snakes acts by activating the human blood-clotting system  In some cases, activation is accomplished by snake Gla-containing enzymes that bind to the endothelium of human blood vessels and catalyze the conversion of procoagulant clotting factors into activated ones, leading to unwanted and potentially deadly clotting 
Another interesting class of invertebrate Gla-containing proteins is synthesized by the fish-hunting snail Conus geographus [61] These snails produce a venom containing hundreds of neuroactive peptides, or conotoxins, which is sufficiently toxic to kill an adult human  Several of the conotoxins contain two to five Gla residues [62]
Methods of assessment[edit]
Vitamin K status can be assessed by:
The prothrombin time (PT) test measures the time required for blood to clot  A blood sample is mixed with citric acid and put in a fibrometer; delayed clot formation indicates a deficiency  This test is insensitive to mild deficiency, as the values do not change until the concentration of prothrombin in the blood has declined by at least 50% [63]
Undercarboxylated prothrombin (PIVKA-II); in a study of 53 newborns, found "PT (prothrombin time) is a less sensitive marker than PIVKA II",[64] and as indicated above, PT is unable to detect subclinical deficiencies that can be detected with PIVKA-II testing 
Plasma phylloquinone was found to be positively correlated with phylloquinone intake in elderly British women, but not men,[65] but an article by Schurgers et al  reported no correlation between FFQ[further explanation needed] and plasma phylloquinone [66]
Urinary γ-carboxyglutamic acid responds to changes in dietary vitamin K intake  Several days are required before any change can be observed  In a study by Booth et al , increases of phylloquinone intakes from 100 μg to between 377 and 417 μg for five days did not induce a significant change  Response may be age-specific [67]
Undercarboxylated osteocalcin (UcOc) levels have been inversely correlated with stores of vitamin K[68] and bone strength in developing rat tibiae  Another study following 78 post-menopausal Korean women found a supplement regimen of vitamins K and D, and calcium, but not a regimen of vitamin D and calcium, was inversely correlated with reduced UcOc levels [69]
Function in bacteria[edit]
Many bacteria, such as Escherichia coli found in the large intestine, can synthesize vitamin K2 (menaquinone-7 or MK-7, up to MK-11),[70] but not vitamin K1 (phylloquinone)  In these bacteria, menaquinone transfers two electrons between two different small molecules, during oxygen-independent metabolic energy production processes (anaerobic respiration) [71] For example, a small molecule with an excess of electrons (also called an electron donor) such as lactate, formate, or NADH, with the help of an enzyme, passes two electrons to menaquinone  The menaquinone, with the help of another enzyme, then transfers these two electrons to a suitable oxidant, such fumarate or nitrate (also called an electron acceptor)  Adding two electrons to fumarate or nitrate converts the molecule to succinate or nitrite plus water, respectively 
Some of these reactions generate a cellular energy source, ATP, in a manner similar to eukaryotic cell aerobic respiration, except the final electron acceptor is not molecular oxygen, but fumarate or nitrate  In aerobic respiration, the final oxidant is molecular oxygen (O2), which accepts four electrons from an electron donor such as NADH to be converted to water  E  coli, as facultative anaerobes, can carry out both aerobic respiration and menaquinone-mediated anaerobic respiration 
Injection in newborns[edit]
The blood clotting factors of newborn babies are roughly 30–60% that of adult values; this may be due to the reduced synthesis of precursor proteins and the sterility of their guts  Human milk contains 1–4 μg/L of vitamin K1, while formula-derived milk can contain up to 100 μg/L in supplemented formulas  Vitamin K2 concentrations in human milk appear to be much lower than those of vitamin K1  Occurrence of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the first week of the infant's life is estimated at 0 25–1 7%, with a prevalence of 2–10 cases per 100,000 births [72] Premature babies have even lower levels of the vitamin, so they are at a higher risk from this deficiency 
Bleeding in infants due to vitamin K deficiency can be severe, leading to hospitalization, blood transfusions, brain damage, and death  Supplementation can prevent most cases of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the newborn  Intramuscular administration is more effective in preventing late vitamin K deficiency bleeding than oral administration [73][74]
As a result of the occurrences of vitamin K deficiency bleeding, the Committee on Nutrition of the American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended 0 5–1 mg of vitamin K1 be administered to all newborns shortly after birth [74]
In the UK vitamin K supplementation is recommended for all newborns within the first 24 hours [75] This is usually given as a single intramuscular injection of 1 mg shortly after birth but as a second-line option can be given by three oral doses over the first month [76]
Controversy arose in the early 1990s regarding this practice, when two studies suggested a relationship between parenteral administration of vitamin K and childhood cancer,[77] however, poor methods and small sample sizes led to the discrediting of these studies, and a review of the evidence published in 2000 by Ross and Davies found no link between the two [78] Doctors reported emerging concerns in 2013,[79] after treating children for serious bleeding problems  They cited lack-of newborn vitamin K administration, as the reason that the problems occurred, and recommended that breastfed babies could have an increased risk unless they receive a preventative dose 
In the early 1930s, Danish scientist Henrik Dam investigated the role of cholesterol by feeding chickens a cholesterol-depleted diet [80] He initially replicated experiments reported by scientists at the Ontario Agricultural College (OAC) [81] McFarlane, Graham and Richardson, working on the chick feed program at OAC, had used chloroform to remove all fat from chick chow  They noticed that chicks fed only fat-depleted chow developed hemorrhages and started bleeding from tag sites [82] Dam found that these defects could not be restored by adding purified cholesterol to the diet  It appeared that – together with the cholesterol – a second compound had been extracted from the food, and this compound was called the coagulation vitamin  The new vitamin received the letter K because the initial discoveries were reported in a German journal, in which it was designated as Koagulationsvitamin  Edward Adelbert Doisy of Saint Louis University did much of the research that led to the discovery of the structure and chemical nature of vitamin K [83] Dam and Doisy shared the 1943 Nobel Prize for medicine for their work on vitamin K (K1 and K2) published in 1939  Several laboratories synthesized the compound(s) in 1939 [84]
For several decades, the vitamin K-deficient chick model was the only method of quantifying vitamin K in various foods: the chicks were made vitamin K-deficient and subsequently fed with known amounts of vitamin K-containing food  The extent to which blood coagulation was restored by the diet was taken as a measure for its vitamin K content  Three groups of physicians independently found this: Biochemical Institute, University of Copenhagen (Dam and Johannes Glavind), University of Iowa Department of Pathology (Emory Warner, Kenneth Brinkhous, and Harry Pratt Smith), and the Mayo Clinic (Hugh Butt, Albert Snell, and Arnold Osterberg) [85]
The first published report of successful treatment with vitamin K of life-threatening hemorrhage in a jaundiced patient with prothrombin deficiency was made in 1938 by Smith, Warner, and Brinkhous [86]
The precise function of vitamin K was not discovered until 1974, when three laboratories (Stenflo et al ,[87] Nelsestuen et al ,[88] and Magnusson et al [89]) isolated the vitamin K-dependent coagulation factor prothrombin (factor II) from cows that received a high dose of a vitamin K antagonist, warfarin  It was shown that, while warfarin-treated cows had a form of prothrombin that contained 10 glutamate (Glu) amino acid residues near the amino terminus of this protein, the normal (untreated) cows contained 10 unusual residues that were chemically identified as γ-carboxyglutamate (Gla)  The extra carboxyl group in Gla made clear that vitamin K plays a role in a carboxylation reaction during which Glu is converted into Gla 
The biochemistry of how vitamin K is used to convert Glu to Gla has been elucidated over the past thirty years in academic laboratories throughout the world 
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^ Whitlon, D  S ; Sadowski, J  A ; Suttie, J  W  (Apr 1978)  "Mechanism of coumarin action: significance of vitamin K epoxide reductase inhibition"  Biochemistry  17 (8): 1371–1377  doi:10 1021/bi00601a003  PMID 646989  ^ Terlau, H ; Olivera, B  M  (Jan 2004)  "Conus venoms: a rich source of novel ion channel-targeted peptides"  Physiological Reviews  84 (1): 41–68  doi:10 1152/physrev 00020 2003  PMID 14715910  ^ Buczek, O ; Bulaj, G ; Olivera, BM (Dec 2005)  "Conotoxins and the posttranslational modification of secreted gene products"  Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences  62 (24): 3067–3079  doi:10 1007/s00018-005-5283-0  PMID 16314929  ^ "Prothrombin Time"  WebMD  ^ Dituri, F ; Buonocore, G ; Pietravalle, A ; Naddeo, F ; Cortesi, M; Pasqualetti, P; Tataranno M  L ; R , Agostino (Sep 2012)  "PIVKA-II plasma levels as markers of subclinical vitamin K deficiency in term infants"  Journal of Maternal, Fetal & Neonatal Medicine  25 (9): 1660–1663  doi:10 3109/14767058 2012 657273  PMID 22280352  ^ Thane, C  W ; 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Rhéaume-Bleue, Kate (2012)  Vitamin K2 and the Calcium Paradox  John Wiley & Sons, Canada  ISBN 1-118-06572-7  External links[edit]
"Vitamin K: Another Reason to Eat Your Greens"  v
TPP / ThDP (B1)
FMN, FAD (B2)
NAD+, NADH, NADP+, NADPH (B3)
Coenzyme A (B5)
PLP / P5P (B6)
THFA / H4FA, DHFA / H2FA, MTHF (B9)
AdoCbl, MeCbl (B12)
Phylloquinone (K1), Menaquinone (K2)
non-vitamins
Coenzyme B
Heme / Haem (A, B, C, O)
Molybdopterin/Molybdenum cofactor
THMPT / H4MPT
Fe2+, Fe3+
vitamins: see vitamins
Antihemorrhagics (B02)
(coagulation)
Phytomenadione (K1)
Menadione (K3)
intrinsic: IX/Nonacog alfa
VIII/Moroctocog alfa/Turoctocog alfa
extrinsic: VII/Eptacog alfa
common: X
II/Thrombin
I/Fibrinogen
XIII/Catridecacog
combinations: Prothrombin complex concentrate (II, VII, IX, X, protein C and S)
Carbazochrome
thrombopoietin receptor agonist (Romiplostim
Eltrombopag)
Tetragalacturonic acid hydroxymethylester
Epinephrine/Adrenalone
amino acids (Aminocaproic acid
Aminomethylbenzoic acid)
serpins (Aprotinin
Alfa1 antitrypsin
Camostat) 
Context 3: Margaret Way (b  Brisbane d  Cleveland, Queensland, Australia ) was an Australian writer of romance novels and women's fiction  A prolific author, Way wrote more than 120 novels since 1970, many through Mills & Boon, a romance imprint of British publisher Harlequin UK Ltd , owned by Harlequin Enterprises 

Biography
Before her marriage, she was a well-known pianist, teacher, vocal coach and accompanist  She began writing when her son, Laurence Way, was born, a friend took a pile of Mills & Boon books to her, she read all and decided that she also could write these types of novels  She began to write and promote her country with her stories set in Australia  She sold her first novels in 1970  Margaret Way lives with her family in her native Brisbane  Beginning in 2013, Margaret began to self-publish, releasing her first "e-book" mid-July



ground_truth: Smartphones are more compact and power constrained.

prompt_front: Now, answer the following question based on the text below, only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What are the symptoms of vitamin K deficiency?

Read the following text and answer briefly.

Context 4: Paper Info

Title: Incorporating Human Path Preferences in Robot Navigation with Minimal Interventions
Publish Date: 16 Mar 2023
Author List: Oriana Peltzer, Dylan Asmar, Mac Schwager, Mykel Kochenderfer

Figure

Hyperplane arrangement of a twodimensional space containing two obstacles (colored in gray) The robot is located inside the pink polytope, surrounded by three adjacent obstacle-free polytopes Each hyperplane on the boundary of the robot's polytope corresponds to one of the nonredundant constraints in eq (4) (b)Graph derived from the hyperplane arrangement The nodes on the graph designate polytopes, and edges designate transitions to adjacent polytopes To estimate the human's preference, the robot updates a posterior over the goal and over which of the graph transitions φ 1 , φ 2 and φ 3 is preferred by the human (c)Example preference defined over the graph The location of the goal is indicated in yellow in the lower right polytope For each node, the outgoing pink arrow designates the edge on the graph corresponding to the preferred transition between polytopes 
Simple, 10 × 10, 8 polytopes (b) Map 2: Office, 10 × 10, 56 polytopes (c) Map 3: Classroom, 20 × 20, 73 polytopes (d) Sampled observations and robot's executed trajectories 
Fig 5: Maps used for simulating the robot navigation problem with path preferences In (d), the heading angles observed are indicated with arrows The goal is indicated with a pink circle, and the orange robot corresponds to the starting location The blue robot follows a policy that accounts for path preference, while the green robot does not The opacity of the robots increases with time 
Map 1 problem setup and example realizations for goal-only (green) and path preference (blue) solution methods The robot starts at the lower left corner of the environment, and the goal of the task (pink circle) is in the upper left area The robot does not know which goal, among 10 options (shown in light blue squares), is the correct goal The human provides noisy observations, indicated by arrows, at each iteration The green robot selects actions according to the goal-only baseline, and the blue robot uses our proposed method to infer path preferences The polytopes composing G are drawn in blue Probability of correct goal WLPHVWHS +J (c) Entropy of goal distribution g 
Fig  6: Probability of the correct goal, fig 6b, and entropy of the goal belief distribution P (g), fig 6c, for the same problem setup, fig 6a In this problem instance, the human's preference is to go to the goal by passing on the right side of the obstacle Results are averaged over 50 runs and the area filled represents one standard deviation above and below the mean value The goal-only baseline shows an over-confident prediction (shown by the strong reduction in belief entropy) that the correct goal is less likely, making it more difficult to reach the correct goal compared to a method that accounts for path preference 
Success rates in the simple environment (Map 1) The results are averaged over 6 randomly sampled problem instances (start location, goal location, and goal possibilities), and over 50 runs per problem instance ∆T is the number of time steps separating two consecutive human inputs The robot's mission time is Tmax = 30 time steps We selected γ h = 1 5, corresponding to relatively noisy human inputs and making the problem more difficult to solve for the robot 
Computation times for Goal Only and Path Preference methods on Map 1 (fig 5a),Map 2 (fig 5b), and Map 3 (fig 5c),averaged over 100 runs with randomly sampled problem instances The 95 % confidence interval is provided with the mean We evaluate computation time at the first iteration of each run (where the search depth takes on its highest value Tmax) 

abstract

Robots that can effectively understand human intentions from actions are crucial for successful human-robot collaboration  In this work, we address the challenge of a robot navigating towards an unknown goal while also accounting for a human's preference for a particular path in the presence of obstacles 
This problem is particularly challenging when both the goal and path preference are unknown a priori  To overcome this challenge, we propose a method for encoding and inferring path preference online using a partitioning of the space into polytopes  Our approach enables joint inference over the goal and path preference using a stochastic observation model for the human 
We evaluate our method on an unknown-goal navigation problem with sparse human interventions, and find that it outperforms baseline approaches as the human's inputs become increasingly sparse  We find that the time required to update the robot's belief does not increase with the complexity of the environment, which makes our method suitable for online applications 

INTRODUCTION

Collaboration between humans and robots has become increasingly important and one key aspect of this collaboration is the ability for robots to adapt to human decisions  In many scenarios, such as a robot navigating through a busy room to deliver an item, it is important for the robot to take into account human preferences 
For instance, humans may prefer a specific path that would allow their colleagues to notice the item being delivered, but this preference may change dynamically based on various factors such as changes in the environment or unforeseen circumstances  While some preferences can be incorporated into the path-planning process, accommodating dynamic user preferences in real-time remains challenging 
In this paper, we propose a way to enable robots to adapt to human preferences dynamically by leveraging real-time feedback to inform decision-making  In this work, we tackle the problem of robot navigation in which the robot cannot observe the goal or the preferred path to the goal, but must make navigation decisions that are influenced by humans through recommended actions 
Prior work has explored how to adapt to a human's preference through feedback, but such approaches often require a high level of intervention, which can be time-consuming and impractical in real-world scenarios  To optimize the use of human input and quickly infer the human's preference, Fig  : An autonomous robot navigates in a simulated classroom towards a goal location (pink circle) 
At the start of its mission, it receives direction indications (arrows) from a human that indicate which path it should take to get to the goal  In this scenario, the human wants the robot to go around the desks on the right side of the classroom  A robot that does not reason over path preferences (green) will take the shortest path to the goal regardless of the human's input 
Our method (blue) infers the human's path preference from these indications and adapts to their recommendations  we propose an approach that leverages probabilistic representations of human preference and incorporates real-time feedback  Previous research by Bajcsy et al  considered an online adaptation problem in a manipulation task, where the person can apply forces to the robot to indicate their preferences 
By allowing the robot to continue its task while taking into account a probabilistic representation of human preference, their approach does not require frequent inputs  Building on this idea, we adopt a similar approach to adapt to a human's preference in the context of a robot autonomously navigating through a known environment, such as a cluttered office space 
Specifically, we focus on allowing the human to influence the robot's trajectory with respect to obstacles, by providing guidance on preferred routes or paths, while the robot continues to execute its task  Paths can be represented using homotopy classes   However, homotopies can pose computational challenges when used to encode and infer human preferences 
When the robot maintains a belief over homotopy classes, the inference problem can become exponentially complex with the number of obstacles in the space  Additionally, when the goal is unknown, the number of variables increases with the number of candidate destinations  This complexity can render the decision-making problem intractable 
Our solution is to encode path preference based on a partitioning of the environment into polytopes   This representation allows path preferences to be expressed as sets of preferred transitions between adjacent polytopes  Paths belonging to different homotopy classes correspond to different sequences of transitions 
By leveraging conditional independence assumptions, we can make the Bayesian inference problem tractable  These assumptions exploit the fact that human actions provide information about the path in a piece-wise manner  For example, indicating a preference for navigating around a particular obstacle only provides information about the local area and not the entire path 
Finally, after updating its belief representation over the human's preference, the robot can adapt to indications by replanning online  Our contributions are as follows  • We formulate the human-robot collaboration problem as a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) where both the goal of the task and the human's path preference are unknown random variables 
• We propose an encoding of a human's path preference using a partitioning of the environment into polytopes, along with conditional independence assumptions that make the Bayesian inference problem tractable to infer the task goal and path preference online  • Through simulations in two environments of different sizes and complexity, we show that our method is effective for solving problems where the robot must reach a goal that is unknown a-priori while simultaneously adapting to a human's indications 
Our method shows higher success rates compared to baseline approaches when the human inputs are sparse  Our approach enables a robot to make effective navigation decisions in collaboration with a human, even when the goal and path preference are not known in advance, and with minimal human input  In recent years, there has been a growing interest in shared autonomy and interactive systems, where humans and robots work together to accomplish tasks 
Several approaches have been proposed to address the challenge of enabling effective collaboration between human and robot agents while still achieving high task performance  Losey et al  and Jeon, Losey, and Sadigh propose a framework where a human operator is given control of a task-relevant latent action space while an autonomous system handles the rest 
Dragan and Srinivasa present a formalism for arbitrating between a user's input and a robot's policy when both human and robot share control of the same action space  Cognetti et al  [7] provide a method for real-time modifications of a path,       Fig  : We model the intent inference problem with the above diagram 
At each step in time, the robot receives an observation ot from the human conditioned on its current location st, the intended goal g, and the human's path preference θ  The robot updates its belief over g and θ and transitions to a next location st+1  while Hagenow et al  present a method that allows an outside agent to modify key robot state variables and blends the changes with the original control 
However, a common challenge of these approaches is the high level of intervention required from humans  Best and Fitch propose a method for predicting an agent's intended trajectory from observations  Rather than maintaining a belief over the agent's future path, they infer the agent's intended goal among a set of candidate locations at the boundary of the space 
This approach provides information on where the agent is heading and generates a distribution of candidate future trajectories for the agent  Inferring the goal of the task among a discrete set of candidates is also relevant to the area of shared autonomy  Javdani, Srinivasa, and Bagnell propose a formalism for shared control of a robotic arm, where the robot must assist the human in picking up an object but needs to infer which object the human has chosen from joystick inputs 
Planning with homotopy class constraints is useful in problems where the robot's requirements are given with respect to obstacles, and Yi, Goodrich, and Seppi consider topological constraints provided by human operators  Bhattacharya propose an efficient algorithm for solving pathplanning problems under homotopic constraints 
However, the number of homotopy classes for a given problem can be infinite, and as the robot changes location and updates its representation of the world, carrying out inference over homotopy classes in a dynamic environment requires recomputing the set of homotopies at every iteration, making the belief update challenging 
Prior work has addressed the challenge of shared autonomy by considering how robots can infer a human's intended goal, or how they can infer the preferred path to a goal  However, we argue that inferring the goal and the path as separate problems can lead to over-confidence in incorrect beliefs about the user's preferences 
To illustrate this point, consider the following scenario: a robot and a human are collaborating to move an object from one end of a room to Fig  : Using the hyperplanes composing the H-representation of each obstacle, we construct a hyperplane arrangement of the obstacle-free space (a)  We define the human's preference for the robot's one step action choices as the posterior distribution (given all human input up to that point) over transitions from the current to the neighboring polytopes, i e  edges on the graph 
Each time the robot transitions to a new polytope, the set of neighbor polytopes and the distribution over human preferences are updated  another, but there is an obstacle in the way  The human would like the robot to take a path around the obstacle on the left, even though the goal is on the right  If the robot only infers the goal from the human's inputs, it may incorrectly assume that the goal is on the right, and become over-confident in this belief 
On the other hand, if the robot only infers the preferred path, it may mistakenly assume that the goal is on the left, leading to a failure in completing the task  To overcome these challenges, our work proposes a joint inference approach that considers both the human's intended goal and their preferred path to that goal 
Specifically, we model the human's preference over different homotopy classes and leverage a conditional independence assumption to provide a tractable solution  In our approach, we assume that the human's inputs are noisily rational conditioned on both the goal and the preference  By jointly inferring the goal and path preference, we can avoid over-confidence in incorrect beliefs about the user's preferences, leading to improved system performance 
We consider the problem of robot navigation in a known environment to an unknown destination, where a human can intervene and provide a heading direction to the robot using a joystick or force cues  The human also has a preference on which path the robot should take with respect to obstacles, and our objective is for the robot to understand the human's intentions and execute the task with minimal interventions 
Let g be a discrete random variable denoting the goal of the task, belonging to a set of candidates Ω g , and let θ be a discrete-valued random variable representing the human's path preference, belonging to a set of possible preferences Θ  The physical location of the robot at time index t is denoted by s t ∈ R 2 , and the robot's action at time index t, belonging to some action space A, is denoted by a t  
The transition model T (s t+1 | s t , a t ) is deterministic, meaning the robot has full control over its future location  At any time step, the human may provide an observation to the robot  When the human intervenes, the robot receives a direction (heading angle) that can be mapped to a future location in space 
More specifically, we map the direction to an intended location, which is the resulting robot location after advancing in the indicated direction for one time step  For simplicity, we consider that the robot directly makes an observation o t of the location indicated by the human  We assume that the robot has a stochastic observation model for the human P (o t | s t , g, θ) that is conditioned on both the goal of the task g and the human's preferred path θ 
We further assume that having chosen a goal and path preference, the human takes actions to noisily minimize a cost function C g,θ that measures the cost of moving from the robot's current location to the goal along the preferred path  For example, C g,θ (s t , o t ) can be the length of the shortest path from location s t to the goal g after taking a first step to o t , and constrained by path preference θ 
We use C g,θ to induce a probability distribution over observations, given by: where γ h is a hyperparameter that designates the rationality coefficient  This model assumes the human will pick the lowest cost action with the highest probability and the likelihood of an action decreases exponentially with the increase in cost  
Our inclusion of the path preference θ sets our approach apart from   The model is shown in fig  represented as a Bayesian Network 

Inference

At each time step where the human provides an observation, the posterior P (g, θ) is given through the Bayesian update We note that the number of Bayesian updates required at each iteration to update the belief is equal to the cardinality of Ω g × Θ  In addition, each Bayesian update involves computing C g,θ ( 



ground_truth: Symptoms of vitamin K deficiency include anemia, bruising, nosebleeds, bleeding of the gums, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women.

prompt_front: Now, answer the following question based on the text below, only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did Margaret Way start self-publishing her books as e-books?

Read the following text and answer briefly.

Context 3: 

Margaret died on the 10th of August 2022 in Cleveland, Queensland 

Bibliography

Single Novels
King Country (1970)
Blaze of Silk (1970)
The Time of the Jacaranda (1970)
Bauhinia Junction (1971)
Man from Bahl Bahla (1971)
Summer Magic (1971)
Return to Belle Amber (1971)
Ring of Jade (1972)
Copper Moon (1972)
Rainbow Bird (1972)
Man Like Daintree (1972)
Noonfire (1972)
Storm Over Mandargi (1973)
Wind River (1973)
Love Theme (1974)
McCabe's Kingdom (1974)
Sweet Sundown (1974)
Reeds of Honey (1975)
Storm Flower (1975)
Lesson in Loving (1975)
Flight into Yesterday (1976)
Red Cliffs of Malpara (1976)
Man on Half-moon (1976)
Swan's Reach (1976)
Mutiny in Paradise (1977)
One Way Ticket (1977)
Portrait of Jaime (1977)
Black Ingo (1977)
Awakening Flame (1978)
Wild Swan (1978)
Ring of Fire (1978)
Wake the Sleeping Tiger (1978)
Valley of the Moon (1979)
White Magnolia (1979)
Winds of Heaven (1979)
Blue Lotus (1979)
Butterfly and the Baron (1979)
Golden Puma (1980)
Temple of Fire (1980)
Lord of the High Valley (1980)
Flamingo Park (1980)
North of Capricorn (1981)
Season for Change (1981)
Shadow Dance (1981)
McIvor Affair (1981)
Home to Morning Star (1981)
Broken Rhapsody (1982)
The Silver Veil (1982)
Spellbound (1982)
Hunter's Moon (1982)
Girl at Cobalt Creek (1983)
No Alternative (1983)
House of Memories (1983)
Almost a Stranger (1984)
A place called Rambulara (1984)
Fallen Idol (1984)
Hunt the Sun (1985)
Eagle's Ridge (1985)
The Tiger's Cage (1986)
Innocent in Eden (1986)
Diamond Valley (1986)
Morning Glory (1988)
Devil Moon (1988)
Mowana Magic (1988)
Hungry Heart (1988)
Rise of an Eagle (1988)
One Fateful Summer (1993)
The Carradine Brand (1994)
Holding on to Alex (1997)
The Australian Heiress (1997)
Claiming His Child (1999)
The Cattleman's Bride (2000)
The Cattle Baron (2001)
The Husbands of the Outback (2001)
Secrets of the Outback (2002)
With This Ring (2003)
Innocent Mistress (2004)
Cattle Rancher, Convenient Wife (2007)
Outback Marriages (2007)
Promoted: Nanny to Wife (2007)
Cattle Rancher, Secret Son (2007)
Genni's Dilemma (2008)
Bride At Briar Ridge (2009)
Outback Heiress, Surprise Proposal (2009)
Cattle Baron, Nanny Needed (2009)

Legends of the Outback Series
Mail Order Marriage (1999)
The Bridesmaid's Wedding (2000)
The English Bride (2000)
A Wife at Kimbara (2000)

Koomera Crossing Series
Sarah's Baby (2003)
Runaway Wife (2003)
Outback Bridegroom (2003)
Outback Surrender (2003)
Home to Eden (2004)

McIvor Sisters Series
The Outback Engagement (2005)
Marriage at Murraree (2005)

Men Of The Outback Series
The Cattleman (2006)
The Cattle Baron's Bride (2006)
Her Outback Protector (2006)
The Horseman (2006)

Outback Marriages Series
Outback Man Seeks Wife (2007)
Cattle Rancher, Convenient Wife (2007)

Barons of the Outback Series Multi-Author
Wedding At Wangaree Valley (2008)
Bride At Briar's Ridge (2008)

Family Ties Multi-Author
Once Burned (1995)

Hitched! Multi-Author
A Faulkner Possession (1996)

Simply the Best Multi-Author
Georgia and the Tycoon (1997)

The Big Event Multi-Author
Beresford's Bride (1998)

Guardian Angels Multi-Author
Gabriel's Mission (1998)

Australians Series Multi-Author
7  Her Outback Man (1998)
17  Master of Maramba (2001)
19  Outback Fire (2001)
22  Mistaken Mistress (2002)
24  Outback Angel (2002)
33  The Australian Tycoon's Proposal (2004)
35  His Heiress Wife (2004)

Marrying the Boss Series Multi-Author
Boardroom Proposal (1999)

Contract Brides Series Multi-Author
Strategy for Marriage (2002)

Everlasting Love Series Multi-Author
Hidden Legacy (2008)

Diamond Brides Series Multi-Author
The Australian's Society Bride (2008)

Collections
Summer Magic / Ring of Jade / Noonfire (1981)
Wife at Kimbara / Bridesmaid's Wedding (2005)

Omnibus in Collaboration
Pretty Witch / Without Any Amazement / Storm Over Mandargi (1977) (with Lucy Gillen and Margaret Malcolm)
Dear Caliban / Heart of the Eagle / Swans' Reach (1978) (with Jane Donnelly and Elizabeth Graham)
The Bonds of Matrimony / Dragon Island / Reeds of Honey (1979) (with Elizabeth Hunter and Henrietta Reid)
The Man Outside / Castles in Spain / McCabe's Kingdom (1979) (with Jane Donnelly and Rebecca Stratton)
Winds From The Sea / Island of Darkness / Wind River (1979) (with Margaret Pargeter and Rebecca Stratton)
Moorland Magic / Tree of Idleness / Sweet Sundown (1980) (with Elizabeth Ashton and Elizabeth Hunter)
The Shifting Sands / Portrait of Jaime / Touched by Fire (1982) (with Jane Donnelly and Kay Thorpe)
Head of Chancery / Wild Heart / One-Way Ticket (1986) (with Betty Beaty and Doris Smith)
Heart of the Scorpion / The Winds of Heaven / Sweet Compulsion (1987) (with Janice Gray and Victoria Woolf)
One Brief Sweet Hour / Once More With Feeling / Blue Lotus (1990) (with Jane Arbor and Natalie Sparks)
Marry Me Cowboy (1995) (with Janet Dailey, Susan Fox and Anne McAllister)
Husbands on Horseback (1996) (with Diana Palmer)
Wedlocked (1999) (with Day Leclaire and Anne McAllister)
Mistletoe Magic (1999) (with Betty Neels and Rebecca Winters)
The Australians (2000) (with Helen Bianchin and Miranda Lee)
Weddings Down Under (2001) (with Helen Bianchin and Jessica Hart)
Outback Husbands (2002) (with Marion Lennox)
The Mother's Day Collection (2002) (with Helen Dickson and Kate Hoffmann)
Australian Nights (2003) (with Miranda Lee)
Outback Weddings (2003) (with Barbara Hannay)
Australian Playboys (2003) (with Helen Bianchin and Marion Lennox)
Australian Tycoons (2004) (with Emma Darcy and Marion Lennox)
A Mother's Day Gift (2004) (with Anne Ashley and Lucy Monroe)
White Wedding (2004) (with Judy Christenberry and Jessica Steele)
A Christmas Engagement (2004) (with Sara Craven and Jessica Matthews)
A Very Special Mother's Day (2005) (with Anne Herries)
All I Want for Christmas    (2005) (with Betty Neels and Jessica Steele)
The Mills and Boon Collection (2006) (with Caroline Anderson and Penny Jordan)
Outback Desire (2006) (with Emma Darcy and Carol Marinelli)
To Mum, with Love (2006) (with Rebecca Winters)
Australian Heroes (2007) (with Marion Lennox and Fiona McArthur)
Tall, Dark and Sexy (2008) (with Caroline Anderson and Helen Bianchin)
The Boss's Proposal (2008) (with Jessica Steele and Patricia Thayer)
Island Heat / Outback Man Seeks Wife / Prince's Forbidden Virgin / One Night Before Marriage / Their Lost-and-found Family / Single Dad's Marriage Wish (2008) (with Robyn Donald, Marion Lennox, Carol Marinelli, Sarah Mayberry and Anne Oliver)
Australian Billionaires (2009) (with Jennie Adams and Amy Andrews)
Cattle Baron : Nanny Needed / Bachelor Dad on Her Doorstep (2009) (with Michelle Douglas)

External links
Margaret Way at Harlequin Enterprises Ltd

Australian romantic fiction writers
Australian women novelists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Women romantic fiction writers



ground_truth: Margaret Way started self-publishing her books as e-books in 2013.